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eteen Rabbit , which appears in the film , before the wedding .
Reitman noted that
" In one sense , it 's a movie about a man who fires people for a living . In another sense , it 's a movie about a man who collects air miles excessively . In another sense , it 's about a man who meets a woman who 's so similar to him that even though they both believe in the idea of living solo , they begin to fall in love . "
Reitman also later stated that " the movie is about the examination of a philosophy . What if you decided to live hub to hub , with nothing , with nobody ? "
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Walter Kirn wrote Up in the Air , the book on which the film is based , during a snowbound winter on a ranch in rural Montana , while thinking about airports , airplanes and first @-@ class passengers he had met who would strongly resemble Ryan Bingham . The novel was published in 2001 and , shortly after , Sheldon Turner discovered the book and wrote a screenplay adaptation , which he sold to DreamWorks in 2003 .
Canadian @-@ American filmmaker Jason Reitman later came upon the novel ( initially attracted by the Christopher Buckley blurb on the cover ) while browsing in the Los Angeles bookstore Book Soup . Reitman persuaded his father , Canadian @-@ American filmmaker Ivan Reitman , to purchase the book 's film rights , and the elder Reitman commissioned a screenplay from Ted Griffin and Nicholas Griffin , who used some elements from Turner 's script in their work . Jason Reitman then developed his own screenplay , incorporating some of the original script that was ( unbeknownst to Reitman ) written by Turner . Some Turner inventions that were used in the film include Ryan 's boilerplate termination speech ( " Anyone who ever built an empire or changed the world sat where you 're sitting right now ... " ) , a key plot point involving a suicide , and the character of Ryan 's partner ( written by Turner as male ) . Reitman initially attempted to claim sole credit for writing the film , then later admitted to confusion when the Writers Guild of America ruled that he should share credit with Turner , whose script Reitman claimed to have never read . He and Turner later appeared at a WGA event where both said they were happy to share credit , after Turner 's contribution to the final product was made clear . At a press screening , Reitman also said that his father Ivan had written " the best line in the movie . "
= = = Casting = = =
Though Reitman has claimed in countless interviews that he wrote the parts specifically for George Clooney , Vera Farmiga , Anna Kendrick , Jason Bateman , Danny McBride , Melanie Lynskey , Amy Morton , Sam Elliott and Zach Galifianakis , some of the actors publicly stated their confusion in Reitman 's assertion , if only because they knew he was meeting with other actors all along including his choice to fill his last lead role with Ellen Page ( who starred in Reitman 's previous film Juno ) for the part that Kendrick ultimately played . On the part played by Farmiga , he cited her ability to walk a fine line between aggressiveness and femininity . On Kendrick , Reitman cited that he was inspired by her performance in Rocket Science . On Clooney , he said , " If you 're going to make a movie about a guy who fires people for a living and you still want to like him , that actor better be damn charming and I don 't think there 's a more charming actor alive than George Clooney . I was very lucky he said yes . " Reitman said , on the B.S. Report with Bill Simmons , that he considered Steve Martin for the part if Clooney declined the role . Reitman said that he would have changed the movie with Martin and given Martin " his Lost in Translation . "
Approximately 4 @,@ 600 people applied to be extras in the film during the open call on January 24 , 2009 and January 25 , 2009 , at Crestwood Court in St. Louis , Missouri . Up in the Air cast 2 @,@ 000 extras with 15 to 25 Missouri actors in minor speaking roles . About 250 extras were used from the Omaha , Nebraska , area . They were used for filming inside and outside the terminal at Eppley Airfield , while Clooney acted out most of his scenes inside the terminal .
While filming in St. Louis and Detroit , Reitman placed an ad in the paper asking if people who recently lost their job wanted to be in a documentary about job loss . He specified " documentary " in the ad so that actors would not respond . Reitman was amazed by how many people of different age , race , and gender were willing to speak frankly about what happened and what a cathartic experience it had been . The film crew received a startling 100 responses , including 60 people filmed ( 30 in Detroit and 30 in St. Louis ) . Twenty @-@ two are seen in the film . The interviews ran for about ten minutes on what it is like to lose their job in this poor economy , and after that they would " fire " them on camera and ask them to either respond the way they did the day they lost their job or , if they preferred , the way they wished they had responded .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming was mostly done in the St. Louis area . Several scenes were filmed at the Berry and McNamara Terminals at Detroit Metro Airport in late February 2009 with minimal filming in Omaha , in Las Vegas and in Miami , Florida . Missouri and St. Louis leaders provided $ 4 @.@ 1 million in tax credits for the $ 25 million film . Producers set up a St. Louis , Missouri production office on January 5 , 2009 . Filming began in St. Louis on March 3 , 2009 , and continued through the end of April . The film includes 80 different sets at 50 locations throughout the St. Louis area , including Lambert @-@ St. Louis International Airport Concourse C and Concourse D ( which played the part of several airports across America ) , the Mansion House apartments in downtown St. Louis , Hilton St. Louis at the Ballpark , Hilton St. Louis Airport , the Cheshire Inn , the GenAmerica building , Renaissance Grand Hotel , Maplewood United Methodist Church , and Affton High School . The film was shot at Lambert @-@ St. Louis International Airport for five days , twenty hours each day .
In October 2008 , Production Services of Omaha scouted locations in Omaha , Nebraska for three days of filming in late April with Clooney . Some of the scenes were shot inside the Visitor 's Bureau and in a condo in the Old Market area of downtown Omaha and at the south end of the main terminal at Eppley Airfield .
Reitman needed fifty days to film Up in the Air , eight of which were devoted to aerial shooting . The aerial shots turned out to be more difficult than expected . He was unable to use three days of the aerial filming . Many aerial shots , such as the crop circle on fire , are seen in the Paramount trailer , but are not used in the film . The pilot who flies the Boeing 747 that carried the space shuttle flew the aircraft for the aerial shots .
The film features heavy product placement , with American Airlines , Chrysler , Hertz , Travelpro , and Hilton Hotels all featured prominently . Competing brands are displayed as blurs in scene backgrounds or are replaced with pseudonyms in dialogue . However , the brands did not pay for the exposure ; rather , they waived the fees for the producers to shoot on location , such as at AA 's airport areas and inside Hilton hotels . Reitman expressed his desire to use actual brands as he finds them less distracting .
= = = Editing = = =
The post @-@ production schedule for Up in the Air was shorter than Jason Reitman 's previous two films . The editing team had only 16 to 17 weeks post @-@ schedule , whereas an editing deadline is usually from 22 to 26 weeks . Reitman was involved in post @-@ production while shooting . The film was shot entirely on location and Glauberman stayed in Los Angeles to cut . She would send him scenes every day or every other day as she finished them , and he would view them . He flew home every weekend to work with her for a few hours on Saturday or Sunday in order to stay on schedule .
Editing helped determine how nonverbal moments shape the first meeting between Ryan and Alex , who become lovers . " In a scene like that , there is a sort of playfulness that goes on , " editor , Dana E. Glauberman said . " There were little looks that they gave each other . Sometimes I stayed a beat longer on a take to get that little sparkle in their eyes ... You can see a lot of playfulness in the quick cuts back and forth when they are teasing each other , but then there are also certain moments that Vera would give a little raise of an eyebrow , or George would give the same thing . Those tiny nuances are really helpful to show their character and show what they are after . "
= = Soundtrack = =
Up in the Air : Music from the Motion Picture is the official soundtrack to the film , released by Warner Music on November 9 , 2009 , and composed by Rolfe Kent , who recorded his score with a 55 @-@ piece ensemble of the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Sony Scoring Stage . It was orchestrated by Tony Blondal .
Kevin Renick wrote the song " Up in the Air " two years prior to knowing that Reitman was working on a film adaptation to the book . He had been laid off at the time , and was an unrecorded , unemployed St. Louis musician . When Renick researched the film he discovered that the theme of the film was much the same as the song he had written . " The song is about uncertainty , disconnection and loneliness , while alluding to career transition , " Renick explained . " It 's a melancholy song , and a narrative about finding out where your life 's going to go . " He handed a cassette to Reitman after the director did an interview at Webster University . Renick included a spoken @-@ word introduction about the song on the cassette so that Reitman would know why he was given the song . Reitman found a tape deck , listened , liked the song and placed the original introduction and song from the cassette midway through the credits . Reitman stated that the song has a do @-@ it @-@ yourself authenticity .
= = Release = =
= = = Strategy = = =
Reitman heavily promoted Up in the Air with personal appearances at film festivals and other showings . He stated that he could relate to and enjoys the idea of Ryan Bingham 's lifestyle . " Yesterday [ October 28 , 2009 ] I took my 10th flight in 10 days so I live that life myself and I kinda enjoy it , " Reitman said , " I think when you 're in an airplane it 's the last refuge for the people who enjoy being alone and reading a book . "
Reitman documented his experiences promoting the film . He took photos of everyone who interviewed him and recorded videos in every city he visited . He edited these images into a short video titled Lost In The Air : The Jason Reitman Press Tour Simulator .
Up in the Air was screened as a " sneak preview " at the Telluride Film Festival on September 6 , 2009 , before its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival ( TIFF ) on September 12 . The film was initially not scheduled to be completed for another three months , but Reitman rushed production in order to maintain a streak of debuting his films at TIFF .
During October and November 2009 , Up in the Air screened at festivals including the Aspen Filmfest , the Woodstock Film Festival , the Hamptons International Film Festival , the Mill Valley Film Festival , the Austin Film Festival , the London Film Festival , the St. Louis International Film Festival , the Starz Denver Film Festival , and the Stockholm International Film Festival . It was the only American film to compete for the Golden Marc 'Aurelio Audience Award for Best Film at the International Rome Film Festival . On November 6 , The New York Times film critic Janet Maslin interviewed Reitman and Kirn at the Jacob Burns Film Center following a screening of the film .
Following the positive response the film received at the Telluride Film Festival , Paramount intended to move Up in the Air from its original release date of December 4 , 2009 , planning for a November 13 limited release going wide before the Thanksgiving holiday . However , this schedule conflicted with the release of The Men Who Stare at Goats , another Clooney film . The film was eventually released on December 4 in fifteen theaters spanning twelve markets , broadening in the next week to 72 theaters and going into wide release on December 23 , 2009 . It was released in other countries beginning in early 2010 .
= = = = September 2009 = = = =
Up in the Air was shown at a sneak preview on September 5 , 2009 and September 6 , 2009 at the Telluride Film Festival . Reitman had fueled speculation that he would give a sneak preview at that festival . He posted pictures from Telluride on his Twitter account . Prior to the first showing , people waited two hours to get into Up in the Air and hundreds were turned away .
The world premiere for Up in the Air occurred at 2009 's Toronto International Film Festival ( TIFF ) which ran from September 10 to 19 , 2009 . The press showing was on Friday September 11 , 2009 . Public screenings were on September 12 , 13 , and 19 . Reitman originally did not plan to debut the film at TIFF , since it was not scheduled to be ready for another three months . He rushed production to keep his Toronto debut streak going .
The first clip of the film debuted on Apple Inc. website on September 8 , 2009 . The first trailer was available on iTunes on September 10 , 2009 and on September 18 , 2009 , it screened before the new movies The Informant ! and Love Happens . The second trailer became available on October 1 , 2009 .
= = = = October 2009 = = = =
Reitman received Aspen Film 's first New Directions Award and participated in a question and answer session following a screening of Up in the Air on Friday October 2 , 2009 at the Wheeler Opera House . The Aspen Film Festival ran from September 30 , 2009 through October 4 , 2009 . It was shown twice at the Tinker Street Cinema on the closing day of the Tenth Annual Woodstock Film Festival 2009 on October 4 , 2009 . Vera Farmiga and Lucy Liu participated in a question and answer session moderated by entertainment journalist Martha Frankel after the film and in the Sunday noontime WFF Actor 's Dialogue panel . The 2009 Hamptons International Film Festival showed Up in the Air on October 10 , 2009 during its run at Long Island , New York 's east end from October 8 to October 12 , 2009 .
The Spotlight Tribute held during the 32nd edition of Mill Valley Film Festival hosted an interview with Reitman and a screening of Up in the Air on Wednesday October 14 , 2009 in the Smith Rafael Film Center , San Rafael , California . The Mill Valley Film Festival ran from October 8 to October 18 , 2009 . It was also shown four times at the 53rd London Film Festival which was held from October 14 – 19 , 2009 . Up in the Air was the only American film to compete for the Golden Marc 'Aurelio Audience Award for Best Film at the fourth annual International Rome Film Festival which ran from October 15 through October 23 , 2009 . It was shown three times from October 17 to October 19 , 2009 . Reitman showed Up in the Air at ShowEast in Orlando , Florida on October 26 and October 27 , 2009 , and asked for the movie theater owners and managers to support the picture as fervently as they did his film Juno two years earlier . Reitman also held a Q & A and pep talk with film students at the University of Central Florida .
The first St. Louis press screening happened on October 28 , 2009 at the Tivoli Theater . Up in the Air closed the Austin Film Festival on October 29 , 2009 at the Paramount . Reitman attended the screening . The Austin Film Festival ran from October 22 to October 29 , 2009 . The Palm Springs International Film Society showed Up in the Air on Thursday , October 29 , 2009 at the Regal Cinema in Palm Springs , California . Anna Kendrick was present at the showing .
= = = = November 2009 = = = =
Vera Farmiga and Anna Kendrick hosted a screening of Up in the Air at the Paris Theatre , New York City , New York on Thursday November 5 , 2009 . On November 6 , 2009 , the New York City Apple Store in SoHo hosted a conversation with director Jason Reitman . On November 6 , 2009 The New York Times critic Janet Maslin interviewed Reitman and Kirn during a Q & A session held at the Jacob Burns Film Center after a screening of Up in the Air . The question and answer session was followed by a reception in the Jane Peck Gallery . The Boston Sunday Night Film Club had a free screening on Sunday November 8 , 2009 , with a Q & A session with Reitman following the screening .
Up in the Air was the centerpiece for the 18th Annual St. Louis International Film Festival , which was held from November 12 to November 22 , 2009 . The film was shown November 14 , 2009 at the Tivoli Theater in University City , Missouri with Jason Reitman and Michael Beugg in attendance . Kevin Renick , the St. Louis musician who wrote the song Up in the Air , performed half an hour prior to the screening . Yukon Jake , who performed in the wedding scene in Up in the Air , provided entertainment during the party prior to the screening . The party took place at the St. Louis Ballpark Hilton and the Airport Hilton . Both are featured in the film .
On November 14 , 2009 , Paramount flew 50 members of the press to New York with Anna Kendrick , Sad Brad Smith and representatives of American Airlines to promote Up in the Air . The film was shown on the aircraft 's video monitors during the flight from New York to Los Angeles . American Airlines provided the Boeing 767 gratis . Smith performed a few songs including Help Yourself in the aisle of the aircraft . On November 18 , 2009 , Backstage and Paramount Pictures had a special screening of Up in the Air for Screen Actors Guild and Backstage members at The Paramount Theatre ( on the Paramount Lot ) , Los Angeles , California . The screening of the film was followed by a conversation with cast members Vera Farmiga and Anna Kendrick . The Starz Denver Film Festival closed on November 22 , 2009 with a screening of Up in the Air , with an introduction by J.K. Simmons , who was in town to accept the festival 's Cassavetes Award earlier that afternoon . The 20th Stockholm International Film Festival , which ran from November 18 to November 29 , 2009 , closed with a screening of Up in the Air on November 29 , 2009 .
= = = Box office performance = = =
Up in the Air was released in 15 theaters in the U.S. on December 4 , 2009 and ranked number 13 . It took in $ 1 @,@ 181 @,@ 450 , with an average of $ 78 @,@ 763 per theater . After three days it expanded to 72 theaters and took in $ 2 @,@ 394 @,@ 344 ( $ 33 @,@ 255 per theater ) , during the second weekend . During its third weekend , it broke into the top 10 as it widened to 175 theaters ahead of its nationwide expansion on December 23 , 2009 . It came in at number 8 with $ 3 @,@ 210 @,@ 132 – $ 18 @,@ 344 per theater . The film expanded to 1 @,@ 895 theaters on December 23 . It completed its domestic run on April 8 , 2010 , with a total domestic gross of $ 83 @,@ 823 @,@ 381 and a foreign total of $ 83 @,@ 019 @,@ 358 for a worldwide gross of $ 166 @,@ 842 @,@ 739 .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released in both DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc formats on March 9 , 2010 , and sold 536 @,@ 441 units in its first week of release , worth $ 9 @,@ 114 @,@ 133 of consumer spending . To date the film has sold 1 @,@ 162 @,@ 509 home copies , equivalent to $ 18 @,@ 517 @,@ 122 of sales .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Up in the Air received critical acclaim , with Clooney 's performance receiving widespread praise , as well as Kendrick and Farmiga . Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 91 % of critics have given the film a positive review based on 269 reviews , with a rating average of 8 @.@ 1 / 10 . The critical consensus reads , " Led by charismatic performances by its three leads , director Jason Reitman delivers a smart blend of humor and emotion with just enough edge for mainstream audiences . " On Metacritic , the film has a rating score of 83 out of 100 , based on 36 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " .
The sneak preview of Up in the Air was the highest profile hit during the Telluride film festival . The film also tied for third place in the Toronto International Film Festival Indiewire poll .
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote , " Up in the Air makes it look easy . Not just in its casual and apparently effortless excellence , but in its ability to blend entertainment and insight , comedy and poignancy , even drama and reality , things that are difficult by themselves but a whole lot harder in combination . This film does all that and never seems to break a sweat . " Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman agreed , rating the film an A as a " rare and sparkling gem of a movie , directed by Jason Reitman with the polish of a master . "
Claudia Puig of USA Today praised the film 's sense of timeliness , writing , " It 's tough to capture an era while it 's still happening , yet Up in the Air does so brilliantly , with wit and humanity ... Reitman emerges as a modern @-@ day Frank Capra , capturing the nation 's anxieties and culture of resilience . " Stephen Saito of IFC.com wrote , " It touches on larger themes of mass unemployment , cultural alienation and technology as a crutch . But ultimately , it 's really an expertly done character study that 's a dramatic change of pace from director Jason Reitman 's previous two films . " Jonathan Romney of The Independent wrote , " Its cynical wit almost places it in the Billy Wilder bracket : Up In The Air is as eloquent about today 's executive culture as The Apartment was about that of 1960 . It is a brutal , desolate film – but also a superb existential rom @-@ com , and the most entertaining lesson in contemporary socio @-@ economics that you could hope for . " Roger Ebert gave the film four stars and wrote , " This isn 't a comedy . If it were , it would be hard to laugh in these last days of 2009 . Nor is it a tragedy . It 's an observant look at how a man does a job . "
Calling the film " a slickly engaging piece of lightweight existentialism , " Todd McCarthy wrote in Variety that " Clooney owns his role in the way first @-@ rate film stars can , so infusing the character with his own persona that everything he does seems natural and right . The timing in the Clooney @-@ Farmiga scenes is like splendid tennis . " The New York Times ' Manohla Dargis especially appreciated the film 's strong female roles , noting that " the ferocious Ms. Kendrick , her ponytail swinging like an ax , grabs every scene she 's in , " but wrote that the film " is an assertively , and unapologetically , tidy package , from its use of romance to instill some drama ... and the mope rock tunes that Mr. Reitman needlessly overuses . "
The Chicago Tribune 's Michael Phillips wrote , " Up in the Air is a slickly crafted disappointment . [ It ] feels tailor @-@ made for George Clooney , who is very good . But the stakes remain frustratingly low and it 's one of those contemporary middlebrow projects that asks us to root for a genial , shallow individual as he learns to be a little less the man he was . " Julian Sancton of Vanity Fair wrote , " There are two movies in Up in the Air : one about a guy who 's flying around the country firing people , and one about a commitment @-@ phobe who 's flying away from responsibility and a shot at true love , as embodied by Farmiga . There is no attempt to braid these two threads together , and that 's where the movie feels unsatisfying . " J. Hoberman of The Village Voice wrote , " Like Juno , Up in the Air conjures a troubling reality and then wishes it away . The filmmakers have peeked into the abyss and averted their eyes ... [ the film ] warns that you can 't go home again – and then , full of false cheer and false consciousness , pretends you can . "
Shave Magazine 's Jake Tomlinson gave the film four out of five stars and wrote , " There is a very strong sense of humor as well as emotional depth , yet the scope of the film sometimes limits these sentiments . As a moviegoer , this film provides a satisfying experience where one can take a step back to ponder some of the finer points in our daily lives , but don 't expect to find all the answers here . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Up in the Air earned various awards and nominations , in categories ranging from recognition of the film itself to its screenplay , direction and editing , to the performance of the three primary actors – George Clooney , Vera Farmiga , and Anna Kendrick . The film received six Academy Award nominations and Farmiga and Kendrick both received nominations for Best Supporting Actress , although the film failed to win any of the awards . At the 63rd British Academy Film Awards , Up in the Air won one award – Best Adapted Screenplay , awarded to Reitman and Turner – out of the five for which it was nominated . The Dallas @-@ Fort Worth Film Critics Association named Up in the Air Best Picture and awarded Reitman Best Director and Best Screenplay with Turner , and Clooney was given the award for Best Actor . The film also received five nominations at the 67th Golden Globe Awards , with Reitman and Turner taking the award for Best Screenplay . Reitman and Turner also received recognition for the film 's screenplay from the Writers Guild of America , where they won the Best Adapted Screenplay award .
The film garnered five nominations from the Satellite Awards , with Rolfe Kent , the film 's score composer , winning the Best Original Score award . Clooney , Farmiga and Kendrick were each nominated for an award at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards , but ultimately lost out . Kendrick earned an MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance and the Rising Star Award from Palm Springs International Film Festival for her role in the film . Up in the Air won Best Film from eleven awards ceremonies , including the Florida Film Critics Circle , Iowa Film Critics , Southeastern Film Critics , and Vancouver Film Critics Circle . The film earned four nominations for the Best Cast from the Broadcast Film Critics Association , Central Ohio Film Critics , Denver Film Critics Society , and the Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association . At the Kansas City Film Critics Circle and the National Board of Review , Up in the Air won each of the awards for which it was nominated . Costume Designer Danny Glicker was nominated for his work by the Costume Designers Guild in the Contemporary Film category . In addition , the film was included on lists of the ten best films of 2009 by Roger Ebert , the American Film Institute , and The New York Times .
= Barry Cogan ( footballer ) =
Barry Christopher Cogan ( born 4 November 1984 ) is an Irish semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a midfielder . He is currently a free agent having spent one season at Dartford . He started his career with Belvedere before moving to Millwall , for whom he played as a substitute in the 2004 FA Cup Final , and making 24 appearances for in the Football League . In August 2006 , Cogan signed for Barnet playing one season playing 39 appearances and scoring three goals in League Two , before being signed by Ronnie Jepson for Gillingham in June 2007 . He was loaned to Grays Athletic in March 2008 , scoring five goals in 13 Conference National appearances . Cogan signed for Grays permanently in July 2008 following his release from Gillingham . He then moved to Crawley Town in June 2009 , after Steve Evans had tried to sign him the previous season . Cogan left Crawley in November 2010 by mutual consent , joining Dover Athletic a few days later .
= = Career = =
= = = Club career = = =
= = = = Millwall = = = =
Born in Sligo , County Sligo , Cogan joined Millwall from Belvedere at 15 years of age , waiting four years , until 20 April 2004 , before making his debut in a Championship game against Watford , replacing Peter Sweeney in the 80th minute . Cogan signed his professional contract in November 2004 . Cogan remained at Millwall for two further seasons , making 30 appearances in all competitions , including playing in the 2004 FA Cup Final after coming on as a substitute , and two UEFA Cup games against Ferencvárosi TC .
= = = = Barnet = = = =
In August 2006 , Cogan was signed by League Two club Barnet from Millwall for an undisclosed fee . He remained there for just one season before he was released by manager Paul Fairclough . He made over 40 appearances in all competitions , scoring three goals , all in matches won by Barnet .
= = = = Gillingham = = = =
Cogan joined Gillingham in June 2007 , being tipped by new manager Ronnie Jepson to fill the void left by Matt Jarvis , who had joined Wolverhampton Wanderers . He made his debut for Gillingham in the 3 – 0 defeat at Watford in the League Cup on 14 August , and scored his first goal for the club in the 3 – 1 home victory over Leyton Orient on 2 October 2007 . Following a string of bad results , Jepson resigned , and Mark Stimson was named as his permanent replacement in November 2007 . Stimson saw Cogan as surplus to requirements , and offered him a chance to go out on loan in February 2008 . He rejected this initial chance , but subsequently joined Grays Athletic for a month on 14 March 2008 , scoring five goals in thirteen Conference National matches . Gillingham released Cogan at the end of the 2007 – 08 season , after he made just 21 appearances in all competitions .
= = = = Grays Athletic = = = =
In June 2008 , Grays Athletic announced that Cogan had signed for the club , following a medical examination to test his fitness , on a trial basis . His first goal of the 2008 – 09 campaign came in the home win against Kidderminster Harriers on 7 September 2008 , receiving a pass from Jamie Taylor on the right @-@ wing to make the score 3 – 1 . Cogan scored in the 47th minute of Grays ' 1 – 1 draw against Woking on 18 October . In October 2008 , Grays Athletic announced that players had been asked to take a 50 % pay cut due to financial difficulties . During the FA Cup Fourth Round Qualifying tie against AFC Totton , Cogan scored a penalty in the 85th minute after Phil Warner handled a cross from Ishmael Welsh . His next goal came almost two months later when he netted both goals in Grays ' 2 – 1 victory over Barrow at the New Recreation Ground on 20 December . His first goal of the game came after Barrow 's goalkeeper , Alan Martin , spilled a cross from Ishmael Welsh which Cogan pounced on from barely a yard out . In the 56th minute , Cogan had a shot from the edge of the penalty area after out muscling defenders Steve McNulty and Paul Jones . In Grays ' next match against Canvey Island in the Essex Senior Cup on 23 December , Cogan scored a late penalty in the 90th minute to equalise the game 2 – 2 and send the game into extra time . Grays Athletic eventually lost 3 – 2 after extra time . The club released news that the players were again being paid in full and over the " Christmas period and for January " . On 14 February 2009 , Grays travelled to face Wrexham at the Racecourse Ground . He scored to equalise the game at 1 – 1 after the Wrexham goalkeeper struggled with George Beavan 's initial shot whilst Cogan scored the rebound . He then set up Grays ' second , crossing the ball to Andy Pugh , who scored a consolation goal as Grays lost 3 – 2 . He then scored in Grays ' 2 – 1 home victory over Altrincham on 7 March . Cogan finished the season as Grays ' top goal scorer in all competitions .
= = = = Crawley Town = = = =
Crawley Town manager Steve Evans signed Cogan on 8 June following his release from Grays Athletic . Evans admitted he tried signing Cogan three times the previous season , but had his attempts rejected . Cogan had other offers , but Crawley assistant manager Paul Raynor stated that the club 's South London location appealed to him . He made his debut for Crawley on 8 August , in the 4 – 0 away defeat to Mansfield Town , replacing Daniel Powell as a substitute in the 52nd minute . Having made only three appearances in the 2010 – 11 season , Cogan was released by mutual consent on 16 November 2010 . Evans stated that Cogan wanted to " play some first team football " .
= = = = Dover Athletic = = = =
Cogan signed for Dover Athletic a few days after leaving Crawley , making his debut coming on as a substitute for Sam Long in the 2 – 1 home defeat against Woking in the FA Trophy on 20 November .
= = = = Dartford = = = =
In July 2015 , he signed for National League South side Dartford on a free transfer , following a successful trial with the club . He was released on 24 May 2016 following the end of the 2015 / 16 season having made 26 league appearances for the club scoring one goal against Bishop 's Stortford in a 2 @-@ 1 away victory on 24 October 2015 .
= = = International career = = =
Cogan was called up to the Republic of Ireland under @-@ 21 squad for the Madeira International Tournament , where he made his under @-@ 21 debut against Madeira on 27 February 2004 .
= D. B. Cooper =
D. B. Cooper is a media epithet popularly used to refer to an unidentified man who hijacked a Boeing 727 aircraft in the airspace between Portland , Oregon , and Seattle , Washington , on November 24 , 1971 , extorted $ 200 @,@ 000 in ransom ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 170 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , and parachuted to an uncertain fate . Despite an extensive manhunt and protracted FBI investigation , the perpetrator has never been located or identified .
While FBI investigators stated from the beginning that Cooper probably did not survive his risky jump , they nevertheless pursued all credible leads , evidence , and witnesses over a 45 @-@ year period following the crime . As yet , no conclusive evidence has surfaced regarding Cooper 's true identity or whereabouts . ( The suspect purchased his airline ticket using the alias Dan Cooper , but because of a news media miscommunication he became known in popular lore as " D. B. Cooper " . )
Numerous theories of widely varying plausibility have been proposed over the years by experts , reporters , and amateur enthusiasts . The discovery of a small cache of ransom bills in 1980 triggered renewed interest , but ultimately only deepened the mystery , and the great majority of the ransom remains unrecovered . The case remains the only unsolved air piracy in American aviation history .
The FBI officially suspended active investigation of the case in July 2016 , but continues to solicit submission of any physical evidence related to the parachutes or the ransom money that might emerge .
= = Hijacking = =
The incident began mid @-@ afternoon at Portland International Airport on Thanksgiving eve , November 24 , 1971 . A man carrying a black attaché case approached the flight counter of Northwest Orient Airlines . He identified himself as " Dan Cooper " and purchased a one @-@ way ticket on Flight 305 , a 30 @-@ minute trip to Seattle .
Cooper boarded the aircraft , a Boeing 727 @-@ 100 ( FAA registration N467US ) , and took seat 18C ( 18E by one account , 15D by another ) in the rear of the passenger cabin . He lit a cigarette and ordered a bourbon and soda . Eyewitnesses on board recalled a man in his mid @-@ forties , between 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) and 6 feet 0 inches ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) tall . He wore a black lightweight raincoat , loafers , a dark suit , a neatly pressed white collared shirt , a black necktie , and a mother of pearl tie pin .
Flight 305 , approximately one @-@ third full , took off on schedule at 2 : 50 pm , local time ( PST ) . Cooper passed a note to Florence Schaffner , the flight attendant situated nearest to him in a jump seat attached to the aft stair door . Schaffner , assuming the note contained a lonely businessman 's phone number , dropped it unopened into her purse . Cooper leaned toward her and whispered , " Miss , you 'd better look at that note . I have a bomb . "
The note was printed in neat , all @-@ capital letters with a felt pen . Its exact wording is unknown , as Cooper later reclaimed it , but Schaffner recalled that it indicated he had a bomb in his briefcase , and wanted her to sit with him . Schaffner did as requested , then quietly asked to see the bomb . Cooper cracked open his briefcase long enough for her to glimpse eight red cylinders ( " four on top of four " ) attached to wires coated with red insulation , and a large cylindrical battery . After closing the briefcase , he dictated his demands : $ 200 @,@ 000 in " negotiable American currency " ; four parachutes ( two primary and two reserve ) ; and a fuel truck standing by in Seattle to refuel the aircraft upon arrival . Schaffner conveyed Cooper 's instructions to the cockpit ; when she returned , he was wearing dark sunglasses .
The pilot , William Scott , contacted Seattle @-@ Tacoma Airport air traffic control , which in turn informed local and federal authorities . The 36 other passengers were informed that their arrival in Seattle would be delayed because of a " minor mechanical difficulty " . Northwest Orient 's president , Donald Nyrop , authorized payment of the ransom and ordered all employees to cooperate fully with the hijacker . The aircraft circled Puget Sound for approximately two hours to allow Seattle police and the FBI time to assemble Cooper 's parachutes and ransom money , and to mobilize emergency personnel .
Schaffner recalled that Cooper appeared familiar with the local terrain ; at one point he remarked , " Looks like Tacoma down there , " as the aircraft flew above it . He also mentioned , correctly , that McChord Air Force Base was only a 20 @-@ minute drive ( at that time ) from Seattle @-@ Tacoma Airport . Schaffner described him as calm , polite , and well @-@ spoken , not at all consistent with the stereotypes ( enraged , hardened criminals or " take @-@ me @-@ to @-@ Cuba " political dissidents ) popularly associated with air piracy at the time . Tina Mucklow , another flight attendant , agreed . " He wasn 't nervous , " she told investigators . " He seemed rather nice . He was never cruel or nasty . He was thoughtful and calm all the time . " He ordered a second bourbon and water , paid his drink tab ( and attempted to give Schaffner the change ) , and offered to request meals for the flight crew during the stop in Seattle .
FBI agents assembled the ransom money from several Seattle @-@ area banks — 10 @,@ 000 unmarked 20 @-@ dollar bills , many with serial numbers beginning with the letter " L " indicating issuance by the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco , most carrying a " Series 1969 @-@ C " designation — and made a microfilm photograph of each of them . Cooper rejected the military @-@ issue parachutes offered by McChord AFB personnel , demanding instead civilian parachutes with manually operated ripcords . Seattle police obtained them from a local skydiving school .
= = = Passengers released = = =
At 5 : 24 pm Cooper was informed that his demands had been met , and at 5 : 39 pm the aircraft landed at Seattle @-@ Tacoma Airport . Cooper instructed Scott to taxi the jet to an isolated , brightly lit section of the tarmac and extinguish lights in the cabin to deter police snipers . Northwest Orient 's Seattle operations manager , Al Lee , approached the aircraft in street clothes ( to avoid the possibility that Cooper might mistake his airline uniform for that of a police officer ) and delivered the cash @-@ filled knapsack and parachutes to Mucklow via the aft stairs . Once the delivery was completed , Cooper permitted all passengers , Schaffner , and senior flight attendant Alice Hancock to leave the plane .
During refueling Cooper outlined his flight plan to the cockpit crew : a southeast course toward Mexico City at the minimum airspeed possible without stalling the aircraft — approximately 100 knots ( 190 km / h ; 120 mph ) — at a maximum 10 @,@ 000 foot ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) altitude . He further specified that the landing gear remain deployed in the takeoff / landing position , the wing flaps be lowered 15 degrees , and the cabin remain unpressurized . Copilot William Rataczak informed Cooper that the aircraft 's range was limited to approximately 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) under the specified flight configuration , which meant that a second refueling would be necessary before entering Mexico . Cooper and the crew discussed options and agreed on Reno , Nevada , as the refueling stop . Finally , Cooper directed that the plane take off with the rear exit door open and its staircase extended . Northwest 's home office objected , on grounds that it was unsafe to take off with the aft staircase deployed . Cooper countered that it was indeed safe , but he would not argue the point ; he would lower it himself once they were airborne .
An FAA official requested a face @-@ to @-@ face meeting with Cooper aboard the aircraft , which was denied . The refueling process was delayed because of a vapor lock in the fuel tanker truck 's pumping mechanism , and Cooper became suspicious ; but he allowed a replacement tanker truck to continue the refueling — and a third after the second ran dry .
= = = Back in the air = = =
At approximately 7 : 40 pm the 727 took off with only Cooper , pilot Scott , flight attendant Mucklow , copilot Rataczak , and flight engineer H. E. Anderson aboard . Two F @-@ 106 fighter aircraft scrambled from nearby McChord Air Force Base followed behind the airliner , one above it and one below , out of Cooper 's view . A Lockheed T @-@ 33 trainer , diverted from an unrelated Air National Guard mission , also shadowed the 727 until it ran low on fuel and turned back near the Oregon – California state line .
After takeoff , Cooper told Mucklow to join the rest of the crew in the cockpit and remain there with the door closed . As she complied , Mucklow observed Cooper tying something around his waist . At approximately 8 : 00 pm a warning light flashed in the cockpit , indicating that the aft airstair apparatus had been activated . The crew 's offer of assistance via the aircraft 's intercom system was curtly refused . The crew soon noticed a subjective change of air pressure , indicating that the aft door was open .
At approximately 8
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osome was first discovered as an RNase in 1997 in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae , an often @-@ used model organism . Not long after , in 1999 , it was realized that the exosome was in fact the yeast equivalent of an already described complex in human cells called the PM / Scl complex , which had been identified as an autoantigen in patients with certain autoimmune diseases years earlier ( see below ) . Purification of this " PM / Scl complex " allowed the identification of more human exosome proteins and eventually the characterization of all components in the complex . In 2001 , the increasing amount of genome data that had become available allowed the prediction of exosome proteins in archaea , although it would take another 2 years before the first exosome complex from an archaeal organism was purified .
= = Structure = =
= = = Core proteins = = =
The core of the complex has a ring structure consisting of six proteins that all belong to the same class of RNases , the RNase PH @-@ like proteins . In archaea there are two different PH @-@ like proteins ( called Rrp41 and Rrp42 ) , each present three times in an alternating order . Eukaryotic exosome complexes have six different proteins that form the ring structure . Of these six eukaryotic proteins , three resemble the archaeal Rrp41 protein and the other three proteins are more similar to the archaeal Rrp42 protein .
Located on top of this ring are three proteins that have an S1 RNA binding domain ( RBD ) . Two proteins in addition have a K @-@ homology ( KH ) domain . In eukaryotes , three different " S1 " proteins are bound to the ring , whereas in archaea either one or two different " S1 " proteins can be part of the exosome ( although there are always three S1 subunits attached to the complex ) .
This ring structure is very similar to that of the proteins RNase PH and PNPase . In bacteria , the protein RNase PH , which is involved in tRNA processing , forms a hexameric ring consisting of six identical RNase PH proteins . In the case of PNPase , which is a phosphorolytic RNA @-@ degrading protein found in bacteria and the chloroplasts and mitochondria of some eukaryotic organisms , two RNase PH domains , and both an S1 and KH RNA binding domain are part of a single protein , which forms a trimeric complex that adopts a structure almost identical to that of the exosome . Because of this high similarity in both protein domains and structure , these complexes are thought to be evolutionarily related and have a common ancestor . In bacteria , a separate RNase PH protein exists that is involved in transfer RNA processing , which has been shown to adopt a similar six @-@ membered ring structure , but in this case consisting of 6 identical protein subunits . The RNase PH @-@ like exosome proteins , PNPase and RNase PH all belong to the RNase PH family of RNases and are phosphorolytic exoribonucleases , meaning that they use inorganic phosphate to remove nucleotides from the 3 ' end of RNA molecules .
= = = Associated proteins = = =
Besides these nine core exosome proteins , two other proteins often associate with the complex in eukaryotic organisms . One of these is Rrp44 , a hydrolytic RNase , which belongs to the RNase R family of hydrolytic exoribonucleases ( nucleases that use water to cleave the nucleotide bonds ) . In addition to being an exoribonucleolytic enzyme , Rrp44 also has endoribonucleolytic activity , which resides in a separate domain of the protein . In yeast , Rrp44 is associated with all exosome complexes and has a crucial role in the activity of the yeast exosome complex . While a human homologue of the protein exists , no evidence was found for a long time that its human homologue was associated with the human exosome complex . In 2010 , however , it was discovered that humans have three Rrp44 homologues and two of these can be associated with the exosome complex . These two proteins most likely degrade different RNA substrates due to their different cellular localization , with one being localized in the cytoplasm ( Dis3L1 ) and the other in the nucleus ( Dis3 ) .
The second common associated protein is called Rrp6 ( in yeast ) or PM / Scl @-@ 100 ( in human ) . Like Rrp44 , this protein is a hydrolytic exoribonuclease , but in this case of the RNase D protein family . The protein PM / Scl @-@ 100 is most commonly part of exosome complexes in the nucleus of cells , but can form part of the cytoplasmic exosome complex as well .
= = = Regulatory proteins = = =
Apart from these two tightly bound protein subunits , many proteins interact with the exosome complex in both the cytoplasm and nucleus of cells . These loosely associated proteins may regulate the activity and specificity of the exosome complex . In the cytoplasm , the exosome interacts with AU rich element ( ARE ) binding proteins ( e.g. KRSP and TTP ) , which can promote or prevent degradation of mRNAs . The nuclear exosome associates with RNA binding proteins ( e.g. MPP6 / Mpp6 and C1D / Rrp47 in humans / yeast ) that are required for processing certain substrates .
In addition to single proteins , other protein complexes interact with the exosome . One of those is the cytoplasmic Ski complex , which includes an RNA helicase ( Ski2 ) and is involved in mRNA degradation . In the nucleus , the processing of rRNA and snoRNA by the exosome is mediated by the TRAMP complex , which contains both RNA helicase ( Mtr4 ) and polyadenylation ( Trf4 ) activity .
= = Function = =
= = = Enzymatic function = = =
As stated above , the exosome complex contains many proteins with ribonuclease domains . The exact nature of these ribonuclease domains has changed across evolution from bacterial to archaeal to eukaryotic complexes as various activities have been gained and lost . The exosome is primarily a 3 ' -5 ' exoribonuclease , meaning that it degrades RNA molecules from their 3 ' end . Exoribonucleases contained in exosome complexes are either phosphorolytic ( the RNase PH @-@ like proteins ) or , in eukaryotes , hydrolytic ( the RNase R and RNase D domain proteins ) . The phosphorolytic enzymes use inorganic phosphate to cleave the phosphodiester bonds - releasing nucleotide diphosphates . The hydrolytic enzymes use water to hydrolyse these bonds - releasing nucleotide monophosphates .
In archaea , the Rrp41 subunit of the complex is a phosphorolytic exoribonuclease . Three copies of this protein are present in the ring and are responsible for the activity of the complex . In eukaryotes , none of the RNase PH subunits have retained this catalytic activity , meaning the core ring structure of the human exosome has no enzymatically active protein . Despite this loss of catalytic activity , the structure of the core exosome is highly conserved from archea to humans , suggesting that the complex performs a vital cellular function . In eukaryotes , the absence of the phosphorolytic activity is compensated by the presence of the hydrolytic enzymes , which are responsible for the ribonuclease activity of the exosome in such organisms .
As stated above , the hydrolytic proteins Rrp6 and Rrp44 are associated with the exosome in yeast and in humans , besides Rrp6 , two different proteins , Dis3 and Dis3L1 can be associated at the position of the yeast Rrp44 protein . Although originally the S1 domain proteins were thought to have 3 ' -5 ' hydrolytic exoribonuclease activity as well , the existence of this activity has recently been questioned and these proteins might have just a role in binding substrates prior to their degradation by the complex .
= = = Substrates = = =
The exosome is involved in the degradation and processing of a wide variety of RNA species . In the cytoplasm of cells , it is involved in the turn @-@ over of messenger RNA ( mRNA ) molecules . The complex can degrade mRNA molecules that have been tagged for degradation because they contain errors , through interactions with proteins from the nonsense mediated decay or non @-@ stop decay pathways . In alternative fashion , mRNAs are degraded as part of their normal turnover . Several proteins that stabilize or destabilize mRNA molecules through binding to AU @-@ rich elements in the 3 ' untranslated region of mRNAs interact with the exosome complex . In the nucleus , the exosome is required for the correct processing of several small nuclear RNA molecules . Finally , the nucleolus is the compartment where the majority of the exosome complexes are found . There it plays a role in the processing of the 5.8S ribosomal RNA ( the first identified function of the exosome ) and of several small nucleolar RNAs .
Although most cells have other enzymes that can degrade RNA , either from the 3 ' or from the 5 ' end of the RNA , the exosome complex is essential for cell survival . When the expression of exosome proteins is artificially reduced or stopped , for example by RNA interference , growth stops and the cells eventually die . Both the core proteins of the exosome complex , as well as the two main associated proteins , are essential proteins . Bacteria do not have an exosome complex ; however , similar functions are performed by a simpler complex that includes the protein PNPase , called the degradosome .
The exosome is a key complex in cellular RNA quality control . Unlike prokaryotes , eukaryotes possess highly active RNA surveillance systems that recognise unprocessed and mis @-@ processed RNA @-@ protein complexes ( such as ribosomes ) prior to their exit from the nucleus . It is presumed that this system prevents aberrant complexes from interfering with important cellular processes such as protein synthesis .
In addition to RNA processing , turnover and surveillance activities , the exosome is important for the degradation of so @-@ called cryptic unstable transcripts ( CUTs ) that are produced from thousands of loci within the yeast genome . The importance of these unstable RNAs and their degradation are still unclear , but similar RNA species have also been detected in human cells .
= = Disease = =
= = = Autoimmunity = = =
The exosome complex is the target of autoantibodies in patients suffering from various autoimmune diseases . These autoantibodies are mainly found in people that suffer from the PM / Scl overlap syndrome , an autoimmune disease in which patients have symptoms from both scleroderma and either polymyositis or dermatomyositis . Autoantibodies can be detected in the serum of patients by a variety of assays . In the past , the most commonly used methods were double immunodiffusion using calf thymus extracts , immunofluorescence on HEp @-@ 2 cells or immunoprecipitation from human cell extracts . In immunoprecipitation assays with sera from anti @-@ exosome positive sera , a distinctive set of proteins is precipitated . Already years before the exosome complex was identified , this pattern was termed the PM / Scl complex . Immunofluorescence using sera from these patients usually shows a typical staining of the nucleolus of cells , which sparked the suggestion that the antigen recognized by autoantibodies might be important in ribosome synthesis . More recently , recombinant exosome proteins have become available and these have been used to develop line immunoassays ( LIAs ) and enzyme linked immunosorbent assays ( ELISAs ) for detecting these antibodies .
In these diseases , antibodies are mainly directed against two of the proteins of the complex , called PM / Scl @-@ 100 ( the RNase D like protein ) and PM / Scl @-@ 75 ( one of the RNase PH like proteins from the ring ) and antibodies recognizing these proteins are found in approximately 30 % of patients with the PM / Scl overlap syndrome . Although these two proteins are the main target of the autoantibodies , other exosome subunits and associated proteins ( like C1D ) can be targeted in these patients . At the current time , the most sensitive way to detect these antibodies is by using a peptide , derived from the PM / Scl @-@ 100 protein , as the antigen in an ELISA , instead of complete proteins . By this method , autoantibodies are found in up to 55 % of patients with the PM / Scl overlap syndrome , but they can also be detected in patients suffering from either scleroderma , polymyositis , or dermatomyositis alone .
As the autobodies are found mainly in patients that have characteristics of several different autoimmune diseases , the clinical symptoms of these patients can vary widely . The symptoms that are seen most often are the typical symptoms of the individual autoimmune diseases and include Raynaud 's phenomenon , arthritis , myositis and scleroderma . Treatment of these patients is symptomatic and is similar to treatment for the individual autoimmune disease , often involving either immunosuppressive or immunomodulating drugs .
= = = Cancer treatment = = =
The exosome has been shown to be inhibited by the antimetabolite fluorouracil , a drug used in the chemotherapy of cancer . It is one of the most successful drugs for treating solid tumors . In yeast cells treated with fluorouracil , defects were found in the processing of ribosomal RNA identical to those seen when the activity of the exosome was blocked by molecular biological strategies . Lack of correct ribosomal RNA processing is lethal to cells , explaining the antimetabolic effect of the drug .
= = = Neurological disorders = = =
Mutations in exosome component 3 cause infantile spinal motor neuron disease , cerebellar atrophy , progressive microcephaly and profound global developmental delay , consistent with pontocerebellar hypoplasia type 1B ( PCH1B ; MIM 614678 ) .
= = List of subunits = =
A In archaea several exosome proteins are present in multiple copies , to form the full core of the exosome complex .
B In humans , two different proteins can be associated in this position . In the cytoplasm of cells , Dis3L1 is associated with the exosome , whereas in the nucleus , Dis3 can bind to the core complex .
C Contributes to the ribonucleolytic activity of the complex .
= Mendelevium =
Mendelevium is a synthetic element with chemical symbol Md ( formerly Mv ) and atomic number 101 . A metallic radioactive transuranic element in the actinide series , it is the first element that currently cannot be produced in macroscopic quantities through neutron bombardment of lighter elements . It is the antepenultimate actinide and the ninth transuranic element . It can only be produced in particle accelerators by bombarding lighter elements with charged particles . A total of sixteen mendelevium isotopes are known , the most stable being 258Md with a half @-@ life of 51 days ; nevertheless , the shorter @-@ lived 256Md ( half @-@ life 1 @.@ 27 hours ) is most commonly used in chemistry because it can be produced on a larger scale .
Mendelevium was discovered by bombarding einsteinium with alpha particles in 1955 , the same method still used to produce it today . It was named after Dmitri Mendeleev , father of the periodic table of the chemical elements . Using available microgram quantities of the isotope einsteinium @-@ 253 , over a million mendelevium atoms may be produced each hour . The chemistry of mendelevium is typical for the late actinides , with a preponderance of the + 3 oxidation state but also an accessible + 2 oxidation state . Owing to the small amounts of produced mendelevium and all of its isotopes having relatively short half @-@ lives , there are currently no uses for it outside of basic scientific research .
= = Discovery = =
Mendelevium was the ninth transuranic element to be synthesized . It was first synthesized by Albert Ghiorso , Glenn T. Seaborg , Gregory R. Choppin , Bernard G. Harvey , and team leader Stanley G. Thompson in early 1955 at the University of California , Berkeley . The team produced 256Md ( half @-@ life of 87 minutes ) when they bombarded an 253Es target consisting of only a billion ( 109 ) einsteinium atoms with alpha particles ( helium nuclei ) in the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory 's 60 @-@ inch cyclotron , thus increasing the target 's atomic number by two . 256Md thus became the first isotope of any element to be synthesized one atom at a time . In total , seventeen mendelevium atoms were produced . This discovery was part of a program , begun in 1952 , that irradiated plutonium with neutrons to transmute it into heavier actinides . This method was necessary as the previous method used to synthesize transuranic elements , neutron capture , could not work because of a lack of beta decaying isotopes of fermium that would produce isotopes of the next element , mendelevium , and also due to the very short half @-@ life to spontaneous fission of fermium @-@ 258 that thus constituted a hard limit to the success of the neutron capture process .
To predict if the production of mendelevium would be possible , the team made use of a rough calculation . The number of atoms that would be produced would be approximately equal to the product of the number of atoms of target material , the target 's cross section , the ion beam intensity , and the time of bombardment ; this last factor was related to the half @-@ life of the product when bombarding for a time on the order of its half @-@ life . This gave one atom per experiment . Thus under optimum conditions , the preparation of only one atom of element 101 per experiment could be expected . This calculation demonstrated that it was feasible to go ahead with the experiment . The target material , einsteinium @-@ 253 , could be produced readily from irradiating plutonium : one year of irradiation would give a billion atoms , and its three @-@ week half @-@ life meant that the element 101 experiments could be conducted in one week after the produced einsteinium was separated and purified to make the target . However , it was necessary to upgrade the cyclotron to obtain the needed intensity of 1014 alpha particles per second ; Seaborg applied for the necessary funds .
While Seaborg applied for funding , Harvey worked on the einsteinium target , while Thomson and Choppin focused on methods for chemical isolation . Choppin suggested using α @-@ hydroxyisobutyric acid to separate the mendelevium atoms from those of the lighter actinides . The actual synthesis was done by a recoil technique , introduced by Albert Ghiorso . In this technique , the einsteinium was placed on the opposite side of the target from the beam , so that the recoiling mendelevium atoms would get enough momentum to leave the target and be caught on a catcher foil made of gold . This recoil target was made by an electroplating technique , developed by Alfred Chetham @-@ Strode . This technique gave a very high yield , which was absolutely necessary when working with such a rare and valuable product as the einsteinium target material . The recoil target consisted of 109 atoms of 253Es which were deposited electrolytically on a thin gold foil . It was bombarded by 41 MeV alpha particles in the Berkeley cyclotron with a very high beam density of 6 × 1013 particles per second over an area of 0 @.@ 05 cm2 . The target was cooled by water or liquid helium , and the foil could be replaced .
Initial experiments were carried out in September 1954 . No alpha decay was seen from mendelevium atoms ; thus , Ghiorso suggested that the mendelevium had all decayed by electron capture to fermium and that the experiment should be repeated to search instead for spontaneous fission events . The repetition of the experiment happened in February 1955 .
On the day of discovery , 19 February , alpha irradiation of the einsteinium target occurred in three three @-@ hour sessions . The cyclotron was in the University of California campus , while the Radiation Laboratory was on the next hill . To deal with this situation , a complex procedure was used : Ghiorso took the catcher foils ( there were three targets and three foils ) from the cyclotron to Harvey , who would use aqua regia to dissolve it and pass it through an anion @-@ exchange resin column to separate out the transuranium elements from the gold and other products . The resultant drops entered a test tube , which Choppin and Ghiorso took in a car to get to the Radiation Laboratory as soon as possible . There Thompson and Choppin used a cation @-@ exchange resin column and the α @-@ hydroxyisobutyric acid . The solution drops were collected on platinum disks and dried under heat lamps . The three disks were expected to contain respectively the fermium , no new elements , and the mendelevium . Finally , they were placed in their own counters , which were connected to recorders such that spontaneous fission events would be recorded as huge deflections in a graph showing the number and time of the decays . There thus was no direct detection , but by observation of spontaneous fission events arising from its electron @-@ capture daughter 256Fm . The first one was identified with a " hooray " followed by a " double hooray " and a " triple hooray " . The fourth one eventually officially proved the chemical identification of the 101st element , mendelevium . In total , five decays were reported up till 4 a.m. Seaborg was notified and the team left to sleep . Additional analysis and further experimentation showed the produced mendelevium isotope to have mass 256 and to decay by electron capture to fermium @-@ 256 with a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 5 h .
We thought it fitting that there be an element named for the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev , who had developed the periodic table . In nearly all our experiments discovering transuranium elements , we 'd depended on his method of predicting chemical properties based on the element 's position in the table . But in the middle of the Cold War , naming an element for a Russian was a somewhat bold gesture that did not sit well with some American critics .
Being the first of the second hundred of the chemical elements , it was decided that the element would be named " mendelevium " after the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev , father of the periodic table . Due to the fact that this discovery came during the Cold War , Seaborg had to request permission of the government of the United States to propose that the element be named for a Russian , but it was granted . The name " mendelevium " was accepted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) in 1955 with symbol " Mv " , which was changed to " Md " in the next IUPAC General Assembly ( Paris , 1957 ) .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical = = =
In the periodic table , mendelevium is located to the right of the actinide fermium , to the left of the actinide nobelium , and below the lanthanide thulium . Mendelevium metal has not yet been prepared in bulk quantities , and bulk preparation is currently impossible . Nevertheless , a number of predictions and some preliminary experimental results have been done regarding its properties .
The lanthanides and actinides , in the metallic state , can exist as either divalent ( such as europium and ytterbium ) or trivalent ( most other lanthanides ) metals . The former have fnd1s2 configurations , whereas the latter have fn + 1s2 configurations . In 1975 , Johansson and Rosengren examined the measured and predicted values for the cohesive energies ( enthalpies of crystallization ) of the metallic lanthanides and actinides , both as divalent and trivalent metals . The conclusion was that the increased binding energy of the [ Rn ] 5f126d17s2 configuration over the [ Rn ] 5f137s2 configuration for mendelevium was not enough to compensate for the energy needed to promote one 5f electron to 6d , as is true also for the very late actinides : thus einsteinium , fermium , mendelevium , and nobelium were expected to be divalent metals . The increasing predominance of the divalent state well before the actinide series concludes is attributed to the relativistic stabilization of the 5f electrons , which increases with increasing atomic number . Thermochromatographic studies with trace quantities of mendelevium by Zvara and Hübener from 1976 to 1982 confirmed this prediction . In 1990 , Haire and Gibson estimated mendelevium metal to have an enthalpy of sublimation between 134 and 142 kJ · mol − 1 . Divalent mendelevium metal should have a metallic radius of around ( 194 ± 10 ) pm . Like the other divalent late actinides ( except the once again trivalent lawrencium ) , metallic mendelevium should assume a face @-@ centered cubic crystal structure . Mendelevium 's melting point has been estimated at 827 ° C , the same value as that predicted for the neighboring element nobelium . Its density is predicted to be around 10 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 7 g · cm − 3 .
= = = Chemical = = =
The chemistry of mendelevium is mostly known only in solution , in which it can take on the + 3 or + 2 oxidation states . The + 1 state has also been reported , but has not yet been confirmed .
Before mendelevium 's discovery , Seaborg and Katz predicted that it should be predominantly trivalent in aqueous solution and hence should behave similarly to other tripositive lanthanides and actinides . After the synthesis of mendelevium in 1955 , these predictions were confirmed , first in the observation at its discovery that it eluted just after fermium in the trivalent actinide elution sequence from a cation @-@ exchange column of resin , and later the 1967 observation that mendelevium could form insoluble hydroxides and fluorides that coprecipitated with trivalent lanthanide salts . Cation @-@ exchange and solvent extraction studies led to the conclusion that mendelevium was a trivalent actinide with an ionic radius somewhat smaller than that of the previous actinide , fermium . Mendelevium can form coordination complexes with 1 @,@ 2 @-@ cyclohexanedinitrilotetraacetic acid ( DCTA ) .
In reducing conditions , mendelevium ( III ) can be easily reduced to mendelevium ( II ) , which is stable in aqueous solution . The standard reduction potential of the E ° ( Md3 + → Md2 + ) couple has been variously estimated as − 0 @.@ 10 V or − 0 @.@ 20 V. In comparison , E ° ( Md3 + → Md0 ) should be around − 1 @.@ 74 V , and E ° ( Md2 + → Md0 ) should be around − 2 @.@ 5 V. Mendelevium ( II ) ' s elution behavior has been compared with that of strontium ( II ) and europium ( II ) .
In 1973 , mendelevium ( I ) was reported to have been produced by Russian scientists , who obtained it by reducing higher oxidation states of mendelevium with samarium ( II ) . It was found to be stable in neutral water – ethanol solution and be homologous to caesium ( I ) . However , later experiments found no evidence for mendelevium ( I ) and found that mendelevium behaved like divalent elements when reduced , not like the monovalent alkali metals . Nevertheless , the Russian team conducted further studies on the thermodynamics of cocrystallizing mendelevium with alkali metal chlorides , and concluded that mendelevium ( I ) had formed and could form mixed crystals with divalent elements , thus cocrystallizing with them . The status of the + 1 oxidation state is still tentative .
Although E ° ( Md4 + → Md3 + ) was predicted in 1975 to be + 5 @.@ 4 V , suggesting that mendelevium ( III ) could be easily oxidized to mendelevium ( IV ) , 1967 experiments with the strong oxidizing agent sodium bismuthate were unable to oxidize mendelevium ( III ) to mendelevium ( IV ) .
= = = Atomic = = =
A mendelevium atom has 101 electrons , of which at least three ( and perhaps four ) can act as valence electrons . They are expected to be arranged in the configuration [ Rn ] 5f137s2 ( ground state term symbol 2F7 / 2 ) , although experimental verification of this electron configuration had not yet been made as of 2006 . In forming compounds , three valence electrons may be lost , leaving behind a [ Rn ] 5f12 core : this conforms to the trend set by the other actinides with their [ Rn ] 5fn electron configurations in the tripositive state . The first ionization potential of mendelevium was measured to be at most ( 6 @.@ 58 ± 0 @.@ 07 ) eV in 1974 , based on the assumption that the 7s electrons would ionize before the 5f ones ; this value has since not yet been refined further due to mendelevium 's scarcity and high radioactivity . The ionic radius of hexacoordinate Md3 + had been preliminarily estimated in 1978 to be around 91 @.@ 2 pm ; 1988 calculations based on the logarithmic trend between distribution coefficients and ionic radius produced a value of 89 @.@ 6 pm , as well as an enthalpy of hydration of − ( 3654 ± 12 ) kJ · mol − 1 . Md2 + should have an ionic radius of 115 pm and hydration enthalpy − 1413 kJ · mol − 1 ; Md + should have ionic radius 117 pm .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Sixteen isotopes of mendelevium are known , with mass numbers from 245 to 260 ; all are radioactive . Additionally , five nuclear isomers are known : 245mMd , 247mMd , 249mMd , 254mMd , and 258mMd . Of these , the longest @-@ lived isotope is 258Md with a half @-@ life of 51 @.@ 5 days , and the longest @-@ lived isomer is 258mMd with a half @-@ life of 58 @.@ 0 minutes . Nevertheless , the slightly shorter @-@ lived 256Md ( half @-@ life 1 @.@ 27 hours ) is more often used in chemical experimentation because it can be produced in larger quantities from alpha particle irradiation of einsteinium . After 258Md , the next most stable mendelevium isotopes are 260Md with a half @-@ life of 31 @.@ 8 days , 257Md with a half @-@ life of 5 @.@ 52 hours , 259Md with a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 60 hours , and 256Md with a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 27 hours . All of the remaining mendelevium isotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than an hour , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives that are less than 5 minutes .
The half @-@ lives of mendelevium isotopes mostly increase smoothly from 245Md onwards , reaching a maximum at 258Md . Experiments and predictions suggest that the half @-@ lives will then decrease , apart from 260Md with a half @-@ life of 31 @.@ 8 days , as spontaneous fission becomes the dominant decay mode due to the mutual repulsion of the protons posing a limit to the island of relative stability of long @-@ lived nuclei in the actinide series .
Mendelevium @-@ 256 , the chemically most important isotope of mendelevium , decays through electron capture 90 @.@ 7 % of the time and alpha decay 9 @.@ 9 % of the time . It is most easily detected through the spontaneous fission of its electron @-@ capture daughter fermium @-@ 256 , but in the presence of other nuclides that undergo spontaneous fission , alpha decays at the characteristic energies for mendelevium @-@ 256 ( 7 @.@ 205 and 7 @.@ 139 MeV ) can provide more useful identification .
= = Production and isolation = =
The lightest mendelevium isotopes ( 245Md to 247Md ) are mostly produced through bombardment of bismuth targets with heavy argon ions , while slightly heavier ones ( 248Md to 253Md ) are produced by bombarding plutonium and americium targets with lighter ions of carbon and nitrogen . The most important and most stable isotopes are in the range from 254Md to 258Md and are produced through bombardment of einsteinium isotopes with alpha particles : einsteinium @-@ 253 , -254 , and -255 can all be used . 259Md is produced as a daughter of 259No , and 260Md can be produced in a transfer reaction between einsteinium @-@ 254 and oxygen @-@ 18 . Typically , the most commonly used isotope 256Md is produced by bombarding either einsteinium @-@ 253 or -254 with alpha particles : einsteinium @-@ 254 is preferred when available because it has a longer half @-@ life and therefore can be used as a target for longer . Using available microgram quantities of einsteinium , femtogram quantities of mendelevium @-@ 256 may be produced .
The recoil momentum of the produced mendelevium @-@ 256 atoms is used to bring them physically far away from the einsteinium target from which they are produced , bringing them onto a thin foil of metal ( usually beryllium , aluminium , platinum , or gold ) just behind the target in a vacuum . This eliminates the need for immediate chemical separation , which is both costly and prevents reusing of the expensive einsteinium target . The mendelevium atoms are then trapped in a gas atmosphere ( frequently helium ) , and a gas jet from a small opening in the reaction chamber carries the mendelevium along . Using a long capillary tube , and including potassium chloride aerosols in the helium gas , the mendelevium atoms can be transported over tens of meters to be chemically analyzed and have their quantity determined . The mendelevium can then be separated from the foil material and other fission products by applying acid to the foil and then coprecipitating the mendelevium with lanthanum fluoride , then using a cation @-@ exchange resin column with a 10 % ethanol solution saturated with hydrochloric acid , acting as an eluant . However , if the foil is made of gold and thin enough , it is enough to simply dissolve the gold in aqua regia before separating the trivalent actinides from the gold using anion @-@ exchange chromatography , the eluant being 6 M hydrochloric acid .
Mendelevium can finally be separated from the other trivalent actinides using selective elution from a cation @-@ exchange resin column , the eluant being ammonia α @-@ HIB . Using the gas @-@ jet method often renders the first two steps unnecessary . The above procedure is the most commonly used one for the separation of transeinsteinium elements .
Another possible way to separate the trivalent actinides is via solvent extraction chromatography using bis- ( 2 @-@ ethylhexyl ) phosphoric acid ( abbreviated as HDEHP ) as the stationary organic phase and nitric acid as the mobile aqueous phase . The actinide elution sequence is reversed from that of the cation @-@ exchange resin column , so that the heavier actinides elute later . The mendelevium separated by this method has the advantage of being free of organic complexing agent compared to the resin column ; the disadvantage is that mendelevium then elutes very late in the elution sequence , after fermium .
Another method to isolate mendelevium exploits the distinct elution properties of Md2 + from those of Es3 + and Fm3 + . The initial steps are the same as above , and employs HDEHP for extraction chromatography , but coprecipitates the mendelevium with terbium fluoride instead of lanthanum fluoride . Then , 50 mg of chromium is added to the mendelevium to reduce it to the + 2 state in 0 @.@ 1 M hydrochloric acid with zinc or mercury . The solvent extraction then proceeds , and while the trivalent and tetravalent lanthanides and actinides remain on the column , mendelevium ( II ) does not and stays in the hydrochloric acid . It is then reoxidized to the + 3 state using hydrogen peroxide and then isolated by selective elution with 2 M hydrochloric acid ( to remove impurities , including chromium ) and finally 6 M hydrochloric acid ( to remove the mendelevium ) . It is also possible to use a column of cationite and zinc amalgam , using 1 M hydrochloric acid as an eluant , reducing Md ( III ) to Md ( II ) where it behaves like the alkaline earth metals . Thermochromatographic chemical isolation could be achieved using the volatile mendelevium hexafluoroacetylacetonate : the analogous fermium compound is also known and is also volatile .
= National Diet =
The National Diet ( 国会 , Kokkai ) is Japan 's bicameral legislature . It is composed of a lower house called the House of Representatives , and an upper house , called the House of Councillors . Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under parallel voting systems . In addition to passing laws , the Diet is formally responsible for selecting the Prime Minister . The Diet was first convened as the Imperial Diet in 1889 as a result of adopting the Meiji Constitution . The Diet took its current form in 1947 upon the adoption of the post @-@ war constitution and is considered by the Constitution to be the highest organ of state power . The National Diet Building is located in Nagatachō , Chiyoda , Tokyo .
= = Composition = =
The houses of the Diet are both elected under parallel voting systems . This means that the seats to be filled in any given election are divided into two groups , each elected by a different method ; the main difference between the houses is in the sizes of the two groups and how they are elected . Voters are also asked to cast two votes : one for an individual candidate in a constituency , and one for a party list . Any national of Japan at least 20 years of age may vote in these elections , which will be changed to 18 in 2016 . Japan 's parallel voting system is not to be confused with the Additional Member System used in many other nations .
House of Representatives : Of 475 members , 295 are elected from single seat constituencies under the Single Member Plurality ( " First @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post " ) system , and 180 are elected from eleven separate electoral blocs under the party list system of proportional representation ( PR ) .
House of Councillors : Of 242 members , 146 are elected from 47 prefectural constituencies by means of the Single Non @-@ Transferable Vote . The remaining 96 are elected by open list PR from a single national list .
The Constitution of Japan does not specify the number of members of each house of the Diet , the voting system , or the necessary qualifications of those who may vote or be returned in parliamentary elections , thus allowing all of these things to be determined by law . However it does guarantee universal adult suffrage and a secret ballot . It also insists that the electoral law must not discriminate in terms of " race , creed , sex , social status , family origin , education , property or income " .
Generally , the election of Diet members is controlled by statutes passed by the Diet . This is a source of contention concerning re @-@ apportionment of prefectures ' seats in response to changes of population distribution . For example , the Liberal Democratic Party had controlled Japan for most of its post @-@ war history , and it gained much of its support from rural areas . During the post @-@ war era , large numbers of people were relocating to the urban centers in the seeking of wealth ; though some re @-@ apportionments have been made to the number of each prefecture 's assigned seats in the Diet , rural areas generally have more representation than do urban areas . The Supreme Court of Japan began exercising judicial review of apportionment laws following the Kurokawa decision of 1976 , invalidating an election in which one district in Hyōgo Prefecture received five times the representation of another district in Osaka Prefecture . The Supreme Court has since indicated that the highest electoral imbalance permissible under Japanese law is 3 : 1 , and that any greater imbalance between any two districts is a violation of Article 14 of the Constitution . In recent elections the malapportionment ratio amounted to 4 @.@ 8 in the House of Councillors ( census 2005 : Ōsaka / Tottori ; election 2007 : Kanagawa / Tottori ) and 2 @.@ 3 in the House of Representatives ( election 2009 : Chiba 4 / Kōchi 3 ) .
Candidates for the lower house must be 25 years old or older and 30 years or older for the upper house . All candidates must be Japanese nationals . Under Article 49 of Japan 's Constitution , Diet members are paid about ¥ 1 @.@ 3 million a month in salary . Each lawmaker is entitled to employ three secretaries with taxpayer funds , free train tickets , and four round @-@ trip airplane tickets a month to enable them to travel back and forth to their home districts .
= = Powers = =
Article 41 of the Constitution describes the National Diet as " the highest organ of State power " and " the sole law @-@ making organ of the State " . This statement is in forceful contrast to the Meiji Constitution , which described the Emperor as the one who exercised legislative power with the consent of the Diet . The Diet 's responsibilities include not only the making of laws but also the approval of the annual national budget that the government submits and the ratification of treaties . It can also initiate draft constitutional amendments , which , if approved , must be presented to the people in a referendum . The Diet may conduct " investigations in relation to government " ( Article 62 ) . The Prime Minister must be designated by Diet resolution , establishing the principle of legislative supremacy over executive government agencies ( Article 67 ) . The government can also be dissolved by the Diet if it passes a motion of no confidence introduced by fifty members of the House of Representatives . Government officials , including the Prime Minister and Cabinet members , are required to appear before Diet investigative committees and answer inquiries . The Diet also has the power to impeach judges convicted of criminal or irregular conduct .
In most circumstances , in order to become law a bill must be first passed by both houses of the Diet and then promulgated by the Emperor . This role of the Emperor is similar to the Royal Assent in some other nations ; however , the Emperor cannot refuse to promulgate a law and therefore his legislative role is merely a formality .
The House of Representatives is the more powerful chamber of the Diet . While the House of Representatives cannot usually overrule the House of Councillors on a bill , the House of Councillors can only delay the adoption of a budget or a treaty that has been approved by the House of Representatives , and the House of Councillors has almost no power at all to prevent the lower house from selecting any Prime Minister it wishes . Furthermore , once appointed it is the confidence of the House of Representatives alone that the Prime Minister must enjoy in order to continue in office . The House of Representatives can overrule the upper house in the following circumstances :
If a bill is adopted by the House of Representatives and then either rejected , amended or not approved within 60 days by the House of Councillors , then the bill will become law if again adopted by the House of Representatives by a majority of at least two @-@ thirds of members present .
If both houses cannot agree on a budget or a treaty , even through the appointment of a joint committee of the Diet , or if the House of Councillors fails to take final action on a proposed budget or treaty within 30 days of its approval by the House of Representatives , then the decision of the lower house is deemed to be that of the Diet .
If both houses cannot agree on a candidate for Prime Minister , even through a joint committee , or if the House of Councillors fails to designate a candidate within 10 days of House of Representatives ' decision , then the nominee of the lower house is deemed to be that of the Diet .
= = Activities = =
Under the Constitution , at least one session of the Diet must be convened each year . Technically , only the House of Representatives is dissolved before an election but while the lower house is in dissolution the House of Councillors is usually " closed " . The Emperor both convokes the Diet and dissolves the House of Representatives but in doing must act on the advice of the Cabinet . In an emergency the Cabinet can convoke the Diet for an extraordinary session , and an extraordinary session may be requested by one @-@ quarter of the members of either house . At the beginning of each parliamentary session the Emperor reads a special speech from his throne in the chamber of the House of Councillors .
The presence of one @-@ third of the membership of either house constitutes a quorum and deliberations are in public unless at least two @-@ thirds of those present agree otherwise . Each house elects its own presiding officer who exercises the casting vote in the event of a tie . Members of each house have certain protections against arrest while the Diet is in session and words spoken and votes cast in the Diet enjoy parliamentary privilege . Each house of the Diet determines its own standing orders and has responsibility for disciplining its own members . A member may be expelled , but only by a two @-@ thirds majority vote . Every member of the Cabinet has the right to appear in either house of the Diet for the purpose of speaking on bills , and each house has the right to compel the appearance of Cabinet members .
= = History = =
Japan 's first modern legislature was the Imperial Diet ( 帝国議会 , Teikoku @-@ gikai ) established by the Meiji Constitution in force from 1889 to 1947 . The Meiji Constitution was adopted on February 11 , 1889 and the Imperial Diet first met on November 29 , 1890 when the document entered into operation . The Diet consisted of a House of Representatives and a House of Peers ( 貴族院 , Kizoku @-@ in ) . The House of Representatives was directly elected , if on a limited franchise ; universal adult male suffrage was introduced in 1925 . The House of Peers , much like the British House of Lords , consisted of high @-@ ranking nobles .
The word diet derives from Latin and was a common name for an assembly in medieval Germany . The Meiji constitution was largely based on the form of constitutional monarchy found in nineteenth century Prussia and the new Diet was modeled partly on the German Reichstag and partly on the British Westminster system . Unlike the post @-@ war constitution , the Meiji constitution granted a real political role to the Emperor , although in practice the Emperor 's powers were largely directed by a group of oligarchs called the genrō or elder statesmen .
To become law or bill , a constitutional amendment had to have the assent of both the Diet and the Emperor . This meant that while the Emperor could no longer legislate by decree he still had a veto over the Diet . The Emperor also had complete freedom in choosing the Prime Minister and the Cabinet , and so , under the Meiji constitution , Prime Ministers often were not chosen from and did not enjoy the confidence of the Diet . The Imperial Diet was also limited in its control over the budget . While the Diet could veto the annual budget , if no budget was approved the budget of the previous year continued in force . This all changed with the new constitution after World War II .
The proportional representation system for the House of Councillors , introduced in 1982 , was the first major electoral reform under the post @-@ war constitution . Instead of choosing national constituency candidates as individuals , as had previously been the case , voters cast ballots for parties . Individual councillors , listed officially by the parties before the election , are selected on the basis of the parties ' proportions of the total national constituency vote . The system was introduced to reduce the excessive money spent by candidates for the national constituencies . Critics charged , however , that this new system benefited the two largest parties , the LDP and the Japan Socialist Party ( now Social Democratic Party ) , which in fact had sponsored the reform .
= Chinga ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Chinga " is the tenth episode of the fifth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by noted author Stephen King and series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Kim Manners . The episode aired in the United States on February 8 , 1998 on the Fox network . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Chinga " earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 8 and was viewed by 21 @.@ 33 million viewers . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Scully takes a vacation to Maine , where she encounters a bizarre case where the victims appear to have inflicted wounds upon themselves — apparently at the behest of a strange young girl .
" Chinga " was co @-@ written by noted horror author Stephen King after he requested to pen an episode of The X @-@ Files . Carter rewrote portions of King 's final draft , resulting in a shared writing credit for the entry . During filming , Gillian Anderson performed her lines in a tongue in cheek manner , which resulted in Carter informing her that her lines were not meant to be humorous and that the production staff was having to edit out various shots . The supermarket shots were filmed in an actual supermarket , a first for the series , according to art director Greg Loewen . Chinga , the titular evil doll , was created by sewing together various doll parts , including an oversized head and a wig created from multiple hairpieces .
= = Plot = =
In the coastal town of Amma Beach , Maine , five @-@ year @-@ old Polly Turner and her antique doll , Chinga , accompany her mother , Melissa , as she goes to a local grocery store . Melissa attracts the attention of the store 's butcher , Dave . Moments later , Melissa sees a ghostly image of Dave with a knife protruding from one eye . Horrified , Melissa tries to leave the store with Polly . However , as they make their way towards the store 's exit , customers begin clawing at their eyes . Meanwhile , Dave , after seeing a monstrous reflection of Chinga , is compelled by an outside force to turn his knife on himself .
Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is coincidentally in the area , taking a vacation in Maine . After stumbling upon the carnage in the grocery store , Scully telephones Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and describes the bizarre situation . Mulder tells Scully that the incident might be the result of witchcraft or sorcery . Scully , however , can find no physical evidence that might support his theory . Assisted by the local police , Scully reviews the store 's surveillance footage and notices Melissa Turner leaving the scene , the only customer unaffected . Jack Bonsaint , the police chief , tells Scully that some townspeople believe Melissa to be a witch . Deputy Buddy Riggs informs Melissa that Bonsaint will be questioning her . Riggs promises to help Melissa , but she warns him to stay away .
Bonsaint and Scully visit Melissa 's home , but find it unoccupied . Bonsaint tells Scully that Melissa was once married to a local fisherman , but was widowed when he was inexplicably found dead aboard his fishing boat , the hook on his winch driven through his skull . Later , it is revealed that he found Chinga in a lobster trap and gave it to Polly as a present shortly before he died . Bonsaint also explains that there had been an incident between Polly and Jane Froelich , the proprietor of a local daycare center , when Jane slapped Polly over her behavior . Meanwhile , Riggs meets Melissa and Polly at an ice cream shop . Melissa describes how she has seen images of violent deaths , such as Dave 's , before they occur . Riggs gives Melissa the key to a remote cabin and suggests that she leave town . When Polly asks one of the workers for more cherries , the worker insists that she needs to pay for them . Just then , the worker is nearly killed when her hair gets caught in the mixer until Riggs saves her .
Scully and Bonsaint visit Froelich , who claims Melissa is the descendant of witches and that she is passing her cursed lineage to Polly . Later , while speaking with a park ranger , Melissa sees a bloody image of Froelich and she quickly turns around to head home . Meanwhile , Froelich is confronted by the enlarged Chinga and is forced to slit her own throat with the shard of a phonograph record . At the scene , Scully receives a phone call from Mulder who ( in a twist of character ) believes that there might be a scientific explanation to the people at the grocery store - chorea , otherwise known as " dancing sickness " ; Scully , however , remains doubtful . After Melissa sees a vision of Riggs , the deputy is forced to bludgeon himself to death with his own night stick . Finally , Melissa sees a bloodied reflection of herself in a window , a hammer buried in her skull . She proceeds to burn the house down in an attempt to destroy the doll . Polly arrives in the kitchen with Chinga , who somehow manages to extinguish the lit matches that Melissa strikes .
Scully and Bonsaint drive to the Turner home . Scully , peering through the windows , discovers Melissa attempting to set fire to the house , with her , her daughter and Chinga all trapped inside . Bonsaint breaks down the nailed door as Melissa runs to a closet and grabs hold of a hammer which she , against her will , turns upon herself . Thinking quickly , Scully grabs the Chinga doll and throws it inside a microwave oven in the kitchen . As the doll melts , Melissa drops the hammer and regains her senses . In the final scene , a fisherman is seen pulling up a lobster trap , and in it is the burned doll , which comes back to life .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by noted horror author Stephen King . King initially approached series co @-@ star David Duchovny and informed him that he loved the show and desired to write an episode . Eventually , he called series creator Chris Carter and expressed his desire to write an episode of Millennium instead . Carter agreed , but once more , King changed his mind and it was decided that he would write an episode of The X @-@ Files . King sent various drafts to Carter from his home in Maine ; the two individuals never actually met one another . King 's original story had some issues that Carter rewrote . Carter explained , " Stephen wasn 't used to writing for Mulder and Scully [ ... ] the Mulder @-@ and @-@ Scully story in his original draft didn 't quite work " . Carter separated Mulder and Scully in the finalized draft and helped to finalize the script , hence their dual writing credit on the episode . Kim Manners , the director for the episode , later said , " I was very excited to be able to direct a Stephen King piece , and when it was all said and done , there was very little Stephen King left in it . The nuts and bolts were his , but that was really one of Chris ' scripts . " Unbeknownst to either Carter or King , the word " Chinga " can be considered a vulgar Spanish colloquialism .
During filming , Gillian Anderson was unsure how exactly to perform her lines . She noted , " the way the script was originally read to me , initially seemed to me as if Scully kind of stepped up to the plate and played along with the sheriff 's humor " . She reportedly performed her lines in a " tongue in cheek " -esque way before receiving a call from Carter . He informed her that her lines were not meant to be humorous and that the production staff was having to " edit out a lot of stuff " in order to make up for this . Several of the scenes in the episode were shot at the places they stood in for . The gas station scene was filmed at a real gas station across from the series ' production headquarters . The supermarket shots were filmed in an actual supermarket , Shop Easy in Port Coquitlam , a first for the series , according to art director Greg Loewen . The scenes required the store to be closed before Christmas and be installed with up @-@ right freezers .
Chinga , the titular evil doll , was created by sewing together various doll parts . An oversized doll 's head was placed on the finished body and " the world 's largest wig " adorned its head . Props master Ken Hawryliw later reported that the hairpiece was actually the result of several wigs being sewn together . Most of the makeup effects were created by artist Toby Lindala , who " appreciate the chance to create these classics for a Stephen King project " . The " Death Under Glass " scene featuring Dave the Butcher with a knife in his eyes was created in post @-@ production via a computer . Special effects supervisor Laurie Kellsen @-@ George tested the scene on her nine- and eleven @-@ year @-@ old sons , explaining that " I gauge a lot of the show by whether my kids can stand them or not . If they can 't , I figure I succeeded [ ... ] ' Chinga ' bothered them a lot . " Reportedly , during the self @-@ mutilation scene in the supermarket , a real customer who had wandered onto the set saw the commotion and left in a panic .
= = Reception = =
" Chinga " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on February 8 , 1998 . It earned a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 8 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 7 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 21 @.@ 33 million viewers . The episode later debuted in the United Kingdom
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as the South Wales representative on the executive committee of the MFGB from 1924 to 1934 . During the May 1926 general strike , the South Wales miners were among the most fervent in support of the action . When the national strike collapsed after nine days , Davies led the continued resistance from the Welsh coalfields through months of lockout , before capitulation on harsh terms in December . Dowlais was the last district to return to work . The period following 1926 was marked by much in @-@ fighting between communist and non @-@ communist factions in the coalfields . Davies and other non @-@ communists found themselves accused of collaboration with " social fascism " ; a leaflet issued by the communist @-@ led National Minority Movement termed him " the sham militant " . Nevertheless , he continued to work for cooperation between all factions on the left . After Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933 , Davies argued for unity around the Labour Party , believing that the ILP 's increasingly left @-@ wing stance , and the Communist Party 's commitment to violent revolution , might create the conditions for fascism . In 1931 Davies was elected to Merthyr Tydfil Borough Council .
= = Member of Parliament = =
= = = By @-@ election June 1934 = = =
When Richard Wallhead , the Labour MP for Merthyr , died on 27 April 1934 , Davies was selected as the party 's candidate for the June by @-@ election , with the support of the MFGB . Wallhead had held the seat since 1922 , with large majorities ; in the 1931 general election he had defeated a single opponent , a candidate from Oswald Mosley 's New Party who had received tacit support from the Conservative Party . Davies faced opposition from the Liberal Party , the Communist Party and the ILP . With no candidate from the ruling National Government in the field , Davies was denied an obvious target for attack ; as the Manchester Guardian stated in its pre @-@ poll analysis , he was put on the defensive : " His is the dispiriting task of trying to lose as few votes as possible " . The paper predicted a close result .
Using the slogan " Peace , Prosperity , Security , Freedom " , Davies advocated the extension of public ownership , abolition of the means test , increased unemployment benefit , better education , and international co @-@ operation especially with Russia . He dismissed the ILP as having no function beyond the splitting of the Labour vote . With strong support from the local trade unions and helped by a well @-@ organised campaign , Davies swept to an easy victory on 5 June . His 18 @,@ 645 votes gave him a majority of 8 @,@ 269 over his Liberal opponent , with his ILP and Communist challengers lagging far behind .
= = = In the House of Commons = = =
= = = = Member for Merthyr = = = =
Davies gave his maiden speech in the House of Commons on 21 June 1934 . Breaking with the tradition that such speeches should be non @-@ partisan , he delivered a fierce attack on the government 's policy towards the mining industry . He had come , he said , from a coalfield that " has had very little help from the present government ... we see communities with a great industrial history dissolving and disintegrating " . An uncompromising approach on any questions affecting Merthyr Tydfil , or the mining industry generally , became Davies 's parliamentary hallmark . In December 1934 he rebuked the veteran Conservative MP Nancy Astor when she referred to Merthyr as having " no social consciousness or initiative to do anything " . Davies replied : " I object to irresponsible and brutal charges coming from people whose knowledge is derived from the enjoyment of vast wealth , especially when I am not certain that they have made their contribution towards producing that wealth " .
In 1934 , two years after his wife Margaret 's death from cancer , Davies married Sephora Davies , a schoolteacher from Gwaun @-@ Cae @-@ Gurwen in Carmarthenshire who shared Davies 's political outlook . The couple lived at Gwynfryn Park Terrace in Merthyr Tydfil , and had two sons . In November 1936 , having been returned in the 1935 general election with an increased majority , Davies ridiculed the prime minister , Stanley Baldwin , for his refusal to meet a delegation from the National Unemployed Workers ' Movement 's 1936 Hunger March , which included a large contingent from South Wales : " A bigger man would meet these people who have tramped the roads of this country and would show that he had sympathy with them " . In 1938 , having modified his earlier position , Davies supported a bill introduced by the Labour opposition for the nationalisation of the coal industry . Miners worked , he said , in intolerable conditions to ensure that cheap raw material was available to industry . Reasonable wages and working conditions would never be granted by private coal @-@ owners . The bill was defeated .
As Europe moved towards war in the late 1930s , Davies opposed the appeasement policies of the Chamberlain government . He doubted the will of the British ruling classes to wage a determined war against fascism , and called for a workers ' " Popular Front " of resistance to the dictators . After the outbreak of war in September 1939 Davies demanded from the British government " a more specific and detailed statement " of war aims , to allay " suspicions ... as to the real and possibly as yet unstated war aims of this country and of France " . He criticised Labour 's decision in May 1940 to join Churchill 's wartime coalition government , and thereafter opposed many of the coalition 's domestic policies , such as indiscriminate internment of aliens , restrictions on industrial action , and the suppression of the communist newspaper the Daily Worker . The bitterness of Davies 's personal attack on Herbert Morrison , the Home Secretary who had authorised the paper 's closure , shocked even the British Communist Party 's general secretary , Harry Pollitt , who cautioned Davies that " personal abuse has been our stock @-@ in @-@ trade for twenty years and has got us nowhere " .
Unlike the British communists , Davies did not change his position when the Soviet Union entered the war in June 1941 . He continued to oppose all co @-@ operation with the Conservatives , believing that only through socialism could a just and lasting peace be achieved . Victory in 1945 , and the subsequent election of a Labour government , did little to affect Davies 's individualism . In the Labour years 1945 – 51 he opposed government policies on conscription , NATO , the development of nuclear weapons , and intervention in the Korean War . According to his biographer Robert Griffiths , it was hatred of capitalist militarism , rather than a wish to support the Soviet Union , that underlay Davies 's stances . His popularity in South Wales was unaffected : he was returned to parliament in each postwar election with large majorities . In 1945 – 46 he served as Merthyr Tydfil 's mayor , remaining on the local council until 1949 .
= = = = Labour rebel = = = =
In assessing Davies 's political career the historian Alun Morgan notes certain inconsistencies : while calling for unity among leftist factions , Davies frequently rebelled against agreed Labour Party policies . He championed democracy , individual liberty and the rights of small nations , yet gave the Soviet Union his unvarying and uncritical support . However , he was consistent in certain core areas , often in defiance of official Labour policy : unremitting hostility to US foreign policy , opposition to UK defence expenditure , and above all commitment to the needs and interests of his Merthyr constituents . His dedication to his own agenda brought him into frequent conflict with party managers , and led to withdrawals of the party whip throughout the 1950s and 1960s . Stating his position in a 1948 letter to the Labour Party general secretary Morgan Phillips , he wrote : " Our movement embraces millions of men and women , and not merely a few hundred MPs and a few dozen ... members of the National Executive . I am habitually inclined to give our millions my first thoughts and consideration . " Davies 's popularity with the voters of Merthyr Tydfil remained constant ; he secured 75 per cent or more of the vote in each of the general elections of 1955 , 1959 , 1964 and 1966 .
In December 1951 Sephora Davies was expelled from the Labour Party because of her close association with a proscribed organisation , the British Soviet Friendship Society . Davies 's deep roots in the Labour movement , and his large base of local support , saved him from a similar fate . In June 1953 he was attacked by Will Lawther , the NUM president , for defying the Labour Party 's position and supporting the Soviet claim that a workers ' rising in East Germany had been orchestrated by " a CIA @-@ sponsored West @-@ German pro @-@ fascist organisation " . Lawther demanded that the local Merthyr Tydfil party deselect Davies as their parliamentary candidate , but they stood firm .
Davies found himself again at odds with his party , over the issue of Welsh self @-@ government . He had championed this cause for many years , to the annoyance of Labour 's Welsh Regional Council . In May 1954 he offered proposals for a Welsh parliament that were rejected by the Regional Council and by the South Wales Area conference of the NUM . Davies persevered , and on 4 March 1955 introduced in the House of Commons a private member 's bill proposing self @-@ government for Wales on the basis of the aborted 1914 act that would have granted home rule to Ireland . Davies claimed to have received thousands of messages of support for his measure , from all parts of Wales , but in the House he could only muster 14 votes in favour . Undeterred , he told MPs : " There is a movement in Wales , an uprising , as it were , that will not only support the bill but will continue to insist upon it until Wales is represented in the United Kingdom as something more than a mere region . "
According to Griffiths , when Soviet troops suppressed the Hungarian uprising in October 1956 , Davies was troubled , but refused to join in the general censure lest this give comfort to the enemies of socialism . He was to be equally silent during and after the events of the Prague Spring of 1968 — in sharp contrast to his condemnation of the " criminally dangerous and irresponsible heroics " of the United States during the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 . In 1961 , at the request of the Labour Party leadership , Davies was one of 25 Labour MPs and party members investigated by the British security services as a possible Communist Party member . The MI5 report stated that there was evidence to indicate that Davies , " if not of the Party ... is at least very close to it indeed " .
= = Aberfan = =
Davies 's Merthyr constituency included the mining village of Aberfan , situated a few miles south of Merthyr Tydfil . On the mountainsides above the village , colliery waste had been dumped over the years to form large spoil tips . Shortly after 9 : 00 am on Friday 21 October 1966 one of these tips collapsed , sending thousands of tons of semi @-@ liquid waste hurtling towards Aberfan . The point of impact was Pantglas Junior School , where morning lessons were beginning . The school was half submerged ; inside , 109 children and 5 teachers were killed . A further 7 children and 23 adults lost their lives outside the school , in the streets or adjoining houses . In the immediate aftermath , Davies visited and consoled the bereaved families in Aberfan , and on the Saturday he led a party which included the Duke of Edinburgh on a tour of the disaster site .
On 24 October , the National Coal Board chairman Lord Robens stated that the cause of the landslip was a previously unknown spring , which had been pouring water into the centre of the tip , creating a " water bomb " . Local miners disagreed ; they said that the spring 's existence had been known when tipping began 20 years earlier . A tribunal was set up under Lord Justice Edmund Davies , to investigate the disaster .
Giving evidence to the tribunal , S. O. Davies said he had long suspected that the Aberfan tips were unstable , but had kept quiet for fear that if tipping was stopped on the mountainside the Coal Board would close the colliery . Davies added : " But if I had been asked to do so , I would have done it " . His testimony was strongly challenged by the NUM , whose counsel Brian Gibbens QC said that " [ i ] f Mr Davies is to be accepted as truthful and accurate in his recollection ... then he bears what must be one of the largest personal burdens of responsibility for the disaster " . However , Gibbens found it incredible that a man in Davies 's unique local position of authority and influence would not have mentioned his fears to any of the formal bodies — borough council , Coal Board , union or local Labour Party : " If anyone could have exercised influence to overcome an obdurate or ignorant monolith like the Coal Board , [ Davies ] was well placed to do so . " Gibbens submitted that Davies 's testimony should be rejected , on the grounds that he " never appreciated what in fact was the import of his words " . The tribunal concurred , accepting that Davies had not fully understood the gravity of his admission , and adding that had they been convinced otherwise , he could not have escaped censure . The tribunal 's findings , published in July 1967 , placed responsibility for the disaster firmly on the National Coal Board , specifically on the absence of any tipping policy .
= = Later career = =
= = = Rift with Labour = = =
In December 1966 Davies introduced a bill to the House of Commons , to provide more generous compensation to miners suffering from dust @-@ related diseases . The bill was accepted by Harold Wilson 's Labour government , and became law in 1967 . This was one of the few instances during this period in which Davies and the Labour government worked together . Following the Coal Board 's refusal to meet the full cost of removing the remaining Aberfan tips , Wilson proposed that part of the required £ 750 @,@ 000 be met by the disaster fund set up to help the people of Aberfan rebuild their community . Davies was outraged ; he told Wilson : " I have never known a prime minister to behave so disgracefully in all my 34 years in the House of Commons " . Subsequently , Davies opposed the 1969 decision of Merthyr Tydfil Council to award Wilson the freedom of the borough , stating that he would boycott the ceremony .
While many constituents supported Davies in his frequent attacks on government policies , the local Labour Party became increasingly concerned by his activities . By the late 1960s many of them were from a younger generation , with no experience of the shared hardships of the 1920s and 1930s , and with a less parochial mindset . They were angered by what they perceived as Davies 's disloyalty to the Wilson government , elected in 1964 after thirteen years of opposition , and his penchant for following his own agenda . There was also the question of his age ; in 1970 he was supposedly 83 , but rumours that he was older were widespread . By March 1970 the local party discussed replacing Davies as their candidate at the next general election , citing his age rather than policy disagreements . The National Executive of the party sanctioned this action , and at a special meeting on 10 May , which Davies declined to attend , he was formally deselected .
= = = 1970 election = = =
Davies reacted to his deselection by announcing that the people of Merthyr , not the local Labour Party , would decide his future . If physically fit he would contest the next election as an Independent Socialist . Friends advised him not to risk humiliation ; no deselected candidate in recent times had won election against the party machine , and Davies would , they predicted , get no more than 1 @,@ 000 votes . Within a few days of the deselection meeting Wilson called a snap general election , which gave the Merthyr party little time to find their new candidate . They chose Tal Lloyd , an Amalgamated Engineering Union ( AEU ) official , a long @-@ serving councillor and a former mayor , on the moderate wing of the Labour Party , and a strong supporter of Wilson .
With no party organisation and only his own financial resources , Davies 's campaign was initially very low @-@ key . His election literature was a single sheet with the message " You Know Me , I 've Never Let You Down " . As polling day approached , however , it was clear that he was gathering support , particularly among the young — a great irony , Alun Morgan observes , for a man sacked on the grounds of his age . In the final week before polling day on 18 June Davies 's youthful supporters toured the constituency with songs , slogans and cheerleaders in what Griffiths describes as " the most colourful election bandwaggon seen in Merthyr for 40 years " . The official Labour campaign stalled , as Lloyd became embroiled in a row over his role in the failure of the AEU to support an unofficial strike at the local Hoover factory . On polling day , amid scenes of jubilation . Davies was returned with a majority of 7 @,@ 467 over Lloyd . Davies responded to his victory by thanking the voters whom , he said , he had never thought for a moment would let him down . Two weeks later Davies and his principal campaign workers were expelled from the Labour Party for opposing its official candidate . The national leadership refused his request for an official enquiry into the actions of the Merthyr party , in the selection process and during the election itself .
= = = Final years and death = = =
Despite his expulsion , in July 1970 the Labour @-@ controlled Merthyr council offered Davies the freedom of the borough , an honour which he politely declined ; the confidence of the people recently shown him was , he said , enough . He resumed his place in parliament , on the opposition benches as Labour had unexpectedly lost the election to Edward Heath 's Conservatives . Despite some ill @-@ feeling , Davies was not ostracised by his erstwhile colleagues , and was unofficially briefed by the party . He limited his Commons appearances and rarely spoke in debates , generally preferring to serve his constituents from home . On the major national issue of the 1970 – 74 parliament — Heath 's renewed bid for Britain 's membership of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) — Davies voiced uncompromising opposition . In a letter to the South Wales Echo on 9 August 1971 he challenged the government 's claim that " our security has been bound up with our European neighbours for over a thousand years " , pointing out Britain 's involment in numerous European wars , " including the Hitler war when British security meant co @-@ operation with Russia " .
On 22 February 1972 Davies attended parliament to vote against the government on an EEC @-@ related motion . He returned to Merthyr suffering from a chest infection , took to his bed on 24th , and on 25th was transferred to Merthyr General Hospital where he died later that day . His funeral was held at Soar @-@ Ynysgau chapel , Merthyr on 29 February , followed by burial at the Maes @-@ Yr @-@ Arian Cemetery at nearby Mountain Ash . Griffiths records : " It was indicative of [ Davies 's ] breadth of vision that the ceremony attracted socialists , communists , Welsh nationalists , republicans , and many of no political creed at all " . In the April by @-@ election to fill the vacancy caused by Davies 's death the Labour candidate , Ted Rowlands , won the seat with a narrow majority over Plaid Cymru .
= = Tributes = =
According to a BBC correspondent Davies " looked as if he belonged to a different age , in his parliamentary ' uniform ' of Homburg hat , silk scarf , black jacket and pin @-@ striped trousers " . Two close Merthyr friends who had followed him out of the Labour Party described him as " [ a ] tall man who walked tall and never bowed to anyone , but treated everyone alike . " His obituarist in The Times referred to his deceptively mild outward demeanour , " but underneath , fires were forever smouldering " .
Many of the tributes paid to Davies after his death acknowledged his commitment to Merthyr and the mining communities of the Welsh valleys , for whom he was an unfailing advocate . The mayor of Merthyr remarked that he was " an individualist who followed the teaching of ' Love thy neighbour as thyself ' . He was highly respected by all , even by those who didn 't agree with him " . His parliamentary colleague and fellow mineworker Jim Griffiths , who had shared with Davies the leadership of the South Wales miners after the 1926 general strike , thought that had Davies cultivated an ability for compromise , he would have achieved ministerial office . But " he always was a lone figure ... and seemed to like being in isolation . " In April 2013 a heritage plaque in Davies 's honour was unveiled at Penydarren Park , Merthyr Tydfil . On 5 August 2015 , as part of the De Montfort Project celebrating the 750th anniversary of Simon de Montfort 's parliament , Davies 's parliamentary work was recognised in special events at Cardiff and Merthyr Tydfil .
The Revd Islwyn Jones , who conducted Davies 's funeral service , said : " He had a great love for man , he believed with the Psalmist that ' The earth is the Lord 's and the fulness thereof ' , and it was these words , sinking deep into his heart , which made him ' take up the cudgels for the common man ' " .
= = = = Books , journals , newspapers = = = =
" A Candidate from Tumble " . Amman Valley Chronicle . 4 December 1913 @.@ p . 6 . Retrieved 13 April 2015 .
Berger , Stefan ; LaPorte , Norman ( 2010 ) . Friendly Enemies : Britain and the GDR , 1949 – 1990 . New York : Berghahn Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84545 @-@ 697 @-@ 9 .
Campbell , R.J. ( 1907 ) . The New Theology . New York : Macmillan . OCLC 3975604 .
Cohen , Gidon ( 2007 ) . The Failure of a Dream . London : Tauris Academic Studies . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84511 @-@ 300 @-@ 1 .
Davies , Edmund ( 1967 ) . Report of the Tribunal appointed to inquire into the Disaster at Aberfan on October 21st 1966 HL 316 , HC 553 . London : HMSO . OCLC 209323 .
Frost , Denis ( 24 October 1966 ) . " Coal Board Blames Hidden Spring for Aberfan Landslip " . The Guardian. p . 1 . ( subscription required )
Frost , Denis ( 26 October 1966 ) . " Sir Edmund Davies promises ' no whitewash ' at Aberfan inquiry " . The Guardian. p . 3 . ( subscription required )
Griffiths , Robert ( 1983 ) . S. O. Davies : A Socialist Faith . Llandysul , Dyfed : Gomer Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 085088 @-@ 887 @-@ 4 .
Griffiths , Robert ( 2012 ) . Our History : S. O. Davies , " Fellow @-@ travelling " and the Cold War . London : Communist Party of Britain . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 908315 @-@ 20 @-@ 5 .
" Heritage Plaques Unveiled in Merthyr Tydfil to Town Heroes S. O. Davies and Moss Evans " . Daily Post ( North Wales ) . 4 April 2013 . Retrieved 13 April 2016 .
" Merthyr Mourns its Loss " . Merthyr Express . 3 March 1972 @.@ p . 1 .
" Merthyr Polling Today " . The Manchester Guardian . 5 June 1934 @.@ p . 8 . ( subscription required )
" Merthyr Shocks Labour " . The Guardian . 15 April 1972 @.@ p . 5 . ( subscription required )
Mitchell , B.R. ; Boehm , Klaus ( 1966 ) . British Parliamentary Election Results 1950 – 1964 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
Perrott , Roy ( 21 July 1968 ) . " Aberfan Angered by Tips Verdict " . The Guardian. p . 3 . ( subscription required )
= = = = Hansard ( Parliamentary debates ) = = = =
" Clause 4 . — ( Supplementary provisions as to smallholdings and allotments . ) " . Hansard Vol . 296 . 13 December 1934 . Retrieved 3 April 2016 .
" Ministry of Labour " . Hansard Vol . 291 . 21 June 1934 . Retrieved 3 April 2016 .
" Unemployed Marchers Petition " . Hansard Vol . 317 . 11 November 1936 . Retrieved 3 April 2016 .
" Nationalisation of Mines and Minerals Bill " . Hansard Vol . 331 . 4 February 1938 . Retrieved 3 April 2016 .
" The War " . Hansard Vol . 352 . 12 October 1939 . Retrieved 3 April 2016 .
" Welsh Affairs " . Hansard Vol . 510 . 22 January 1953 . Retrieved 6 April 2016 .
" Government of Wales Bill " . Hansard Vol . 537 . 4 March 1955 . Retrieved 6 April 2016 .
" National Insurance Acts 1946 and 1948 ( Amendment ) Bill " . Hansard Vol . 743 . 17 March 1967 . Retrieved 9 April 2016 .
" European Communities " . Hansard Vol . 831 . 22 February 1972 . Retrieved 11 April 2016 .
= = = = Online = = = =
Bolton , Paul ( 27 November 2012 ) . " Education : Historical Statistics " ( PDF ) . House of Commons Library . Retrieved 1 April 2016 .
Byers , Michael ( 2002 ) . " ILP : Independent Labour Party " . Glasgow Digital Library . Retrieved 12 April 2016 .
" Coal Industry Nationalisation Act 1946 " . legislation.gov.uk. The National Archives . Retrieved 9 April 2016 .
Davies , Keith ( 2004 ) . " Davies , Stephen Owen " . The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online edition . Retrieved 1 April 2016 . ( subscription required )
" Davies , Stephen Owen " . Who 's Who 2016 and Who was Who online edition . 2016 . Retrieved 1 April 2016 . ( subscription required )
" Glamorgan Archives Host Talk on Merthyr MP S .O. Davies " . Wales Online . 30 July 2015 . Retrieved 13 April 2016 .
" Heath 's surprise victory " . BBC News . 5 April 2005 . Retrieved 11 April 2016 .
Jones , John Graham ( 2009 ) . " Davies , Stephen Owen " . Dictionary of Welsh Biography online . Retrieved 1 April 2016 .
" Living Heritage : Career as a miners ' agent " . www.parliament.uk. UK Parliament . Retrieved 1 April 2016 .
" Living Heritage : Early attempts at election to Parliament " . www.parliament.uk. UK Parliament . Retrieved 1 April 2016 .
" Living Heritage : Early life in mining communities " . www.parliament.uk. UK Parliament . Retrieved 1 April 2016 .
" Living Heritage : Election and Parliamentary career " . www.parliament.uk. UK Parliament . Retrieved 6 April 2016 .
" Living Heritage : Entry into politics " . www.parliament.uk. UK Parliament . Retrieved 1 April 2016 .
McNeill , Iain ( project director ) ( 1999 ) . " Corporatism and Regulatory Failure : Government Response to the Aberfan Disaster " . Nuffield College , Oxford . Retrieved 10 April 2016 .
Morgan , Alun ( 1978 ) . " The 1970 Parliamentary Election at Merthyr Tydfil " . Welsh Journals Online . National Library of Wales. pp. 61 – 81 . Retrieved 1 April 2016 .
Morgan , Kenneth O. ( 2011 ) . " Hardie , ( James ) Keir " . The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online edition . Retrieved 16 April 2016 . ( subscription required )
Priddy , Sarah ( 27 January 2016 ) . " Maiden Speeches in the House of Commons since 1918 " . House of Commons Library . Retrieved 3 April 2016 .
" Rebel history lesson for new MP " . BBC News . 9 May 2005 . Retrieved 1 April 2016 .
" Report of the Tribunal appointed to inquire into the Disaster at Aberfan on October 21st 1966 " . Durham Miners ' Museum . 17 July 1967 . Retrieved 8 April 2016 .
" Swansea University : S. O. Davies " . Archives Wales . Retrieved 1 April 2016 .
" Wallhead , Richard Collingham " . Who 's Who 2016 and Who was Who Online edition . 2016 . Retrieved 1 April 2016 . ( subscription required )
= Alvin Luedecke =
Alvin Roubal Luedecke ( 10 October 1910 – 9 August 1998 ) was a United States Army Air Forces general during World War II . He commanded the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project after the war . After retiring from the Air Force in 1958 , he was General Manager of the United States Atomic Energy Commission , Deputy Director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and President of Texas A & M University .
= = Early life and career = =
Alvin Roubal Luedecke was born in Eldorado , Texas , on 1 October 1910 , the oldest of eight children of John H. Luedecke , a rancher , and his wife Lizzie . He grew up on the family ranch . He earned a bachelor of science degree in chemical engineering from the Texas A & M in 1932 .
Luedecke was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the field artillery reserve on 28 May 1932 , and was posted to Camp Bullis , Texas , on Reserve Officers ' Training Corps duty . He became a flying cadet on 21 February 1933 . After completing his flight training at the Primary Flying School at Randolph Field , Texas , and the Advanced Flying School Bomber course at March Field , California , and Hamilton Field , California , he received a reserve commission as a second lieutenant in the United States Army Air Corps on 20 February 1935 .
Luedecke was posted to the 11th Bombardment Squadron at Hamilton Field . The next year he became group operations and intelligence officer of the 7th Bombardment Group there . On 1 October 1938 he was commissioned as a regular second lieutenant in the Army Air Corps , and was posted to the 25th Bombardment Squadron at France Field in the Panama Canal Zone .
= = World War II = =
Luedecke was assistant military attaché for Air to Costa Rica , Guatemala , Honduras , El Salvador , Panama and Nicaragua from 23 January 1940 to 19 August 1942 . He then became executive air officer at the field office of the Military Intelligence Services , Quarry Heights in the Panama Canal Zone . There he was promoted to captain on 1 February 1942 , major on 19 November 1942 , and lieutenant colonel on 5 January 1943 . That month he returned to the United States as chief of the Operations Branch , Air Control Group , American Intelligence Command at Miami Beach , Florida . The next month he became chief of the Latin American Branch , American Intelligence Command . For his service in Central America , he was awarded the Colombian Order of Boyaca .
On 12 May 1943 he was appointed deputy commander of the 39th Bombardment Group , based at Davis @-@ Monthan Field , Arizona . He became executive officer of the 16th Bombardment Operations Training Wing there on 27 June , with a promotion to colonel on 22 July 1943 . In August 1943 he was appointed Chief of the Operations and Training Section of the Army Air Forces in the India @-@ Burma Sector of the China @-@ Burma @-@ India Theater . On 18 August 1944 he was promoted to brigadier general at the age of 33 . He became Deputy Chief of Staff in November 1944 . In July 1945 he was made Assistant Chief of Air Staff for Plans , Operations , Training and Intelligence in the China Theater . For his service in China , he was awarded the Chinese Order of the Cloud and Banner . He was also given a British mention in despatches and made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire . He was awarded the Legion of Merit on 8 January 1944 , with an oak leaf cluster on 25 October 1945 , the Bronze Star Medal on 19 November 1945 , and the Commendation Ribbon on 29 May 1946 . He was also awarded an honorary Legum Doctor ( LLD ) degree by Texas A & M in 1946 .
= = Cold War = =
Luedecke returned to the United States in February 1946 , and was assigned to the Joint War Plans Committee in Washington , D.C. , as the senior Army Air Force member . On 22 October 1947 he became Assistant Director of the Joint Strategic Plans Group . On 14 June 1949 he was posted to the Military Liaison Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission as executive military secretary . On 16 March 1951 he became the Air Force Deputy Chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project . After the Chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , Major General Herbert B. Loper , had a heart attack and was forced to retire , Luedecke stepped up to become chief , with the rank of major general .
Starting with Operation Crossroads in 1946 , the practice had been to form a joint task force to plan and conduct each series of nuclear tests in the Pacific . When they became more frequent , the Joint Chiefs created Joint Task Force 7 as a permanent body . Luedecke assumed command of Joint Task Force 7 on 1 April 1957 . On 10 June he was succeeded as Chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project by Rear Admiral Edward N. Parker , but remained commander of Joint Task Force 7 . As such , he was responsible for the planning , preparation and conduct of Operation Hardtack I and Operation Hardtack II . For his services , he was awarded the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal .
= = Later life = =
Luedecke retired from the Air Force in 1958 to replace Kenneth D. Nichols as General Manager of the Atomic Energy Commission . In 1964 Luedecke was appointed Deputy Director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory . Over the next three years he worked on the unmanned Ranger , Mariner , Surveyor and Voyager space exploration programs . For his services to NASA , he was awarded the NASA Exceptional Service Medal in 1968 .
That year he returned to Texas A & M as an associate dean of engineering , engineering research coordinator and associate director of the Texas Engineering Experiment Station . He became acting president for seven months after the death of Earl Rudder in 1970 . He then served as executive vice president for six years . A science building on the campus was named in his honor in 1994 .
He died in San Antonio , Texas , on 8 August 1998 and was buried at Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery in San Antonio . He was survived by his wife Isabelle , son , Alvin R. Luedecke Jr . , daughters Jan Lee Maynard and Miriam Luedecke , and six sisters . His papers are in the Cushing Library at Texas A & M.
= Bill Harry =
Bill Harry ( born 17 September 1938 ) , is the creator of Mersey Beat ; a newspaper of the early 1960s which focused on the Liverpool music scene . Harry had previously started various magazines and newspapers , such as Biped and Premier , while at Liverpool 's Junior School of Art . He later attended the Liverpool College of Art , where his fellow students included John Lennon and Stuart Sutcliffe , who both later performed with the Beatles . He published a magazine , Jazz , in 1958 , and worked as an assistant editor on the University of Liverpool 's charity magazine , Pantosphinx .
Harry met his wife @-@ to @-@ be , Virginia Sowry , at the Jacaranda club — managed by Allan Williams , the first manager of the Beatles — and she later agreed to help him start a music newspaper . After borrowing £ 50 , Harry released the first issue of Mersey Beat on 6 July 1961 , with the first 5 @,@ 000 copies selling out within a short time . The newspaper was published every two weeks , covering the music scenes in Liverpool , Wirral , Birkenhead , New Brighton , Crosby and Southport , as well as Warrington , Widnes and Runcorn . He edited the paper in a small attic office above a wine merchant 's shop at 81a Renshaw Street , Liverpool .
Harry arranged for the future Beatles ' manager , Brian Epstein , to see them perform a lunchtime concert at the Cavern Club on 9 November 1961 . Epstein subsequently asked Harry to create a national music paper , the Music Echo , but after disagreements with Epstein about editorial control , he decided to become a P.R. agent ; working for many solo artistes and groups , including Pink Floyd , Jethro Tull , Procol Harum , David Bowie , Led Zeppelin and the Beach Boys , as well as many others .
= = Early years = =
Harry was born in Smithdown Road Hospital ( now demolished ) , in Liverpool , Lancashire , on 17 September 1938 . He came from a poor Liverpudlian background and was brought up in a rough neighbourhood near Liverpool 's dockyards . His father ( John Jelicoe Harry ) , was killed during the war on the SS Kyleglen British Steam Merchant ship , which was torpedoed in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean by a German U @-@ boat . None of the crew survived , and Harry 's father died on 14 December 1940 , aged 25 . Harry attended the Catholic St. Vincent 's Institute , but had to get used to the priests dispensing corporal punishment on a regular basis . Because of his small stature , Harry was beaten by his classmates , being once kicked in the appendix and " left for dead " . His mother had no option but to transfer him elsewhere .
Harry became interested in science fiction and read comics by candlelight ( as the house had no electricity ) , eventually joining the Liverpool Science Fiction Society . At the age of 13 , he produced his own science fiction fanzine , Biped , using a Gestetner machine to print 60 copies . His pen friend at the time was Michael Moorcock ; the writer of science fiction and fantasy novels . After winning a scholarship to the Junior School of Art in Gambier Terrace , Liverpool , Harry started his first school newspaper , Premier .
= = = Liverpool College of Art = = =
At the age of 16 , Harry obtained a place at Liverpool 's College of Art at 68 Hope Street . After studying typography and page layouts , he borrowed the college 's duplicating machine and published a newspaper called Jazz in 1958 , which reported concerts at the Liverpool Jazz Society club , the Temple Jazz Club and the Cavern Club . He also worked as assistant editor on University of Liverpool 's charity magazine , Pantosphinx , and on a music newsletter for Frank Hessy 's musical instruments store called Frank Comments . The title was suggested by the owner , Frank Hesselberg , as a play on his own comments , but was abandoned after a few issues .
Harry received a National Diploma in design while at the Liverpool Art College and became the first student in the new Graphic Design course , eventually winning a Senior City Art Scholarship . Harry maintained that students at art college should be bohemian in their thoughts and actions and not like the " dilettantes and dabblers " , whom Harry disapproved of for wearing duffle coats and turtle neck sweaters . One of the college 's artists and teachers , Arthur Ballard , later stated that Harry and Sutcliffe both overshadowed Lennon at college , explaining that they were both " extremely well educated , and very eager for information " . Harry organised a students ' film society , where he showed Orphee , by Jean Cocteau and Salvador Dalí , and Luis Buñuel 's , L 'Age d 'Or .
Meeting Lennon had been a shock for Harry , as Lennon often dressed like a Teddy boy , and was a disruptive influence at the college . Despite his misgivings about Lennon , Harry introduced him to Sutcliffe , who was a small , softly @-@ spoken and shy student , who had painted a portrait of Harry . The three often spent time together at the Ye Cracke pub in Rice Street , or on the top floor of the Jacaranda club ( run by Williams , who later managed the Beatles ) . Harry met his then 16 @-@ year @-@ old future wife @-@ to @-@ be , Virginia Sowry , at the club . Harry , Lennon , Sutcliffe and Rod Murray saw the poet Royston Ellis at Liverpool University in June 1960 . Having been disappointed with Ellis ' performance , Harry proposed the idea that they should call the assembled quartet of friends the Dissenters , and make Liverpool famous : Sutcliffe and Murray with their paintings , Harry 's writing and Lennon 's music .
= = = Music and journalism = = =
A fellow student , John Ashcroft , introduced Harry to rock ' n ' roll records , and the members of Rory Storm & the Hurricanes and Cass & the Cassanovas . Harry carried notebooks with him , collecting information about the local groups , once writing to the Daily Mail : " Liverpool is like New Orleans at the turn of the century , but with rock ' n ' roll instead of jazz " . He also wrote to the Liverpool Echo about the emerging Liverpool music scene , but neither paper was interested in stories about music that was popular with teenagers . The classified ads in the Liverpool Echo for local groups were always under the heading of Jazz , but the paper refused to change this policy , despite pleas from the promoters and groups who actually paid for them . Harry planned to produce a jazz newspaper called Storyville / 52nd Street and contacted Sam Leach , the owner of a club called Storyville . Leach promised to fund the newspaper , but failed to turn up for three meetings with Harry , leaving him no other option but to find another investor . Harry thought starting a fortnightly newspaper covering Liverpool 's rock ' n ' roll music scene would be more successful , and would differ from national music newspapers such as the New Musical Express and the Melody Maker , which only wrote articles about current chart hits and artists .
= = Mersey Beat = =
Photographer Dick Matthews , a friend from the Jacaranda , heard about Harry 's problems with Leach and introduced Harry to a local civil servant , Jim Anderson , who lent Harry £ 50 . This enabled Harry to found Mersey Beat in 1961 . Harry decided to publish the newspaper every two weeks , covering the music scene in Liverpool , Wirral , Birkenhead , New Brighton , Crosby and Southport , as well as Warrington , Widnes and Runcorn . He thought up the name Mersey Beat by thinking about a policeman 's ' beat ' ( the area of duty ) , which had nothing to do with a musical beat . Virginia gave up her accountancy / comptometer operator job at Woolworth 's and worked full @-@ time for £ 2 @.@ 10 / - a week ( also contributing a Mersey Roundabout article ) , while Harry lived on his Senior City Art Scholarship funding . Matthews photographed groups , while Anderson found a small attic office for £ 5 a week above David Land 's wine merchant 's shop at 81a Renshaw Street , Liverpool . Anderson and Matthews helped with the move to the new office , with Anderson providing a desk , chair and an Olivetti typewriter .
Harry asked printer James E. James ( who had printed Frank Comments ) , if he could borrow the printing blocks he used for photos , as they were too expensive for the fledgling company at the time . Harry also borrowed blocks from the Widnes Weekly News , Pantosphinx and local cinemas , but contributed to charities by printing free charity advertisements at the side of the front cover page . After taking Virginia home to Bowring Park in the evening , Harry would often return to the office and work throughout the night , pausing only to go to the Pier Head to buy a cup of tea and a hot pie at four in the morning . Virginia 's parents helped the paper during this time , as they paid for classified ads , and arranged for Harry and his future wife 's first photographs together .
= = = The first issue = = =
Splitting the price of the newspaper ( three pence ) , with retailers , Harry arranged for three major wholesalers , W.H. Smith , Blackburn 's and Conlan 's , to sell Mersey Beat . Harry personally delivered copies to more than 20 newsagents as well as to local venues and musical instrument and record stores , such as Cramer & Lea , Rushworth & Draper and Cranes . The paper released its first edition on 6 July 1961 , selling out all 5 @,@ 000 copies . The paper 's circulation increased rapidly as Harry started featuring stories about groups in Manchester , Birmingham , Sheffield and Newcastle , with circulation growing to 75 @,@ 000 . As the newspaper 's sales rose , it became known as the " Teenagers Bible " . Local groups were soon being called " beat groups " , and venues started advertising concerts as " Beat Sessions " . With circulation rising , the paper 's offices were moved downstairs to a larger two @-@ roomed office . The Cavern Club 's doorman , Pat ( Paddy ) Delaney , was employed to deliver copies , a secretary , Pat Finn , was hired , as well as Raymond Caine to promote advertising space ,
Harry later said : " The newspapers , television , theatres and radio were all run by people of a different generation who had no idea of what youngsters wanted . For decades they had manipulated and controlled them . Suddenly , there was an awareness of being young , and young people wanted their own styles and their own music , just at the time they were beginning to earn money , which gave them the spending power . Mersey Beat was their voice , it was a paper for them , crammed with photos and information about their own groups , which is why it also began to appeal to youngsters throughout Britain as its coverage extended to other areas . " Because of the employment situation in Liverpool at the time , The Daily Worker newspaper denounced the enthusiasm of younger people in Liverpool by saying " The Mersey Sound is the sound of 30 @,@ 000 people on the dole . "
= = = Liverpool groups = = =
Between 1958 and 1964 , the Merseyside area had about 500 different groups , which were constantly forming and breaking up , with an average of about 350 groups playing concerts on a regular basis . In 1961 , Harry and the Cavern Club 's DJ , Bob Wooler , compiled a list of groups that they had personally heard of , which had almost 300 names . In 1962 , Mersey Beat held a poll to find out who was the most popular Merseyside group . When the votes were counted , Rory Storm & the Hurricanes were in first place , but after looking through the postal votes again , Harry noticed that forty votes were all written in green ink , in the same handwriting , and from the same area of Liverpool , so the dubious votes were declared void . This was suspected to have been Storm himself , but Harry had no idea that the Beatles had done exactly the same thing .
The results were announced on 4 January 1962 , with the Beatles in first place . The results were printed in issue 13 of Mersey Beat on 4 January 1962 , with the front page announcing , " Beatles Top Poll ! " Such was the popularity of the poll , Rushworth 's music store manager , Bob Hobbs , presented Lennon and George Harrison with new guitars . At the time , many groups in Liverpool complained to Harry that his newspaper should be called Mersey Beatles , as he featured them so often .
Harry asked a local singer , Priscilla White , to contribute a fashion column after writing an article called " Swinging Cilla " , in which he wrote , " Cilla Black is a Liverpool girl who is starting out on the road to fame . " Harry 's mistake came about because he could not remember her surname ( which he knew was a colour ) , but White decided to keep it as a stage name . Two years later Harry arranged for her to sing for Epstein at the Blue Angel club , leading to a management contract .
In late 1962 , Harry wrote an article called " Take a look up North " , asking for A & R men from London to travel up to Liverpool and see what was really happening with the music scene , but not one record company sent an A & R representative to Liverpool . Journalist Nancy Spain once wrote an article for the News of the World newspaper , stating that " Bill and Virginia Harry were Mr. & Mrs. Mersey Beat " , and when Bob Dylan visited Liverpool to appear at the Odeon , he specifically asked for Harry to act as his guide to the city .
= = = The Beatles and Brian Epstein = = =
Harry often heard Lennon , McCartney and Harrison rehearsing or playing in the Art College canteen in the basement , but after Sutcliffe joined the Quarrymen , Harry complained that Sutcliffe should be concentrating on art and not music , as he thought he was a competent , but not brilliant bassist . As Harry and Sutcliffe were members of the Liverpool College of Art 's Student Union committee , they put forward the idea that the college should buy its own P.A. system for college dances , which the Quarrymen often played at , but the equipment would later be appropriated by the group and taken to Hamburg . As late as 7 March 1962 , the Students ' Union sent Pete Mackey to ask Lennon to either return the equipment or pay for it , but Lennon told him it had been sold in Hamburg . Harry asked Lennon to write a short biography of the Beatles for the first issue of Mersey Beat , which Harry titled , " Being a Short Diversion on the Dubious Origins of Beatles , Translated From the [ sic ] John Lennon " :
Lennon was very grateful that Harry printed his ' Dubious Origins ' piece without editing it and later gave Harry a large collection of drawings , poems and stories ( approximately 250 ) , telling Harry he was free to publish whatever he liked ( under the pseudonym of " Beatcomber " , which was appropriated from a Daily Express column , Beachcomber ) .
Harry convinced Epstein to sell 12 copies of the first Mersey Beat newspaper at his North End Music Stores ( NEMS ) , which sold out in one day , resulting in Epstein having to order more copies . After ordering and selling 144 copies of the second issue , Epstein invited Harry to his office for a glass of sherry , proposing the idea that he ( Epstein ) , should write a record review column . It was published in the third issue on 3 August 1961 , entitled " Stop the World — And Listen To Everything in It : Brian Epstein of NEMS " . Epstein saw numerous posters around Liverpool advertising concerts by the Beatles as well as in the second issue of Mersey Beat , which had " Beatles sign Recording Contract ! " on the front cover , as the Beatles had recorded the " My Bonnie " single with Tony Sheridan in Germany . Some months after its release , Epstein supposedly ( as stated in his biography ) , asked his assistant Alistair Taylor about the single , because a customer , one Raymond Jones , had asked Epstein for the single on 28 October 1961 , which made Epstein curious about the group . Harry and McCartney repudiated this story , as Harry had been talking to Epstein about the Beatles for a long time ( being the group he promoted the most in Mersey Beat ) , and by McCartney saying , " Brian [ Epstein ] knew perfectly well who the Beatles were , they were on the front page of the second issue of Mersey Beat . "
The Beatles were due to perform a lunchtime concert at the Cavern Club on 9 November 1961 , not far from Epstein 's NEMS store . Epstein asked Harry to arrange for him and Taylor to watch the Beatles perform without queuing at the door . Harry phoned the owner , Ray McFall , who said he would inform the doorman on the day , Delaney , to let Epstein in . Epstein and Taylor bypassed the line of fans at the door and heard a welcome message announced over the club 's public @-@ address system by Wooler : " We have someone rather famous in the audience today , Mr. Brian Epstein , the owner of NEMS ... "
Lennon had once given Harry a collection of photos taken in Hamburg , showing Lennon standing on the Reeperbahn reading a newspaper and wearing nothing but his underpants , performing on stage with a toilet seat around his neck , and one of McCartney sitting on a toilet . After Epstein became the Beatles ' manager , Lennon rushed into Harry 's office and asked for them back , saying , " Brian [ Epstein ] insists I 've got to get them back — the pictures , everything you 've got . I must take it all with me now . " When Epstein finally secured a recording contract with EMI , he sent Harry a telegram from London to the Mersey Beat office to announce the news .
= = = The last issues and London = = =
On 13 September 1964 , Epstein approached Harry to create a national music paper , so Harry coined the name Music Echo , and gradually merged Mersey Beat into it . Epstein had promised Harry full editorial control , but then hired a female press officer in London to write a fashion column and a D.J. to write a gossip column , without informing Harry of his intentions , leaving Harry with no other option but to resign . The paper subsequently ran into financial problems , and Epstein had to merge it with another paper , becoming the Disc & Music Echo . When Harry and his wife moved to London in 1966 , he was already contributing a column for the magazine Weekend and also for the teen magazines Marilyn and Valentine . He then became the feature writer , news editor and columnist for Record Mirror ( using various pseudonyms such as ' Brenda Tarry ' and ' David Berglas ' ) , and wrote features for Music Now ( under the name of Nick Blaine ) for Record Retailer .
= = P.R. and present = =
Harry and his wife moved to London in 1966 and was engaged as a public relations ( P.R. ) for the Kinks and the Hollies . During the next 18 years he was the P.R. to many artists , including Pink Floyd , Jethro Tull , Procol Harum , David Bowie , Led Zeppelin , the Beach Boys , Clouds , Ten Years After , Free , Mott the Hoople , the Pretty Things , Christine Perfect , Supertramp , Hot Chocolate , Suzi Quatro and Kim Wilde . During his time working as a press officer , Harry started a monthly magazine called Tracks , which reported the latest album releases , and another magazine , Idols : 20th Century Legends , which ran for 37 issues , from 1988 to 1991 . Harry also compiled a 34 @-@ track compilation , Mersey Beat , for Parlophone records , which was released on 31 October 1983 .
Harry was presented with a gold award for a ' Lifetime Achievement in Music ' by the British Academy of Songwriters , Composers and Authors ( BASCA ) in 1994 , has taken part in over 350 international television / radio shows , and was hired by Rediffusion to be programme assistant for the documentary Beat City . He was a programme assistant for the BBC 's Everyman documentary about Lennon : A Day in the Life , and The Story of Mersey Beat . The British Council asked him to represent them in Hong Kong , promoting the Beatles . Mersey Beat returned to publication in August 2009 with a 24 @-@ page special issue to celebrate the Liverpool International Beatle Week . He was an Associate Producer of the film The City That Rocked the World . Harry and Virginia have a son , Sean Harry , who is an adult movie actor , director , and producer .
= = Books written or co @-@ written by Bill Harry = =
Harry once commented on his numerous books : " The hundreds of interviews I have conducted over the past 40 years have been utilised . I have always been a hoarder of clippings in addition to collecting magazines , fanzines , newspapers and books . I 'll never tire of it . "
Arrows : The Official Story , Everest Books ( 1976 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 903925 @-@ 61 @-@ 7
Mersey Beat : The Beginnings of the Beatles , Omnibus Press ( 1978 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 86001 @-@ 415 @-@ 7
The Beatles Who 's Who , Littlehampton Book Services Ltd . ( 1982 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 906053 @-@ 38 @-@ 6
Beatle @-@ mania : The History of the Beatles on Film , Virgin Books ( 1984 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 86369 @-@ 041 @-@ 9
Paperback Writers , Virgin Books ( 1984 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 86369 @-@ 021 @-@ 1
The Book of Lennon , John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd ( 1984 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 906053 @-@ 74 @-@ 4
Paperback writers Avon ( 1985 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 380 @-@ 89558 @-@ 8
Beatles : Beatlemania the History of the Beatles on Film Avon ( 1985 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 380 @-@ 89557 @-@ 1
Ask Me Why , Littlehampton Book Services Ltd . ( 1985 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7137 @-@ 1635 @-@ 1
Beatles For Sale , Virgin Books ( 1985 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 86369 @-@ 097 @-@ 6
The Book of Beatle Lists , Javelin Books ( 1985 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7137 @-@ 1521 @-@ 7
The McCartney File , Virgin Books ( 1986 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 86369 @-@ 157 @-@ 7
Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , Atalanta Press ( 1987 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 870049 @-@ 08 @-@ 5
The Ultimate Beatles Encyclopedia , Hyperion Books ( 1994 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7868 @-@ 8071 @-@ 3
Jan Olofsson : My ' 60s , ( Harry & Olofsson ) Taschen GmbH ( 1994 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 8228 @-@ 8915 @-@ 2
The Encyclopedia of Beatles ' People , Cassell Illustrated ( 1997 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7137 @-@ 2606 @-@ 0
The Best Years of the Beatles ( Harry & Pete Best ) Headline Book Publishing ( 1997 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7472 @-@ 7762 @-@ 0
Whatever Happened To ... : The Ultimate Pop and Rock Where Are They Now ( Harry & Alan Clayson ) Cassell Illustrated ( 1999 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7137 @-@ 2675 @-@ 6
The Beatles Encyclopedia : Revised and Updated , Virgin Books ( 2000 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7535 @-@ 0481 @-@ 9
The John Lennon Encyclopedia , Virgin Books ( 2001 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7535 @-@ 3921 @-@ 7
The Paul McCartney Encyclopedia , Virgin Books ( 2002 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7535 @-@ 0716 @-@ 2
The George Harrison Encyclopedia , Virgin Books ( 2003 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7535 @-@ 0822 @-@ 0
The Ringo Starr Encyclopedia , Virgin Books ( 2004 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7535 @-@ 0843 @-@ 5
The British Invasion : How the Beatles and Other UK Bands Conquered America , Chrome Dreams ( 2004 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84240 @-@ 247 @-@ 4
Bigger Than the Beatles , Trinity Mirror ( 2009 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 906802 @-@ 04 @-@ 2
Lennon 's Liverpool , Trinity Mirror ( 2010 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 906802 @-@ 51 @-@ 6
The Sixties ( Harry & Robert Orbach ) Endeavour London Ltd . ( 2011 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 873913 @-@ 78 @-@ 9
Love Me Do ; Miniver Press . ( 2012 ) ASIN : B00993EROI
= 1995 Pacific Grand Prix =
The 1995 Pacific Grand Prix ( formally the II Pacific Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 22 October 1995 at the TI Circuit , Aida , Japan . It was the fifteenth round of the 1995 Formula One season . The 83 @-@ lap race was won by Michael Schumacher for the Benetton team after starting from third position . David Coulthard , who started the Grand Prix from pole position , finished second in a Williams car , with Damon Hill third in the other Williams . Schumacher 's win confirmed him as 1995 Drivers ' Champion , as Hill could not pass Schumacher 's points total with only two races remaining . This was also the last race for Jean @-@ Christophe Boullion .
Hill started the race alongside Coulthard on the front row , amidst pressure from the British media for not being " forceful " enough in battles . Schumacher attempted to drive around the outside of Hill at the first corner , but Hill held Schumacher off as Jean Alesi , driving for Ferrari , got past both on the inside line to take second position . As a result , Hill dropped down to third and Schumacher dropped down to fifth behind Gerhard Berger . Schumacher managed to get past Alesi and Hill during the first of three pit stops . This allowed him , on a new set of slick tyres , to close on Coulthard who was on a two @-@ stop strategy . Schumacher opened up a gap of 21 seconds by lapping two seconds faster per lap than Coulthard , so that when his third stop came , he still led the race .
= = Report
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, with Alesi in seventh place ( split from Schumacher by Irvine ) and Hill in tenth place ( separated from Alesi by Frentzen and Blundell ) . With Alesi and Hill held up by the slower runners on two @-@ stop strategies in front , Schumacher pulled away and closed in on Coulthard . Blundell pitted on the next lap , and Hill passed Frentzen on lap 22 . On the following lap , Alesi passed Irvine at the hairpin ; Hill tried to follow Alesi through but his front wing hit the rear of Irvine 's car , causing minor damage . Irvine pitted at the end of lap 25 , allowing Hill to resume his chase of Alesi unimpeded . Like his teammate , Coulthard was scheduled to make three stops , but his pit strategy was changed to make only two by staying out six laps longer than originally scheduled , and then taking onboard more fuel than first planned at his first stop on lap 24 . As a result of a lighter fuel load for Schumacher because of the different strategies , Schumacher began to consistently lap faster than the Scotsman .
Schumacher made his second stop on lap 38 , and came out of the pits just in front of third @-@ placed Alesi , but over twenty seconds behind Coulthard . Schumacher immediately began setting fastest laps and began to close in on Coulthard once more . Hill managed to move up to third , in front of Alesi , during their second pit stops on laps 38 and 39 respectively . The Ferrari of Alesi then dropped further back as teammate Berger passed him at the hairpin for fourth position on lap 45 . Coulthard made his second and final stop for new tyres on lap 49 ; exiting 14 seconds behind Schumacher , who continued to extend the margin between the two . Coulthard was unable to capitalise on the performance advantage offered by the new tyres after the stop due to lapped traffic getting in his way . The German made his third and final pit stop on lap 60 with a 21 second advantage , exiting in front of Coulthard to lead the race . Schumacher opened the gap to 15 seconds , and won the race after 83 laps to secure his eighth victory of the season in a time of 1 : 48 : 49.972s. Schumacher was crowned the 1995 Drivers ' Champion as Hill could not catch his points total with two races remaining . He also became the youngest double Drivers ' Champion in Formula One history . Coulthard finished second in his Williams , 14 seconds behind Schumacher , with teammate Hill third . The Ferraris of Berger and Alesi were fourth and fifth respectively , but off the pace as Schumacher lapped them both in the closing stages . Berger suffered from a misfiring engine throughout the race . Herbert took the final point in sixth place for Benetton , ahead of Frentzen , Panis and Blundell . Throughout the race , Barrichello and Magnussen engaged in a battle for tenth and eleventh positions , with Magnussen keeping Barrichello behind until lap 37 when the Brazilian managed to overtake him into the hairpin . Magnussen finished in tenth place , but Barrichello subsequently retired on lap 67 with an engine problem . Magnussen 's first race was described as " highly accomplished " by the year 's Autocourse annual . After his impressive qualifying performance , Irvine was heading for eighth place , but made an unscheduled pit stop on lap 72 and dropped to eleventh . The attrition rate was low , with 17 of the 24 starters finishing the race .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
After the race , it was revealed that Schumacher endured a downshift problem after his final stop , and that he was lucky to complete the final lap as warning lights had activated on his steering wheel . Schumacher praised his pitcrew for doing a " perfect " first stop which helped him move in front of Alesi and Hill . He said he " never saw anything like this team and its ability to come up with strategies " and that they never made " one mistake this season " . Off @-@ camera while going through parc fermé , Schumacher and Hill renewed their argument from the Belgian Grand Prix over what degree of blocking was acceptable after their first corner incident . Schumacher told Hill that he was unhappy with Hill 's driving throughout the race , most notably during Schumacher 's overtaking attempts on lap one and lap eleven where Schumacher felt Hill had " brake tested " him . Hill refuted Schumacher 's claims , saying :
Michael wasn 't happy with what I did a couple of times in the race and he has told me that he is unhappy with my driving . I find that extraordinary . The situation now is that we are completely free to drive as we like as long as it is not deliberately dangerous , So I drove in that style and he didn 't like it . He should have no complaints ... somehow or other , when we got into the braking area at the end of the back straight I did something wrong . But I can 't see what I did wrong . It seems that there is one rule for him and another for everybody else at times . I just think that either you agree to that , and there should be no complaints , or there are rules and you should stick to them . I think that I am a better , stronger driver this year than I was last year and can build on that for next year . Clearly Michael has an advantage over everyone and if I want to win , then I am going to have to overhaul him .
Despite Hill 's comments , he endured continued criticism by the British media after the poor performance ; speculation brewed that Williams were going to replace him with Frentzen for the 1996 season . Despite the rumours , Williams team boss Frank Williams gave Hill " an unequivocal vote of confidence " heading into the next race , the Japanese Grand Prix . Schumacher subsequently changed his opinion of the incident after watching video footage prior to the Japanese race and no longer blamed Hill for it .
During an interview Coulthard , who finished second , revealed that it was his decision to change to a two @-@ stop strategy from a three @-@ stop strategy , telling the Williams pitcrew to delay his stop . Afterwards , he said that in hindsight he would have stayed on a three @-@ stop strategy , and wished he could " blame someone else for this decision , but I can 't " . The 1995 race was the last held at the Aida circuit , and the last Formula One race to date held under the Pacific Grand Prix banner , with the manager of the TI Circuit unable to keep the venue financially profitable .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates who still has a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings
= Laura Bush =
Laura Lane Welch Bush ( born November 4 , 1946 ) is the wife of the 43rd President of the United States , George W. Bush , and was the First Lady from 2001 to 2009 .
Bush graduated from Southern Methodist University in 1968 with a Bachelor 's Degree in Education , and took a job as a second grade teacher . After attaining her Master 's Degree in Library Science at the University of Texas at Austin , she was employed as a librarian . Bush is an avid proponent of the Dewey Decimal System .
Bush met her future husband , George W. Bush , in 1977 , and they were married later that year . The couple had twin daughters in 1981 . Bush 's political involvement began during her marriage . She campaigned with her husband during his unsuccessful 1978 run for the United States Congress , and later for his successful Texas gubernatorial campaign .
As First Lady of Texas , Bush implemented many initiatives focused on health , education , and literacy . In 1999 , she aided her husband in campaigning for the presidency in a number of ways , most notably delivering a keynote address at the 2000 Republican National Convention , which gained her national attention . She became First Lady after her husband defeated Democrat Al Gore in the 2000 U.S. Presidential Election .
Polled by The Gallup Organization as one of the most popular First Ladies , Bush was involved in national and global concerns during her tenure . She continued to advance her trademark interests of education and literacy by establishing the semi @-@ annual National Book Festival in 2001 , and encouraged education on a worldwide scale . She also advanced women 's causes through The Heart Truth and Susan G. Komen for the Cure organizations . She represented the United States during her foreign trips , which tended to focus on HIV / AIDS and malaria awareness .
Bush 's memoir , Spoken from the Heart , was published in 2010 .
= = Early life and career = =
Laura Lane Welch was born on November 4 , 1946 in Midland , Texas , the only child of Harold Welch ( 1912 – 1995 ) and Jenna Louise Hawkins Welch ( born 1919 ) .
Bush is of English , French , and Swiss ancestry . Her father was a home builder and later successful real estate developer , while her mother worked as the bookkeeper for her father 's business . Early on , her parents encouraged her to read , leading to what would become her love of reading . She said , " I learned [ how important reading is ] at home from my mother . When I was a little girl , my mother would read stories to me . I have loved books and going to the library ever since . In the summer , I liked to spend afternoons reading in the library . I enjoyed the Little House on the Prairie and Little Women books , and many others ... Reading gives you enjoyment throughout your life . " Bush has also credited her second grade teacher , Charlene Gnagy , for inspiring her interest in education .
On the night of November 6 , 1963 , Laura Welch ran a stop sign and struck another car , resulting in the death of its driver . The victim was her close friend and classmate Michael Dutton Douglas . By some accounts , Douglas had been Welch 's boyfriend at one time . Welch and her passenger , both 17 , were treated for minor injuries . According to the accident report released by the city of Midland in 2000 , in response to an open @-@ records request , she was not charged in the incident . Bush 's spokesman said , " It was a very tragic accident that deeply affected the families and was very painful for all involved , including the community at large . " In her book Spoken from the Heart , she says that the accident caused her to lose her faith " for many , many years " .
She attended James Bowie Elementary School , San Jacinto Junior High School , and Robert E. Lee High School in Midland . She graduated from Lee in 1964 and went on to attend Southern Methodist University in Dallas where she was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta . She graduated in 1968 with a Bachelor of Science degree in Education .
After graduating from SMU , she began her career as a second grade school teacher at Longfellow Elementary School in the Dallas Independent School District . She then taught for three years at John F. Kennedy Elementary School , a Houston Independent School District school in Houston , until 1972 .
In 1973 , Welch attained a Master of Science degree in Library Science from the University of Texas at Austin . She was soon employed as a librarian at the Kashmere Gardens Branch at the Houston Public Library . The following year , she moved back to Austin and took another job as a librarian in the Austin Independent School District school Dawson Elementary until 1977 . She reflected on her employment experiences to a group of children in 2003 , saying , " I worked as a teacher and librarian and I learned how important reading is in school and in life . "
= = Marriage and family = =
She met George W. Bush in July 1977 when mutual friends Joe and Jan O 'Neill invited her and Bush to a backyard barbecue at their home . He proposed to her at the end of September and they were married on November 5 of that year at the First United Methodist Church in Midland , the same church in which she had been baptized . Laura bought a tan , two @-@ toned dress off the rack for the wedding . The couple honeymooned in Cozumel , Mexico . George W. Bush detailed his choice to marry Laura as the " best decision of my life . " Laura , an only child , said she gained " brothers and sisters and wonderful in @-@ laws " who all accepted her after she wed George W. Bush .
The year after their marriage , the couple began campaigning for George W. Bush 's 1978 Congressional candidacy . According to George Bush , when he asked her to marry him , she had said , " Yes . But only if you promise me that I 'll never have to make a campaign speech . " She soon relented , and gave her first stump speech for him in 1978 on the courthouse steps in Muleshoe , Texas . After narrowly winning the primary , he lost the general election .
Bush attended the inauguration of father @-@ in @-@ law George H. W. Bush as Vice President in January 1981 , after he and his running mate Ronald Reagan won the 1980 presidential election . She attributed her father @-@ in @-@ law 's electing to the vice presidency with giving her and her husband national exposure .
The Bushes had tried to conceive for three years , but pregnancy did not happen easily . On November 25 , 1981 , Laura Bush gave birth to fraternal twin daughters , Barbara and Jenna . The twins were born five weeks early by an emergency Caesarean section , as Laura had developed life @-@ threatening pre @-@ eclampsia ( toxemia ) . The twins graduated from high school in 2000 and attended Yale University and the University of Texas at Austin , respectively , in 2004 . To date , Bush is the only First Lady to have given birth to twins .
George W. Bush credited his wife with his decision to stop drinking in 1986 . She reflected that she thought her husband " was drinking too much " amid her knowing it was not his desired way of living . Approaching him , she related that her father had been alcoholic and it was not a pattern she wished to repeat in their family . She is also credited with having a stabilizing effect on his private life . According to People magazine reporter Jane Simms Podesta , " She is the steel in his back . She is a civilizing influence on him . I think she built him , in many ways , into the person he is today . "
Bush traveled to Kuwait in April 1993 , accompanying her father @-@ in @-@ law and mother @-@ in @-@ law as well as brothers @-@ in @-@ law Jeb and Marvin Bush after former President Bush was invited to return to the Middle East for the first time since his presidency .
Several times a year , Bush and her husband travel to their sprawling family estate , the Bush compound , better known as Walker 's Point . Located in Kennebunkport , Maine , the compound is where Bush family gatherings have been held for nearly 100 years .
= = First Lady of Texas = =
Bush became the First Lady of Texas when her husband was elected as the Governor of Texas and served as first lady of that state from January 17 , 1995 , to December 21 , 2000 . When asked about her interest in politics , she responded , " It doesn 't drive me . "
Though during her years in the Governor 's Mansion , she did not hold a single formal event , Laura worked for women 's and children 's causes including health , education , and literacy . She implemented four major initiatives : Take Time For Kids , an awareness campaign to educate parents and caregivers on parenting ; family literacy , through cooperation with the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy , she urged Texas communities to establish family literacy programs ; Reach Out and Read , a pediatric reading program ; and Ready to Read , an early childhood educational program .
She raised money for public libraries through her establishment of the Texas Book Festival , and established the First Lady 's Family Literacy Initiative , which encouraged families to read together . Bush further established " Rainbow Rooms " across the state , in an effort to provide emergency services for neglected or abused children . Through this , she promoted the Adopt @-@ a @-@ Caseworker Program to provide support for Child Protective Services . She used her position to advocate Alzheimer 's disease and breast cancer awareness as well .
Her husband announced his campaign for President of the United States in mid @-@ 1999 , something that she agreed to . She did say , however , that she had never dreamed that he would run for office . The Bush campaign worked to assure voters that as First Lady , she would not seek to emulate then @-@ First Lady Hillary Clinton . When asked who she would be like out of the past First Ladies , she insisted it would be herself . In July , she delivered a keynote address to the delegates at the 2000 Republican National Convention , which put her on the national stage . In December 2000 , her husband resigned as Governor of Texas to prepare for his inauguration as President of the United States in January 2001 .
= = First Lady of the United States = =
As First Lady , Bush was involved in issues of concern to children and women , both nationally and internationally . Her major initiatives included education and women 's health .
= = = Education and children = = =
Early into the administration , Bush made it known that she would focus much of her attention on education . This included recruiting highly qualified teachers to ensure that young children would be taught well . She also focused on early child development . In 2001 , to promote reading and education , she partnered with the Library of Congress to launch the annual National Book Festival . In January 2002 , Bush testified before the Senate Committee on Education , asking for higher teachers ' salaries and better training for Head Start programs . She is also credited with creating a national initiative called " Ready to Read , Ready to Learn " , which promotes reading at a young age . To promote American patriotic heritage in schools , she helped launch the National Anthem Project . In 2006 , Bush and media executives worked together to provide a $ 500 @,@ 000 grant for school libraries along the Gulf Coast which had been devastated by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita .
Immediately following the September 11 , 2001 attacks , Bush spoke regarding America 's children :
[ W ] e need to reassure our children that they are safe in their homes and schools . We need to reassure them that many people love them and care for them , and that while there are some bad people in the world , there are many more good people .
The following day , she composed open letters to America 's families , focusing on elementary and middle school students , which she distributed through state education officials . She took an interest in mitigating the emotional effects of the attacks on children , particularly the disturbing images repeatedly replayed on television . On the one @-@ year anniversary , she encouraged parents to instead read to their children , and perhaps light a candle in memoriam , saying , " Don 't let your children see the images , especially on September 11 , when you know it 'll probably be on television again and again – the plane hitting the building or the buildings falling . "
Later in her tenure , she was honored by the United Nations , as the body named her honorary ambassador for the United Nations ' Decade of Literacy . In this position , she announced that she would host a Conference on Global Literacy . The conference , held in September 2006 , encouraged a constant effort to promote literacy and highlighted many successful literacy programs . She coordinated this as a result of her many trips abroad where she witnessed how literacy benefited children in poorer nations .
Bush co @-@ authored a children 's book with her daughter , Jenna , called Read All About It ! . It was published on April 23 , 2008 .
On July 28 , 2008 she had visited Carl Sandburg Home National Historic Site in Flat Rock , North Carolina where she met with superintendent Connie Backlund and the Friends of Carl Sandburg Home 's President Linda Holt as well as various students from Boys and Girls Club of Henderson County , North Carolina .
On October 3 , 2008 she visited Laura Ingalls Wilder Historic Home and Museum where she praised her works such as Farmer Boy , These Happy Golden Years and The Little House on the Prairie , the last of which she had felt an association with as a child . During the same Laura Ingalls Wilder 's estate visit , she said that she read her books to her daughters and gave the writer Save America 's Treasures grant .
= = = September 11 attacks = = =
On September 11 , 2001 , Bush hosted her father and mother @-@ in @-@ law George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush and was intended to give a testimony to Congress on education . Instead , during the September 11 attacks , Bush was taken to inside the White House and placed in an underground bunker , later being met by her husband , who had returned to Washington from Florida . Two weeks after the September 11 terrorist attacks , Bush inaugurated a music concert at the Kennedy Center , organized to fundraise for families of the victims . Though she received applause , she returned the compliment to members of the audience and added that although the event was tragic , Americans had deepened their appreciation " of life itself , how fragile it can be , what a gift it is and how much we need each other . " Senator Ted Kennedy , who introduced Bush at the event , praised her and said he knew his deceased sibling , the late President John F. Kennedy , would also be proud of her . Bush believes the September 11 attacks ignited the interest in the way Afghanistan women were treated , who were not allowed to leave their homes and of which composed a high number of widows due to terrorist attacks in Afghanistan prior to the attacks .
= = = Women 's health and rights = = =
Another of her signature issues were those relating to the health and well being of women . She established the Women 's Health and Wellness Initiative and became involved with two major campaigns .
Bush first became involved with The Heart Truth awareness campaign in 2003 . It is an organization established by the National Heart , Lung , and Blood Institute to raise awareness about heart disease in women , and how to prevent the condition . She serves in the honorary position of ambassador for the program leading the federal government 's effort to give women a " wake up call " about the risk of heart disease . She commented on the disease : " Like many women , I assumed heart disease was a man 's disease and cancer was what we would fear the most . Yet heart disease kills more women in our country than all forms of cancer combined . When it comes to heart disease , education , prevention , and even a little red dress can save lives . " She has undertaken a signature personal element of traveling around the country and talking to women at hospital and community events featuring the experiences of women who live , or had lived , with the condition . This outreach was credited with saving the life of one woman who went to the hospital after experiencing symptoms of a heart attack .
With her predecessor , former First Lady Nancy Reagan , Bush dedicated the First Ladies Red Dress Collection at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in May 2005 . It is an exhibit containing red suits worn by former First Ladies Lady Bird Johnson , Betty Ford , Rosalynn Carter , Nancy Reagan , Barbara Bush , Hillary Rodham Clinton , and Laura Bush meant to raise awareness by highlighting America 's first ladies . She has participated in fashion shows displaying red dresses worn on celebrities as well .
Bush 's mother , Jenna Welch , was diagnosed with breast cancer at the age of 78 . She endured surgery and currently has no further signs of cancer . Laura Bush has become a breast cancer activist on her mother 's behalf through her involvement in the Susan G. Komen for the Cure . She applauded the foundation 's efforts in eliminating cancer and said , " A few short years ago , a diagnosis of breast cancer left little hope of recovery . But thanks to the work of the Komen Foundation ... more women and men are beating breast cancer and beating the odds . " She used her position to gain international support for the foundation through the Partnership for Breast Cancer Awareness and Research of the Americas , an initiative that unites experts from the United States , Brazil , Costa Rica and Mexico .
In November 2001 , she became the first person other than a president to deliver the weekly presidential radio address . She used the opportunity to discuss the plight of women in Afghanistan leading up to the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan , saying , " The brutal oppression of women is a central goal of the terrorists . " Her husband was originally to give the address but he felt that she should do it ; she later recalled , " At that moment , it was not that I found my voice . Instead , it was as if my voice found me . " Her words summarized one of the goals and moral rationales of the U.S. involvement in Afghanistan and it became one of the more famous speeches of his administration . In May 2002 , she made a speech to the people of Afghanistan through Radio Liberty . In March 2005 , she made the first of three trips to that country as First Lady .
= = = Campaigning = = =
Bush campaigned for Republicans around the country in 2002 for that year 's midterm elections , attending and hosting fundraisers as well as giving speeches that were deemed as the Bush administration " working against women 's rights issues and using women to do their dirty work " and partly a test for Bush on how well she could campaign for her husband in the impending two years when he sought re @-@ election . While campaigning for her husband 's re @-@ election in 2004 , she cited the campaign as their last , though this would later be disputed when she campaigned for Republicans across the country in the 2006 midterm elections . She was credited with having raised $ 15 million for his campaign as well as the Republican Party while still succeeding in keeping a separate schedule that allowed for her to tend to the traditional duties she had as First Lady .
Bush was a participant in the 2006 midterm elections , beginning her campaigning in April . Though her poll numbers had decreased from an 80 % approval rating , they still superseded that of President Bush , whose approval rating was only praised by a third of Americans . Ed Henry of CNN noted Bush 's popularity , writing , " The first lady is treated like a rock star on the campaign trail -- with local Republicans lining up for photographs and autographs -- as she criss @-@ crosses the country to help candidates . " Bush relied on a strategy of praising the Republican candidate for their achievements and attending events alongside them . In September 2008 , Bush appeared and spoke at the 2008 Republican National Convention , where she introduced her husband .
= = = Popularity and style = = =
Laura Bush 's approval ratings have consistently ranked very high . In January 2006 , a USA Today / CBS / Gallup poll recorded her approval rating at 82 percent and disapproval at 13 percent . That places Bush as one of the most popular first ladies . Former White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer said , " She is more popular , and more welcome , in many parts of the country than the president ... In races where the moderates are in the most trouble , Laura Bush is the one who can do the most good . "
Sady Doyle reasoned that Bush was hard to dislike due to her adopting " the least partisan causes " such as literacy and breast cancer , which would attract the support of most Americans and her coming off as a " mild , polite , ordinary woman who might go to church with your mother , or organize suburban potlucks . " Doyle furthered that her statements were never enough to offend others and the harshest criticism that could be bestowed upon her was that she was boring .
She disagreed with Fox News ' Chris Wallace in 2006 when Wallace asked why the American people were beginning to lose confidence in President Bush , saying , " Well , I don 't think they are . And I don 't really believe those polls . I travel around the country , I see people , I see their response to my husband , I see their response to me . There are a lot of difficult challenges right now in the United States ... All of those decisions that the President has to make surrounding each one of these very difficult challenges are hard . They 're hard decisions to make . And of course some people are unhappy about what some of those decisions are . But I think people know that he is doing what he thinks is right for the United States , that he 's doing what he – especially in the war on terror , what he thinks he is obligated to do for the people in the United States , and that is to protect them ... When his polls were really high they weren 't on the front page . "
During the January 2005 second inauguration ceremonies for her husband , Laura Bush was looked highly upon by People magazine , The Washington Post , and others for her elegance and fashion sense . At the inauguration she wore a winter white cashmere dress and matching coat designed by Oscar de la Renta . Following the inauguration were the inaugural galas , to which Bush wore a pale , aqua lace gown , sprinkled with crystals , with long sleeves in a silver blue mist . The tulle gown was also designed for her by de la Renta . According to The Washington Post , " [ I ] t made her look radiant and glamorous . "
= = = Foreign trips = = =
During her husband 's second term , Bush was more involved in foreign matters . She traveled to numerous countries as a representative of the United States .
As First Lady , she took five goodwill trips to Africa . The purpose of these has mostly been to raise awareness about HIV / AIDS and malaria , but Bush has also stressed the need for education and greater opportunities for women . She has taken many other trips to other countries to promote and gain support for President Bush 's Emergency Plan for AIDS relief ; these countries include Zambia ( 2007 ) , Mozambique ( 2007 ) , Mali ( 2007 ) , Senegal ( 2007 ) , and Haiti ( 2008 ) .
In mid @-@ 2007 , she took a trip to Burma where she spoke out in support of the pro @-@ democracy movement , and urged Burmese soldiers and militias to refrain from violence . Later that October , she ventured to the Middle East . Bush said she was in the region in an attempt to improve America 's image by highlighting concern for women 's health , specifically promoting her breast cancer awareness work with the US @-@ Middle East Partnership for Breast Cancer Awareness and Research . She defined the trip as successful , saying that stereotypes were broken on both sides .
Overall , Bush traveled to 77 countries in the eight years of her husband 's presidency , touring 67 of those during the second term .
= = = Views on policy = = =
Bush is a Republican and has identified herself with the GOP since her marriage .
When asked about abortion in 2000 , Bush said she did not believe Roe v. Wade should be overturned . She did not comment on whether women had the right to an abortion . She did say , however , that the country should do " what we can to limit the number of abortions , to try to reduce the number of abortions in a lot of ways , and that is , by talking about responsibility with girls and boys , by teaching abstinence , having abstinence classes everywhere in schools and in churches and in Sunday school " .
Bush responded to a question during a 2006 interview concerning the Federal Marriage Amendment by calling for elected leaders not to politicize same @-@ sex marriage , " I don 't think it should be used as a campaign tool , obviously . It requires a lot of sensitivity to just talk about the issue ... a lot of sensitivity . "
On July 12 , 2005 , while in South Africa , Bush suggested her husband replace retiring Supreme Court justice Sandra Day O 'Connor with another woman . On October 2 , during a private dinner at the White House with his wife , President Bush nominated Harriet Miers to replace O 'Connor . Later that month , after Miers had faced intense criticism , Laura Bush questioned whether the charges were sexist in nature .
= = = Legacy = = =
In late October 2008 , days before that year 's Presidential election , Bush hosted a three @-@ hour session with staffers and historians discussing how she would like to be remembered , leading to this meeting being termed the " legacy lunch . " According to historian Myra Gutin , this was the first time in history that a First Lady had ever directly reached out to historians to talk about her accomplishments . Attendants of the meeting said that Bush wanted to change the perception that she was a traditional First Lady in that she always stayed by her husband 's side . Bush 's chief of staff Anita McBride called this characterization of Bush " unfair " and though conceding that she was traditional , McBride noted Bush broke from tradition in addressing issues that were not customary .
In April 2009 , three months after the Bushes left office , Martha Gore wrote an op @-@ ed piece titled , " Laura Bush : A First Lady who made America proud , " where she positively assessed Bush 's role as First Lady and expressed Bush 's successes were rooted in the dignity she brought to the office despite her reserved style as well as her making a good role model for young women and representing American womanhood at its finest . Gore concluded , " Now that Ms. Bush has returned to private life , she will continue to be remembered as a First Lady who did America proud . " A 2014 poll which asked who was the most popular First Lady in the past 25 years found Bush ranked in fourth place , behind Hillary Clinton , mother @-@ in @-@ law Barbara and direct successor Michelle Obama .
= = Subsequent activities = =
In February 2009 , the month after she and her husband left office , Laura and George W. Bush moved into a new residence in Dallas . In November 2009 , the former First Lady , accompanied by her husband , made a visit to families of veterans in Fort Hood . The couple expressed their wishes that the trip not be publicized . However , Fox News revealed the trip the following morning .
In May 2010 , Bush released her memoir , Spoken from the Heart , in conjunction with a national tour .
On May 11 , 2010 , during an interview on Larry King Live , Bush was asked about same @-@ sex marriage . She said she views it as a generational issue and said she believes it will be made legal in the future . Bush offered support for the issue by saying , " ... when couples are committed to each other and love each other ... they ought to have the same sort of rights that everyone has . " Bush referred to her 2000 interview , reaffirming her support for Roe v. Wade , " I think it 's important that [ abortion ] remain legal . Because I think it 's important for people – that for medical reasons and , and other reasons . " On February 22 , 2013 , without her consent , she was included in a pro @-@ gay advertisement from the Respect of Marriage Coalition . A statement from Bush 's spokesperson states that Bush " did not approve of her inclusion in this advertisement nor is she associated with the group that made the ad in any way . When she became aware of the advertisement last night , we requested that the group remove her from it . "
On July 25 , 2012 she spoke at the Luisa Hunnewell 's estate where she praised Edith Wharton 's works , in particular Ethan Frome on her 150th anniversary . She also said that prior to this speech she also visited houses of Mark Twain at his 166th anniversary on November 29 , 2001 and was a guest of the show Mark Twain Tonight . Ten years prior to the Luisa Hunnewell 's estate visit she also visited Louisa May Alcott 's Orchard House in Concord , Massachusetts at which she met with the National Trust for Historic Preservation 's President and listened to Concord @-@ Carlisle High School 's chorus .
Bush continued to remain involved and concerned over the state of women in Afghanistan , speaking out editorials and appearances during 2013 that the women and girls who had been helped could not be abandoned during and after the planned withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan .
In April 2013 , Bush was in attendance at a news conference , where she said the recently built George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum was not a monument for her husband but instead a representation of the White House and the struggles of America during his tenure . She also mentioned not having trouble donating clothes to the library , admitting that she probably would have never worn them again in the first place . That month it was announced that she would serve as a keynote speaker for the 2013 Global Business Travel Association Convention in August . At the convention , she stressed the importance of child literacy , continuing her advocating of an issue that she had become associated with since her tenure as First Lady . In early August 2013 , she reported that her husband was in stable condition after having a stent implanted in his heart , calling it " terrific " that it was caught in time , and stressed the importance of regular check ups with doctors . In September , she appeared at a fundraiser for the organization Solutions for Change .
On April 26 , 2014 , she gave a speech at the Ericsson Center in Plano , Texas , where she spoke on behalf of the company 's mentoring program for girls . Throughout the month , she made appearances at fundraisers for schools in Colorado . On May 9 , 2014 , she was scheduled to speak at the Boston Convention and Exhibition Center on the anniversary of the Boston Marathon bombings . She was to arrive there with her daughter Barbara Pierce Bush , her husband George W. Bush , and Soledad O 'Brien , a journalist .
In 2015 , Bush had several speaking arrangements on issues relating to her husband 's presidency . In April 2015 , Bush reputed Rand Paul 's isolationist stance on U.S. foreign aid , calling the view " not really realistic " and asserting the United States should save lives whenever it can . Bush attended the centennial anniversary of Tioga Road In Yosemite National Park in July . August , she shared the first public photos of her newborn granddaughter Poppy Louise . Later that month , the former First Lady , accompanied by her husband , appeared in New Orleans in order to commemorate the tenth anniversary of Hurricane Katrina . In October , she was a featured speaker for Wayland Baptist University . Bush was keynote speaker at the Go Red for Women Summit in Austin in February 2016 , an event designed to promote both financing and awareness for women fighting heart disease . In March , Bush attended the funeral of Nancy Reagan in California and promoted We Are Afghan Women , a novel spotlighting the lives of Afghanistan women that was published by the Bush institute .
= = = Pertaining to Obama administration = = =
Over the course of the Obama presidency , she has developed an alliance with Michelle Obama , her immediate successor as First Lady . Despite their political differences , Michelle Obama has called Laura Bush both her friend and a role model , crediting Bush with setting " a high bar " for her during her tenure as First Lady . Bush defended Obama during her husband 's campaign for president in 2008 , publicly coming to her defense when she received criticism for a remark she made about being proud of her country for the first time in her adulthood during the campaign . Obama sent Bush a note thanking her and after the election met with Bush at the White House in November 2008 , Bush giving Obama a tour of her and her family 's soon @-@ to @-@ be home .
In September 2009 , Bush openly praised President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama . She reasoned that President Obama was performing well in the presidency despite having multiple initiatives taking place and complimented the First Lady 's transformation of the White House into " a comfortable home for her family . " The following year , in September 2010 , Bush and Obama commemorated the ninth anniversary of the September 11 attacks by leading a ceremony from a mountaintop to national memorial park . The two both acted as keynote speakers and met with the families of the 40 victims of United Airlines Flight 93 plane crash . In their remarks , the two sang each other praises , Obama thanking Bush for her handling of the aftermath of September 11 attacks while Bush called her a " first lady who serves this country with such grace . "
In July 2013 , Bush and Obama appeared together in Africa at the First Ladies Summit . Their husbands were also present , leading White House staffer Ben Rhodes to refer to the joint appearance as proof of the support for Africa in the United States regardless of political party . In their remarks , both Bush and Obama stressed the importance of being role models . Nine months later , on April 18 , 2014 , Bush spoke to The Inquisitr regarding income inequality where she said next regarding Michelle Obama 's income : " I want to make sure that when she 's working she 's getting paid the same as men . I gotta say that First Ladies right now don 't [ get paid ] , even though that 's a tough job ! " In August 2014 , Bush and Obama appeared together at the Kennedy Center . Shortly afterward , Bush told The Washington Post that she believed Obama was ready to leave the White House .
In March 2015 , Bush and Obama were named as co @-@ chairs of the Find Your Park campaign , an attempt to increase national park support and introduce millennials to the park service before its centennial the following year . The pair made a joint appearance at the George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum in September 2015 , Bush appearing physically while Obama was present through a video call . Obama spoke of her admiration for Bush , who in turn mentioned their collaborations as " a great example for the world to see that women in different political parties , in the United States , agree on so many issues . "
= = = Involvement with GOP = = =
In the later months of 2012 , Bush campaigned for Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney , hosting a fundraiser in September with Ann Romney and appearing in Livonia , Michigan the following month for a Romney campaign event . Michigan spokeswoman for the Romney campaign Kelsey Knight said having Mrs. Bush there would " just fuel the fire and the momentum we are seeing " . She also campaigned for vice presidential nominee Paul Ryan , telling a crowd in Detroit that he and Romney had " better answers " on the economy and foreign policy .
After the 2012 election , where Romney lost to President Obama , Bush was asked in March 2013 during an interview whether the GOP 's positions on social issues such as same @-@ sex marriage and abortion led to more than half of female voters voting for the President . Bush responded that some of the candidates had " frightened some candidates " , but at the same time expressed her liking of the Republican Party having room for difference of opinion and that within the party , " we have room for all " .
Throughout 2015 , Bush was active in the presidential campaign of brother @-@ in @-@ law Jeb Bush , hosting fundraisers and endorsing him . This was the most politically involved she had been since leaving the White House seven years prior , supporting her brother @-@ in @-@ law alongside the rest of her family because ,
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not find work elsewhere . Sale was part of the Altrincham Union , which ran the nearest work house in Altrincham .
The main shopping centre in Sale , the Square Shopping Centre , was constructed in the 1960s . Following the Trafford Centre 's opening in 1998 , it was expected that the centre would suffer , but it has since prospered . In 2003 the Square Shopping Centre underwent a £ 7 million refurbishment , a major part of the redevelopment of Sale 's town centre . It was sold for £ 40M in 2005 , by which time the Square had experienced an increase in trade and demand for tenancy that had led to an increase of 70 % in rental income . The town 's economy expanded to the extent that in 2007 , at a time when the rest of south Manchester was oversupplied with office space , Sale 's available office and commercial space was at an all @-@ time low because of high demand .
According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of residents aged 16 – 74 was 18 @.@ 4 % property and business services , 15 @.@ 9 % retail and wholesale , 11 @.@ 1 % manufacturing , 10 @.@ 9 % health and social work , 9 @.@ 1 % education , 7 @.@ 8 % transport and communications , 6 @.@ 1 % construction , 6 @.@ 3 % finance , 4 @.@ 5 % public administration , 3 @.@ 8 % hotels and restaurants , 0 @.@ 7 % energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 5 % agriculture , 0 @.@ 2 % mining , and 4 @.@ 7 % other . Compared with national figures , the town had a relatively high percentage of residents working in property , business services and finance . The town had a relatively low percentage working in agriculture , public administration , and manufacturing . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 , 2 @.@ 6 % students were with jobs , 3 @.@ 3 % students without jobs , 4 @.@ 9 % looking after home or family , 5 @.@ 2 % permanently sick or disabled , and 2 @.@ 3 % economically inactive for other reasons . The 2 @.@ 4 % unemployment rate of Sale was low compared with the national rate of 3 @.@ 3 % .
= = Culture = =
= = = Landmarks and attractions = = =
Sale has three Grade II * listed buildings – two churches ( St. Martin and St. John the Divine ) and Ashton New Hall – and eighteen Grade II listed buildings . The cenotaph outside the town hall was designed by Ashton upon Mersey sculptor Arthur Sherwood Edwards and is a Grade II listed building . It commemorates the 400 men from Sale who died in the First World War and the 300 who died in the Second World War . The memorial consists of a statue of a mourning Saint George on top of a granite pedestal . Costing £ 600 ( £ 31 thousand as of 2016 ) , it was funded by public subscription and unveiled in May 1925 in front of a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 .
The oldest surviving building in Sale is Eyebrow Cottage . Built around 1670 , it was originally a yeoman farmhouse and is one of the earliest brick buildings in the area . Its name is derived from the decorative brickwork above the windows . It was built in Cross Street , which at the time was a separate village from Sale . Of the twenty @-@ one conservation areas in Trafford , two are in Sale : Ashton upon Mersey and Brogden Grove .
A bronze bust of James Joule , the physicist who gave his name to the SI unit of energy , is in Worthington Park . Originally a tower was to have been erected in his honour , but lack of donations led to the production of the bust as a substitute ; it was unveiled in 1905 . Joule moved to Sale in the 1870s for his health ; he died at his home at 12 Wardle Road in 1889 , and is buried in Brooklands Cemetery .
The area has several parks and green spaces . Worthington Park , originally called Sale Park , was opened in 1900 . It features a bandstand , gardens , play areas , and a skate ramp and is maintained by Trafford Council and The Friends of Worthington Park . Opened in 1939 , Walton Park is in the southwest of the town and features a miniature railway . Sale Water Park is an artificial lake , created from a 35 @-@ metre ( 115 ft ) deep gravel pit left during the construction of the M60 . It opened in 1980 and is a venue for water sports , fishing and bird watching . The water park is the site of the Broad Ees Dole wildlife refuge , a local nature reserve that provides a home for migratory birds .
= = = Events and venues = = =
Situated next to the town hall , the Waterside Arts Centre houses a plaza , a library , the Robert Bolt Theatre , the Lauriston Gallery , and the Corridor Gallery . The centre , which was opened in 2004 , regularly hosts concerts , exhibitions and other community events . Performers have included comedian Lucy Porter , Midge Ure , Fairport Convention , The Zombies and Sue Perkins . In 2004 , the centre received the British Urban Regeneration Association Award for its innovative use of space and for reinvigorating Sale town centre .
Sale has a Gilbert and Sullivan society , formed in 1972 , which performs at the Altrincham Garrick Playhouse . The group is directed by Alistair Donkin , a former principal comic for the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company . Members of the group have won several awards at the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival . Sale Brass is a traditional brass band based in Sale , formed in about 1849 as the Stretford Temperance Band . Its first recorded performance was at the 1849 opening of the railway between Manchester and Altrincham .
= = = Sports = = =
The rugby union side Sale F.C. has been based in Sale since 1861 and at its present Heywood Road ground since 1905 . One of the oldest rugby clubs in the world , its 1865 Minute Book is the oldest existing book containing the rules of the game . The professional Sale Sharks team was originally part of Sale F.C. but split from it in 2003 . Sale Sharks now play their matches at Salford City Stadium , although they retain the use of the Heywood Road ground for training and for the staging of home games involving their reserve team , Sale Jets . The town is also home to the Ashton upon Mersey and Trafford Metrovick rugby union clubs .
Sale Harriers Manchester Athletics Club was formed in 1911 , but is now based in nearby Wythenshawe . The club has produced successful athletes such as Olympic gold medallist Darren Campbell and Commonwealth Games gold medallist Diane Modahl , both former residents of the town . Sale Sports Club encompasses Sale Cricket Club , Sale Hockey Club , and Sale Lawn Tennis Club . The Brooklands Sports Club is home to Brooklands Cricket Club , Brooklands Manchester University Hockey Club , and Brooklands Hulmeians Lacrosse Club . It also provides facilities for squash , tennis , and bowling . Sale United FC plays at Crossford Bridge and was recognised as Trafford 's Sports Club of the Year in 2004 . Sale Golf Club and Ashton on Mersey Golf Club have courses on the outskirts of the town , and a municipal pitch and putt is based at Woodheys Park . Trafford Rowing Club has a boathouse beside the canal . Sale Leisure Centre has badminton and squash courts , a gymnasium and three swimming pools . Walton Park Sports Centre has a sports hall for activities such as 5 @-@ a @-@ side football . Tennis , crown @-@ green bowls , golf putting and football facilities are available at the town 's parks . Sale Water Ski Club is based at Sale Water Park .
= = Education = =
Sale 's first school was built in 1667 and was used until the first half of the 18th century . The second school in Sale was built some time in the 18th century , one of about 30 non @-@ grammar schools founded in Cheshire around this time . By 1831 , there were two private schools – with the children 's parents paying fees for their education – in Sale and one in Ashton upon Mersey . At the same time , there were also four Sunday schools in Sale and one in Ashton upon Mersey , operated by various religious denominations , including Congregationalists , Methodists , and Unitarians . The first school @-@ chapel built in Sale as part of a school was constructed by Primitive Methodists in 1839 , and still survives . The second school @-@ chapel in the town was St Joseph 's Roman Catholic Church , built in 1866 , and was replaced by the current school in 1899 .
Trafford maintains a selective education system assessed by the eleven plus exam . Sale has one grammar school , two secondary modern schools and nineteen primary schools . Sale Grammar School is a specialist school in science and the visual arts . It consists of two parts , one for 11- to 16 @-@ year @-@ olds and 900 pupils , and the other a sixth form college with 300 students . The school was described in its 2006 Ofsted report as " outstanding with an outstanding sixth form " . Ashton on Mersey School is a foundation secondary modern school and specialist Sports College . It has 1 @,@ 300 pupils aged 11 – 16 and 80 students in its sixth form . In its 2008 Ofsted report it was rated " outstanding " . Sale High School , formerly Jeff Joseph Sale Moor Technology College , is a foundation secondary modern school for 11- to 16 @-@ year @-@ olds and specialist technology college . It has 1 @,@ 000 pupils and in its 2006 Ofsted report was rated as " satisfactory " . Manor Academy provides secondary education to pupils with special needs . It has 140 students aged 11 – 16 and 20 members of its sixth form and was rated as " good " in its 2007 Ofsted report .
= = Religion = =
Sale is a diverse community with a synagogue and Christian churches of various denominations . The church buildings were mostly constructed in the late 19th or early 20th century in the wake of the population boom created by the arrival of the railway in 1849 , although records show that the Church of St Martin in Ashton upon Mersey dates back to at least 1304 . Before the English Reformation , the inhabitants of Sale were predominantly Catholic , but afterwards were members of the Church of England . Roman Catholics returned to the area in the 19th century in the form of Irish immigrants . Two of the three Grade II * listed buildings in the town are churches . The Church of St Martin , which was probably originally an early 14th century timber framed structure , was rebuilt in 1714 after the church had been destroyed in a storm . The Church of St John the Divine was built in 1868 , to the design of Alfred Waterhouse . There are three Grade II listed churches in Sale : the Church of St Anne ; the Church of St Mary Magdalene ; and the Church of St Paul .
As of the 2001 UK census , 78 @.@ 0 % of Sale residents reported themselves as Christian , 1 @.@ 4 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 7 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 6 % Jewish , 0 @.@ 2 % Buddhist and 0 @.@ 2 % Sikh . A further 12 @.@ 9 % had no religion , 0 @.@ 2 % had an alternative religion , and 5 @.@ 9 % did not state their religion . Sale is part of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury , and the Church of England Diocese of Chester . Sale and District Synagogue is part of United Synagogue under the aegis of the Chief Rabbi of Britain , Jonathan Sacks . The only mosque in Trafford is the Masjid @-@ E @-@ Noor in Old Trafford , three miles ( 5 km ) away .
= = Transport = =
The first turnpike road in the area was the latter @-@ day A56 Chester Road between Manchester and Crossford Bridge ( on the border between Sale and Stretford ) . Turnpike trusts collected tolls from road users and used the proceeds to maintain the highway . There was a toll booth on the Sale side of Crossford Bridge . Another section of road between Altrincham and Crossford Bridge was turnpiked in 1765 . The commencement of " swift packet " services on the newly opened Bridgewater Canal in 1776 made commuting from Sale into Manchester both practical and convenient , with boats travelling at a relatively swift 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) . However the arrival in 1849 of the Manchester , South Junction and Altrincham Railway sounded a death @-@ knell for both the canal packet services and turnpike trusts . Many trusts went into terminal decline , mirroring a national trend . By 1888 almost all roads and highways were the responsibility of the local authority . Sale 's railway station , originally named Sale Moor , was renamed to Sale in 1856 . Three years later Brooklands railway station was opened , followed in 1931 by the opening of Dane Road railway station along with the electrification of the entire line . The line was renovated in the early 1990s and is now part of the Metrolink .
Following the completion of a tramway between Manchester and Stretford in 1901 , the British Electric Traction Company applied to Parliament for an extension to Sale . The proposal was amended to continue the line further south , into Altrincham . The line through Sale was owned by Sale Urban District Council and leased to the Manchester Corporation . Services to Sale commenced in 1907 . A branch along Northenden Road from the line to Sale Moor was created in 1912 . Sale Moor 's line had only a single track which in 1925 resulted in a head @-@ on collision between two tramcars , injuring eight passengers . Bus services were first introduced to the area in the 1920s , but became more widespread in the 1930s . The buses did not suffer the drawback of being limited to tracks and were therefore more practical than the tram services , which from the 1930s went into decline . The tramlines along Northenden Road were removed between 1932 and 1934 , and throughout Sale in the 1940s .
The Metrolink system connects Sale with other locations in Greater Manchester . Trams depart the town 's three stations at least every 12 minutes between 07 : 00 and 22 : 30 every day . The nearest main line railway station is Navigation Road in Altrincham , from where trains run to Manchester Piccadilly , Stockport and Chester . Bus routes operated by various companies provide services to Manchester and to Altrincham . The A56 road runs between Chester and North Yorkshire via Sale , Manchester , and Burnley , and the M60 motorway – which encircles Manchester – can be accessed via junction 7 , just to the north of Sale . The M56 and M62 motorways are about 4 miles ( 6 km ) away , and the M6 motorway , which runs between Warwickshire and Gretna , is about 7 miles ( 11 km ) to the west . Manchester Airport , the busiest airport in the UK outside the London area , is 4 miles ( 6 km ) to the south .
= Narragansett Pacer =
The Narragansett Pacer was the first horse breed developed in the United States , but is now extinct . It was developed in the United States during the 18th century and associated closely with the state of Rhode Island , and it had become extinct by the late 19th century . The Pacer was developed from a mix of English and Spanish breeds , although the exact cross is unknown , and they were known to and owned by many famous personages of the day , including George Washington . Sales to the Caribbean and cross @-@ breeding diminished the breed to the point of extinction , and the last known Pacer died around 1880 .
The Narragansett was possibly an ambling horse , rather than a true pacing breed . It was known as a sure @-@ footed , dependable breed , although not flashy or always good @-@ looking . Pacers were used for racing and general riding . They were frequently crossed with other breeds , and provided the foundation for several other American breeds , including the American Saddlebred , Standardbred and Tennessee Walking Horse .
= = History = =
Highly valued by plantation owners of the 19th century , the Narragansett Pacer had a major influence on many American gaited breeds . The breed was especially associated with the state of Rhode Island in the early 18th century , but had become extinct by the late 19th century . It was known as the first breed of horse developed in America . The exact origins of the breed are unknown , but it was probably developed from a cross between English " ambling " horses and Spanish breeds . These Spanish breeds often included bloodlines that included lateral gaits . The horses developed from this cross were known for their smoothness and sure @-@ footedness over poor terrain . The English horses which contributed to the Narragansett Pacer may have been members of the Irish Hobby breed ; another possible ancestor is the Galloway pony . In the early 18th century , William Robinson , the Lieutenant Governor of Rhode Island , began the serious development of the breed with a stallion named " Old Snip " — speculated to be either an Irish Hobby or an Andalusian , and considered the father of the breed .
In 1768 , George Washington owned and raced a Narragansett Pacer , while in 1772 , Edmund Burke asked an American friend for a pair . Paul Revere possibly rode a Pacer during his 1775 ride to warn the Americans of a British march . The extinction was due mainly to the breed being sold in such large numbers to sugarcane planters in the West Indies that breeding stock was severely diminished in the United States . The few horses that were left were crossbred to create and improve other breeds and the pure strain of the Narragansett soon became extinct . North Carolina was also a noted to have breeders of the Narragansett , with breeding stock having been brought to the area as early as 1790 by early pioneers . The last known Pacer , a mare , died around 1880 .
= = Characteristics = =
The Narragansett Pacer was not exclusively a pacing horse , as strong evidence indicates it exhibited an ambling gait , which is a four @-@ beat , intermediate @-@ speed gait , while the pace is a two @-@ beat , intermediate @-@ speed gait . The amble is more comfortable to ride than the pace , and Narragansett Pacers were known for their qualities as both riding and driving horses . They averaged around 14 @.@ 1 hands ( 57 inches , 145 cm ) tall , and were generally chestnut in color . James Fenimore Cooper described them as : " They have handsome foreheads , the head clean , the neck long , the arms and legs thin and tapered . " ; however , another source stated , " The hindquarters are narrow and the hocks a little crooked ... " , but also said , " They are very spirited and carry both the head and tail high . But what is more remarkable is that they amble with more speed than most horses trot , so that it is difficult to put some of them upon a gallop . " Other viewers of the breed rarely called them stylish or good @-@ looking , although they considered them dependable , easy to work with and sure @-@ footed .
= = Uses = =
The breed was used for " pacing races " in Rhode Island , where the Baptist population allowed races when the greater part of Puritan New England did not . Pacers reportedly covered the one @-@ mile tracks in a little more than two minutes .
The Narragansett Pacer played a significant role in the creation of the American Saddlebred , the Standardbred and the Tennessee Walking Horse . The breed was also combined with French pacers to create the Canadian Pacer , a breed especially suited to racing over ice and which also contributed substantially to the creation of the Standardbred . In the early 19th century , Pacer mares were bred to stallions of the fledgling Morgan breed . However , the Morgan breed was selected for a trot as an intermediate gait , and thus ambling horses were frowned upon , so most Narragansett / Morgan crosses were sold to Canada , the Caribbean , and South America , so the bloodlines did not remain within the Morgan breed . Other breeds indirectly influenced by the Narragansett Pacer include the Rocky Mountain Horse , a gaited breed started in Kentucky , and the Tiger Horse , a gaited breed with Appaloosa patterning .
= The Boat Race 1866 =
The 23rd Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 24 March 1866 . The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . Oxford won by three lengths in a time of 25 minutes and 35 seconds , one of the slowest times in the history of the event .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Cambridge by four lengths in the previous year 's race . Oxford led overall with twelve wins to Cambridge 's ten .
In late 1865 , the Cambridge University Boat Club president Robert Kinglake wrote to Oxford in order to draw up rules on the seniority of participants in the Boat Race , asserting that Cambridge could not agree to send out a challenge unless this agreement was made . The proposal included the suggestion that " no pass or πολλ man may row after one year has elapsed from the date of him having passed his final examination . That no honour man may row after the end of his fourth year from the date of his commencing residence . " While both universities were agreed with regard to the exlcusion of those reading " ordinary " degrees ( also referred to as " pass " degrees , as opposed to honours degrees ) , Oxford rejected the second clause which would have potentially excluded a small number of rowers given the differences in timetables between the universities .
Despite the disagreement , Kinglake sent the traditional challenge to Oxford who accepted . Cambridge went to Putney ten days before the race which was scheduled for 24 March , while Oxford practised there for eight days . The Light Blues rowed against a London Rowing Club eight in the buildup while the Dark Blues took on a watermen eight and a Kingston eight during their preparations . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The two crews were nearly identical in weight : the average of the Cambridge crew was 11 st 12 @.@ 875 lb ( 75 @.@ 5 kg ) , 0 @.@ 125 pounds ( 0 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than Oxford . Each crew saw the return of five former Blues , including the Light Blue number six Robert Kinglake who was rowing in his fourth Boat Race ; Dark Blues Robert Taunton Raikes , Brown and Charles Tottenham were making their third Boat Race appearance .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss for the fifth consecutive year and elected to start on the Middlesex side of the river , handing the Surrey station to Cambridge , despite the advantage being " nullified ... for there was a strong wind blowing from the south @-@ west . " According to The Field , " arrangements had been made by the Thames Conservancy Board , which had most effectually put a stopper " on disruption from paddle boats to allow an uninterrupted start at 7.48am. Oxford led from the start but Cambridge redressed the balance and were half a length ahead by the time the crews shot Hammersmith Bridge . They maintained their lead to Chiswick Eyot and despite rough water , Cambridge continued in front . Avoiding a barge at Corny Reach , the Light Blues allowed their opponents to pass and take a half @-@ length lead which Oxford took to Barnes Bridge . Even though Cambridge made a push , even drawing level , Oxford pulled away and won by three lengths in a time of 25 minutes and 35 seconds . It was the third @-@ slowest time in the history of the event on the Championship Course .
= Bara Gumbad =
Bara Gumbad ( literally " big dome " ) is an ancient monument located in Lodhi Gardens in Delhi , India . It is part of a group of monuments that include a Friday mosque ( Jama Masjid ) and the " mehman khana " ( guest house ) of Sikandar Lodhi , the ruler of the Delhi Sultanate . The Bara Gumbad was constructed in 1490 CE , during the reign of the Lodhi dynasty . Its construction is generally attributed to Sikandar Lodhi , and it is believed to have the earliest constructed full dome of any building in Delhi .
The monument is situated near the Tomb of Sikandar Lodhi and Shisha Gumbad . Although the three structures , which share a common raised platform , were all built during the Lodhi reign , they were not constructed at the same time . The intended purpose of the builders of Bara Gumbad is unclear : it may have been intended as a free @-@ standing tomb , but no tombstone has been identified . The area in which Bara Gumbad is situated was formally called Khairpur village .
= = History = =
Bada Gumbad was constructed in 1490 CE , and is believed to have the earliest constructed full dome of any building in Delhi . Its construction is generally attributed to Sikandar Lodhi . A mihrab ( prayer niche ) in the Friday mosque ( Jama Masjid ) of the Bara Gumbad gives the date of construction as 900 AH ( Anno Hegirae ) of the Islamic lunar calendar .
Including the Bada Gumbad , there are four monuments in the Lodhi Gardens ; the other three being Tomb of Sikandar Lodhi , Shisha Gumbad and the tomb of Muhammad Shah ( who belonged to the Sayyid dynasty ) . The Bada Gumbad is situated approximately 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) southwest of the tomb and 75 metres ( 246 ft ) south of Shisha Gumbad . During the rule of Sikander Lodhi , the Bara Gumbad , the adjacent mosque and the " mehman khana " ( guest house ) were constructed . The Bara Gumbad is speculated to serve as a gateway to the Friday mosque . However owing to the constitutions date , placement and stylistic differences the theory of gateway is not supported . The purpose and significance of the Bara Gumbad is unknown and to date remains a mystery . The Friday mosque was constructed in 1494 CE . It was the first mosque to be built in a style that first appeared during the Lodhi Dynasty .
Some historians suggest that the Bara Gumbad was built by an unidentified noble in 1490 CE , before being appropriated by Sikander Lodhi in 1494 CE , to provide an entryway to his mosque . Initially , all the monuments were built independently , and were not in one confine . In the early twentieth century , a park was developed , bringing the four monuments in one confine . The park was inaugurated on 9 April 1936 by Lady Willingdon , the wife of Viceroy Lord Willingdon . The park was originally called the Lady Willingdon Park after her , but was renamed to Lodhi Gardens after independence of India in 1947 .
= = Construction and architecture = =
It is speculated that the Bara Gumbad was constructed to provide a gateway to the nearby mosque . Although the structure does not house any tomb , there is a platform in the central courtyard that suggests the structure to be a burial place . The purpose Bara Gumbad is unknown . Bara Gumbad is grouped together with a mosque and " mehman khana " which is a smaller structure with five bays . All the structures are constructed on a 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) high platform , with a total area of 1 @,@ 050 square metres ( 11 @,@ 302 sq ft ) . The platform measures 30 metres ( 98 ft ) ( east @-@ west ) and 25 metres ( 82 ft ) ( north @-@ south ) .
Three out of five bays in the mosque have domes whereas the remaining two have vaulted roofs ( on mosque and " mehman khana " ) . The central bays feature low domes , while the end @-@ bays feature flat roofs . There are oriel windows to the north and south . Both the oriel windows and the tapering minarets appear to anticipate later architectural styles .
The Bara Gumbad is square type construction which sits on a plinth . The mosque measures 20 metres ( 66 ft ) on each side . At the rear , the corners and sides of the mosque feature tall tapering semi @-@ circular minars . The east , south , and west are decorated , and feature ogee arch openings , which are set into rectangular frames . The architecture combines bracket and lintel beams , blending Islamic and Hindu architectures .
Bara Gumbad is 29 metres ( 95 ft ) high , 20 metres ( 66 ft ) long and 20 metres ( 66 ft ) wide . The walls are 12 metres ( 39 ft ) tall . Like the Shisha Gumbad , the Bara Gumbad is also a single story structure but has an external semblance of spanning in two floors when viewed from outside . Total floor area of Bara Gumbad ( excluding the mosque and the guest house ) is 361 square metres ( 3 @,@ 886 sq ft ) .
The dome , the mosque and the " mehman khana " are constructed of red , grey and black stone , including grey quartzite and red sandstone . The interior is elaborately ornamented with painted stucco . Colored tiles , incised carvings , and painted plaster on the mosque are decorated with foliage , flowers , geometric patterns , and Quranic inscriptions .
= = Location = =
The Bara Gumbad is located in and is a part of the Lodhi Gardens in Delhi , India . The village where the monument stands was earlier called Khairpur . The garden is bounded by Amrita Shergill Marg in the west , northwest and north , Max MuellerMarg on the east and Lodhi Road on the south side . Safdarjang Tomb is situated on southwest corner of the Lodhi Garden .
= = Picture gallery = =
= Russian monitor Strelets =
Strelets ( Russian : Стрелец ) was an Uragan @-@ class monitor built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the mid @-@ 1860s . The design was based on the American Passaic @-@ class monitor , but was modified to suit Russian engines , guns and construction techniques . Spending her entire career with the Baltic Fleet , the ship was only active when the Gulf of Finland was not frozen , but very little is known about her service . She was struck from the Navy List in 1900 , converted into a floating workshop the following year and renamed Plavmasterskaia No. 1 . The ship served as such through 1955 , although her ultimate fate is unknown .
= = Description = =
Strelets was 201 feet ( 61 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , with a beam of 46 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 10 @.@ 16 – 10 @.@ 84 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 t ) , and her crew numbered 8 officers and 88 enlisted men in 1865 . They numbered 10 officers and 100 crewmen in 1877 .
The ship was fitted with a two @-@ cylinder , horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine built by the Baird Works of Saint Petersburg . It drove a single propeller using steam that was provided by two rectangular boilers . Specific information on the output of the ship 's engine has not survived , but it ranged between 340 – 500 indicated horsepower ( 254 – 373 kW ) for all the ships of this class . During Strelets 's sea trials on 16 July 1865 , she reached a maximum speed of 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) . The ship carried a maximum of 190 long tons ( 190 t ) of coal , which gave her a theoretical endurance of 1 @,@ 440 nmi ( 2 @,@ 670 km ; 1 @,@ 660 mi ) at full speed .
Strelets was designed to be armed with a pair of 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading guns purchased from Krupp of Germany and rifled in Russia , but the rifling project was seriously delayed and the ship was completed with nine @-@ inch smoothbores . These lacked the penetration power necessary to deal with ironclads and they were replaced by license @-@ built 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading Rodman guns in 1867 – 68 . The Rodmans were replaced around 1876 with the originally intended nine @-@ inch rifled guns .
All of the wrought @-@ iron armor that was used in the Uragan @-@ class monitors was in 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates , just as in the Passaic @-@ class ships . The side of the ship was entirely covered with three to five layers of armor plates , of which the three innermost plates extended 42 inches ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) below the waterline . The gun turret was protected by eleven layers of armor and the pilothouse above it had eight layers of armor . Curved plates six layers thick protected the base of the funnel up to a height of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above the deck . Unlike their predecessors , the Uragans were built without deck armor to save weight , but Strelets was modified for the addition of 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) armor plates after completion , but it is unknown if they were ever fitted . They were , however , manufactured and then placed in storage .
= = Construction and career = =
Construction of the ship began on 13 June 1863 by S. G. Kudriavtsev at the state @-@ owned Galeryni Island Shipyard in Saint Petersburg . Strelets , the Russian word for musketeer , was laid down on 1 December 1863 and she was launched on 2 June 1864 . She entered service on 27 July 1865 and cost a total of 1 @,@ 141 @,@ 800 rubles , almost double her contract cost of 600 @,@ 000 rubles . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and she , and all of her sister ships except Latnik , made a port visit to Stockholm , Sweden in July – August 1865 while under the command of General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich . She was present when the American warships Miantonomoh and Augusta visited Kronstadt in July – August 1866 .
Sometime after Strelets was completed , an armored ring , 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick and 15 inches ( 381 mm ) tall , was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent splinters from jamming it . Later , an armored , outward @-@ curving bulwark was fitted around the top of the turret to protect any crewmen there . Three sponsons were later added , probably during the 1870s , to the upper portion of the turret . Each sponson , one above the gun ports and one on each side of the turret , mounted a light gun , probably a 1 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 44 mm ) Engstrem gun , for defense against torpedo boats . A fourth gun was mounted on a platform aft of the funnel when a hurricane deck was built between the funnel and the turret , also probably during the 1870s .
Little is known about the ship 's career other than that she was laid up each winter when the Gulf of Finland froze . On 21 July 1875 , the monitor Admiral Chichagov ran aground and Strelets was sent to aid her the following day . While assisting with the rigging of a hawser between Admiral Chichagov and the armored frigate Sevastopol , it unexpectedly slid across Strelets 's deck , injuring the ship 's executive officer and a bosun , who later died of his wounds . Coal and equipment from Admiral Chichagov was transferred to Strelets to lighten the former , but it was not enough to refloat her .
Strelets was reclassified as a coast @-@ defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal on 6 July 1900 , although she was not stricken until 17 August . The ship was converted into a floating workshop the next year and renamed Plavmasterskaia No. 1 . She remained in service through the end of 1955 , but her ultimate fate is unknown .
= Treaty of Devol =
The Treaty of Devol ( Greek : συνθήκη της Δεαβόλεως ) was an agreement made in 1108 between Bohemond I of Antioch and Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos , in the wake of the First Crusade . It is named after the Byzantine fortress of Devol ( in modern Albania ) . Although the treaty was not immediately enforced , it was intended to make the Principality of Antioch a vassal state of the Byzantine Empire .
At the beginning of the First Crusade , Crusader armies assembled at Constantinople and promised to return to the Byzantine Empire any land they might conquer . However , Bohemond , the son of Alexios ' former enemy Robert Guiscard , claimed the Principality of Antioch for himself . Alexios did not recognize the legitimacy of the Principality , and Bohemond went to Europe looking for reinforcements . He launched into open warfare against Alexios , but he was soon forced to surrender and negotiate with Alexios at the imperial camp at Diabolis ( Devol ) , where the Treaty was signed .
Under the terms of the Treaty , Bohemond agreed to become a vassal of the Emperor and to defend the Empire whenever needed . He also accepted the appointment of a Greek Patriarch . In return , he was given the titles of sebastos and doux ( duke ) of Antioch , and he was guaranteed the right to pass on to his heirs the County of Edessa . Following this , Bohemond retreated to Apulia and died there . His nephew , Tancred , who was regent in Antioch , refused to accept the terms of the Treaty . Antioch came temporarily under Byzantine sway in 1137 , but it was not until 1158 that it truly became a Byzantine vassal .
The Treaty of Devol is viewed as a typical example of the Byzantine tendency to settle disputes through diplomacy rather than warfare , and was both a result of and a cause for the distrust between the Byzantines and their Western European neighbors .
= = Background = =
In 1097 , the Crusader armies assembled at Constantinople having traveled in groups eastward through Europe . Alexios I , who had requested only some western knights to serve as mercenaries to help fight the Seljuk Turks , blockaded these armies in the city and would not permit them to leave until their leaders swore oaths promising to restore to the Empire any land formerly belonging to it that they might conquer on the way to Jerusalem . The Crusaders eventually swore these oaths , individually rather than as a group . In return , Alexios gave them guides and a military escort . The Crusaders were however exasperated by Byzantine tactics , such as negotiating the surrender of Nicaea from the Seljuks while it was still under siege by the Crusaders , who hoped to plunder it to help finance their journey . The Crusaders , feeling betrayed by Alexios , who was able to recover a number of important cities and islands , and in fact much of western Asia Minor , continued on their way without Byzantine aid . In 1098 , when Antioch had been captured after a long siege and the Crusaders were in turn themselves besieged in the city , Alexios marched out to meet them , but , hearing from Stephen of Blois that the situation was hopeless , he returned to Constantinople . The Crusaders , who had unexpectedly withstood the siege , believed Alexios had abandoned them and considered the Byzantines completely untrustworthy . Therefore , they regarded their oaths as invalidated .
By 1100 , there were several Crusader states , including the Principality of Antioch , founded by Bohemond in 1098 . It was argued that Antioch should be returned to the Byzantines , despite Alexios 's supposed betrayals , but Bohemond claimed it for himself . Alexios , of course , disagreed ; Antioch had an important port , was a trade hub with Asia and a stronghold of the Eastern Orthodox Church , with an important Greek Patriarch . It had only been captured from the empire a few decades previously , unlike Jerusalem , which was much farther away and had not been in Byzantine hands for centuries . Alexios therefore did not recognize the legitimacy of the Principality , believing it should be returned to the Empire according to the oaths Bohemond had sworn in 1097 . He therefore set about trying to evict Bohemond from Antioch .
Bohemond added a further insult to both Alexios and the Orthodox Church in 1100 when he appointed Bernard of Valence as the Latin Patriarch , and the same time expelled the Greek Patriarch , John the Oxite , who fled to Constantinople . Soon after , Bohemond was captured by the Danishmends of Syria and was imprisoned for three years , during which the Antiochenes chose his nephew Tancred as regent . After Bohemond was released , he was defeated by the Seljuks at the Battle of Harran in 1104 ; this defeat led to renewed pressure on Antioch from both the Seljuks and the Byzantines . Bohemond left Tancred in control of Antioch and returned in the West , touring Italy and France for reinforcements . He won the backing of Pope Paschal II and the support of the French King Philip I , whose daughter he married . It is unclear whether his expedition qualified as a crusade .
Bohemond 's Norman relatives in Sicily had been in conflict with the Byzantine Empire for over 30 years ; his father Robert Guiscard was one of the Empire 's most formidable enemies . While Bohemond was away , Alexios sent an army to reoccupy Antioch and the cities of Cilicia . In 1107 , having organized a new army for his planned crusade against the Muslims in Syria , Bohemond instead launched into open warfare against Alexios , crossing the Adriatic to besiege Dyrrhachium , the westernmost city of the Empire . Like his father however , Bohemond was unable to make any significant advances into the Empire 's interior ; Alexios avoided a pitched battle and Bohemond 's siege failed , partly due to a plague among his army . Bohemond soon found himself in an impossible position , isolated in front of Dyrrhachium : his escape by sea was cut off by the Venetians , and Paschal II withdrew his support .
= = Settlements = =
In September 1108 , Alexios requested that Bohemond negotiate with him at the imperial camp at Diabolis ( Devol ) . Bohemond had no choice but to accept , now that his disease @-@ stricken army would no longer be able to defeat Alexios in battle . He admitted that he had violated the oath sworn in 1097 , but refused to acknowledge that it had any bearing on the present circumstances , as Alexios , in Bohemond 's eyes , had also violated the agreement by turning back from the siege of Antioch in 1098 . Alexios agreed to consider the oaths of 1097 invalid . The specific terms of the treaty were negotiated by the general Nikephoros Bryennios , and were recorded by Anna Komnene :
Bohemond agreed to become a vassal of the emperor , and also of Alexios ' son and heir John ;
He agreed to help defend the empire , wherever and whenever he was required to do so , and agreed to an annual payment of 200 talents in return for this service ;
He was given the title of sebastos , as well as doux ( duke ) of Antioch ;
He was granted as imperial fiefs Antioch and Aleppo ( the latter of which neither the Crusaders nor the Byzantines controlled , but it was understood that Bohemond should try to conquer it ) ;
He agreed to return Laodicea and other Cilician territories to Alexios ;
He agreed to let Alexios appoint a Greek patriarch " among the disciples of the great church of Constantinople " ( The restoration of the Greek Patriarch marked the acceptance of submission to the empire , but posed canonical questions , which were difficult to resolve ) .
The terms were negotiated according to Bohemond 's western understanding , so that he saw himself as a feudal vassal of Alexios , a " liege man " ( homo ligius or ἄνθρωπος λίζιος ) with all the obligations this implied , as customary in the West : he was obliged to bring military assistance to the Emperor , except in wars in which he was involved , and to serve him against all his enemies , in Europe and in Asia .
Anna Komnene described the proceedings with very repetitive details , with Bohemond frequently pointing out his own mistakes and praising the benevolence of Alexios and the Empire ; the proceedings must have been rather humiliating for Bohemond . On the other hand , Anna 's work was meant to praise her father and the terms of the treaty may not be entirely accurate .
The oral agreement was written down in two copies , one given to Alexios , and the other given to Bohemond . According to Anna , the witnesses from Bohemond 's camp who signed his copy of the treaty were Maurus , bishop of Amalfi and papal legate , Renard , bishop of Tarentum , and the minor clergy accompanying them ; the abbot of the monastery of St. Andrew in Brindisi , along with two of his monks ; and a number of unnamed " pilgrims " ( probably soldiers in Bohemond 's army ) . From Alexios ' imperial court , the treaty was witnessed by the sebastos Marinos of Naples , Roger son of Dagobert , Peter Aliphas , William of Gand , Richard of the Principate , Geoffrey of Mailli , Hubert son of Raoul , Paul the Roman , envoys from the Queen 's relation ( from the family of the former cral / king of Bulgaria ) , the ambassadors Peres and Simon from Hungary , and the ambassadors Basil the Eunuch and Constantine . Many of Alexios ' witnesses were themselves Westerners , who held high positions in the Byzantine army and at the imperial court ; Basil and Constantine were ambassadors in the service of Bohemond 's relatives in Sicily .
Neither copy survives . It may have been written in Latin , Greek , or both . Both languages are equally likely given the number of westerners present , many of whom would have known Latin . It is not clear how far Bohemond 's concessions were known across Latin Europe as only a few chroniclers mention the treaty at all ; Fulcher of Chartres simply says that Bohemond and Alexios were reconciled .
= = Analysis = =
The Treaty was weighted in Alexios ' favor and provided for the eventual absorption of Antioch and its territory into the Empire . Alexios , recognizing the impossibility of driving Bohemond out of Antioch , tried to absorb him into the structure of Byzantine rule , and put him work for the Empire 's benefit . Bohemond was to retain Antioch until his death with the title of doux , unless the emperor ( either Alexios or , in the future , John ) chose for any reason to renege on the deal . The principality would revert to direct Byzantine rule on Bohemond 's death . Bohemond therefore could not set up a dynasty in Antioch , although he was guaranteed the right to pass on to his heirs the County of Edessa , and any other territories he managed to acquire in the Syrian interior .
Bohemond 's lands were to include St Simeon and the coast , the towns of Baghras and Artah , and the Latin possessions in the Jebel as @-@ Summaq . Latakia and Cilicia , however , were to revert to direct Byzantine rule . As Thomas Asbridge points out , much of what the Emperor granted to Bohemond ( including Aleppo itself ) was still in Muslim hands ( e.g. neither Bohemond nor Alexios controlled Edessa , although at the time Tancred was regent there as well as in Antioch ) , which contradicts Lilie 's assessment that Bohemond did well out of the Treaty . René Grousset calls the Treaty a " Diktat " , but Jean Richard underscores that the rules of feudal law to which Bohemond had to submit " were in no way humiliating . " According to John W. Birkenmeier , the Treaty marked the point at which Alexios had developed a new army , and new tactical doctrines with which to use it , but it was not a Byzantine political success ; " it traded Bohemond 's freedom for a titular overlordship of Southern Italy that could never be effective , and for an occupation of Antioch that could never be carried out . "
The terms of the Treaty have been interpreted in various ways . According to Paul Magdalino and Ralph @-@ Johannes Lilie , " the Treaty as reproduced by Anna Komnene shows an astonishing familiarity with western feudal custom ; whether it was drafted by a Greek or by a Latin in imperial service , it had a sensitive regard for the western view of the status quo in the East Mediterranean . " So too did the diplomatic initiatives Alexios undertook , in order to enforce the Treaty on Tancred ( such as the treaty he concluded with Pisa in 1110 – 1111 , and the negotiations for Church union with Pascal II in 1112 ) . In contrast , Asbridge has recently argued that the Treaty derived from Greek as well as western precedents , and that Alexios wished to regard Antioch as falling under the umbrella of pronoia arrangements .
= = Aftermath = =
Bohemond never returned to Antioch ( he went to Sicily where he died in 1111 ) , and the carefully constructed clauses of the Treaty were never implemented . Bohemond 's nephew , Tancred , refused to honor the Treaty . In his mind , Antioch was his by right of conquest . He saw no reason to hand it over to someone who had not been involved in the Crusade , and had indeed actively worked against it ( as the Crusaders believed ) . The Crusaders seem to have felt Alexios had tricked Bohemond into giving him Antioch ; they already believed Alexios was devious and untrustworthy and this may have confirmed their beliefs . The treaty referred to Tancred as the illegal holder of Antioch , and Alexios had expected Bohemond to expel him or somehow control him . Tancred also did not allow a Greek Patriarch to enter the city ; instead , Greek Patriarchs were appointed in Constantinople and nominally held power there .
The question of the status of Antioch and the adjacent Cilician cities troubled the Empire for many years afterwards . Although the Treaty of Devol never came into effect , it provided the legal basis for Byzantine negotiations with the crusaders for the next thirty years , and for imperial claims to Antioch during the reigns of John II and Manuel I. Therefore , John II attempted to impose his authority , traveling to Antioch himself in 1137 with his army and besieging the city . The citizens of Antioch tried to negotiate , but John demanded the unconditional surrender of the city . After asking the permission of the King of Jerusalem , Fulk , which he received , Raymond , the Prince of Antioch , agreed to surrender the city to John . The agreement , by which Raymond swore homage to John , was explicitly based on the Treaty of Devol , but went beyond it : Raymond , who was recognized as an imperial vassal for Antioch , promised the Emperor free entry to Antioch , and undertook to hand over the city in return for investiture with Aleppo , Shaizar , Homs and Hama as soon as these were conquered from the Muslims . Then , Raymond would rule the new conquests and Antioch would revert to direct imperial rule . The campaign finally failed , however , partly because Raymond and Joscelin II , Count of Edessa , who had been obliged to join John as his vassals , did not pull their weight . When , on their return to Antioch , John insisted on taking possession of the city , the two princes organized a riot . John found himself besieged in the city , and was forced to leave in 1138 , recalled to Constantinople . He diplomatically accepted Raymond 's and Joscelin 's insistence that they had nothing to do with the rebellion . John repeated his operation in 1142 , but he unexpectedly died , and the Byzantine army retired .
It was not until 1158 , during the reign of Manuel I , that Antioch truly became a vassal of the empire , after Manuel forced Prince Raynald of Châtillon to swear fealty to him in punishment for Raynald 's attack on Byzantine Cyprus . The Greek Patriarch was restored , and ruled simultaneously with the Latin Patriarch . Antioch , weakened by powerless regents after Raynald 's capture by the Muslims in 1160 , remained a Byzantine vassal state until 1182 when internal divisions following Manuel 's death in 1180 hindered the Empire 's ability to enforce its claim .
In the Balkan frontier , the Treaty of Devol marked the end of the Norman threat to the southern Adriatic littoral during Alexios ' reign and later ; the efficacy of the frontier defenses deterred any further invasions through Dyrrachium for most of the 12th century .
= Mondo Cane ( album ) =
Mondo Cane is a 2010 album by Mike Patton . Featuring a forty @-@ member orchestra and fifteen @-@ piece backing band , the album contains a series of cover versions of 1950s and 1960s Italian pop music . Patton conceived of the album while living in Bologna , and became attracted to music he heard on the radio featuring pop singers backed by orchestras .
Released on May 4 , 2010 , through Patton 's record label Ipecac Recordings , Mondo Cane has been met with favorable responses from music critics . Reviewers have drawn comparisons to California , an earlier album by Patton 's first group Mr. Bungle . Mondo Cane peaked at number 2 in the United States ' Classical Albums chart , briefly charting in Switzerland and Finland as well .
= = Production = =
= = = Gestation = = =
Mondo Cane consists of Mike Patton 's arrangements and performances of 1950s and 1960s Italian pop songs . Patton had heard these songs while living in Bologna ; the singer had adopted the city as a second home after marrying Italian artist Titi Zuccatosta , and had become a fluent speaker of Italian . Patton began exploring Italian popular music ; although initially wishing to listen to contemporary music , he found nothing that interested him . However , he became drawn to pop music from the 1950s and 1960s , intrigued by singers using orchestras for backing rather than pop bands . Having considered making an album covering these songs for some time , Patton initially believed he would approach the project with a small band , but was offered the chance to compose music for an orchestra . Patton then opted to use this opportunity to record Mondo Cane instead .
Patton had also been inspired by the music of Italian composer Ennio Morricone . Patton 's record label Ipecac Recordings had previously released Crime and Dissonance , a two @-@ disc retrospective of Morricone 's work . The singer has described his admiration for Morricone 's writing , feeling that the composer turned " what could be banal , surface @-@ style pop into really deep , orchestrated , tense and compelling music " . Several of the album 's songs had been written by Morricone , including " Deep Down " , written for the 1968 Mario Bava film Danger : Diabolik . Patton had been aware of the song for some time , having been a fan of the film and Morricone 's score ; however , the two musicians have not actually met or worked together before .
= = = Recording = = =
Mondo Cane was recorded with the backing of a forty @-@ strong orchestra , a fifteen @-@ piece band , and a choir . Recordings were made on a live tour , with the album 's tracks assembled as composites from the first three dates of the Italian leg of the tour . Each song contains elements taken from different recordings , with Patton describing the process as " a giant Rubiks Cube [ sic ] " , noting that individual bars of one instrument 's music might be lifted from one concert and layered with bars of another instrument 's parts from another concert .
Stylistically , the album has been described by Allrovi 's Jason Lymangrover as ranging " from Frank Sinatra pop to psychedelic garage rock " ; while The Boston Globe 's James Reed has noted the " spare " sound of " Scalinatella " and the " furious and rocking " pace of " Urlo Negro " . Although wanting to remain faithful to the original versions of the songs covered , Patton wished to avoid simply mimicking the original recordings , stating " this is a record of covers , and I believe firmly that you have to make them your own . There is a very fine line to tread . You have to treat a song with respect , yet twist it up , fuck it up and somehow make it a part of your own voice " . When assembling the cut for " Deep Down " , Patton was able to get in touch with the original vocalist , a woman named Christy , though mutual friend Daniele Luppi . However , she declined to take part in the project .
One song on the record , " Scalinatella " , is sung in Neapolitan , rather than Italian , which required Patton to re @-@ learn the correct inflections and pronunciations in that language . However , the conductor of the orchestra Patton used on tour was a native of Naples and would frequently correct the singer during rehearsal until he was able to perform it correctly . Describing this collaboration , Patton noted " I had a lot of great people around me . I wouldn ’ t have been able to do any of this shit without them " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Release and reception = =
Although initially intended for released in 2009 , Mondo Cane was released on May 4 , 2010 through Patton 's record label , Ipecac Recordings . The album was released on both compact disc and vinyl record . The album 's cover feature a die @-@ cut design based on poster artwork created to advertise one of the early Mondo Cane concerts .
Mondo Cane has been met with generally favorable reviews . Review aggregation website Metacritic lists the album as having an average rating of 74 out of 100 , based on seventeen reviews . Writing for Allrovi , Jason Lymangrover rated the album four stars out of five , calling it Patton 's " most elaborate endeavor to date " . Lymangrover singled out " Deep Down " as a highlight , and felt that the covers were treated with due deference to the original recordings while still featuring Patton 's idiosyncratic take on them . Philip Bloomfield of Drowned in Sound awarded Mondo Cane a score of seven out of ten , describing it as " yet more proof that his talent and his breadth are perhaps indeed ' senza fine ' " . Bloomfield compared the sound of the album to California , a 1999 release by Patton 's first band Mr. Bungle ; and also felt that although the album 's covers were faithful to the original versions , they still showcased a degree of Patton 's versatility . Slant Magazine 's Jesse Cataldo rated Mondo Cane three stars out of five , describing Patton as " less a musician than a kind of gonzo multi @-@ specialty clearinghouse " . Cataldo felt that album was " actually simpler and less interesting than it sounds " , finding it to be well @-@ made but slightly incohesive .
Chris Martins of The A.V. Club awarded the album a B + rating , feeling that it " offers a new window into the obfuscated Patton oeuvre " . Martins also compared the record to California and felt that it would be greatly enjoyed by fans of Patton 's various side projects . Writing for The Boston Globe , James Reed described Mondo Cane as " offbeat for sure but not off @-@ putting " , adding that " language is no barrier with music this lovely " . Sputnikmusic 's Tyler Monro rated the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five , feeling that it would be , in theory , a bad idea . However , Monro felt that , on listening to the album , it was " his best work in close to a decade " , describing it as " a summer @-@ time staple and a faithful reminder that Mike Patton can sing but sadly little else " . Writing for PopMatters , John Garratt rated the album seven out of ten , writing " even if this album is a genre exercise , it ’ s still a very fine one " . Garrat felt that " Deep Down " was the album 's best song , adding that it " feels like it was written just for Mike Patton to sing " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , Mondo Cane reached a peak position of # 2 on the Billboard Classical Albums chart , spending forty @-@ two weeks in the chart in total . The album also spent one week in the Independent Albums chart , at # 41 , and two weeks in the Top Heatseekers album chart , peaking at # 7 . Mondo Cane spent one week in the Swiss Music Charts , at # 81 , and one week in The Official Finnish Charts , at # 44 .
= Short Term 12 =
Short Term 12 is a 2013 American drama film written and directed by Destin Daniel Cretton . The film is based on Cretton 's short film of the same name , produced in 2009 . It stars Brie Larson as Grace , the supervisor of a group home for troubled teenagers .
Cretton was inspired to write Short Term 1
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of his beard to a bush , has guided many scholars in this direction . The gold entwined in the cloth wrapped around his axe , combined with the green , gives him both a wild and an aristocratic air . Others see him as being an incarnation of the Devil . In one interpretation , it is thought that the Green Knight , as the " Lord of Hades " , has come to challenge the noble knights of King Arthur 's court . Sir Gawain , the bravest of the knights , therefore proves himself equal to Hercules in challenging the Knight , tying the story to ancient Greek mythology . Another possible interpretation of the Green Knight views him as combining elements from the Greek Hades and the Christian Messiah , at once representing both good and evil and life and death as self @-@ proliferating cycles . This interpretation embraces the positive and negative attributes of the colour green and ties in with the enigmatic motif of the poem . The description of the Green Knight upon his entrance to Arthur 's Court as " from neck to loin … strong and thickly made " is viewed by other scholars as homoerotic .
C.S. Lewis declared the Green Knight " as vivid and concrete as any image in literature " and further described him as :
a living coincidentia oppositorum ; half giant , yet wholly a " lovely " knight " ; as full of demoniac energy as old Karamazov , yet in his own house , as jolly as a Dickensian Christmas host ; now exhibiting a ferocity so gleeful that it is almost genial , and now a geniality so outrageous that it borders on the ferocious ; half boy or buffoon in his shouts and laughter and jumpings ; yet at the end judging Gawain with the tranquil superiority of an angelic being
The Green Knight could also be interpreted as a blend of two traditional figures in romance and medieval narratives , namely , " the literary green man " and the " literary wild man . " " The literary green man " signifies " youth , natural vitality , and love , " whereas the " literary wild man " represents the " hostility to knighthood , " " the demonic " and " death . " The Knight 's green skin connects the green of the costume to the green of the hair and beard , thus connecting the green man 's pleasant manners and significance into the wild man 's grotesque qualities .
= = = Jack in the green = = =
The Green Knight is also compared to the English holiday figure Jack in the green . Jack is part of a May Day holiday tradition in some parts of England , but his connection to the Knight is found mainly in the Derbyshire tradition of Castleton Garland . In this tradition , a kind of Jack in the green known as the Garland King is led through the town on a horse , wearing a bell @-@ shaped garland of flowers that covers his entire upper body , and followed by young girls dressed in white , who dance at various points along the route ( formerly the town 's bellringers , who still make the garland , also performed this role ) . On the top of the King 's garland is the " queen " , a posy of bright flowers . The King is also accompanied by his elegantly dressed female consort ( nowadays , confusingly , also known as the Queen ) ; played by a woman in recent times , until 1956 " the Woman " was always a man in woman 's clothing . At the end of the ceremony , the queen posy is taken off the garland , to be placed on the town 's war memorial . The Garland King then rides to the foot of the church tower where the garland is hauled up the side of the tower and impaled upon a pinnacle . Due to the nature imagery associated with the Green Knight , the ceremony has been interpreted as possibly deriving from his famous beheading in the Gawain poem . In this case , the posy 's removal would symbolise the loss of the knight 's head .
= = Green Chapel = =
In the Gawain poem , when the Knight is beheaded , he tells Gawain to meet him at the Green Chapel , saying that all nearby know where it is . Indeed , the guide which is to bring Gawain there from Bertilak 's castle grows very fearful as they near it and begs Gawain to turn back . The final meeting at the Green Chapel has led many scholars to draw religious connections , with the Knight fulfilling a priestly role with Gawain as a penitent . The Green Knight ultimately , in this interpretation , judges Gawain to be a worthy knight , and lets him live , playing a priest , God , and judge all at once .
The Chapel is seen in Gawain 's eyes as an evil place : foreboding , " the most accursed church " , " the place for the Devil to recite matins " ; but when the mysterious Knight allows Gawain to live , Gawain immediately assumes the role of penitent to a priest or judge , as in a genuine church . The Green Chapel may also be related to tales of fairy hills or knolls of earlier Celtic literature . Some scholars have wondered whether " Hautdesert " refers to the Green Chapel , as it means " High Hermitage " ; but such a connection is doubted by most scholars . As to the location of the Chapel , in the Greene Knight poem , Sir Bredbeddle 's living place is described as " the castle of hutton " , leading some scholars to suggest a connection with Hutton Manor House in Somerset . Gawain 's journey leads him directly into the centre of the Pearl Poet 's dialect region , where the candidates for the locations of the Castle at Hautdesert and the Green Chapel stand . Hautdesert is thought to be in the area of Swythamley in northwest Midland , as it is in the writer 's dialect area , and matches the land features described in the poem . The area is also known to have housed all of the animals hunted by Bertilak ( deer , boar , fox ) in the 14th century . The Green Chapel is thought to be in either Lud 's Church or Wetton Mill , as these areas closely match the descriptions given by the author . Ralph Elliott for example located the chapel the knight searches for near ( " two myle henne " v1078 ) the old manor house at Swythamley Park at the bottom of a valley ( " bothm of the brem valay " v2145 ) on a hillside ( " loke a littel on the launde , on thi lyfte honde " v2147 ) in a large fissure ( " an olde caue , / or a creuisse of an olde cragge " v2182 @-@ 83 ) .
= Art in early modern Scotland =
Art in early modern Scotland includes all forms of artistic production within the modern borders of Scotland , between the adoption of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century to the beginnings of the Enlightenment in the mid @-@ eighteenth century .
Devotional art before the Reformation included books and images commissioned in the Netherlands . Before the Reformation in the mid @-@ sixteenth century the interiors of Scottish churches were often elaborate and colourful , with sacrament houses and monumental effigies . Scotland 's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm , with the almost total loss of medieval stained glass , religious sculpture and paintings .
In about 1500 the Scottish monarchy turned to the recording of royal likenesses in panel portraits . More impressive are the works or artists imported from the continent , particularly the Netherlands . The tradition of royal portrait painting in Scotland was probably disrupted by the minorities and regencies it underwent for much of the sixteenth century , but it flourished after the Reformation . James VI employed Flemish artists Arnold Bronckorst and Adrian Vanson , who have left behind a visual record of the king and major figures at the court . The first significant native artist was George Jamesone , who was succeeded by a series of portrait painters as the fashion moved down the social scale to lairds and burgesses .
The loss of ecclesiastical patronage that resulted from the Reformation created a crisis for native craftsmen and artists , who turned to secular patrons . One result of this was the flourishing of Scottish Renaissance painted ceilings and walls . Other forms of domestic decoration included tapestries and stone and wood carving . In the first half of the eighteenth century there was an increasing professionalisation and organisation of art . Large numbers of artists took the grand tour to Italy . The Academy of St. Luke was founded as a society for artists in 1729 . It included among its members Allan Ramsay , who emerged as one of the most important British artists of the era .
= = Devotional art = =
Devotional art acquired from the Netherlands in the later fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries included the images of St Catherine and St John brought to Dunkeld ; Hugo van Der Goes 's altarpiece for the Trinity College Church in Edinburgh , commissioned by James III , and the work after which the Flemish Master of James IV of Scotland is named . There are also a relatively large number of elaborate devotional books from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries , usually produced in the Netherlands and France for Scottish patrons . These include the prayer book commissioned by Robert Blackadder , Bishop of Glasgow , between 1484 and 1492 and the Flemish illustrated book of hours , known as the Hours of James IV of Scotland , given by James IV to Margaret Tudor after 1503 and described by D. H. Caldwell as " perhaps the finest medieval manuscript to have been commissioned for Scottish use " .
Before the Reformation in the mid @-@ sixteenth century the interiors of Scottish churches were often elaborate and colourful . Particularly in the north @-@ east of the country there were highly decorated sacrament houses , like the ones surviving at Kinkell from 1524 and Deskford from 1541 . Monumental effigies in churches were usually fully coloured and gilded and dedicated to members of the clergy , knights and their wives . In contrast to England , where the fashion for stone @-@ carved monuments gave way to monumental brasses , in Scotland they continued to be produced until the end of the Medieval period . These include the very elaborate Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas and the tomb built for Alexander McLeod ( d . 1528 ) at Rodel in Harris . Scotland 's ecclesiastical art paid a heavy toll as a result of Reformation iconoclasm , with the almost total loss of medieval stained glass , religious sculpture and paintings . The only significant surviving pre @-@ Reformation stained glass in Scotland is a window of four roundels in the St. Magdalen Chapel of Cowgate , Edinburgh , completed in 1544 . Wood carving can be seen at King 's College , Aberdeen and Dunblane Cathedral . In the West Highlands , where there had been a hereditary caste of monumental sculptors , the uncertainty and loss of patronage caused by the rejection of monuments in the Reformation meant that they moved into another branches of the Gaelic learned orders or took up other occupations . The lack of transfer of carving skills is noticeable in the decline in quality when gravestones were next commissioned from the start of the seventeenth century . According to N. Prior , the nature of the Scottish Reformation may have had wider effects , limiting the creation of a culture of public display and meaning that art was channelled into more austere forms of expression with an emphasis on private and domestic restraint .
= = Portraiture = =
Around 1500 , about the same time as in England , Scottish monarchs turned to the recording of royal likenesses in panel portraits , painted in oils on wood , perhaps as a form of political expression . In 1502 James IV paid for delivery of portraits of the Tudor household , probably by the " Inglishe payntour " named " Mynours , " who stayed in Scotland to paint the king and his new bride Margaret Tudor the following year . " Mynours " was Maynard Wewyck , a Flemish painter who usually worked for Henry VII in London . As in England , the monarchy may have had model portraits of royalty used for copies and reproductions , but the versions of native royal portraits that survive are generally crude by continental standards . Much more impressive are the works or artists imported from the continent , particularly the Netherlands , generally considered the centre of painting in the Northern Renaissance . The products of these connections included a fine portrait of William Elphinstone . It is one of the earliest representations of a Scottish subject to survive and was probably painted by a Scots artist using Flemish techniques . The tradition of royal portrait painting in Scotland was disrupted by the minorities and regencies it underwent for much of the sixteenth century . In his majority James V was probably more concerned with architectural expressions of royal identity . Mary Queen of Scots had been brought up in the French court , where she was drawn and painted by major European artists , but she did not commission any adult portraits , with the exception of the joint portrait with her second husband Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley . This may have reflected an historic Scottish pattern , where heraldic display or an elaborate tomb were considered more important than a portrait .
Portraiture began to flourish after the Reformation . There were anonymously painted portraits of important individuals , including one of James Hepburn , 4th Earl of Bothwell ( 1556 ) . Artists from the Low Countries remained important . Hans Eworth , who had been court painter to Mary I of England , painted a number of Scottish subjects in the 1560s . His 1561 wedding portraits were miniatures commemorating the brief marriage of the earl of Bothwell and Jean Gordon . He also painted James Stewart , 1st Earl of Moray in 1561 and two years later he painted a joint portrait of the young Darnley and his brother Charles Stuart . Lord Seton , Master of the Royal Household commissioned two portraits in the Netherlands in the 1570s , one of himself and one a family portrait . A specific type of Scottish picture is the " vendetta portrait " , designed to keep alive the memory of an atrocity . Examples include the Darlney memorial portrait , which shows the young James IV kneeling at his murdered father 's tomb and the lifesize portrait of the corpse of The Bonnie Early of Moray vividly showing the wounds received by James Stewart , 2nd Earl of Moray when he was killed by George Gordon , 1st Marquess of Huntly in 1592 .
There was an attempt to produce a series of portraits of Scottish kings in panel portraits , probably for the royal entry of the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old James VI in 1579 , which are Medieval in form . In James VI 's personal reign , Renaissance forms of portraiture began to dominate . He employed two Flemish artists , Arnold Bronckorst in the early 1580s and Adrian Vanson from around 1584 to 1602 , who have left us a visual record of the king and major figures at the court . However , the Union of Crowns in 1603 removed a major source of artistic patronage in Scotland as James VI and his court moved to London . The result has been seen as a shift " from crown to castle " , as the nobility and local lairds became the major sources of patronage .
By the seventeenth century the fashion for portraiture had spread down the social order to lairds such as Colin Campbell of Glenorchy and John Napier of Merchiston . The first significant native artist was George Jamesone of Aberdeen ( 1589 / 90 @-@ 1644 ) , who , having trained in the Netherlands , became one of the most successful portrait painters of the reign of Charles I. He trained the Baroque artist John Michael Wright ( 1617 – 94 ) , who painted both Scottish and English subjects . The Flemish @-@ Spanish painter John Baptist Medina ( 1659 – 1710 ) came to Scotland in 1693 and became the leading Scottish portrait painter of his generation . Among his best known works are a group of about 30 oval bust @-@ lengths , including a self @-@ portrait , in Surgeons ' Hall , Edinburgh . He trained his son , also John , and William Aikman ( 1682 – 1731 ) , who became the leading portrait painter of the next generation . Aikman migrated to London in 1723 , and from this point until the late eighteenth century , most Scottish painters of note followed him .
= = Domestic decoration = =
The loss of ecclesiastical patronage that resulted from the Reformation , created a crisis for native craftsmen and artists , who turned to secular patrons . One result of this was the flourishing of Scottish Renaissance painted ceilings and walls , with large numbers of private houses of burgesses , lairds and lords gaining often highly detailed and coloured patterns and scenes , of which over a hundred examples survive . These were undertaken by unnamed Scottish artists using continental pattern books that often led to the incorporation of humanist moral and philosophical symbolism , with elements that call on heraldry , piety , classical myths and allegory . The earliest surviving example is at the Hamilton palace of Kinneil , West Lothian , decorated in the 1550s for the then regent the James Hamilton , Earl of Arran . Other examples include the ceiling at Prestongrange House , undertaken in 1581 for Mark Kerr , Commendator of Newbattle , and the long gallery at Pinkie House , painted for Alexander Seaton , Earl of Dunfermline in 1621 .
Records also indicate that Scottish palaces were adorned by rich tapestries , like those that depicted scenes from the Iliad and Odyssey set up for James IV at Holyrood . Some of this was undertaken by exclusive professional embroiders , but needlework was part of female education at all levels of society . Some of these tapestries were produced by noble ladies , such as the bed valances made by Katherine Ruthven for her marriage in 1551 to Campbell of Glenorchy . These are the oldest surviving examples of Scottish produced embroidery . They display the couple 's initials , arms and the story of Adam and Eve . A carpet designed to cover a table may be connected to the marriage of Katherine Oliphant , which has her initials , arms , biblical verses and ( perhaps as a pun on her name ) an elephant . Much of the needle work of the sixteenth century has been attributed , probably erroneously , to Mary , Queen of Scots . It is thought that she did contribute to the Oxburgh Hangings while imprisoned in England .
Although tradition of stone and wood carving in churches largely ended at the Reformation , it continued in royal palaces , the great houses of the nobility and even the humbler homes of lairds and burgesses . The intricate lid of the fourteenth @-@ century Bute mazer , carved from a single piece of whale bone , was probably created in the early sixteenth century . At Stirling Castle , stone carvings on the royal palace from the reign of James V are taken from German patterns , and , like the surviving carved oak portrait roundels from the King 's Presence Chamber , known as the Stirling Heads , they include contemporary , biblical and classical figures . These , and the elaborate Renaissance fountain at Linlithgow Palace ( c . 1538 . ) , suggest that there was a workshop with an established connected with the court in the early sixteenth century . Some of the finest domestic wood carving is in the Beaton panels made for Arbroath Abbey and at Huntly Castle , rebuilt for George Gordon , 1st Marquess of Huntly in the early seventeenth century , which focused on heraldic images . Their " popish " overtones led to them being damaged by an occupying Covenanter army in 1640 . From the seventeenth century , as domestic architecture for the nobility was increasingly for comfort , rather than fortification , there was elaborate use of carving in carved pediments , fireplaces , heraldic arms and classical motifs . Plasterwork also began to be used , often depicting flowers and cherubs . Richly carved decoration on ordinary houses was common in the period . There is also the heraldic carving , such as the royal arms at Holyrood Palace , designed by the Dutch painter Jacob de Wet in 1677 . The tradition of carving also survived in work like the carved stone panels in the garden of Edzell Castle ( c . 1600 ) , the now lost carving done for Edinburgh and Glasgow universities in the seventeenth @-@ century and in the many elaborate sundials of the seventeenth century , like those at Newbattle .
= = Professionalisation of art = =
The growing importance of royal art can be seen in the post of Painter and Limner , created in 1702 for George Ogilvie . The duties included drawing pictures of the Monarch 's person , his successors and members of the royal family , for the decoation of royal houses and palaces . However , from 1723 to 1823 the office was a sinecure held by members of the Abercrombie family , not necessarily connected with artistic ability . Many painters of the early part of the eighteenth century remained largely artisans , like the members of the Norie family , James ( 1684 – 1757 ) and his sons , Robert and the younger James , who painted the houses of the peerage with Scottish landscapes that were capriccios or pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes . They tutored artists and have been credited with the inception of the tradition of Scottish landscape painting that would come to fruition from the late eighteenth century . Italy became an important point of reference for Scottish artists , with many taking the Grand Tour there to paint , sample the art and learn from Italian masters .
In 1729 there was an attempt to found a school of painting in Edinburgh as the Academy of St. Luke , named after the Renaissance Accademia di San Luca in Rome . Its president was George Marshall , a painter of still lives and portraits , and its treasurer was the engraver Richard Cooper . Other members included Cooper 's student Robert Strange , the two younger Nories , the portrait painters John Alexander ( c . 1690 @-@ c . 1733 ) and Allan Ramsay ( 1713 – 84 ) . The success of the group was limited by its associations with Jacobitism , with Strange printing bank notes for the rebels . Alexander was a great grandson of George Jamesone . He studied in London and Rome , returning to Edinburgh about 1720 where he painted the Baroque The Rape of Proserpine , for the roof of a staircase at Gordon Castle and numerous portraits . Ramsay emerged as the most distinguished alumni of the academy . He studied in Sweden , London and Italy before basing himself in Edinburgh . There he established himself as a leading portrait painter to the Scottish nobility , before moving to London in 1757 . He made occasional return visits to Edinburgh to undertake commissions for the nobility and gentry .
= Plutoid =
A plutoid or ice dwarf is a trans @-@ Neptunian dwarf planet , i.e. a body orbiting beyond Neptune that is massive enough to be rounded in shape . The term plutoid was adopted by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) working group Committee on Small Bodies Nomenclature , but was rejected by the IAU working group Planetary System Nomenclature . The term plutoid is not widely used by astronomers , though ice dwarf is not uncommon .
There are thought to be thousands of plutoids in the Solar System , although only four have been formally designated as such by the IAU .
The IAU developed this category of astronomical objects as a consequence of its 2006 resolution defining the word " planet " . The IAU 's formal definition of " plutoid " , announced 11 June 2008 , is :
Plutoids are celestial bodies in orbit around the Sun at a semi @-@ major axis greater than that of Neptune that have sufficient mass for their self @-@ gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that they assume a hydrostatic equilibrium ( near @-@ spherical ) shape , and that have not cleared the neighbourhood around their orbit . Satellites of plutoids are not plutoids themselves .
In light of the difficulty of remotely ascertaining hydrostasis , the IAU only formally confers " dwarf planet " ( and by extension , " plutoid " ) status to those bodies whose minimum estimated size is substantially greater than what is generally thought necessary to guarantee hydrostatic equilibrium . As of 2009 , Pluto , Eris , Haumea , and Makemake are the only objects officially recognized as plutoids , while upwards of seventy more bodies that currently lack formal recognition are thought likely to meet the definition , and can expect formal recognition at some time in the future .
Alan Stern of the Southwest Research Institute believes the outer planets show signs of collisions with plutoids 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 kilometers in diameter : Uranus could have been tipped off its axis by a plutoid , and Triton , the largest moon of Neptune , is probably a captured plutoid from the Kuiper belt .
= = History of the term = =
On 24 August 2006 , the IAU decided to reclassify Pluto as a dwarf planet , requiring that a planet must " clear the neighbourhood around its orbit " .
The General Assembly of the IAU further resolved :
Pluto is [ … ] recognized as the prototype of a new category of Trans @-@ Neptunian Objects .
This new category had been proposed under the name " pluton " or a " plutonian object " earlier in the General Assembly . The former was rejected , in part because " pluton " is a geological term , and many geological experts sent in complaints pointing this out . " Pluton " was dropped midway through the Assembly and was abandoned in the final draft resolution ( 6b ) ; " Plutonian object " failed to win majority approval on a 183 – 186 vote in the IAU General Assembly on August 24 , 2006 .
The definition of the category also fluctuated during its early stages . When first proposed , the category , then named " pluton " , defined members as planets whose orbital period around the Sun was more than 200 Julian years , and whose orbit was more highly inclined and more elliptical than a traditional planetary orbit . Once it had been counter @-@ proposed to strip Pluto of planet status , this category of Pluto @-@ like objects was then applied to dwarf planets that met the conditions of being trans @-@ Neptunian and " like Pluto " in terms of period , inclination , and eccentricity . Ultimately , the final resolution left the formal definition , like the name , to be established at a later date .
Following the IAU General Assembly , the name " plutoid " was proposed by the members of the IAU Committee on Small Body Nomenclature ( CSBN ) , accepted by the Board of Division III , and approved by the IAU Executive Committee at its meeting in Oslo , Norway , on 11 June 2008 . The term was announced after the Executive Committee meeting , along with a greatly simplified definition : all trans @-@ Neptunian dwarf planets are plutoids . However , due to a communication error , the IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature ( WG @-@ PSN ) was not consulted , and they subsequently rejected the term .
As of 2009 , the term had not been widely accepted by the scientific community , with the term ice dwarf ( planet ) sometimes used instead .
= = Analogous terminology = =
Prior to the emergence of the term " plutoid " as an IAU @-@ sanctioned categorization , there had been some attempts at applying a title for this class of object .
The term " ice dwarf " saw some adoption as a near @-@ synonym to the eventual term " plutoid " . " Ice dwarf " , however , also saw some use as an umbrella term for all so @-@ called " distant minor planets " ( trans @-@ Neptunian objects plus centaurs ) or other , broad applications ; one attempted definition was that an ice dwarf " is larger than the nucleus of a normal comet and icier than a typical asteroid " . There are large numbers of such objects in the Oort cloud and the Kuiper belt . However , it is not clear whether all so @-@ categorized ice dwarfs are actually icier than icy asteroids such as Ceres ( now considered a dwarf planet ) . Nonetheless , Ceres is sometimes called a terrestrial dwarf to distinguish it from Pluto and Eris .
" Ice dwarf " as a term for an icy planetary body that generally orbits beyond Neptune was coined as part of a conception of a threefold division of the Solar System into inner terrestrial planets , central gas giants , and outer ice dwarfs , of which Pluto was the principal member . This conception foreshadowed the reclassification of Pluto to dwarf planet and plutoid after the discovery of Eris .
= = Naming process for plutoids = =
With the creation of the term " dwarf planet " , some ambiguity was created as to which of two IAU bodies would be responsible for naming dwarf planets . Eris had been named through the IAU Committee on Small Body Nomenclature and the IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature working in cooperation with one another . Along with announcing the name " plutoid " , the IAU decision of 11 June 2008 institutionalized this cooperative process involving the two bodies in the naming of new plutoids . In keeping with minor planet naming guidelines , priority will be given to names proposed by the discovery teams , and plutoids may not share a name with a small Solar System body .
= = = Complications related to " dwarf planet " definition = = =
When the definition of " dwarf planet " was instated at the IAU General Assembly of 2006 , Ceres , Pluto and Eris were identified by name as the initial members of the dwarf planet class . However , precise regulations as to how hydrostatic equilibrium would be measured were left undefined for the time being . Without an official procedure for calculating the lower bound of size to be a " dwarf planet " , no further bodies could be formally recognized as either dwarf planets or plutoids .
It was noted that the naming process would remain stalled without such rules , and that even with them , few of these bodies can be imaged with sufficient resolution to determine their shapes . Therefore , the IAU announced that for naming purposes , a trans @-@ Neptunian object will be assumed to be a plutoid if it has an absolute magnitude brighter than H = + 1 magnitude .
Mathematically , the smallest possible object that could possess an absolute magnitude of + 1 ( a perfectly reflective one with an albedo of 1 ) would be 838 km in diameter . It is highly unlikely that any body of this size or larger , regardless of composition , would not also surpass whatever threshold is ultimately adopted as proof of hydrostatic equilibrium . However , if it turns out upon further investigation that an object named as if it were a plutoid has not achieved hydrostatic equilibrium , the IAU has stated it will be reclassified , but keep its name .
This decision allowed for the naming of Makemake and Haumea , and their formal recognition as plutoids and dwarf planets , bringing the number of IAU @-@ accepted plutoids to four . However , the ( co ) discoverer of Eris , Makemake , and Haumea , Mike Brown , estimates that between 100 and 400 known bodies are plutoids , and that there are many more that have yet to be discovered . See list of possible dwarf planets .
= Lisa on Ice =
" Lisa on Ice " is the eighth television episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It was first broadcast on Fox in the United States on November 13 , 1994 . In the episode , Principal Skinner hands out academic alerts to the Springfield Elementary students , and Lisa discovers that she is in peril of failing a class for the first time in her life . When trying to salvage her gym grade , Lisa finds she possesses a skill for ice hockey . Rivalry between Lisa and Bart in the rink escalates into their home life and beyond , fueled considerably by Homer and coaches .
The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Bob Anderson , whose passion for hockey inspired the plot . It features cultural references to films such as Rollerball and The Pope of Greenwich Village . The episode was well received by critics , and acquired a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 6 .
= = Plot = =
Principal Skinner calls all the Springfield Elementary School students down for an assembly to tell them which subjects they are failing . Lisa is surprisingly called up , and discovers to her horror that she is failing gym class . When she appeals to her teacher , they reach a compromise : Lisa can get a passing grade if she joins a sports program outside of school . She immediately attempts to join several , but fails , and her self @-@ esteem is devastated . Later , the family goes to see Bart play hockey for his team , the Mighty Pigs , coached by Chief Wiggum . After the game , Bart , while ridiculing his sister for being poor at sports , begins shooting pieces of litter at Lisa with his hockey stick , and Apu , the coach of the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart Gougers , notices that she is a natural at hockey goal @-@ tending and makes her goalie for his team . Although Lisa has no interest in hockey , she accepts , seeing this as the only way to maintain her academic credentials . As it turns out , she is remarkably talented , and leads her team to their best season ever .
Due to Homer 's increasing pressure , a sibling rivalry develops between Bart and Lisa , and it peaks when the town learns that the Gougers will face the Mighty Pigs in their next match . The game proves to be a vicious one , but very close , with both Bart and Lisa playing their best . With four seconds left , Bart is tripped by Jimbo , giving him a penalty shot against Lisa that will decide the game . However , as they face each other , Bart and Lisa remember the good times they have had together as children before they began fighting . They each throw aside their equipment and hug , and the match ends in a tie . Marge admits she is proud of them , while a sobbing Homer declares them both losers and turns his attention to Maggie . Unsatisfied with the outcome ( although Snake is visibly moved ) , the residents of Springfield begin rioting and tear the stadium to pieces while Bart and Lisa blissfully skate together across the rink .
= = Production = =
The idea for the episode came from The Simpsons writer Mike Scully , who wanted to do an episode involving hockey because of his passion for the sport . Bob Anderson , who also had an interest for hockey , directed the episode .
The episode starts out with Lisa tricking Bart into believing it is a snow day by throwing a snowball at him which she made out of the ice in the fridge . The scene was inspired by Scully , who as a child loved to sit and listen by the radio waiting to see if there was going to be school snow day . Scully thought , because of his experience as a child , that there was nothing more disappointing than to wake up expecting a snow day , only to find out there was no snow . The academic alerts the Springfield Elementary School students receive were based on those Scully received in junior high .
= = Cultural references = =
When Moe visits Bart and Lisa at the Simpson house to see if they have any injuries that may affect the odds of the upcoming game , Marge sends him away and he pleads : " They 're gonna take my thumbs " . This is a reference to Eric Roberts ' line , " Charlie , they took my thumb " , from the 1984 film The Pope of Greenwich Village . The episode features several references to the 1975 film Rollerball . At the academic alerts assembly , bully Kearney has Dolph take a memo on an Apple Newton , a personal digital assistant . When Dolph writes " Beat up Martin " on the screen , the handwriting recognition turns it into " Eat up Martha " , and Kearney throws the Newton at Martin instead , referencing the MessagePad 's poor handwriting recognition . The name of Bart 's team , " Mighty Pigs " , is a parody of the film series The Mighty Ducks .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Lisa on Ice " finished 34th in the ratings for the week of November 7 to November 13 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 6 . It was the second highest rated show on the Fox network that week . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " a fabulous episode for Lisa and Bart , although with a special mention for a few seconds of tremendous Edna Krabappel wickedness . " DVD Verdict 's Ryan Keefer said the episode " is one of the few episodes centered on Lisa that I enjoy watching " , and gave it a B. DVD Talk 's Aaron Beierle said " there are definitely some funny moments in this episode , the sweet @-@ natured way that the episode ends never sat right with me . " ESPN.com named this episode the fifth best sports moment in the history of the show . The Orlando Sentinel 's Gregory Hardy listed it as the seventh best episode of the show with a sports theme .
TV Squad 's Adam Finley gave the episode a positive review , commenting that it is " a skewering of parents who become too involved in their children 's sports and turn what should be a lesson in teamwork , trying your hardest , and losing gracefully into a kind of Roman Coliseum where grown adults live out violent fantasies and their own failed ambitions through their children . " He added that " Homer is an absolute jerk in this episode , taunting his children when they lose and praising them when they win and humiliate their sibling " and that " it 's not just Homer . Marge , characteristically so , tries to remain diplomatic , but even she starts screaming for blood when Bart is tripped by an opposing player . "
= Montauk Point land claim =
The Montauk Point land claim was a series of three lawsuits brought by Chief Wyandank Pharaoh , nephew of the Stephen Talkhouse who died in the same year ( 1879 ) that the tribe lost the last remaining vestige of their territory in the New York state courts , claiming Montauk Point on behalf of the Montaukett Indians , against the Long Island Rail Road ( LIRR ) and its predecessors in title .
The first suit , Montauk Tribe of Indians v. Long Island R.R. Co . , brought by Wyandank Pharaoh in the name of the tribe , was dismissed because the tribe had not been explicitly authorized by the state to sue in its own name .
As recommended by the Appellate Division 's opinion , the second suit , Johnson v. Long Island R.R. Co . , was brought in the name of Eugene M. Johnson , a citizen and tribal member . The New York Court of Appeals disavowed the previous dicta of the Appellate Division , and held that neither an individual Indian nor a tribe could sue in court without enabling legislation .
The tribe failed in its efforts to convince the federal government to pass legislation enabling the tribe to bring the claim in federal court . In 1906 , the state passed a statute enabling the tribe to sue , and Wyandank Pharaoh brought a third suit , Pharaoh v. Benson , in the name of the tribe . Reaching the merits , the New York courts held that the tribe no longer existed and that the transactions were valid . Since the litigation , the Montauks have failed in their efforts to obtain compensation from the federal and state government , and much of the land in question has come to be held by public parks .
= = Background = =
Circa 1875 , the Montauk tribe began renting out Montauk Point for pasturage through the Proprietors ' Company ; the company took possession of the grazing allotments , and paid the tribe an annuity . Circa 1880 , the shareholders of the company disagreed over whether the lands should continue to be leased , or whether they should be re @-@ apportioned . In 1878 , Robert M. Grinnell sued Edward M. Baker et al. for partition and division of the allotments . In Grinnell v. Baker ( unreported ) , the court ordered the lands sold at public auction ( subject to the Montauk claim ) , with the proceeds distributed equally among the non @-@ Indian lessees , rather than the Montauk tribe .
The auction took place at the home of Jehial Parsons . Arthur W. Benson bought the 11 @,@ 000 acres ( 45 km2 ) at auction for $ 151 @,@ 000 in 1879 . In turn , Benson sold 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 km2 ) of the land to the Long Island Rail Road for $ 600 @,@ 000 .
Benson hired Nathaniel Dominey to negotiate the removal of the Montauks still living on the reservation . At a later , Senate Sub @-@ Committee hearing , Dominey testified that eight Indians remained on the reservation at the time , including : future Chief Wyandank Pharaoh ( 10 years old at the time ) , his mother , and two of her brothers . Later , Dominey experienced a change of heart and cooperated with the Montauks in their claim , and turning over his letters from Benson . Dominey testified that he compensated Wyandank Pharaoh 's mother with a $ 100 semi @-@ annual annuity and two houses , to be inherited by Pharaoh , $ 80 each to her two brothers , and $ 10 to Wyandank .
Arthur Benson had viewed Montauk as " his private playground " ; after his death , his son approached Austin Corbin , President and controlling shareholder of the Long Island Rail Road , and Charles Pratt , of Standard Oil , about the possibility of voiding his fathers will and opening Montauk to development . Montauk Point was purchased by Corbin and Pratt in 1895 .
On October 30 , 1895 , Chief Wyandank Pharaoh returned from a research trip to Brooklyn and Washington , D.C. to gather evidence to pursue a claim . Pharaoh declared his intentions to undertake a hunting trip on the disputed land and initiate a lawsuit if he was interfered with .
The New York Times blamed Chief Pharaoh for the dispute :
If King Wyandank Pharaoh of the Montauk Tribe of Indians had not given for $ 10 the living members of the Montauk tribe might now be wealthy , instead of being poor and fighting for their rights with a desperate hope of regaining at least part of what they claim to be their lawful heritage .
= = Montauk Tribe of Indians v. Long Island R.R. Co . ( App . Div . 1898 ) = =
= = = Supreme Court = = =
Chief Talkhouse , on behalf of the tribe , filed suit , stating a cause of action for ejectment on February 5 , 1897 . For proof of tribal status , the tribe cited a partition action decided by Judge Dykman and the 1890 United States Census . The complaint valued the land at approximately $ 300 @,@ 000 .
On June 5 , 1897 , Judge Wilmot Moses Smith of the New York Supreme Court set a hearing date for June 19 in Patchogue to hear the oral arguments for the defendants ' demurrer . The matter was transferred to Judge Samuel T. Maddox in Brooklyn . Judge Maddox granted the demurrer , dismissing the action but allowing the tribe to re @-@ plead if they paid costs .
= = = Appellate Division = = =
The Montauk 's , represented by ex @-@ judge George M. Curtis , filed a notice of appeal on December 22 , 1897 . Before the Appellate Division , the Montauk 's case was argued by Leman B. Treadwell , with Francis M. Morrison ( both Boston lawyers ) also on the brief . Alfred A. Gardner argued on behalf of the LIRR , with William J. Kelly on the brief . The Appellate Division panel consisted of Judges Goodrich , Edgar M. Cullen , Willard Bartlett , Hatch , and Woodward .
The Appellate Division of the Second Department unanimously affirmed the judgment of the Suffolk Special Term on April 19 , 1898 . Citing Strong v. Waterman and Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy , Judge Cullen noted that " no provision had been made by law for bringing ejectment to recover possession of [ Indians ] " and " as a body or tribe , the Indians have no corporate name by which they can institute such a suit . " Judge Cullen suggested that the tribe either petition the legislature for enabling legislation to allow them to sue as a tribe , or have individual members bring the suit .
= = Johnson v. Long Island R.R. Co . ( N.Y. 1900 ) = =
= = = Supreme Court = = =
Eugene M. Johnson , a U.S. citizen of Montauk descent , and a member of the tribe since birth , brought a similar suit in his own name , on behalf of himself and other similarly interested . The Special Term sustained a demurrer .
= = = Appellate Division = = =
The divided panel of the Appellate Division of the Second Department reversed on July 1 , 1899 . In a per curiam opinion , joined by all but Judge Willard Bartlett , the Appellate Division held :
While the right to maintain this action in its present form is not free from doubt , still , as it is brought in accordance with the view expressed by us on the prior appeal , we think we should adhere to our former decision , and allow the question to be finally determined by the court of appeals .
= = = Court of Appeals = = =
The Appellate Division certified three questions to the Court of Appeals :
1 . Has the plaintiff in this action legal capacity to sue ?
2 . Is there a defect of the parties plaintiff in this action , in that the members of the alleged Montauk Tribe of Indians are not made parties plaintiff ?
3 . Does the complaint herein state facts sufficient to constitute a cause of action ?
Before the Court of Appeals , Treadwell and Morrison again argued for the Montauks , while Gardner and Kelly again argued for the LIRR .
The New York Court of Appeals reversed the Appellate Division , and affirmed the Special Term , on April 17 , 1900 . The court answered all three certified questions in the negative , without costs to either party . Judge Edward T. Bartlett , joined by Judges Denis O 'Brien , Albert Haight , and Celora E. Martin , held that Johnson had no capacity to bring a suit on the tribe 's behalf . The Court held that Indians , as wards of the state , had no right to sue unless conferred by statute :
A decision holding that this action could be maintained either by the tribe , or an individual member thereof on behalf of himself and all others who should come in and contribute , would be contrary to the policy and practice which have been long established in our treatment of the Indian tribes . They are regarded as the wards of the state , and , generally speaking , possessed of only such rights to appear and litigate in courts of justice as are conferred upon them by statute .
Chief Judge Alton B. Parker concurred in the result , without separate opinion ; Judges Irving G. Vann and Landon dissented , without opinion .
= = Senate Indian Affairs Sub @-@ Committee hearing ( 1900 ) = =
Chief Pharaoh , along with representatives of the Shinnecock Tribe , Narragansett Tribe , and Mohegan Tribe , testified before a Sub @-@ Committee of the Senate Indian Affairs Committee on September 22 , 1900 , at the Fifth Avenue Hotel . The Sub @-@ Committee consisted of Senators John M. Thurston ( R @-@ NE ) and Orville H. Platt ( R @-@ CT ) . In addition to Pharaoh , the testifying Indians were : Rev. Eugene A. Johnson , Nathan J. Cuffee , and James Cuffee ( of the Montauk Council ) , John Noka , Joshua Noka , and Donald Seeter ( of the Narragansett Council ) , David Kellis ( of the Shinnecock Council ) . Maria Crippen and Dr. William H. Johnson of the Montauk tribe were among the spectators .
Rev. Johnson testified that there were 300 living members of the Montauk tribe . Johnson also testified that the New York state legislature had denied the Montauks a hearing because they were not " persons . " Johnson argued that the Montauks could not alienate property without the consent of both New York and the federal government . He valued the disputed property at $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
The tribes requested special legislation to allow them to bring their land claims , for fraud , in the United States circuit court . The Montauks and Shinnecocks claimed 11 @,@ 000 acres ( 45 km2 ) of Montauk Point ; the Narragansetts an eight @-@ square @-@ mile tract near Narragansett Bay ; the Mohegans a reservation in and near Norwich , Connecticut . Tredwell and Morrison continued to represent the tribes before the hearing .
= = State enabling legislation ( 1906 ) = =
A bill granting the Montauks permission to sue was introduced in February 1903 . The Montauk 's lawyer , Charles O. Maas , was the key lobbyist for the bill .
On April 10 , 1906 , the New York legislature passed a statute enabling the Montauk tribe to bring suit , The act contained the following proviso : " the question as to the existence of the Montauk Tribe of Indians shall be a question of law and fact to be determined by the court . " Judge Blackmar interpreted the act as " providing that the act should not be construed as conferring tribal rights on any individuals , but that the question of the existence of the Montauk Tribe should be determined by the court . "
= = Pharaoh v. Benson ( N.Y. 1918 ) = =
= = = Supreme Court = = =
Pursuant to the enabling act , Chief Wyandank Pharaoh brought a third suit on behalf of the tribe in 1906 . The named defendants were : Jane Ann Benson and Mary Benson , the executrices of Arthur Benson 's will , John J. Pierrepoint and Henry R. Hoyt , the executors and trustees of Frank Sherman Benson 's will , Mary Benson , the Montauk Company , the Montauk Dock and Improvement Company , Alfred W. Hoyt , the Montauk Extension Railroad Company , and the Long Island Rail Road . An area of 4 @,@ 200 acres ( 17 km2 ) was named in the third complaint ( 1 @,@ 200 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 km2 ) of it adjacent to the LIRR ) .
Chief Pharaoh was represented by Maas and Lawrence W. Trowbridge ( of counsel ) . The defendants were represented by Daly , Hoyt & Mason ( for the Bensons ) , Austin & McLanahan ( for the Dock and Improvement Co . ) , A. T. Mason ( for Pierrepoint and Henry Hoyt ) , P. Tecumseh Sherman ( for Alfred Hoyt ) , and Joseph Keany ( for the LIRR ) . According to a 1910 Q & A in the New York Times , the lawyers fees were " long since supposed to have eclipsed the value of the land in litigation . "
The trial took place , without a jury , before Judge Abel Blackmar of the Supreme Court of Suffolk County , Special Term . Fourteen of the sixteen living Montauk men appeared as witnesses at trial .
Judge Blackmar , ruled against the Montauks on October 11 , 1910 . According to Blackmar , the Montauks individually conveyed all their lands and claims to Arthur Benson between 1885 and 1894 , in exchange for $ 100 to $ 250 each , except for Wyandank Pharaoh who received only $ 10 , plus between 5 and 45 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 and 182 @,@ 000 m2 ) in Freetown and East Hampton , plus a $ 240 annuity to be divided per capita .
Judge Blackmar also relied upon a December 1686 patent granted by Governor Thomas Dongan to the freeholders of East Hampton , granting them the exclusive right to purchase Indian lands in the area . Benson had separately purchased the fee rights from the descendants of the patentees .
Judge Blackmar also held that the Montauks were no longer a tribe :
During this long period the number of the Indians was greatly reduced . Their blood became so mixed that in many of them Indian traits were obliterated . They had no internal government , and they lived a sort of shiftless life , hunting , fishing , cultivating the ground ' Indian fashion ' as a witness called it , and often leaving for long periods and working in some menial capacity for the whites .
= = = Appellate Division = = =
On appeal , the Montauks found a new lawyer : Allen Caruthers .
The Appellate Division — composed of Judges Jenks , Burr , Rich , Stapleton , and Putnam — affirmed on October 16 , 1914 . On appeal , the Montauks were represented by Allen Caruthers , while the defendants were represented by Charles K. Carpenter , with Alexander T. Mason and George T. Austin on the brief . Judge Burr , for a unanimous court , wrote the opinion .
= = = Court of Appeals = = =
The Court of Appeals — composed of Chief Judge Frank Harris Hiscock and Judges Emory A. Chase , Frederick Collin , William Herman Cuddeback , John W. Hogan , McLaughlin , and Frederick E. Crane — affirmed ( per curiam , without opinion ) on January 29 , 1918 , without costs .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Federal lobbying = = =
Maas departed for Washington , D.C. after the passage of the state enabling legislation . The Interior Department endorsed the idea on July 7 , 1906 .
In January 1921 , Senator James Wolcott Wadsworth , Jr . ( R @-@ NY ) and Representative Homer P. Snyder ( R @-@ NY ) introduced legislation and asked the Interior Secretary to report to Congress on the Montauk 's tribal status and the merits of their land claim . The Secretary prepared a report agreeing with the conclusions of Judge Blackmar and the New York appellate courts in Pharaoh v. Benson . The Senate Committee on Indian Affairs received the report on April 22 , 1922 , and introduced the Wadsworth bill that June ; the bill did not make it out of committee .
In 1996 , represented by Bell , Boyd & Lloyd , the Montauks filed a letter of intent with the Branch of Acknowledgement and Research of the Bureau of Indian Affairs , the first step towards federal recognition . The petition for recognition was submitted on June 23 , 1998 . The tribe received a request for documents from the BIA in January 1999 .
= = = State lobbying = = =
On February 14 , 1922 , New York state assemblyman John J. O 'Connor introduced legislation to compensate the Montauks . The bill excluded James Waters and the other members of the Montauk diaspora . The bill would have created a three @-@ person committee — composed of two assembly members and one state senator — to determine whether the land claim had been meritorious . The bill never reached the floor .
= = = Montaukett burial grounds = = =
In 1983 , Fort Hill Associates and Signal Hill Associates applied to the town of East Hampton for a permit to build homes on North Neck hill , above the Montauk 's ancestral burial ground . As quoted in the New York Times , the East Hampton town supervisor said , " Who cares about a bunch of dead Indians ? " The Montauketts won a temporary injunction in court that July . That November , the town board voted to purchase the 30 acres ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) for $ 1 @.@ 4 million and preserve the burial ground .
In 1989 , developers announced plans touching on a different Montaukett burial ground in North Neck . After protests , the town government agreed to preserve the site in 1991 .
= = = State parks = = =
In 1984 , the federal government announced plans to sell Montauk Air Force Station , a 278 acres ( 1 @.@ 1 km2 ) air force installation south of Montauk Point , to real estate developers . New York State and the Town of East Hampton sued to block the sale . The land was eventually turned over to the New York State Park Service , becoming Camp Hero State Park . The state purchased 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) of Hither Woods in 1986 and created Hither Hills State Park . In 1988 , the state purchased 777 acres ( 3 @.@ 1 km2 ) more to augment the park .
= Peru national football team =
The Peru national football team has represented Peru in international football since 1927 . Organised by the Peruvian Football Federation ( FPF ) , it is one of the 10 members of FIFA 's South American Football Confederation ( CONMEBOL ) . The Peruvian team 's performance has been inconsistent ; it enjoyed its most successful periods in the 1930s and the 1970s . The team plays most of its home matches at the Estadio Nacional in Lima , the country 's capital .
The Peru national team has won the Copa América twice and qualified for FIFA World Cup finals four times ; it also participated in the 1936 Olympic football competition . It has longstanding rivalries with Chile and Ecuador . The team is well known for its white shirts adorned with a diagonal red stripe , which combine Peru 's national colours . This basic design has been used continuously since 1936 , and gives rise to the team 's common Spanish nickname , la Blanquirroja ( " the white @-@ and @-@ red " ) .
Peru took part in the inaugural FIFA World Cup in 1930 and enjoyed victories in the 1938 Bolivarian Games and the 1939 Copa América , with goalkeeper Juan Valdivieso and forwards Teodoro Fernández and Alejandro Villanueva playing important roles . Peruvian football 's successful period in the 1970s brought it worldwide recognition ; the team then included the formidable forward partnership of Hugo Sotil and Teófilo Cubillas , often regarded as Peru 's greatest player , and defender Héctor Chumpitaz . This team qualified for three World Cups and won the Copa América in 1975 .
The Peruvian team last reached the World Cup finals in 1982 ; it has since not qualified , and has not won any major tournament . FIFA temporarily suspended the country from international competition in late 2008 during the Peruvian government 's investigations into alleged corruption within the FPF . Under the management of Ricardo Gareca , Peru came third at the 2015 Copa América , reached the quarterfinals of the Copa América Centenario , and currently participates in the qualification phase for the 2018 World Cup finals in Russia .
= = History = =
Football was introduced to Peru in the 19th century by British immigrants and Peruvians returning from England . In 1859 , members of the capital Lima 's British community founded the Lima Cricket Club , Peru 's first organization dedicated to the practice of cricket , rugby , and football . These new sports became popular among the local upper @-@ class over the following decades , but early developments were halted by the War of the Pacific against Chile from 1879 to 1883 . After the war , Peru 's coastal society embraced football as a modern innovation . The sport became a popular daily activity in Lima barrios , encouraged by bosses who wanted it to inspire solidarity and improved productivity among their workers . In the adjacent port of Callao and other commercial areas , British civilian workers and sailors played the sport among themselves and with locals . Sports rivalries between locals and foreigners arose in Callao , and between elites and workers in Lima . Over time , as foreigners departed , this evolved into a rivalry between Callao and Lima . These factors , coupled with the sport 's rapid growth among the urban poor of Lima 's La Victoria district ( where the Alianza Lima club was formed in 1901 ) , led to Peru developing , according to historian Andreas Campomar , " some of the most elegant and accomplished football on the continent " , and the strongest footballing culture in the Andean region .
The Peruvian Football League was formed in 1912 and held each year until it broke up in 1921 amid disputes between the member clubs . The Peruvian Football Federation ( FPF ) was created the following year and , in 1926 , it reorganised the annual league competition . The FPF joined the South American Football Confederation ( CONMEBOL ) in 1925 , and formed a national team in 1927 — the delay was due to financial issues . The team debuted in the 1927 South American Championship , which the FPF hosted at the Estadio Nacional in Lima . Peru 's first match was a 0 – 4 loss against Uruguay ; their second was a 3 – 2 victory over Bolivia . Peru next took part in the inaugural FIFA World Cup in 1930 , but was eliminated in the first stage .
The 1930s have been called Peruvian football 's first golden era . During this decade , Peruvians traveled abroad in search of competition that would further develop their football . One notable travel was held in Europe between 1933 and 1934 by the Combinado del Pacífico , a squad composed of Chilean and Peruvian footballers , which provided the South Americans with much @-@ needed experience . Starting with Ciclista Lima in 1926 , Peruvian clubs also toured Latin America , achieving numerous victories . During one of these tours — Alianza Lima 's undefeated journey through Chile in 1935 — a group of players emerged that became called the Rodillo Negro ( " Black Roller " ) , led by forwards Alejandro Villanueva and Teodoro Fernández and goalkeeper Juan Valdivieso . Sports historian Richard Witzig described these three as " a soccer triumvirate unsurpassed in the world at that time " , citing their combined innovation and effectiveness at both ends of the field . Peru and the Rodillo Negro awed crowds at the 1936 Summer Olympics , won the inaugural Bolivarian Games in 1938 , and finished the decade as South American champions .
Subsequent years proved less successful for the team ; according to historian David Goldblatt , " despite all the apparent preconditions for footballing growth and success , Peruvian football disappeared " . He attributes this sudden decline to Peruvian authorities ' repression of " social , sporting and political organisations among the urban and rural poor " during the 1940s and 1950s . Peru generally performed creditably at the South American Championships during this period , nevertheless , and only narrowly missed qualification for the Sweden 1958 World Cup finals , losing over two legs to eventual champions Brazil .
A series of successes during the late 1960s , culminating with qualification for the 1970 World Cup finals in Mexico , ushered in a second golden period for Peruvian football . The formidable forward partnership between Teófilo Cubillas and Hugo Sotil has been cited as a key factor in Peru 's success during the 1970s . Peru reached the quarter @-@ finals in 1970 , losing to the tournament winners Brazil , and earned the first FIFA Fair Play Trophy ; the team was , Richard Henshaw writes , " the surprise of the 1970 competition , showing flair and a high level of skill " . Five years later , Peru was crowned South American champions for the second time when it won the 1975 Copa América ( as the South American Championship was renamed that year ) . The team then qualified for two consecutive World Cup tournaments : it reached the second round in Argentina 1978 , and was knocked out in the first group stage at the 1982 tournament in Spain . Peru 's early elimination in 1982 ended a period when the side 's " flowing football was admired across the globe " . In spite of this , Peru barely missed the 1986 World Cup finals after placing second in a qualification group to eventual champions Argentina .
Renewed expectations for Peru were centred on a young generation of Alianza Lima players known colloquially as Los Potrillos ( " The Colts " ) . Sociologists Aldo Panfichi and Victor Vich write that Los Potrillos " became the hope of the entire country " — fans expected them to qualify for the 1990 World Cup in Italy . The national team entered a hiatus after the Alianza Lima air disaster of 8 December 1987 , when a plane carrying most of Alianza 's players and staff crashed into the Pacific Ocean . Only the pilot survived the crash ; among the dead were the Peru manager , Marcos Calderón , and several Peru international players , including goalkeeper José González Ganoza and Luis Escobar , who was widely tipped as a future star forward . Afterward , Peru did not come close to reaching the World Cup finals until the process for France 1998 , when it missed qualification only on goal difference . This team would go on to win the 1999 Kirin Cup tournament in Japan ( sharing the title with Belgium ) and place third at the 2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup — which it contested as an invited guest team .
After the turn of the 21st century , qualification for the FIFA World Cup finals continued being an elusive objective for Peru . According to historian Charles F. Walker , the Peruvian national team and football league were marred by player indiscipline problems . Troubles in the FPF , particularly with its then @-@ president Manuel Burga , deepened the crisis in Peruvian football . Nonetheless , during this time Peru won the 2005 and 2011 Kirin Cup tournaments , and earned third place in the 2011 Copa América . In early 2015 , businessman Edwin Oviedo succeeded Burga as FPF president . In March 2015 , Ricardo Gareca was appointed as Peru 's new manager ; after coaching Peru to a third place in the 2015 Copa América and to the quarterfinals of the Copa América Centenario , he leads the team in the qualification phase for the Russia 2018 World Cup finals .
= = Colours = =
The Peru national football team plays in red and white , the country 's national colours . Its first @-@ choice kit has been , since 1936 , white shorts , white socks , and white shirts with a distinctive red " sash " crossing their front diagonally from the proper left shoulder to the right hip and returning on the back from the right hip to the proper left shoulder . This basic scheme has been only slightly altered over the years . It has won praise as one of world football 's most attractive kit designs ; Christopher Turpin , the executive producer of NPR 's All Things Considered news show , lauded the 1970 iteration in 2010 as " the beautiful game 's most beautiful shirt " , also commenting that it " was retro even in 1970 " . The version worn in 1978 came first in a 2010 ESPN list of the " Best World Cup
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jerseys of all time " , described therein as a " simple yet strikingly effective piece of design " .
Peru 's first kit , made for the 1927 South American Championship , comprised a white @-@ and @-@ red striped shirt , white shorts and black socks . Peru was compelled to use an alternative design in the 1930 World Cup because Paraguay had already registered a kit with white @-@ and @-@ red striped shirts . The Peruvians instead wore white shirts with a red collar , white shorts and black socks . For the 1935 South American Championship , a horizontal red stripe was added to the shirt . The following year , at the Berlin Olympics , the team adopted the red sash design it has retained ever since . According to historian Pulgar @-@ Vidal Otálora , the idea for the diagonal red stripe came from school football matches in which coloured sashes worn over the shoulder would allow two teams wearing white shirts to play against each other .
The Peru national team has had eight official kit manufacturers . The first of these , Adidas , began supplying the team 's kit in 1978 . Peru have since had contracts with Penalty ( 1981 – 82 ) , Adidas ( 1983 – 85 ) , Calvo Sportwear ( 1987 ) , Power ( 1989 – 91 ) , Diadora ( 1991 – 92 ) , local manufacturer Polmer ( 1993 – 95 ) , Umbro ( 1996 – 97 ) , and Peruvian company Walon Sport ( 1998 – 2010 ) . Umbro have again produced the team 's kit since 2010 .
= = Stadium = =
The traditional home of Peruvian football is the country 's national stadium , the Estadio Nacional in Lima , which houses 45 @,@ 000 spectators . The present ground is the Estadio Nacional 's third incarnation , the result of renovations conducted under the Alan García administration ; it was officially inaugurated on 24 July 2011 , 88 years to the day after the original ground opened on the same site in 1923 .
The original Estadio Nacional was a wooden structure with a capacity of 6 @,@ 000 , donated by members of Lima 's British community to celebrate the centenary of Peru 's independence from Spain . Following a campaign for the ground 's renovation , headed by Miguel Dasso , president of the Sociedad de Beneficencia de Lima , it was rebuilt with a larger capacity under General Manuel A. Odría and opened for the second time on 27 October 1952 . The stadium was last redeveloped in 2011 ; improvements included the construction of a plaque @-@ covered exterior , a multicoloured illumination system added inside the ground , as well as two giant LED screens and 375 private suites .
A distinctive feature of the ground is the Miguel Dasso Tower on its northern side , which contains luxury boxes ; it was most recently renovated in 2004 . The Estadio Nacional has a natural bermudagrass pitch . It was , from 2005 to 2011 , the only national stadium in CONMEBOL to have artificial turf , which was installed for the 2005 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Championship . The stadium was during this period one of Peru 's four " FIFA Star II " grounds , the highest certification granted to artificial pitches , but the synthetic turf was blamed for players ' injuries , such as burns and bruises . Natural grass was reinstalled as part of the redevelopments completed in 2011 .
Peru sometimes play home matches at other venues . Outside the desert @-@ like coast region of Lima , the thin atmosphere at the high @-@ altitude Estadio Garcilaso de la Vega in Cusco has been described as providing strategic advantages for Peru against certain visiting teams . Other common alternate venues for the national team include two other grounds in the Peruvian capital — Alianza 's Estadio Alejandro Villanueva and Universitario 's Estadio Monumental . The last time the Peruvian team played at an alternate venue was in 2012 , when it faced Chile at the Estadio Jorge Basadre in Tacna .
= = Supporters = =
Football has been the most popular sport in Peru since the early 20th century . Originally largely exclusive to Lima 's Anglophile elite and expatriates , and secluded from the rest of the city , football became an integral part of wider popular culture during the 1900s and 1910s . Over the following decades , Augusto B. Leguía 's government institutionalised the sport into a national pastime by promoting and organising its development . Consequently , the national football team became an important element of Peru 's national identity .
Peruvian football fans are known for their distinctive chant ¡ Arriba Perú ! ( " Come on Peru ! " ) , as well as for their use of traditional Peruvian música criolla to express support , both at national team games and at club matches . Música criolla attained national and international recognition with the advent of mass media during the 1930s , becoming a recognised symbol of Peru and its culture . The national team 's most popular anthems are Peru Campeón , a polca criolla ( Peruvian polka ) glorifying Peru 's qualification for the Mexico 1970 World Cup , and Contigo Perú , a vals criollo ( Peruvian waltz ) that newspaper El Comercio calls " the hymn of Peruvian national football teams " .
The Estadio Nacional disaster of 24 May 1964 , involving Peruvian supporters , is cited as one of the worst tragedies in football history . During a qualifying match for the 1964 Olympics between Peru 's under @-@ 20 team and its counterpart from Argentina , the Uruguayan referee Angel Payos disallowed a would @-@ be Peruvian equaliser , alleging rough play . Spectators threw missiles from the stands while two fans invaded the pitch and attacked the referee . Police threw tear gas into the crowd , causing a stampede ; trying to escape , fans were crushed against the stadium 's locked gates . A total of 315 people were killed in the chaos , with more than 500 others injured .
= = Rivalries = =
The Peru national football team maintains prominent rivalries with its counterparts from neighbouring Chile and Ecuador . The Peruvians have a favourable record against Ecuador and a negative record against Chile . Peru faced both rivals in the 1939 South American Championship in Lima , which was also the first time Peru faced Ecuador in an official tournament ; Peru won both games . Peru also defeated its rivals during qualifying for the Argentina 1978 World Cup , directly eliminating both teams .
The Chile – Peru football rivalry is known in Spanish as the Clásico del Pacífico ( " Pacific Derby " ) . CNN World Sport editor Greg Duke ranks it among the top ten football rivalries in the world . Peru first faced Chile in the 1935 South American Championship , defeating it 1 – 0 . The two countries traditionally compete with each other over the rank of fourth @-@ best national team in South America ( after Argentina , Brazil , and Uruguay ) . They also both claim to have invented the bicycle kick ; Peruvians call it the chalaca , while it is the chilena in Chile .
The rivalry between the Ecuador and Peru football teams is rooted in the historical border conflict between the countries dating back to the 19th century . In 1995 , after the brief Cenepa War , CONMEBOL contemplated altering that year 's Copa América group stage to prevent a match between the two sides , but ultimately did not . According to Michael Handelsman , Ecuadorian fans consider losses to Colombia or Peru " an excuse to lament Ecuador 's inability to establish itself as an international soccer power " . Handelsman adds that " [ t ] he rivalries are intense , and the games always carry an element of national pride and honor " .
= = Players = =
= = = Current = = =
The following 23 players were called up for the Copa América Centenario squad . Caps and goals are correct as of 17 June 2016 after the match against Colombia .
= = = Recent = = =
The players listed below were not included in the most recent squad , but have been called up by Peru in the last 12 months .
INJ Withdrew because of injury
PRE Preliminary squad
WD Withdrew for personal reasons
= = = Notable = = =
A report published by CONMEBOL in 2008 described Peru as traditionally exhibiting an " elegant , technical and fine football style " , and praised it as " one of the most loyal exponents of South American football talent " . Peruvian players noted in the CONMEBOL article as " true artists of the ball " include forwards Teófilo Cubillas , Pedro Pablo León and Hugo Sotil , defender Héctor Chumpitaz and midfielders Roberto Challe , César Cueto , José del Solar , and Roberto Palacios .
Cubillas , an attacking midfielder and forward popularly known as El Nene ( " The Kid " ) , is widely regarded as Peru 's greatest ever player . Chumpitaz is often cited as the team 's best defender ; Witzig lists him among his " Best Players of the Modern Era " , and praises him as " a strong reader of the game with excellent ball skills and distribution , [ who ] marshalled a capable defence to support Peru 's attack " . Cueto , Cubillas , and José Velásquez were together described as " the best [ midfield ] in the world " by El Gráfico , an Argentine sports journal , in 1978 .
Teodoro Fernández , Alejandro Villanueva , and Juan Valdivieso are often regarded as the key members of the Rodillo Negro team of the 1930s . Fernández was the team 's forward and primary goalscorer ; his partner in attack , Villanueva , was a gifted playmaker . Valdivieso was a goalkeeper with a reputation for exceptional athleticism who often saved penalties .
A commemorative match between teams representing Europe and South America was organised in Basel , Switzerland for the benefit of homeless children in 1972 . Cubillas , Chumpitaz , Sotil , and Julio Baylón played in the South American team , which won the game 2 – 0 ; Cubillas scored the first goal . A similar match was held the next year at Barcelona 's Camp Nou with the declared intent of fighting global poverty ; Cubillas , Chumpitaz and Sotil again played , with Chumpitaz named South America 's captain . Each of the Peruvians scored in a 4 – 4 draw , which South America won 7 – 6 on penalties .
= = Managers = =
A total of 59 managers have led the Peru national football team since 1927 ( including multiple spells separately ) ; of these , 36 have been from Peru and 23 have been from abroad . Sports analysts and historians generally consider Peru 's most successful managers to have been the Englishman Jack Greenwell and the Peruvian Marcos Calderón . The former managed Peru to triumph in the 1938 Bolivarian Games and the 1939 South American Championship , and the latter led Peru to victory in the 1975 Copa América tournament and coached it at the 1978 FIFA World Cup . Three other managers have led Peru to tournament victories — Juan Carlos Oblitas , Freddy Ternero , and Sergio Markarián each oversaw Peru 's victory in the Kirin Cup in Japan , in 1999 , 2005 and 2011 , respectively .
Peru 's first two managers were the Uruguayans Pedro Olivieri , who was hired to manage Peru in the 1927 South American Championship because of his prior experience managing Uruguay , and Julio Borelli , who spent a few years as a referee in Peru before managing the national team in the 1929 South American Championship . The team 's third manager , Spaniard Francisco Bru ( a former FC Barcelona player who had been the first manager of Spain ) , coached Peru at the inaugural World Cup in 1930 . The team 's first Peruvian head coach was its fourth manager , Telmo Carbajo . The team 's current manager is the Argentine Ricardo Gareca .
Managers that brought changes to the Peru national team 's style of play , according to historian Andreas Campomar , include Hungarian György Orth and Brazilian Valdir Pereira . Orth coached Peru from 1957 to 1959 ; Campomar cites Peru 's " 4 – 1 thrashing of England in Lima " as evidence of Orth 's positive influence over the national team 's game . Pereira coached Peru from 1968 to 1970 and managed it at the 1970 FIFA World Cup ; Campomar attributes Pereira 's tactics as the reason for Peru 's development of a " free @-@ flowing football " style . Brazilian Elba de Pádua Lima , who managed Peru at the 1982 FIFA World Cup , was attributed by Placar , a Brazilian sports journal , with making Peru " a team that plays beautiful , combining efficiency with that swagger that people thought only existed in Brazil " .
= = Competitive records = =
= = = FIFA World Cup = = =
The Peruvian team competed at the first World Cup in 1930 by invitation , and has entered each tournament at the qualifying stage since 1958 . Having qualified three times ( in 1970 , 1978 and 1982 ) , Peru has taken part in the World Cup finals four times . Its all @-@ time record in World Cup qualifying matches as of 2014 stands at 35 wins , 30 draws and 59 losses . In the finals , the team has won four matches , drawn three and lost eight , with 19 goals in favour and 31 against . Luis de Souza Ferreira scored Peru 's first World Cup goal on 14 July 1930 , in a match against Romania . Jefferson Farfán is Peru 's top scorer and seventh @-@ overall top scorer in CONMEBOL World Cup qualification , with 15 goals . Teófilo Cubillas is the team 's top scorer in the World Cup finals , with 10 goals in 13 games .
During the 1930 competition , a Peruvian became the first player sent off in a World Cup — his identity is disputed between sources . Peru 's Ramón Quiroga holds the unusual record of being the only goalkeeper to commit a foul in the opponent 's side of the pitch in a match at the World Cup finals . The national team won the inaugural FIFA Fair Play Trophy , awarded at the 1970 World Cup , having been the only team not to receive any yellow or red cards during the competition .
= = = Copa América = = =
Peru 's national team has taken part in 31 editions of the Copa América since 1927 , and has won the competition twice ( in 1939 and 1975 ) . The country has hosted the tournament six times ( in 1927 , 1935 , 1939 , 1953 , 1957 and 2004 ) . Peru 's overall record in the competition is 52 victories , 33 draws , and 57 losses . Peru won the Fair Play award in the 2015 edition . Demetrio Neyra scored Peru 's first goal in the competition on 13 November 1927 , in a match against Bolivia . Three tournaments have featured a Peruvian top scorer — Teodoro Fernández in 1939 and Paolo Guerrero in 2011 and 2015 . Fernández , the Copa América 's third @-@ overall scorer , was named best player of the 1939 tournament ; Teófilo Cubillas , voted the best player in the 1975 competition , is the only other Peruvian to win this award .
Peru won its first continental title in 1939 , when it won the South American Championship with successive victories over Ecuador , Chile , Paraguay and Uruguay . It was the first time the competition had been won by a team other than Uruguay , Brazil , or Argentina . Peru became South American champions for the second time in 1975 , when it won that year 's Copa América , the first to feature all ten CONMEBOL members . Peru came top of their group in the first round , eliminating Chile and Bolivia , and in the semifinals drew with Brazil over two legs , winning 3 – 1 in Brazil but losing 2 – 0 at home . Peru was declared the winner by drawing of lots . In the two @-@ legged final between Colombia and Peru , both teams won their respective home games ( 1 – 0 in Bogota and 2 – 0 in Lima ) , forcing a play @-@ off in Caracas which Peru won 1 – 0 .
= = = Olympic Games = = =
Peru 's senior side has competed in the Olympic football tournament once , at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin , Germany . The multiracial 1936 team has been latterly described by historian David Goldblatt as " the jewel of the country 's first Olympic delegation " . It had a record of two victories , scoring 11 goals and conceding 5 . Teodoro Fernández scored Peru 's first goal in the tournament in the match against Finland on 6 August , and finished as the team 's top scorer with six goals in two games , including Peru 's only hat @-@ trick at the Olympics .
The 1935 South American Championship in Lima acted as the qualifying stage for the 1936 Olympic tournament . Uruguay won undefeated and Argentina came second , but neither took up their Olympic spot because of economic issues . Peru , who had come third , duly represented South America . The Peruvian team began the competition with a 7 – 3 win over Finland , after which it faced Austria , managed by Jimmy Hogan and popularly known as the Wunderteam , in the quarterfinals . After the game ended 2 – 2 , Peru scored twice in extra time to win 4 – 2 . Peru was expected to then face Poland in the semifinals , but events off the pitch led to the withdrawal of Peru 's Olympic delegation before the match was played .
= = Team records and results = =
The Peru national team has played 545 matches since 1927 , including friendlies . The largest margin of victory achieved by a Peru side is 9 – 1 against Ecuador , on 11 August 1938 at the Bolivarian Games in Colombia . The team 's record deficit , 7 – 0 , occurred against Brazil at the 1997 Copa América in Bolivia .
The Peruvian player with the most international caps is Roberto Palacios , who represented the country 122 times between 1992 and 2007 . Second is Héctor Chumpitaz , with 105 appearances ; Jorge Soto is third with 101 . The most capped goalkeeper is Óscar Ibáñez , who played for Peru 50 times between 1998 and 2005 . Second is Miguel Miranda with 47 appearances ; Ramón Quiroga is third with 40 .
The team 's all @-@ time top goalscorer is Paolo Guerrero , with 27 goals in 68 appearances . He is followed by Teófilo Cubillas , who scored 26 goals in 81 appearances , and Teodoro Fernández , with 24 goals in 32 games . Peru 's fastest goal — that is , that scored soonest after kick @-@ off — was scored by Claudio Pizarro less than a minute into the match against Mexico on 20 August 2003 .
= Not Pictured =
" Not Pictured " is the second season finale of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , serving as the twenty @-@ second episode of the season and the forty @-@ fourth episode overall . Co @-@ written by series creator Rob Thomas and John Enbom and directed by John Kretchmer , the episode premiered on UPN on May 9 , 2006 .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica learns the identity of the person responsible for the Neptune High bus crash . Meanwhile , Veronica and her classmates graduate from high school , and Neptune reacts to Aaron Echolls ( Harry Hamlin ) being acquitted .
" Not Pictured " reveals Cassidy " Beaver " Casablancas ( Kyle Gallner ) as the perpetrator behind the bus crash and Veronica 's rape . This plot twist was planned since Beaver 's introduction . The episode also features the final appearances of several characters , including Aaron Echolls , Beaver , Jackie Cook ( Tessa Thompson ) , Duncan Kane ( Teddy Dunn ) , and Woody Goodman ( Steve Guttenberg ) . This episode would be the final episode of the show to air on UPN before switching to The CW . The finale was critically acclaimed and is often cited as one of the best of the series .
= = Background = =
The second season revolves around a school bus that mysteriously goes off a cliff , killing nine people . Throughout the season , Veronica investigates the murder , focusing on a variety of suspects , including the Fitzpatrick family , Kendall Casablancas ( Charisma Carpenter ) , and Terrence Cook ( Jeffrey Sams ) before turning her suspicion on Woody Goodman ( Steve Guttenberg ) after she learns that he is a child molester . " Not Pictured " solves the mystery through a plot twist . Meanwhile , Veronica previously dated Duncan Kane ( Teddy Dunn ) , before he left with his baby daughter ( with one of the bus crash victims ) for Mexico . In addition , Aaron Echolls ( Harry Hamlin ) , the murderer of Lilly Kane , Duncan 's sister , was acquitted him of all charges .
= = Plot = =
After the Aaron Echolls trial , he is interviewed by press and cheering fans . Veronica tells Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) that the Manning father has offered $ 20 @,@ 000 for the capture of Woody . Veronica talks to Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) about Jackie ( Tessa Thompson ) leaving . Keith visits Vinnie ( Ken Marino ) in prison , and they agree to track Woody down together . Veronica and Keith learn that Woody was treated for chlamydia . In a dream , Veronica shares a happy family breakfast before her graduation , meeting Wallace for the first time that day before meeting Lilly ( Amanda Seyfried ) . Veronica makes a fake call as Gia to Woody 's lawyer , and he reveals that Woody was living at the Quail Creek Lodge under the name Mr. Underhill . At Veronica 's graduation , Keith says that he 's going to chase Woody , and Mac ( Tina Majorino ) tells Veronica that she is going to a hotel with Beaver that night . Just before he can graduate , Weevil ( Francis Capra ) is arrested for the murder of Thumper ( James Molina ) . Veronica graduates and says goodbye to Principal Clemmons ( Duane Daniels ) .
Keith surprises Veronica with plane tickets to New York . Alicia Fennel ( Erica Gimpel ) tells Veronica that Wallace has left for Paris to track Jackie . Veronica calls Jackie and tells her that she knows she was never accepted to the Sorbonne and asks her to meet Wallace in New York . At Woody 's hiding place , Keith attacks and tasers him . However , Woody denies crashing the bus . Veronica sees a little league team picture in Woody 's restaurant which suggests that Beaver was on Woody 's baseball team and thus connected to the crash . Veronica dashes to the after @-@ graduation party . Beaver and Mac are about to have sex , but while she is in the shower , Beaver reads a text from Veronica to Mac warning her , and Beaver texts Veronica to meet " her " on the roof . Aaron Echolls threatens Veronica in the elevator . Beaver meets Veronica and puts a gun on her . Veronica explains her hypothesis — that he killed Marcos and Peter so they would not spill the news of their molestation , that he got explosives from David " Curly " Moran , convinced the PCHers that Curly destroyed the bus before killing Curly himself , also writing Veronica Mars on his palm .
Veronica asks Beaver how she got chlamydia — Woody had it , and Beaver transmitted it to her the night she was raped ( revealing that he , not Duncan , raped her ) . Beaver is about to blow up the plane that has both Woody and Keith on it . Beaver pushes a button , and there is a flash in midair . Beaver tases Veronica before Logan appears , having read the text to Mac . The two steal Beaver 's gun , and he ends up committing suicide instead of facing the consequences of his actions . Aaron and Kendall ( Charisma Carpenter ) are in bed , and while she is in the shower , Clarence Weidman ( Christopher B. Duncan ) appears and shoots him in the head . The scene moves to Australia , where we learn that Duncan organized the murder . Jackie meets Wallace and tells him that she had to go back to New York , where she is actually from , in order to care for her two @-@ year @-@ old son , whom she left with her mother , when she came to Neptune to reconnect with Terrence . Veronica learns that Keith is alive — he was not ever on the plane , but Woody was . Kendall receives $ 8 million , as Cassidy basically gave her the money as part of her plan . Veronica and Logan ( Jason Dohring ) rekindle their relationship . Kendall makes Keith a business proposal , and as a result , he misses their plane flight to New York .
= = Arc significance = =
The episode finalizes several important plot strands of the second season . Together , Keith and Vinnie Van Lowe track down Woody Goodman and arrest him . Veronica imagines graduation if Lilly had not been murdered , and then actually graduates . Jackie reveals her true past to Wallace before leaving him finally . Veronica learns that Beaver was responsible for the bus crash and gave her chlamydia after he raped her . Beaver explodes the plane with Woody Goodman on it . Logan comes up to the roof and attacks Beaver . Afterwards , Beaver commits suicide by jumping off the top of the building . Aaron is murdered by Clarence Wiedman , and Duncan was the person responsible for the attack . Veronica and Keith plan to go to New York , but due to a business offer from Kendall , Keith misses their flight .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by Rob Thomas and John Enbom and directed by John T. Kretchmer , marking Thomas ' sixth writing credit for Veronica Mars , Enbom 's tenth writing credit for the series , and Kretchmer 's ninth directing credit for the show . " Not Pictured " reveals Cassidy " Beaver " Casablancas as the perpetrator behind Veronica 's rape and the bus crash . Thomas and the crew had planned for Beaver to be the second season antagonist since the character 's first appearance in " M.A.D. " . Thomas said , " We knew that Beaver was the killer of Season 2 when we introduced him in Season 1 . We knew his motivation , so playing him as the picked @-@ upon , less @-@ manly Casablancas boy was all by design . " An episode earlier in the series , titled " A Trip to the Dentist " , supposedly revealed that Duncan had had sex with Veronica when they were both under the influence of drugs , a fact which is potentially negated by this episode . When writing the episode , Thomas and Diane Ruggiero did not plan for Beaver to be the actual rapist , with Thomas saying that " I wish I could claim that we were that clever . "
Lead actress Kristen Bell , who deduced that Aaron Echolls was the killer in Season 1 , was unable to figure out the identity of the murderer in Season 2 . " You never , ever see the show keep the killer in the main titles , " adding that the writers " think they 're so smart … and they are ! " Actor Michael Muhney , who plays Don Lamb , expressed some anxiety over the course of the season that he would be the killer . However , Bell played a prank on Muhney , telling him that she knew the killer was going to be Loretta Cancun , a minor character from the pilot . Bell said , " [ Muhney ] only believed me for like a day . " Kyle Gallner , who plays Beaver , did not know that his character was going to be the murderer until just before the shooting of " Not Pictured " , when one of the costume designers told him about the reveal :
I had no idea up until right before we shot the episode . They wouldn 't tell me . The only reason I found out was the wardrobe guy had gotten the script and he was like " Do you wanna know ? " and I was like " What ? " and he kinda spilled the beans actually . So I had no idea . I thought it was more along the lines of I was younger than everybody so I wasn 't going off to college . That 's why I was only in one season , I didn 't know it was because that whole thing was gonna happen . So I literally didn 't know until probably about a week before .
The episode also features the final appearance of Harry Hamlin as Season 1 antagonist Aaron Echolls after the character is murdered by Clarence Wiedman ( Christopher B. Duncan ) . Later , we learn that the murder was ordered by Duncan Kane ( Teddy Dunn ) , who appears briefly in a small cameo . Dunn had made his final regular appearance in " Donut Run " and had left the show partly due to fan dislike of the character . Dunn later stated that he thought that the purpose of the cameo was to garner sympathy for the character before his final departure . " I think Rob 's goal was to leave the character on a high note . I certainly think he did so in a heroic way . "
" Not Pictured " would mark the final appearance by series regular Jackie Cook ( Tessa Thompson ) . When asked whether Jackie was done with the show , Thomas replied , " She is . I would not hesitate for a second to have her come in to do an arc , but she will not be a series regular . " One notable recurring character absence in the finale is that of Gia Goodman ( Krysten Ritter ) . Ritter wanted to appear in the episode , but she was unable to do so because of scheduling conflicts . " It was unfortunate for me that I couldn 't be in the finale episode ( I booked a pilot ) because I was looking forward to showing how everything that went down affected her . On a side note , I did start to think that I was responsible for the crash . I really wanted her to be a bad guy . " She would later appear in the Veronica Mars movie .
" Not Pictured " was the final episode of Veronica Mars to air on UPN before the show switched to The CW as part of the 2006 United States broadcast TV realignment . Due to low ratings , there was considerable doubt that Veronica Mars would be renewed . Meanwhile , The CW had developed several new pilots . However , The CW did not pick up the majority of their pilots , making room on the schedule for other shows . In order to express their support for the show 's renewal , fans flew a banner outside the offices of UPN and The CW .
Renewal was uncertain until after the finale aired . In April , actor Enrico Colantoni , who plays Keith , stated regarding renewal ,
Unofficially , everyone at CBS and Warner Bros is saying , " Yeah , no worries ! " But you know , those are always famous last words . And then last year they told us two days after we wrapped , and they got a lot of criticism over that . So I know they 're not gonna make that mistake again . They 're gonna wait until May .
Colantoni also expressed optimism towards the show 's future on The CW , believing that it would be a chance for the show to get more exposure . On May 15 , before the official press release was announced , it was believed that The CW had ordered 13 episodes of Veronica Mars . Later , it was revealed that the series had been renewed for a 22 @-@ episode season , but that the season could be shortened if ratings were poor .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Not Pictured " received 2 @.@ 42 million viewers , ranking 98th of 109 in the weekly rankings . This marked a decrease in viewers from the second season premiere , " Normal Is the Watchword " , which received 3 @.@ 29 million viewers and the first season finale , " Leave It to Beaver " , which received 2 @.@ 99 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode was critically acclaimed . Jesse Hassenger of PopMatters wrote that " the season finale showcased the series at its surprising and funny best , not its rushed and convoluted worst . " He called the reversal of the rape plot line a " gimmicky reversal " but that " thematically it worked . " The reviewer commented positively on the reveal of Beaver as the murderer as well as the cliffhanger . " The season 's low @-@ key but effective cliffhanger … suggested again that her life , however charmed and TV @-@ ish it can seem , remains in youthful flux . "
Eric Goldman of IGN gave a glowing review , giving the episode a 9 out of 10 , indicating that it was " amazing . " He wrote that " most of the major mysteries established this season are given a satisfying and proper conclusion . " He praised how the episode combined all the second season storylines , including the mysteries and the Neptune High portion of Veronica 's life . " The final scenes do a very nice job of closing the high school chapter of the Veronica Mars story , while also leaving plenty of questions about the future of some characters in particular . " Goldman also lauded the performances of Kristen Bell and Enrico Colantoni , writing that " As always , Kristen Bell and Enrico Colantoni knock it out of the park , with Bell especially having to go through a rather stunning amount of emotional transitions , all of which she does spectacularly . "
In a review of the whole second season , Goldman wrote that " Their was [ sic ] some complaints that the season finale was a bit too rushed , with a lot of information offered all at once . Yet while that 's a bit valid , it 's also an exciting and surprising finale , that actually offers some bigger shocks than season 1 . " Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club gave a mostly positive review , praising the reveal of Beaver as the murderer while being slightly critical of his reveal as Veronica 's rapist . He wrote that " as twists go , this was a good one " and that " Kyle Gallner makes the transition from goofy , kind of pathetic little brother to insane mastermind quite well — the circles under his eyes , specifically , which seemed to indicate anxiety before suddenly indicated darkness and insanity when seen in a new light . " Regarding the rape reveal , the reviewers wrote that " On a narrative level , I was fine with it ... it 's still a big problem in an emotional sense . In general , rape is a difficult subject , and to see it used as a plot device creates problems on its own . " Kaiser summed up his review by writing , " ' Not Pictured ' acts as an effective capstone for a chaotic season . Sure , it doesn 't entirely work , but overall , it gets the job done with emotion and flair . "
Price Peterson , writing for TV.com , gave a glowing review , calling it " the best @-@ yet episode of Veronica Mars " . He elaborated by stating ,
This episode was just a total triumph for how it brought together SO MUCH from the past 22 episodes and beyond . I loved the Aaron Echolls assassination . I loved that last image of Duncan enjoying his victory in a perpetual magic hour on some Australian beach . I especially loved the It 's a Wonderful Life @-@ esque dream sequence . This episode was so good that even though I knew Beaver was the bad guy , I still came away shocked by many of the reveals . That 's just good writing right there .
Conversely , Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B + " .
Amy Ratcliffe , writing for IGN , ranked the episode as the fifth best episode of Veronica Mars , writing , " the Season 2 finale had head @-@ twisting reveals , heartbreaking moments … tragedy , and so many jumps in crime @-@ solving that Sherlock might not have been able to keep up . " BuzzFeed called the episode the best episode of the series , stating , " It 's extremely violent , extremely scary , and extremely moving . If you don 't cry watching this episode , there 's a tiny little rock where your heart should be . " On a similar list , TV Line ranked the episode third , only behind " A Trip to the Dentist " and " Pilot " . Give Me My Remote also ranked the episode as the best of the series , writing , " If I had to pick a single episode to represent the show , this would be it . The actual plot of this episode was compelling , fast @-@ paced , and the twist at the end was shocking . " The reviewer went on to praise Kristen Bell 's performance and the less action @-@ heavy parts of the episode .
Digital Spy listed the episode on an unranked list of the five best Veronica Mars episodes , writing that it " has its issues " but that " the rooftop sequence with Veronica , Cassidy ( Kyle Gallner ) and Logan is pure , gorgeous melodrama , and Keith 's fake @-@ out death feels devastating instead of cheap thanks to Kristen Bell 's gut @-@ wrenching performance . " In a list of the 50 greatest TV shows of all time , Empire noted " Not Pictured " as the best episode of the series . Reviewer Alan Sepinwall wrote that he was " very pleased with how things turned out " and that the twist fit with the evidence . However , he was more critical of Keith 's near @-@ death , writing , " What did feel like piling on , however , was Beaver ' killing ' Keith . Kristen Bell tried her best to sell it , but I wasn 't buying . " Entertainment Weekly called the episode one of the " 10 Essential Episodes " of Veronica Mars .
= St Mary 's Church , Llanfair @-@ yn @-@ y @-@ Cwmwd =
St Mary 's Church , Llanfair @-@ yn @-@ y @-@ Cwmwd is a small medieval parish church near the village of Dwyran , in Anglesey , north Wales . The building probably dates from the 15th century , with some alterations . It contains a 12th @-@ century carved stone font and a 13th @-@ century decorated coffin lid . The bell is inscribed with the year of its casting , 1582 . The historian Henry Rowlands was vicar of St Mary 's in the late 17th and early 18th centuries . Maurice Wilks , who invented the Land Rover , is buried in the churchyard .
Although at one time during the 19th century St Mary 's was too dilapidated to permit services to be held , repairs were carried out in the 19th century . The church is used for worship by the Church in Wales , one of five in a combined parish . Services are held once per month between April and September . St Mary 's is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , in particular because it is regarded as " a good example of a simple , substantially unaltered , late Medieval church " . It is also said to be " an important survival " because many of the older churches in Anglesey were extensively rebuilt or repaired during the 19th century , and the alterations at St Mary 's were less extensive .
= = History and location = =
St Mary 's Church is located in a churchyard about 100 yards ( 90 m ) from the road in the countryside near the village of Dwyran , in Anglesey , north Wales . The church is about 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 9 km ) from the county town of Llangefni , and just under 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 5 km ) from the neighbouring church of St Ceinwen 's , Llangeinwen . Llanfair @-@ yn @-@ y @-@ Cwmwd takes its name in part from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " ‑ fair " is a modified form of the patron saint 's name ( Mair being the Welsh for " Mary " , here referring to St Mary , the mother of Jesus ) . Cwmwd means " commote " ( a type of Welsh land division ) , so the full name of the parish means " St Mary 's Church in the commote " .
The date of construction of the church is uncertain , but it is a medieval building , probably from the 15th century . The 19th @-@ century clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones thought that the church was probably 16th @-@ century in date , but might have been built using material from an older structure . The historian Antony Carr has suggested that Llanfair @-@ yn @-@ y @-@ Cwmwd was the church dedicated to St Mary that was sacked by Normans in 1157 . St Mary 's was formerly one of the chapels of ease to St Nidan 's , Llanidan , along with St Deiniol 's , Llanddaniel Fab and St Edwen 's , Llanedwen . St Nidan 's and its chapels were owned by the Augustinian priory at Beddgelert , Gwynedd ; the date of transfer is uncertain , since not all the records have survived , but St Nidan 's is mentioned as belonging to the priory in a charter of 1360 . Carr has written that " we shall never know " how the " distant community " in Beddgelert came to possess the four Anglesey churches , but thought that it might be significant that the priory also controlled two churches on the mainland , on the other side of the Menai Strait .
During the 16th century , the windows of the nave had mullions ( stonework supporting the window structure ) added , and the roof trusses date from later in the same century ( or early in the following century ) . In her 1833 history of Anglesey , the antiquarian Angharad Llwyd said that the church had been " for years in a state of such dilapidation as to preclude the performance of divine service " , but she noted that it was being rebuilt at that time . However , compared to other churches in Anglesey , the 19th @-@ century changes were not substantial . Repairs were undertaken in 1936 under the supervision of the architects Harold Hughes and William G. Williams .
St Mary 's is still used for worship by the Church in Wales . A service of Holy Communion ( in Welsh ) is held on one Sunday afternoon per month between April and September ; no services are held during the rest of the year . It is one of five churches in the combined benefice ( parishes combined under one priest ) of Newborough with Llanidan with Llangeinwen and Llanfair @-@ yn @-@ y @-@ Cymwd . St Mary 's is within the deanery of Tindaethwy and Menai , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2012 , the priest in charge of the group of parishes is E. Roberts .
People associated with the church include Henry Rowlands , a clergyman and antiquarian . He was the incumbent priest of St Nidan 's and its chapels of ease from 1696 until his death in 1723 , and wrote a history of Anglesey , Mona Antiqua Restaurata . Maurice Wilks , who invented the Land Rover , is buried in the churchyard . He had a farm nearby in Newborough and some prototype testing of the Land Rover was carried out in Anglesey .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The church is built from rubble masonry , dressed with sandstone , and measures 47 by 14 feet ( 14 @.@ 3 by 4 @.@ 3 m ) . The entrance is at the west end of the north wall . The roof , which is made from slate , has a bellcote with one bell at the west end . The inscription on the bell states that it was cast in 1582 , and the bell is also marked with a fleur @-@ de @-@ lys and the thrice @-@ repeated initials " AMN " .
Inside , although there is no structural division between the nave and the chancel , there is a 19th @-@ century wooden screen with wrought @-@ iron gates between them , and a step up into the chancel . The sanctuary is marked with a further step , as is the base of the altar ; both steps are decorated with encaustic tiles . The internal woodwork of the roof , which has seven bays ( or sections ) , is exposed .
The window in the centre north wall has two lights ( sections of window separated by a mullion ) ; there are two pairs of two @-@ light windows in the south wall . The window at the east end had a pair of lights , topped by trefoils ( a stonework pattern of three overlapping circles ) .
The roughly oval gritsone font at the west end of the nave , which is from the 12th century , has a zig @-@ zag pattern , and three sides decorated with a cross . The base of the font , which is rectangular with rounded corners , has misshapen carved human heads at the corners and in the middle of one side , and a snake on two of the sides . A " P " -shaped sign on the east side of the font may have been added later . St Mary 's has a coffin lid dating from the middle of the 13th century , displayed upside down on the north wall of the chancel . It is decorated with a carved cross and a foliage design . One 19th @-@ century visitor noted another three old plain coffin lids on the church floor , with another in the churchyard near the east window . As well as an 18th @-@ century slate plaque on the south wall of the nave , there are also various memorials from the 19th and 20th centuries .
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 , and has been listed because it is regarded as " a good example of a simple , substantially unaltered , late Medieval church . " Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes that many old churches in Anglesey were rebuilt or restored during the 19th century , and that St Mary 's " can be considered an important survival . "
Writing in 1846 , Harry Longueville Jones said that St Mary 's was " one of the smallest buildings of its class in the island " and had " no feature of any architectural value . " He noted the " elaborate " coffin lid , and said that the font ( a " rude production of the twelfth century " ) was " one of the most remarkable in the collection of Anglesey monuments " . The historian and clergyman Edmund Tyrrell Green , writing a survey of Anglesey church architecture and contents in 1929 , referred to the coffin lid as one of the county 's " outstanding examples " of sepulchral memorials .
A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey describes St Mary 's as " a good example of a small unspoilt country church . " It notes the " simple " rood screen and the " well @-@ maintained " churchyard . A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region refers to the church as a " small unicameral church of undeterminable date " and says that the font , on its " strangely carved rectangular base " , is " inconsistent " with the Romanesque fonts found elsewhere in Anglesey
= Lifeline ( Stargate Atlantis ) =
" Lifeline " is the second episode of the fourth season , and the 62nd episode overall , of the science fiction television series Stargate Atlantis . The episode first aired in the United States on October 5 , 2007 on the Sci Fi Channel , and subsequently aired October 16 on Sky One in the United Kingdom . It was written by executive producer Carl Binder , and directed by Martin Wood . The episode is a continuation of the previous episode , " Adrift " , following Colonel Sheppard and his team as they perform a mission to steal a Zero Point Module from the Asurans . It was described by executive producer Joseph Mallozzi as a " big op eppy . "
The episode was considered to be somewhat of a send off to Elizabeth Weir ( played by the departing Torri Higginson ) . Although Wood was credited for directing , he was occupied with directing the movie Stargate : Continuum , so Andy Mikita did most of the actual directing for the episode . It received slightly lower ratings than " Adrift " , but was still well received .
= = Plot = =
To ensure the mission to steal a Zero Point Module is a success , Dr. McKay ( David Hewlett ) proposes to use Dr. Weir ( Torri Higginson ) and her nanites to access the Asuran collective and guide them ; should the Asurans take her over , McKay would activate a kill switch on the nanites , which would also effectively kill Weir . With their experimental jumper ready , Sheppard ( Joe Flanigan ) leaves Teyla ( Rachel Luttrell ) in command of Atlantis . The jumper 's hyperdrive works and they arrive over the Asuran homeworld ( M7R @-@ 227 ) . With Weir 's access , Sheppard and Ronon ( Jason Momoa ) easily steal the Zero Point Module . McKay then finds a code that will cause the Asurans to attack the Wraith and convinces Sheppard to upload a programme to reactivate this dormant code .
McKay initiates an anti @-@ Replicator field to protect them from the Asurans , but Oberoth ( David Ogden Stiers ) discovers this and sends a wave to override the field . Weir leaves McKay , confronts Oberoth and uses his power to freeze all the Asurans , even tricking him into believing that he has captured the team , all to buy Sheppard enough time to upload the programme . However , Weir struggles to keep Asurans frozen , and when Sheppard finds her just as she loses control , she orders him to leave her behind as the Asurans unfreeze and capture her . The team escapes without Weir , but end up trapped as they lack the power to make it to hyperspace . They are unexpectedly assisted by the Apollo , who have found Atlantis with Colonel Carter 's ( Amanda Tapping ) help . The Apollo lays down covering fire long enough for the team to land in the fighter bay and carries them back to Atlantis . However , the Apollo is unable to lock onto Doctor Weir and beam her aboard . Now fully powered , Sheppard sends the city to M35 @-@ 117 , a back @-@ up planet , and makes a rough landing onto its ocean . Whilst the team mourns the loss of Weir , McKay regains contact with Stargate Command . Dr. Zelenka ( David Nykl ) announces that the Asurans have begun their attack against the Wraith , meaning Weir 's sacrifice was not in vain . Carter tells Sheppard that they will miss Weir , though Sheppard vows to find her again .
= = Production = =
" Lifeline " first surfaced in February 2007 . Carl Binder wanted to do a heist episode during the off @-@ season , though the writers had no idea where it would fit in the overall season arc . However , as " Adrift " was written , they realized their heist story flowed naturally from it . Even though Martin Wood was credited for directing the episode , Andy Mikita ended up directing most of it instead , as well as directing parts of " Adrift " ; Wood was directing Stargate : Continuum at the time of filming . Amanda Tapping requested that showrunners Mallozzi and Mullie not give her a big part for the episode , as she was in the Arctic filming for Stargate : Continuum . Another reason that Carter 's appearance was small was that Torri Higginson was still a part of the show , and the producers wanted Carter to be introduced slowly . The episode , as a " third part " , was difficult to write , since the second part ( " Adrift " ) is a comeback resolve of the first part ( " First Strike " ) , and the third part has to " resolve the resolve . " In the writing stages , there was also talk as to whether or not to save the experimental hyperdrive jumper . Eventually it was decided that it would be saved , to keep open the possibility of using it again .
Tapping felt acting on the new show went a little easier when filming Carter scenes with Bill Dow ( " Bill Lee " ) , with whom she had previously worked on Stargate SG @-@ 1 . She said another factor that made acting on Atlantis easier was the welcoming cast and crew of the series . Tapping 's hair was longer than it was during her time on SG @-@ 1 , and the military approved of the change as long as it was worn up . To save money on visual effects , the crew built set pieces to represent some of the buildings on M7R @-@ 227 and placed them in front of the puddle jumper set . Another measure taken as a substitute to visual effects was to cast mime artists as the frozen Asurans .
While filming Weir guiding the team to find the ZPM , the fact that she can see " everything " without looking at anything was a hard sell for an actor , but with Higginson 's drive in her eyes , this would make the scene more believable for the audience . The scene was not written in the original script . The set for the core room in the Asuran city was the same set as Atlantis ' gate room , though in order to make it look as different as possible , the cameras were placed at angles not usually used for filming in the gate room , such as where they would normally place lights .
= = Reception = =
The episode earned a 1 @.@ 1 household Nielsen rating , which was down by one @-@ tenth of a point or 8 % from " Adrift " . It fell behind ECW on Sci Fi ( with a 1 @.@ 2 rating ) , Eureka ( with a 1 @.@ 4 rating ) and Ghost Hunters ( with a 1 @.@ 5 rating ) . In the United Kingdom , " Lifeline " received 443 @,@ 000 viewers , placing Stargate Atlantis as number six in the top ten broadcasts for Sky One for that week , behind The Simpsons and Prison Break . It was positively received by most critics . Tory Ireland Mell of IGN rated the episode a " masterful " 10 out of a possible 10 , praising the slow introduction of Carter , rather than having an SG @-@ 1 team member forced into the series , and stated the episode gets the viewer " glued to the television for one hour . " Critical Myth rated the episode 8 out of 10 , stating the episode as " light on plot twists but packs an emotional punch , " and was somewhat critical for the lack of surprises in the episode 's storyline . Brett Love of TV Squad liked the episode 's storyline , and thought Weir 's exit was executed well , despite leaks from the Internet that Weir would be leaving , and compared the scene between her and Oberoth to the confrontations between Neo and Agent Smith from The Matrix film series . However , Love was critical about the absence of Teyla throughout the majority of the episode .
= Ambush of Geary =
The Ambush of Geary was a skirmish of the American Revolutionary War fought on 14 December 1776 near Ringoes in Amwell Township , Hunterdon County , New Jersey . Cornet Francis Geary , the leader of a company of dragoons , was shot in an ambush set up by local militiamen .
After British forces captured New York City in the first part of the New York and New Jersey campaign , they established outposts throughout central New Jersey . Geary , the son of Admiral Sir Francis Geary , was operating from a station at Pennington when he was killed in the ambush . His body was concealed and later buried in a shallow grave , preventing its recovery by British troops . In the 19th century local historical interest led to the confirmation of his grave 's location , and the establishment of markers at the site and in England .
Making a casualty of Geary was one of a number of militia actions that resulted in a reduced scope of British reconnaissance , contributing to the eventual success of George Washington 's crossing of the Delaware and success at Trenton .
= = Background = =
After General William Howe successfully drove George Washington 's Continental Army out of New York City in the fall of 1776 , Washington retreated across New Jersey , pursued by General Charles Cornwallis . Washington retreated all the way across the Delaware River in early December , and the British began arranging winter quarters in New Jersey , establishing a chain of outposts from Perth Amboy to Bordentown .
The British and their Hessian allies regularly sent out reconnaissance and foraging parties . These were vulnerable to attack by local Patriot militia companies . The area around the Trenton outpost , commanded by Johann Rall and populated primarily by Hessians , was particularly vulnerable to these militia raids , as was a detachment of the 16th ( Queen 's ) Light Dragoons posted not far away from Trenton at Pennington . Hunterdon County , north of Trenton , was an area where atrocities were reported in early December , including claims of rape of girls and pregnant women , perpetrated by groups of British and German soldiers ; these reports contributed to an increase in Patriot militia activity in the area north of Trenton .
Cornet Francis Geary was the eldest son and heir of Admiral Sir Francis Geary and Mary Bartholomew . Born in 1752 , he was raised in Surrey and educated at Balliol College , Oxford . Purchasing a cornetcy in the 16th Light Dragoons in 1773 , Geary was sent to North America in 1776 , arriving in New York at the end of September . In October and November , Geary 's unit was mainly occupied with forays in northern New Jersey where they met little organized resistance , but on 1 December , his company was ordered to camp at Pennington . On 14 December , Cornet Geary and seven other members of the 16th were sent north on a reconnaissance mission .
= = Ambush = =
The most detailed source for this action is a deposition attached to the application for a military pension of John Schanck , cousin of Captain John Schenck , the leader of the Patriot militia ; detailed British accounts do not appear to exist . According to this account , Geary 's party rode through Amwell Township toward Flemington to verify that a supply of salt beef and pork was ready for the army to pick up . The deponent had received intelligence of this movement the previous day , and when John Schenck learned of it , he set out the next morning , gathering up a few men ( eight in number , according to the deponent ) , and set up an ambush in a wooded area about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of Flemington . When Geary 's company rode by , the militia fired a volley of musket fire , killing Geary . A more brief description by a non @-@ participating British officer reporting the event indicated that Geary was alerted to the impending fire , but was unable to escape the volley . The dragoons returned fire , but were driven off by continuing militia fire .
= = Aftermath = =
The militiamen appropriated portions of Geary 's uniform , including his sword and the silver plate on his cap that had his name inscribed on it . British troops that had been sent out to meet them and take the supplies questioned the local inhabitants and searched the area , but could not find his body . The militiamen had concealed it ; it was buried in a shallow grave the next day .
General John Burgoyne , in his capacity as colonel of the 16th , wrote to Admiral Geary :
" I have seldom felt a pain so acute as that of communicating to you the news from America , which personally regards yourself . I am afraid my authority is too good . Your Son has met a Soldier 's fate . Experienced in calamity , describes what it is to resign an object near the heart , and ho [ w ] poor our best fortitude is upon such trial I am unfit to comfort or exhort you . Time and reflection can alone relieve you : I wish therefore only add to the tears of the Corps . My private lamentations
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of Pancasila as the sole ideology caused protests from conservative Islamic groups who considered Islamic law to be above all other conceptions . The Tanjung Priok massacre saw the army kill up to 100 conservative Muslim protesters in September 1984 . A retaliatory series of small bombings , including the bombing of Borobudur , led to arrests of hundreds of conservative Islamic activists , including future parliamentary leader AM Fatwa and Abu Bakar Bashir ( later leader of Jemaah Islamiyah ) . Attacks on police by a resurgent Free Aceh Movement in 1989 led to a military operation which killed 2 @,@ 000 people and ended the insurgency by 1992 . In 1984 , the Suharto government sought increased control over the press by issuing a law requiring all media to possess a press operating license ( SIUPP ) which could be revoked at any time by Ministry of Information .
Western concern over communism waned with end of Cold War , and Suharto 's human rights record came under greater international scrutiny , particularly following the 1991 Santa Cruz Massacre in East Timor . Suharto was elected as head of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement in 1992 , while Indonesia became a founding member of APEC in 1989 and host to the Bogor APEC Summit in 1994 .
Domestically , the business dealings of Suharto 's family created discontent amongst the military who lost access to power and lucrative rent @-@ seeking opportunities . The March 1988 MPR session , military legislators attempted to pressure Suharto by unsuccessfully seeking to block the nomination of Sudharmono , a Suharto @-@ loyalist , as vice @-@ president . Moerdani ’ s criticism of the Suharto family 's corruption saw the President dismiss him from the position of military chief . Suharto proceeded to slowly " de @-@ militarize " his regime ; he dissolved the powerful Kopkamtib in September 1988 and ensured key military positions were held by loyalists .
In an attempt to diversify his power base away from the military , Suharto begin courting support from Islamic elements . He undertook a much @-@ publicised hajj pilgrimage in 1991 , took up the name of Haji Mohammad Suharto , and promoted Islamic values and the careers of Islamic @-@ oriented generals . To win support from the nascent Muslim business community who resented dominance of Chinese @-@ Indonesian conglomerates , Suharto formed the ICMI ( Indonesian Islamic Intellectuals ' Association ) in November 1990 , which was led by his protégé BJ Habibie , the Minister for Research and Technology since 1978 . During this period , race riots against ethnic @-@ Chinese begin to occur quite regularly , beginning with April 1994 riot in Medan .
By the 1990s , Suharto 's government came to be dominated by civilian politicians such as Habibie , Harmoko , Ginandjar Kartasasmita , and Akbar Tanjung , who owed their position solely to Suharto . As sign of Habibie 's growing clout , when several prominent Indonesian magazines criticised Habibie 's purchase of almost the entire fleet of the disbanded East German Navy in 1993 ( most of the vessels were of scrap @-@ value ) , Suharto ordered the offending publications be closed down on 21 June 1994 .
In the 1990s , elements within the growing Indonesian middle class created by Suharto 's economic development , were becoming restless with his autocracy and corruption of his children , fueling demands for " Reformasi " ( reform ) of the almost 30 @-@ year @-@ old New Order government . By 1996 , Megawati Sukarnoputri , the daughter of Sukarno and chairwoman of the normally compliant PDI , was becoming a rallying point for this growing discontent . In response , Suharto backed a co @-@ opted faction of PDI led by Suryadi , which removed Megawati from the chair . On 27 July 1996 , an attack by soldiers and hired thugs led by Lieutenant @-@ General Sutiyoso on demonstrating Megawati supporters in Jakarta resulted in fatal riots and looting . This incident was followed by the arrest of 200 democracy activists , 23 of whom were kidnapped , and some killed , by army squads led by Suharto 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Major @-@ General Prabowo Subianto .
= = = Economic crisis and resignation = = =
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the Asian financial crisis of 1997 – 98 . From mid @-@ 1997 there were large capital outflows and against the US dollar . Due to poor bank lending practices , many Indonesian companies borrowed cheaper US dollar loans while their income is mainly in Indonesian rupiah . The weakening rupiah spurred panic buying of US dollar by these companies , causing the Indonesian Rupiah to drop from a pre @-@ crisis level of Rp . 2 @,@ 600 to a low point in early 1998 of around Rp . 17 @,@ 000 . Consequently , many companies were bankrupted and the economy shrank by 13 @.@ 7 % leading to sharp increases in unemployment and poverty across the country . Efforts by the central bank to defend the rupiah proved futile and only drained the country 's dollar reserves . In exchange for US $ 43 billion in liquidity aid , between October 1997 and the following April , Suharto signed three letters of intent with the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) for an economic reform process . In January 1998 , the government was forced to provide emergency liquidity assistance ( BLBI ) , issue blanket guarantees for bank deposits , and set @-@ up the Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency to take over management of troubled banks in order to prevent the collapse of the financial system . Among the steps taken on IMF recommendation , the government raised interest rate up to 70 % pa in February 1998 which further worsened the contraction of the economy .
In December 1997 , Suharto for the first time did not attend an ASEAN presidents ' summit , which was later revealed to be due to a minor stroke , creating speculation about his health and the immediate future of his presidency . In mid @-@ December , as the crisis swept through Indonesia and an estimated $ 150 billion of capital was being withdrawn from the country , he appeared at a press conference to re @-@ assert his authority and to urge people to trust the government and the collapsing Rupiah . However , his attempts to re @-@ instill confidence had little effect . Evidence suggested that his family and associates were being spared the toughest requirements of the IMF reform process , further undermining confidence in the economy and his leadership .
The economic meltdown was accompanied by increasing political tension . Anti @-@ Chinese riots occurred in Situbondo ( 1996 ) , Tasikmalaya ( 1996 ) , Banjarmasin ( 1997 ) , and Makassar ( 1997 ) ; while violent ethnic clashes broke out between the Dayak and Madurese settlers in Central Kalimantan in 1997 . Golkar won the rigged 1997 MPR elections and in March 1998 , Suharto was voted unanimously to another five @-@ year term . He appointed his protégé BJ Habibie as vice @-@ president while stacking the cabinet with his own family and business associates ( his daughter Tutut became Minister of Social Affairs ) . The appointments and the government 's unreaslistic 1998 budget created further currency instability , and rumours and panic led to a run on stores and pushed up prices . The Government 's May 1998 increase in fuel prices by 70 % triggered riots in Medan .
With Suharto increasingly seen as the source of the country 's mounting economic and political crises , prominent political figures , including Muslim politician Amien Rais , spoke out against his presidency , and in January 1998 university students began organising nationwide demonstrations . The crisis climaxed while Suharto was on a state visit to Egypt on 12 May 1998 , when security forces killed four demonstrators from Jakarta 's Trisakti University . Rioting and looting across Jakarta and other cities over the following days destroyed thousands of buildings and killed over 1 @,@ 000 people . Ethnic Chinese and their businesses were particular targets in the violence . Theories on the origin of the violence include rivalry between military chief General Wiranto and Prabowo , and the suggestion of deliberate provocation by Suharto to divert blame for the crisis to the ethnic @-@ Chinese and discredit the student movement .
On 16 May , tens of thousands of university students demanding Suharto ’ s resignation , occupied the grounds and roof of the parliament building . Upon Suharto 's return to Jakarta , he offered to resign in 2003 and to reshuffle his cabinet . These efforts failed when his political allies deserted him by refusing to join the proposed new cabinet . According to Wiranto , on 18 May , Suharto issued a decree which provided authority to him to take any measures to restore security ; however , Wiranto decided not to enforce the decree to prevent conflict with the population . On 21 May 1998 , Suharto announced his resignation , upon which vice @-@ president Habibie assumed the presidency in accordance with the constitution .
= = Post @-@ presidency = =
After resigning from the presidency , Suharto reclused himself in his family compound in the Menteng area of Jakarta , protected by soldiers and rarely making public appearances . Suharto 's family spend much of their time fending @-@ off corruption investigations . However , Suharto himself was protected from serious prosecution by politicians who owed their positions to the former president , as indicated in the leaked telephone conversation between President Habibie and attorney @-@ general Andi Muhammad Ghalib in February 1999 .
In May 1999 , Time Asia estimated Suharto 's family fortune at US $ 15 billion in cash , shares , corporate assets , real estate , jewelry and fine art . Suharto sued the magazine seeking more than $ US 27 billion in damages for libel over the article . On 10 September 2007 , Indonesia 's Supreme Court awarded Suharto damages against Time Asia magazine , ordering it to pay him one trillion rupiah ( $ 128 @.@ 59 million ) . The High Court reversed the judgment of an appellate court and Central Jakarta district court ( made in 2000 and 2001 ) .
Suharto was placed highest on Transparency International 's list of corrupt leaders with an alleged misappropriation of between US $ 15 – 35 billion during his 32 @-@ year presidency .
On 29 May 2000 , Suharto was placed under house arrest when Indonesian authorities began to investigate the corruption during his presidency . In July 2000 , it was announced that he was to be accused of embezzling US $ 571 million of government donations to one of a number of foundations under his control and then using the money to finance family investments . But in September court @-@ appointed doctors announced that he could not stand trial because of his declining health . State prosecutors tried again in 2002 but then doctors cited an unspecified brain disease . On 26 March 2008 , a civil court judge acquitted Suharto of corruption but ordered his charitable foundation , Supersemar , to pay US $ 110 m ( £ 55 m ) .
In 2002 , Suharto 's son Tommy , was sentenced to 15 years ' jail . He had been convicted of ordering the killing of a judge who had sentenced him to 18 months jail for corruption and illegal weapons possession . In 2006 , he was freed on " conditional release . "
In 2003 , Suharto 's half @-@ brother Probosutedjo was tried and convicted for corruption and the loss of $ 10 million from the Indonesian state . He was sentenced to four years in jail . He later won a reduction of his sentence to two years , initiating a probe by the Indonesian Corruption Eradication Commission into the alleged scandal of the " judicial mafia " which uncovered offers of $ 600 @,@ 000 to various judges . Probosutedjo confessed to the scheme in October 2005 , leading to the arrest of his lawyers . His full four @-@ year term was reinstated . After a brief standoff at a hospital , in which he was reportedly protected by a group of police officers , he was arrested on 30 November 2005 .
On 9 July 2007 , Indonesian prosecutors filed a civil lawsuit against former President Suharto , to recover state funds ( $ 440 m or £ 219 m , which allegedly disappeared from a scholarship fund , and a further $ 1 @.@ 1 billion in damages ) .
= = = Health crises = = =
After resigning from the presidency , Suharto was hospitalised repeatedly for stroke , heart , and intestinal problems . His declining health hindered attempts to prosecute him as his lawyers successfully claimed that his condition rendered him unfit for trial . Moreover , there was little support within Indonesia for any attempts to prosecute him . In 2006 , Attorney General Abdurrahman announced that a team of twenty doctors would be asked to evaluate Suharto 's health and fitness for trial . One physician , Brigadier @-@ General Dr Marjo Subiandono , stated his doubts about by noting that " [ Suharto ] has two permanent cerebral defects . " In a later Financial Times report , Attorney General Abdurrahman discussed the re @-@ examination , and called it part of a " last opportunity " to prosecute Suharto criminally . Attorney General Abdurrahman left open the possibility of filing suit against the Suharto estate . "
= = = Death = = =
On 4 January 2008 , Suharto was taken to the Pertamina hospital , Jakarta with complications arising from a weak heart , swelling of limbs and stomach , and partial renal failure . His health fluctuated for several weeks but progressively worsened with anaemia and low blood pressure due to heart and kidney complications , internal bleeding , fluid on his lungs , and blood in his faeces and urine which caused a haemoglobin drop . On 23 January , Suharto 's health worsened further , as a sepsis infection spread through his body . His family consented to the removal of life support machines , and he died on 27 January at 1 : 10 pm
Suharto 's body was taken from Jakarta to the Giri Bangun mausoleum complex near the Central Java city of Solo . He was buried alongside his late wife in a state military funeral with full honours , with the Kopassus elite forces and KOSTRAD commandos as the honour guard and pallbearers and Commander of Group II Kopassus Surakarta Lt. Colonel Asep Subarkah . In attendance were the incumbent president , Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono as " Ceremony Inspector " , and vice @-@ president , government ministers , and armed forces chiefs of staff . Tens of thousands of people lined the streets to see the convoy . Condolences were offered by many regional heads of state , and Indonesia 's President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono declared a week of official mourning . During this tenure , all flags of Indonesia were flown at half @-@ mast .
= The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King ( video game ) =
The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King is a 2003 action / hack and slash video game developed by EA Redwood Shores for the PlayStation 2 and Windows . It was ported to the GameCube and Xbox by Hypnos Entertainment , to the Game Boy Advance by Griptonite Games , to mobile by JAMDAT , and to OS X by Beenox . The game was published by Electronic Arts . It is a sequel to the 2002 game The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers .
The game is an adaptation of Peter Jackson 's 2002 film The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers and his 2003 film The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King , which was released shortly after the game . As it is not an adaptation of J. R. R. Tolkien 's 1954 novel , The Return of the King , the third volume in his Lord of the Rings trilogy , anything from the novel not specifically mentioned or depicted in the films could not be represented in the game . This is because , at the time , Vivendi Universal Games , in partnership with Tolkien Enterprises , held the rights to the video game adaptations of Tolkien 's literary works , whilst Electronic Arts held the rights to the video game adaptations of the New Line Cinema films .
The game is similar to its predecessor in basic gameplay , but differs by adding multiple storylines , more playable characters and increased interaction with environments . A two @-@ player co @-@ op mode is also available for some missions . As with The Two Towers , The Return of the King was developed in close collaboration with the filmmakers , using many of the actual reference photos , drawings , models , props and other assets from the film . The game was met with positive critical reception for its graphics , audio , and gameplay , although its camera positioning and short length were criticized .
= = Gameplay = =
Described by the developers as a modern version of Gauntlet , The Return of the King is a hack and slash action game played from a third @-@ person perspective . The game is very similar to its predecessor in basic gameplay . Each character has a quick attack which does minimal damage and can be easily blocked , and a fierce attack , which does more damage , but is slower and leaves the player vulnerable to attack . Only fierce attacks can break enemy shields . Each character also has a ranged attack , a " killing move " ( which can be used to instantly kill downed enemies ) , a parry ( which can deflect enemy attacks ) , a knock back ( which pushes nearby enemies away ) , a jump back ( in which the player character jumps back away from the enemy ) , a devastating attack ( a charged fierce attack ) and a special ability . Playable characters in the console and PC versions are Gandalf , Aragorn , Legolas , Gimli , Frodo and Sam , with Faramir , Pippin and Merry available as unlockable characters . Playable characters in the GBA version are Aragorn , Legolas , Gimli , Frodo , Gandalf , and Éowyn , with Gollum and Sam available as unlockable characters .
Each playable character has their own set of combos and attributes . After the end of each level the player can upgrade their characters ' abilities and combos using experience points . The number of points available to the player depends on the efficiency of their kills . During each level , the player will be continually graded on the skill with which they dispatch enemies ; " Fair " , " Good " , " Excellent " and " Perfect . " The more skill with which the player kills , the more experience they acquire . The player 's skill is measured by an on @-@ screen meter which increases as the player dispatches enemies . To avoid the meter dropping back down , the player must avoid being hit , and kill enemies using a variety of different methods . When a player reaches a Perfect level , all of their attacks increase in strength , and the experience from each kill is doubled . However , Perfect status only lasts for a brief period of time . A new aspect of Return of the King is that at the end of each level , rather than purchasing upgrades for the individual character , the player can also purchase " Fellowship " upgrades which apply to every playable character . However , characters will only be able to avail of a particular skill when they have reached the corresponding experience level .
A major change from The Two Towers is the interactive nature of the game environments . The player can operate machinery , for example bridges and catapults , to complete objectives , and use environmental objects as weapons , such as spears and cauldrons , to kill enemies . The levels are also twice the size of the largest level from The Two Towers and many are less linear . Unlike The Two Towers , The Return of the King features a co @-@ op mode , allowing two players to play through the game together . The North American PlayStation 2 version also has an online multiplayer mode , with USB headset support , although this was removed from the European version of the game .
The Game Boy Advance version is more of a hack and slash RPG , and is played from an isometric three @-@ quarter top @-@ down view . A major gameplay difference in this version is the addition of " runes " which players can etch into their weapons , granting them special abilities . The game also features co @-@ op multiplayer through the Game Boy link function , and unlockable content when connected to the GameCube version via the Nintendo GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable .
= = Plot = =
Todd Arnold , senior producer of The Return of the King , stated that the game was not intended to re @-@ tell the story of the film , but to allow the player to come as close as possible to experiencing the critical parts of the film for themselves . Levels were designed with this goal in mind , with just enough plot to give context to the player 's actions . Liberties were thus taken with the plot , and critics noted there was little footage which could spoil the film for those who had not seen it . GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin said " if you didn 't know anything about the story of The Return of the King , then the story of the game may be hard to follow , though you 'll still get the gist of it . " However , he also advised , " in case you don 't want any aspect of the movie spoiled for you , it 'd be wise to hold off on playing The Return of the King until after you 've seen the movie . "
= = = Synopsis = = =
The game begins during the Battle of the Hornburg at Helm 's Deep , with the Uruk @-@ hai having just penetrated the outer walls . With the defenders falling back to the inner court , Gandalf ( voiced by Ian McKellen ) appears on a hill @-@ top flanked by thousands of Rohirrim . The player takes control of Gandalf as he enters the battle and helps defeat the Uruk @-@ hai and orc army . After this level , the game splits into three separate mission arcs , each with its own individual set of characters . The " Path of the Wizard " follows Gandalf , the " Path of the King " follows Aragorn ( Viggo Mortensen ) , Legolas ( Orlando Bloom ) and Gimli ( John Rhys @-@ Davies ) , and the " Path of the Hobbits " follows Frodo ( Elijah Wood ) and Sam ( Sean Astin ) , although initially only Sam is playable .
The Path of the Wizard continues immediately after the events of the first level . The remains of the Uruk @-@ hai and orc army flee into Fangorn Forest . However , within the forest , the Ents , led by Treebeard , have awoken and joined the fight against Sauron . Gandalf helps the ents as they destroy the rest of the army , and then assists them in bringing down a dam holding back the River Isen . This floods Isengard , trapping Saruman ( Christopher Lee ) , who had joined forces with Sauron , in his tower , Orthanc . Gandalf and Pippin ( Billy Boyd ) then head to Minas Tirith , capital of Gondor , leaving Aragorn , Legolas , Gimli and the Rohirrim to follow them . Gandalf has gone ahead of the others because Sauron mistakenly believes that Pippin has the Ring , and Gandalf plans to use this confusion to distract Sauron as Frodo and Sam are led by Gollum ( Andy Serkis ) towards Mount Doom to destroy the Ring . In Minas Tirth , Gandalf helps repulse the enemies from the walls for a time , but eventually , they break through the city 's defenses . Gandalf and the soldiers of Minas Tirith then retreat to a courtyard , where they must defend the fleeing civilians from the enemy . Once the people are safely inside , Gandalf can do little but await the arrival of Aragorn .
The Path of the King picks up with Aragorn , Legolas , Gimli and the Rohirrim on the way to Minas Tirith . Before arriving , however , the three companions must walk the Paths of the Dead in an effort to convince the Army of the Dead to join their cause in the War of the Ring . To do so , they must defeat the King of the Dead ( Jarion Monroe ) in combat . After this , the Paths of the Dead start to collapse , and they must escape before the falling rubble crushes them . With the Army of the Dead pledged to aid them , they travel to Minas Tirith and enter the Battle of the Pelennor Fields . Joining the Rohirrim and the soldiers of Minas Tirith , they face orcs , Easterlings , Haradrim and oliphaunts . They must also defend Merry ( Dominic Monaghan ) and Éowyn ( Lorri Holt ) , allowing Éowyn the opportunity to defeat the Witch @-@ king of Angmar . As it seems they are about to be overwhelmed , the Army of Dead arrive , destroying the forces of Mordor and saving Minas Tirith .
The Path of the Wizard and Path of the King share the same final level , set at the Black Gate of Mordor . In a further effort to distract Sauron from the approach of Frodo and Sam , Gandalf advises that Aragorn and the remaining army marches to the Gates of Mordor as a direct challenge to Sauron , who will send out a vast army to meet them , thus keeping his attention away from Mount Doom . Upon arriving at the Gate , the party are confronted by the Mouth of Sauron ( Roger L. Jackson ) , who tells them that Frodo is dead . They kill him and must then face a massive army of orcs , before fighting the remaining Nazgûl . Not believing Frodo to be dead , they plan to fight as long as they can , ultimately sacrificing themselves so as to give Frodo enough time to destroy the Ring .
In The Path of the Hobbits , Frodo , Sam and Gollum must first escape from Osgiliath , fighting past orcs to get to the sewers and ensuring that Frodo is not captured by the Nazgûl . However , upon escaping , Gollum decides to betray them and take the Ring back for himself . He tricks Frodo into going on without Sam , but Sam follows them into Shelob 's lair . In the lair , Gollum abandons Frodo , and Sam must fight past spiders and orcs , eventually facing Shelob herself , who has attacked Frodo . Sam defeats Shelob , but upon reaching Frodo , he mistakenly believes him to be dead . About to go to Mount Doom on his own , he hides as a group of orcs arrive , and hears them say that Frodo is alive , but unconscious . They take him with them as Sam follows them to the Tower of Cirith Ungol . As Sam is about to enter the Tower , the orcs begin fighting among themselves , and Sam uses the distraction to rescue Frodo . Together , they head to Mount Doom . However , before Frodo can throw the Ring into the lava below , he is attacked by Gollum , who takes the Ring . In the final level , the player controls Frodo as he fights Gollum on the edge of the precipice . Frodo successfully defeats Gollum , knocking him into the lava and destroying the Ring forever .
= = Development = =
Following the success of the video game tie @-@ in of The Two Towers film , an adaptation of The Return of the King was announced on April 25 , 2003 . While The Two Towers was released on the three major consoles ( PlayStation 2 , GameCube and Xbox ) and the Game Boy Advance , The Return of the King was also set for release on PC . Executive producer Neil Young revealed playable characters would include Gandalf , Aragorn , Legolas , Gimli , Frodo , Sam and two to four unlockable characters . He also stated the characters ' fighting styles would be much more differentiated from one another than they had been in Two Towers , and he explained the game would offer three separate story branches rather than one , but the player would be unable to complete the game or get to the final level by playing through only one branch . Young stated " there are certain gates that prevent the player from progressing that might break the fiction , but that motivates them to essentially bring a party of characters through the game to its conclusion . "
EA debuted the game at the 2003 E3 event in May , announcing that compared to Two Towers , Return of the King had more playable characters , larger and less linear levels , multiple narrative paths , bigger and more intelligent bosses , interactive environments , and a co @-@ op mode . Footage from the films and parts of Howard Shore 's score would feature , and members of the film 's cast would lend their voices and likenesses to the game . On May 15 , a playable demo was made available for the PS2 , featuring the first Minas Tirith level along with a non @-@ playable demo of the co @-@ op gameplay in a customized level specifically designed for E3 . EA also revealed they were working on having Gollum as a playable character , although this ultimately did not happen , except in the GBA version .
The developers called The Return of the King " bigger and better " than The Two Towers . " In The Two Towers the player would occasionally run into 10 or 15 enemies , " said lead game designer Chris Tremmel , " in The Return of the King there are areas where the player faces up to 40 orcs [ ... ] Fans familiar with The Two Towers will find that the combat experience in The Return of the King feels familiar but much deeper . " Before creating levels , the developers would initially look at the script and determine what parts from the film to highlight in that particular level , and how to structure that event as a mission . They would then write in @-@ depth level designs out on paper , going into details such as combat setup , special props and enemy types , all the while using the film as their main reference point . They would then create an animatic of the level , working out problems and fine @-@ tuning design concepts . The levels would then be created in the game environment . The game is also graphically improved over The Two Towers . According to Neil Young , " we 've developed some new lighting techniques to allow the characters to look richer . We are pushing 2x the number of polys & 2x the texture density [ ... ] we also stream our geometry and textures from the disc so the game has a much higher density of imagery . " Enemy AI was improved , and developers also spent a lot of time working on the sound of the game , which was THX certified .
Producer Glen Schofield stated the biggest challenge the developers were facing was " just trying to match the breathtaking look and feel of the movies " . Similarly , Neil Young said " We wanted to make something that 's authentic and true to the movie . The people on our team really care about making a game that aspires to more than just a sequel , they want to make this equivalent to the movie experience itself . " EA Redwood Shores worked closely with New Line Cinema to make the games as authentic as possible , using the actual reference photos , drawings , models , props , lighting studies and motion capture data . EA 's partner relations director , Nina Dobner said
Both New Line and the film production company in New Zealand are integrally tied into the entire development process of the game . Right from the conceptual stage down to the final production builds , their input is sought and listened to . We don 't consider New Line a licensor , but more a true partner . As soon as we have the earliest storyboards and bare bones outline for a game , New Line are right at the table with me , giving their feedback . This is also the stage at which we introduce Peter Jackson , Barrie Osborne and the rest of the film production team to the key concepts and get their feedback . From here on , I meet with the actors , the film @-@ makers and New Line on a regular basis to illicit feedback and new ideas as we move forward with the development . We are so deeply tied into the film production that we actually opened our own offices within the 3 foot 6 Weta offices in New Zealand during the pick @-@ up shooting so we could be closer to the action and the assets .
Dodner said that during development of the game , she travelled to New Zealand once a month with builds of the game for the filmmakers to play , and on which to give their feedback , and that in total , EA had acquired a quarter of a million different assets from the production . Schofield further pointed out " we even hired the same stunt doubles from the movie to help us render the most realistic movements in the game . " Dobner also said " we want the game to not just look like the films but to be exactly like the films . " She commented that no details in the game were made up ; " when we were reproducing Minas Tirith [ ... ] we felt the team would benefit from being able to see and feel a piece of the actual movie set . Unfortunately , the set had already been dismantled . So , while in New Zealand , I searched the various warehouses to find remnants of the dismantled set . After much work , I returned to San Francisco proudly bearing four bricks from the Minas Tirith set . "
= = Reception = =
The Return of the King received " generally favorably reviews " across all systems ; the Game Boy Advance version holds an aggregate score of 77 out of 100 on Metacritic , based on thirteen reviews ; the GameCube version 84 out of 100 , based on twenty @-@ three reviews ; the PC version 78 out of 100 , based on eighteen reviews ; the PlayStation 2 version 85 out of 100 , based on thirty @-@ one reviews ; and the Xbox version 84 out of 100 , based on thirty @-@ one reviews .
As an adaptation , the game was praised by GameZone 's Michael Knutson as " the best movie to game conversion that has come out in a long time " and by GameSpy 's Raymond Padilla as setting " a new standard for video game adaptations of movies . "
The graphics and THX @-@ certified audio were lauded by critics . The game 's animations , scenery , player models , cutscenes , music and voice acting were particularly well received . " Sound effects used in the game will also blow you away , " Knutson said , " Everything from the explosions , swords clashing , hundreds of incoming enemies storming your way , all sounds like it came directly from the movie ! " GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin noted that " Frame rate issues do affect each version of the game , to varying degrees , and none of the character models for the main characters look all that remarkable , " but conceded that " all other aspects of The Return of the King 's graphics are outstanding [ ... ] The game 's audio is even more effective than the graphics at conveying the intensity of the action . " Ian McKellen 's narration of the game as Gandalf was also praised .
The game 's combat was praised by most critics . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Crispin Boyer described the game as " a thrill ride . And not just ' cause Return of the King unleashes larger hordes of foes than last year 's equally slick Two Towers prequel . Many of Return of the King 's levels actually force you to multitask while you hack and slash . " PC Gamer UK 's Tony Ellis wrote " combat in RotK is superbly satisfying . Your blows connect with a solid , visceral thud you can almost feel . " He also noted the variation between levels . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed praised the " subtleties of the combat . " In contrast , Game Informer 's Matthew Kato found the gameplay to be " repetitious " , writing " sometimes I got the feeling that I was working harder only to have less fun than in Two Towers . " The co @-@ op mode was also praised .
The Return of the King was criticized for its poor camera placement . " What 's the use of a new graphics engine and character models when the view is from so far away ? " asked Kato . Reed complained about " camera switches which reverse the controls , or worse , completely obscure your viewpoint . On just about every mission the camera switching confuses the hell out of you . " The game 's save function was also criticized . Ellis commented that " You can only save after completing a level [ ... ] which is not so good when you 're forced to slog through the same sequences over and over again . " Critics also complained about the unskippable cut scenes , occasionally unclear objectives and relatively short length .
The GBA version also received good reviews . GameZone 's Steve Hopper found it very similar to the GBA version of Two Towers , but wrote " all in all this is solid action game that I can wholeheartedly recommend for gamers who loved The Two Towers and want more of the same brand of hack and slash action . " IGN 's Craig Harris wrote " the enhancements to the gameplay definitely enhance an already solid action game , and it 's also a very recommended two player experience as well . The Return of the King is a nice compliment to a great film , and a decent follow @-@ up to an already enjoyable action title on the handheld . " GameSpot 's Frank Provo called it " more satisfying and ultimately more playable " than Two Towers , and praised the differentiation between the characters , the graphics and the experience system . GameSpy 's Matt Chandronait was less impressed , criticizing the game 's " technical flaws , " especially its collision detection . He called it a " repetitive beat- ' em @-@ up that require [ s ] dozens of hours of devotion to unlock every last item , level , and character . "
= = = Awards = = =
The wireless version of Return of the King , developed by JAMDAT , won IGN 's " Wireless Game of the Year " award for 2003 . At the 2003 Spike Video Game Awards , Return of the King was nominated for two awards ; " Best Animation " and " Best Game Based on a Movie " . It lost in both categories , to Dead or Alive : Xtreme Beach Volleyball and Enter the Matrix , respectively . The console version won in two categories at the DICE 2004 awards : " Outstanding Achievement in Character Performance : Male " ( for Elijah Wood 's voice role as Frodo ) and " Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design " . In 2014 , IGN included the game in their list of the " 5 Best Lord of the Rings Video Games . "
= = = Peter Jackson reaction = = =
Despite the game 's receiving general critical acclaim and selling well , Peter Jackson , director of the Lord of the Rings film trilogy , stated that the video game tie @-@ in for his next film , King Kong , would not be developed by EA but by Ubisoft . Jackson 's manager claimed that despite EA saying the filmmakers were heavily involved in the making of the game , the developers were not interested in Jackson 's input on the game . Additionally , Jackson had played Beyond Good & Evil , and wanted to work with producer Michel Ancel , who was at Ubisoft .
= Cripples , Bastards , and Broken Things =
" Cripples , Bastards , and Broken Things " is the fourth episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones , which first aired on May 8 , 2011 . It was written by Bryan Cogman and directed by Brian Kirk . In this episode Lord Eddard Stark , the new Hand of
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National Council ) of the former British @-@ governed territories .
= = History = =
The territory of present @-@ day Cameroon was first settled during the Neolithic Era . The longest continuous inhabitants are groups such as the Baka ( Pygmies ) . From here , Bantu migrations into eastern , southern , and central Africa are believed to have originated about 2 @,@ 000 years ago . The Sao culture arose around Lake Chad c . AD 500 and gave way to the Kanem and its successor state , the Bornu Empire . Kingdoms , fondoms , and chiefdoms arose in the west .
Portuguese sailors reached the coast in 1472 . They noted an abundance of the ghost shrimp Lepidophthalmus turneranus in the Wouri River and named it Rio dos Camarões ( Shrimp River ) , which became Cameroon in English . Over the following few centuries , European interests regularised trade with the coastal peoples , and Christian missionaries pushed inland .
In the early 19th century , Modibo Adama led Fulani soldiers on a jihad in the north against non @-@ Muslim and partially Muslim peoples and established the Adamawa Emirate . Settled peoples who fled the Fulani caused a major redistribution of population . The northern part of Cameroon was an important part of the Arab slave trade network .
The Bamum tribe have a writing system , known as Bamum script or Shu Mom . The script was given to them by Sultan Ibrahim Njoya in 1896 , and is taught in Cameroon by the Bamum Scripts and Archives Project . The German Empire claimed the territory as the colony of Kamerun in 1884 and began a steady push inland . They initiated projects to improve the colony 's infrastructure , relying on a harsh system of forced labour , which was much criticised by the other colonial powers .
With the defeat of Germany in World War I , Kamerun became a League of Nations mandate territory and was split into French Cameroun and British Cameroons in 1919 . France integrated the economy of Cameroun with that of France and improved the infrastructure with capital investments and skilled workers , modifying the system of forced labour .
The British administered their territory from neighbouring Nigeria . Natives complained that this made them a neglected " colony of a colony " . Nigerian migrant workers flocked to Southern Cameroons , ending forced labour altogether but angering the local natives , who felt swamped . The League of Nations mandates were converted into United Nations Trusteeships in 1946 , and the question of independence became a pressing issue in French Cameroun .
France outlawed the most radical political party , the Union des Populations du Cameroun ( UPC ) , on 13 July 1955 . This prompted a long guerrilla war and the assassination of the party 's leader , Ruben Um Nyobé . In the more peaceful British Cameroons , the question was whether to reunify with French Cameroun or join Nigeria .
= = = Independence ( 1960 ) = = =
On 1 January 1960 French Cameroun gained independence from France under President Ahmadou Ahidjo . On 1 October 1961 , the formerly British Southern Cameroons united with French Cameroun to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon . Ahidjo used the ongoing war with the UPC to concentrate power in the presidency , continuing with this even after the suppression of the UPC in 1971 .
His political party , the Cameroon National Union ( CNU ) , became the sole legal political party on 1 September 1966 and in 1972 , the federal system of government was abolished in favour of a United Republic of Cameroon , headed from Yaoundé . Ahidjo pursued an economic policy of planned liberalism , prioritising cash crops and petroleum development . The government used oil money to create a national cash reserve , pay farmers , and finance major development projects ; however , many initiatives failed when Ahidjo appointed unqualified allies to direct them .
Ahidjo stepped down on 4 November 1982 and left power to his constitutional successor , Paul Biya . However , Ahidjo remained in control of the CNU and tried to run the country from behind the scenes until Biya and his allies pressured him into resigning . Biya began his administration by moving toward a more democratic government , but a failed coup d 'état nudged him toward the leadership style of his predecessor .
An economic crisis took effect in the mid @-@ 1980s to late 1990s as a result of international economic conditions , drought , falling petroleum prices , and years of corruption , mismanagement , and cronyism . Cameroon turned to foreign aid , cut government spending , and privatised industries . With the reintroduction of multi @-@ party politics in December 1990 , the former British Southern Cameroons pressure groups called for greater autonomy , and the Southern Cameroons National Council advocated complete secession as the Republic of Ambazonia . In February 2008 , Cameroon experienced its worst violence in 15 years when a transport union strike in Douala escalated into violent protests in 31 municipal areas .
In May 2014 , in the wake of the Chibok schoolgirl kidnapping , Presidents Paul Biya of Cameroon and Idriss Déby of Chad announced they are waging war on Boko Haram , and deployed troops to the Nigerian border .
= = Politics and government = =
The President of Cameroon is elected and creates policy , administers government agencies , commands the armed forces , negotiates and ratifies treaties , and declares a state of emergency . The president appoints government officials at all levels , from the prime minister ( considered the official head of government ) , to the provincial governors and divisional officers . The president is selected by popular vote every seven years .
The National Assembly makes legislation . The body consists of 180 members who are elected for five @-@ year terms and meet three times per year . Laws are passed on a majority vote . Rarely has the assembly changed or blocked legislation proposed by the president .
The 1996 constitution establishes a second house of parliament , the 100 @-@ seat Senate , was established in April 2013 and is headed by a senate president who is the constitutional successor in case of untimely vacancy of the presidency . The government recognises the authority of traditional chiefs , fons , and lamibe to govern at the local level and to resolve disputes as long as such rulings do not conflict with national law .
Cameroon 's legal system is largely based on French civil law with common law influences . Although nominally independent , the judiciary falls under the authority of the executive 's Ministry of Justice . The president appoints judges at all levels . The judiciary is officially divided into tribunals , the court of appeal , and the supreme court . The National Assembly elects the members of a nine @-@ member High Court of Justice that judges high @-@ ranking members of government in the event they are charged with high treason or harming national security .
= = = Political culture = = =
Cameroon is viewed as rife with corruption at all levels of government . In 1997 , Cameroon established anti @-@ corruption bureaus in 29 ministries , but only 25 % became operational , and in 2012 , Transparency International placed Cameroon at number 144 on a list of 176 countries ranked from least to most corrupt . On 18 January 2006 , Biya initiated an anti @-@ corruption drive under the direction of the National Anti @-@ Corruption Observatory . There are several high corruption risk areas in Cameroon , for instance , customs , public health sector and public procurement .
Human rights organisations accuse police and military forces of mistreating and even torturing criminal suspects , ethnic minorities , homosexuals , and political activists . Prisons are overcrowded with little access to adequate food and medical facilities , and prisons run by traditional rulers in the north are charged with holding political opponents at the behest of the government . However , since the first decade of the 21st century , an increasing number of police and gendarmes have been prosecuted for improper conduct .
President Biya 's Cameroon People 's Democratic Movement ( CPDM ) was the only legal political party until December 1990 . Numerous regional political groups have since formed . The primary opposition is the Social Democratic Front ( SDF ) , based largely in the Anglophone region of the country and headed by John Fru Ndi .
Biya and his party have maintained control of the presidency and the National Assembly in national elections , which rivals contend were unfair . Human rights organisations allege that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by preventing demonstrations , disrupting meetings , and arresting opposition leaders and journalists . Freedom House ranks Cameroon as " not free " in terms of political rights and civil liberties . The last parliamentary elections were held on 30 September 2013 .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
Cameroon is a member of both the Commonwealth of Nations and La Francophonie . Its foreign policy closely follows that of its main ally , France ( its former colonial ruler ) . Cameroon relies heavily on France for its defence , although military spending is high in comparison to other sectors of government . Biya has clashed with the government of Nigeria over possession of the oil rich Bakassi peninsula ( however , this was resolved with the Greentree Agreement ) and with Gabon 's president , El Hadj Omar Bongo , over personal rivalries .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
The constitution divides Cameroon into 10 semi @-@ autonomous regions , each under the administration of an elected Regional Council . Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor .
These leaders are charged with implementing the will of the president , reporting on the general mood and conditions of the regions , administering the civil service , keeping the peace , and overseeing the heads of the smaller administrative units . Governors have broad powers : they may order propaganda in their area and call in the army , gendarmes , and police . All local government officials are employees of the central government 's Ministry of Territorial Administration , from which local governments also get most of their budgets .
The regions are subdivided into 58 divisions ( French départements ) . These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers ( préfets ) . The divisions are further split into sub @-@ divisions ( arrondissements ) , headed by assistant divisional officers ( sous @-@ prefets ) . The districts , administered by district heads ( chefs de district ) , are the smallest administrative units .
The three northernmost regions are the Far North ( Extrême Nord ) , North ( Nord ) , and Adamawa ( Adamaoua ) . Directly south of them are the Centre ( Centre ) and East ( Est ) . The South Province ( Sud ) lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the southern border . Cameroon 's western region is split into four smaller regions : the Littoral ( Littoral ) and Southwest ( Sud @-@ Ouest ) regions are on the coast , and the Northwest ( Nord @-@ Ouest ) and West ( Ouest ) regions are in the western grassfields .
= = Education and health = =
In 2010 , the literacy rate of Cameroon was estimated to be 71 @.@ 3 % ( male 78 @.@ 3 % and female 64 @.@ 8 % ) . Most children have access to state @-@ run schools that are cheaper than private and religious facilities . The educational system is a mixture of British and French precedents with most instruction in English or French .
Cameroon has one of the highest school attendance rates in Africa . Girls attend school less regularly than boys do because of cultural attitudes , domestic duties , early marriage , pregnancy , and sexual harassment . Although attendance rates are higher in the south , a disproportionate number of teachers are stationed there , leaving northern schools chronically understaffed .
School attendance in Cameroon is also affected by child labor . Indeed , the U.S. Department of Labor Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor reported that 56 % of children aged 5 to 14 were working children and that almost 53 % of children aged 7 to 14 combined work and school . In December 2014 , a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor issued by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs mentioned Cameroon among the countries that resorted to child labor in the production of cocoa .
The quality of health care is generally low . In Cameroon , there is only one doctor for every 5 @,@ 000 people , according to the World Health Organization . Due to financial cuts in the health care system , there are few professionals . Doctors and nurses who were trained in Cameroon , emigrate because in Cameroon the payment is poor while the workload is high . Nurses are unemployed even though their help is needed . Some of them help out voluntarily so they will not lose their skills . Outside the major cities , facilities are often dirty and poorly equipped .
Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 54 @.@ 71 years in 2012 , among the lowest in the world . Endemic diseases include dengue fever , filariasis , leishmaniasis , malaria , meningitis , schistosomiasis , and sleeping sickness . The HIV / AIDS seroprevalence rate is estimated at 5 @.@ 4 % for those aged 15 – 49 , although a strong stigma against the illness keeps the number of reported cases artificially low . Breast ironing , a traditional practice that is prevalent in Cameroon , may affect girls ' health . Female genital mutilation ( FGM ) , while not widespread , is practiced among some populations ; according to a 2013 UNICEF report , 1 % of women in Cameroon have undergone FGM . Traditional healers remain a popular alternative to Western medicine .
= = Geography = =
At 475 @,@ 442 square kilometres ( 183 @,@ 569 sq mi ) , Cameroon is the world 's 53rd @-@ largest country . It is slightly larger than the nation of Sweden and comparable in size to Papua New Guinea . The country is located in Central and West Africa on the Bight of Bonny , part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean . Cameroon lies between latitudes 1 ° and 13 ° N , and longitudes 8 ° and 17 ° E.
Tourist literature describes Cameroon as " Africa in miniature " because it exhibits all major climates and vegetation of the continent : coast , desert , mountains , rainforest , and savanna . The country 's neighbours are Nigeria and the Atlantic Ocean to the west ; Chad to the northeast ; the Central African Republic to the east ; and Equatorial Guinea , Gabon and the Republic of the Congo to the south .
Cameroon is divided into five major geographic zones distinguished by dominant physical , climatic , and vegetative features . The coastal plain extends 15 to 150 kilometres ( 9 to 93 mi ) inland from the Gulf of Guinea and has an average elevation of 90 metres ( 295 ft ) . Exceedingly hot and humid with a short dry season , this belt is densely forested and includes some of the wettest places on earth , part of the Cross @-@ Sanaga @-@ Bioko coastal forests .
The South Cameroon Plateau rises from the coastal plain to an average elevation of 650 metres ( 2 @,@ 133 ft ) . Equatorial rainforest dominates this region , although its alternation between wet and dry seasons makes it is less humid than the coast . This area is part of the Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregion .
An irregular chain of mountains , hills , and plateaus known as the Cameroon range extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast — Cameroon 's highest point at 4 @,@ 095 metres ( 13 @,@ 435 ft ) — almost to Lake Chad at Cameroon 's northern border at 13 ° 05'N . This region has a mild climate , particularly on the Western High Plateau , although rainfall is high . Its soils are among Cameroon 's most fertile , especially around volcanic Mount Cameroon . Volcanism here has created crater lakes . On 21 August 1986 , one of these , Lake Nyos , belched carbon dioxide and killed between 1 @,@ 700 and 2 @,@ 000 people . This area has been delineated by the World Wildlife Fund as the Cameroonian Highlands forests ecoregion .
The southern plateau rises northward to the grassy , rugged Adamawa Plateau . This feature stretches from the western mountain area and forms a barrier between the country 's north and south . Its average elevation is 1 @,@ 100 metres ( 3 @,@ 609 ft ) , and its average temperature ranges from 22 ° C ( 71 @.@ 6 ° F ) to 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) with high rainfall between April and October peaking in July and August . The northern lowland region extends from the edge of the Adamawa to Lake Chad with an average elevation of 300 to 350 metres ( 984 to 1 @,@ 148 ft ) . Its characteristic vegetation is savanna scrub and grass . This is an arid region with sparse rainfall and high median temperatures .
Cameroon has four patterns of drainage . In the south , the principal rivers are the Ntem , Nyong , Sanaga , and Wouri . These flow southwestward or westward directly into the Gulf of Guinea . The Dja and Kadéï drain southeastward into the Congo River . In northern Cameroon , the Bénoué River runs north and west and empties into the Niger . The Logone flows northward into Lake Chad , which Cameroon shares with three neighbouring countries .
= = Economy and infrastructure = =
Cameroon 's per @-@ capita GDP ( Purchasing power parity ) was estimated as US $ 2 @,@ 300 in 2008 , one of the ten highest in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Major export markets include France , Italy , South Korea , Spain , and the United Kingdom . Cameroon is aiming to become an emerging country by 2035 .
Cameroon has had a decade of strong economic performance , with GDP growing at an average of 4 % per year . During the 2004 – 2008 period , public debt was reduced from over 60 % of GDP to 10 % and official reserves quadrupled to over USD 3 billion . Cameroon is part of the Bank of Central African States ( of which it is the dominant economy ) , the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa ( UDEAC ) and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa ( OHADA ) . Its currency is the CFA franc .
Unemployment was estimated at 30 % in 2001 , and about a third of the population was living below the international poverty threshold of US $ 1 @.@ 25 a day in 2009 . Since the late 1980s , Cameroon has been following programmes advocated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) to reduce poverty , privatise industries , and increase economic growth . The government has taken measures to encourage tourism in the country .
Cameroon 's natural resources are very well suited to agriculture and arboriculture . An estimated 70 % of the population farms , and agriculture comprised an estimated 19 @.@ 8 % of GDP in 2009 . Most agriculture is done at the subsistence scale by local farmers using simple tools . They sell their surplus produce , and some maintain separate fields for commercial use . Urban centres are particularly reliant on peasant agriculture for their foodstuffs . Soils and climate on the coast encourage extensive commercial cultivation of bananas , cocoa , oil palms , rubber , and tea . Inland on the South Cameroon Plateau , cash crops include coffee , sugar , and tobacco . Coffee is a major cash crop in the western highlands , and in the north , natural conditions favour crops such as cotton , groundnuts , and rice . Reliance on agricultural exports makes Cameroon vulnerable to shifts in their prices .
Livestock are raised throughout the country . Fishing employs 5 @,@ 000 people and provides over 100 @,@ 000 tons of seafood each year . Bushmeat , long a staple food for rural Cameroonians , is today a delicacy in the country 's urban centres . The commercial bushmeat trade has now surpassed deforestation as the main threat to wildlife in Cameroon .
The southern rainforest has vast timber reserves , estimated to cover 37 % of Cameroon 's total land area . However , large areas of the forest are difficult to reach . Logging , largely handled by foreign @-@ owned firms , provides the government US $ 60 million a year in taxes ( as of 1998 ) , and laws mandate the safe and sustainable exploitation of timber . Nevertheless , in practice , the industry is one of the least regulated in Cameroon .
Factory @-@ based industry accounted for an estimated 29 @.@ 7 % of GDP in 2009 . More than 75 % of Cameroon 's industrial strength is located in Douala and Bonabéri . Cameroon possesses substantial mineral resources , but these are not extensively mined ( see Mining in Cameroon ) . Petroleum exploitation has fallen since 1986 , but this is still a substantial sector such that dips in prices have a strong effect on the economy . Rapids and waterfalls obstruct the southern rivers , but these sites offer opportunities for hydroelectric development and supply most of Cameroon 's energy . The Sanaga River powers the largest hydroelectric station , located at Edéa . The rest of Cameroon 's energy comes from oil @-@ powered thermal engines . Much of the country remains without reliable power supplies .
Transport in Cameroon is often difficult . Except for the several relatively good toll roads which connect major cities ( all of them one @-@ lane ) roads are poorly maintained and subject to inclement weather , since only 10 % of the roadways are tarred . Roadblocks often serve little other purpose than to allow police and gendarmes to collect bribes from travellers . Road banditry has long hampered transport along the eastern and western borders , and since 2005 , the problem has intensified in the east as the Central African Republic has further destabilised .
Intercity bus services run by multiple private companies connect all major cities . They are the most popular means of transportation followed by the rail service Camrail . Rail service runs from Kumba in the west to Bélabo in the east and north to Ngaoundéré . International airports are located in Douala and Yaoundé , with a third under construction in Maroua . Douala is the country 's principal seaport . In the north , the Bénoué River is seasonally navigable from Garoua across into Nigeria .
Although press freedoms have improved since the first decade of the 21st century , the press is corrupt and beholden to special interests and political groups . Newspapers routinely self @-@ censor to avoid government reprisals . The major radio and television stations are state @-@ run and other communications , such as land @-@ based telephones and telegraphs , are largely under government control . However , cell phone networks and Internet providers have increased dramatically since the first decade of the 21st century and are largely unregulated . Worlddiplomacy.org states that " [ President ] Paul Biya is one of the longest servings heads of state in the world and as long as he remains in power , Cameroon will continue to steadily progress economically without much surprises " .
= = Military = =
The Cameroon Armed Forces , ( French : Forces armées camerounaises , FAC ) as of 2015 , consists of the country 's army ( French : Armée de Terre ) , the country 's navy ( French : Marine Nationale de la République ( MNR ) , includes naval infantry ) , the Cameroonian Air Force ( French : Armée de l 'Air du Cameroun , AAC ) , Fire Fighter Corps , Rapid Intervention Brigade and the Gendarmerie .
Males and females that are 18 years of age up to 23 years of age and have graduated high school are eligible for military service . Those that do so are obliged 4 years of service . There is no conscription in Cameroon , but the government makes periodic calls for volunteers .
= = Demographics = =
The population total in Cameroon was 20 @,@ 030 @,@ 362 in 2011 . The life expectancy is 53 @.@ 69 years ( 52 @.@ 89 years for males and 54 @.@ 52 years for females ) .
Cameroon 's population is almost evenly divided between urban and rural dwellers . Population density is highest in the large urban centres , the western highlands , and the northeastern plain . Douala , Yaoundé , and Garoua are the largest cities . In contrast , the Adamawa Plateau , southeastern Bénoué depression , and most of the South Cameroon Plateau are sparsely populated .
According to the Cameroon government website , the fertility rate was 5 @.@ 0 in 2004 .
People from the overpopulated western highlands and the underdeveloped north are moving to the coastal plantation zone and urban centres for employment . Smaller movements are occurring as workers seek employment in lumber mills and plantations in the south and east . Although the national sex ratio is relatively even , these out @-@ migrants are primarily males , which leads to unbalanced ratios in some regions .
Both monogamous and polygamous marriage are practiced , and the average Cameroonian family is large and extended . In the north , women tend to the home , and men herd cattle or work as farmers . In the south , women grow the family 's food , and men provide meat and grow cash crops . Like most societies , Cameroonian society is male @-@ dominated , and violence and discrimination against women is common .
Estimates identify anywhere from 230 to 282 different folks and linguistic groups in Cameroon . The Adamawa Plateau broadly bisects these into northern and southern divisions . The northern peoples are Sudanese groups , who live in the central highlands and the northern lowlands , and the Fulani , who are spread throughout northern Cameroon . A small number of Shuwa Arabs live near Lake Chad . Southern Cameroon is inhabited by speakers of Bantu and Semi @-@ Bantu languages . Bantu @-@ speaking groups inhabit the coastal and equatorial zones , while speakers of Semi @-@ Bantu languages live in the Western grassfields . Some 5 @,@ 000 Gyele and Baka Pygmy peoples roam the southeastern and coastal rainforests or live in small , roadside settlements . Nigerians make up the largest group of foreign nationals .
= = = Refugees = = =
In 2007 , Cameroon hosted a total population of refugees and asylum seekers of approximately 97 @,@ 400 . Of these , 49 @,@ 300 were from the Central African Republic ( many driven west by war ) , 41 @,@ 600 from Chad , and 2 @,@ 900 from Nigeria . Kidnappings of Cameroonian citizens by Central African bandits have increased since 2005 .
In the first months of 2014 , thousands of refugees fleeing the violence in the Central African Republic arrived in Cameroon .
On 4 June 2014 , AlertNet reported :
Almost 90 @,@ 000 people have fled to neighbouring Cameroon since December and up to 2 @,@ 000 a week , mostly women and children , are still crossing the border , the United Nations said .
" Women and children are arriving in Cameroon in a shocking state , after weeks , sometimes months , on the road , foraging for food , " said Ertharin Cousin , executive director of the World Food Programme ( WFP ) .
= = = Languages = = =
The European languages introduced during colonialism have created a linguistic divide between the population who live in the Northwest and Southwest regions and the French @-@ speaking remainder of the country . Both English and French are official languages , although French is by far the most understood language ( more than 80 % ) .
German , the language of the original colonisers , has long since been displaced by French and English . Cameroonian Pidgin English is the lingua franca in the formerly British @-@ administered territories . A mixture of English , French , and Pidgin called FrancAnglais has been gaining popularity in urban centres since the mid @-@ 1970s .
= = = Religion = = =
Cameroon has a high level of religious freedom and diversity . The predominant faith is Christianity , practiced by about two @-@ thirds of the population , while Islam is a significant minority faith , adhered to by about one @-@ fifth . In addition , traditional faiths are practiced by many . Muslims are most concentrated in the north , while Christians are concentrated primarily in the southern and western regions , but practitioners of both faiths can be found throughout the country . Large cities have significant populations of both groups . Muslims in Cameroon are divided into Sunnis ( including Wahhabis ) , Shias , Ahmadis , Sufis , and non @-@ denominational Muslims .
People from the North @-@ West and South @-@ West provinces are largely Protestant , and the French @-@ speaking regions of the southern and western regions are largely Catholic . Southern ethnic groups predominantly follow Christian or traditional African animist beliefs , or a syncretic combination of the two . People widely believe in witchcraft , and the government outlaws such practices . Suspected witches are often subject to mob violence . The Islamist jihadist group Boko Haram has been reported as operating in North Cameroon .
In the northern regions , the locally dominant Fulani ethnic group is mostly Muslim , but the overall population is fairly evenly divided among Muslims , Christians , and followers of indigenous religious beliefs ( called Kirdi ( " pagan " ) by the Fulani ) . The Bamum ethnic group of the West Region is largely Muslim . Native traditional religions are practiced in rural areas throughout the country but rarely are practiced publicly in cities , in part because many indigenous religious groups are intrinsically local in character .
= = Culture = =
= = = Music and dance = = =
Music and dance are an integral part of Cameroonian ceremonies , festivals , social gatherings , and storytelling . Traditional dances are highly choreographed and separate men and women or forbid participation by one sex altogether . The goals of dances range from pure entertainment to religious devotion . Traditionally , music is transmitted orally . In a typical performance , a chorus of singers echoes a soloist .
Musical accompaniment may be as simple as clapping hands and stomping feet , but traditional instruments include bells worn by dancers , clappers , drums and talking drums , flutes , horns , rattles , scrapers , stringed instruments , whistles , and xylophones ; the exact combination varies with ethnic group and region . Some performers sing complete songs by themselves , accompanied by a harplike instrument .
Popular music styles include ambasse bey of the coast , assiko of the Bassa , mangambeu of the Bangangte , and tsamassi of the Bamileke . Nigerian music has influenced Anglophone Cameroonian performers , and Prince Nico Mbarga 's highlife hit " Sweet Mother " is the top @-@ selling African record in history .
The two most popular styles of music are makossa and bikutsi . Makossa developed in Douala and mixes folk music , highlife , soul , and Congo music . Performers such as Manu Dibango , Francis Bebey , Moni Bilé , and Petit @-@ Pays popularised the style worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s . Bikutsi originated as war music among the Ewondo . Artists such as Anne @-@ Marie Nzié developed it into a popular dance music beginning in the 1940s , and performers such as Mama Ohandja and Les Têtes Brulées popularised it internationally during the 1960s , 1970s , and 1980s .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Cuisine varies by region , but a large , one @-@ course , evening meal is common throughout the country . A typical dish is based on cocoyams , maize , cassava ( manioc ) , millet , plantains , potatoes , rice , or yams , often pounded into dough @-@ like fufu . This is served with a sauce , soup , or stew made from greens , groundnuts , palm oil , or other ingredients . Meat and fish are popular but expensive additions , with chicken often reserved for special occasions . Dishes are often quite hot , spiced with salt , red pepper sauce , and Maggi .
Silverware is common , but food is traditionally manipulated with the right hand . Breakfast consists of leftovers of bread and fruit with coffee or tea . Generally breakfast is made from wheat flour in various different foods such as puff @-@ puff ( doughnuts ) , accra banana made from bananas and flour , bean cakes and many more . Snacks are popular , especially in larger towns where they may be bought from street vendors .
Water , palm wine , and millet beer are the traditional mealtime drinks , although beer , soda , and wine have gained popularity . 33 Export beer is the official drink of the national soccer team and one of the most popular brands , joining Castel , Amstel , and Guinness .
= = = Local arts and crafts = = =
Traditional arts and crafts are practiced throughout the country for commercial , decorative , and religious purposes . Woodcarvings and sculptures are especially common . The high @-@ quality clay of the western highlands is suitable for pottery and ceramics . Other crafts include basket weaving , beadworking , brass and bronze working , calabash carving and painting , embroidery , and leather working . Traditional housing styles make use of locally available materials and vary from temporary wood @-@ and @-@ leaf shelters of nomadic Mbororo to the rectangular mud @-@ and @-@ thatch homes of southern peoples . Dwellings made from materials such as cement and tin are increasingly common . Contemporary art is mainly promoted by independent cultural organizations ( Doual 'art , Africréa ) and artist @-@ run initiatives ( Art Wash , Atelier Viking , ArtBakery ) .
= = = Literature = = =
Cameroonian literature has concentrated on both European and African themes . Colonial @-@ era writers such as Louis @-@ Marie Pouka and Sankie Maimo were educated by European missionary societies and advocated assimilation into European culture as the means to bring Cameroon into the modern world . After World War II , writers such as Mongo Beti and Ferdinand Oyono analysed and criticised colonialism and rejected assimilation .
= = = Film = = =
Shortly after independence , filmmakers such as Jean @-@ Paul Ngassa and Thérèse Sita @-@ Bella explored similar themes . In the 1960s , Mongo Beti and other writers explored post @-@ colonialism , problems of African development , and the recovery of African identity . Meanwhile , in the mid @-@ 1970s , filmmakers such as Jean @-@ Pierre Dikongué Pipa and Daniel Kamwa dealt with the conflicts between traditional and post @-@ colonial society . Literature and films during the next two decades concentrated more on wholly Cameroonian themes .
= = = Sports = = =
National policy strongly advocates sport in all forms . Traditional sports include canoe racing and wrestling , and several hundred runners participate in the 40 km ( 25 mi ) Mount Cameroon Race of Hope each year . Cameroon is one of the few tropical countries to have competed in the Winter Olympics . Sport in Cameroon is dominated by association football ( soccer ) . Amateur football clubs abound , organised along ethnic lines or under corporate sponsors . The Cameroon national football team has been one of the most successful in Africa since its strong showing in the 1990 FIFA World Cup . Cameroon has won four African Cup of Nations titles and the gold medal at the 2000 Olympics .
= Party in the U.S.A. =
" Party in the U.S.A. " is a song by American singer Miley Cyrus for her first extended play ( EP ) The Time of Our Lives ( 2009 ) . It was released on August 11 , 2009 , by Hollywood Records as the lead single from the project . The song was written and produced by Dr. Luke , with additional songwriting provided by Jessie J and Claude Kelly . " Party in the U.S.A. " was originally intended for Jessie J , but after deciding it was not edgy enough for her , they passed it to Cyrus and adjusted the lyrics to fit her persona . Not completely identifying with " Party in the U.S.A. " , Cyrus chose it for The Time of Our Lives partially due to a need for tracks . The song is a pop song , while the lyrics reflect her relocating from Nashville , Tennessee , to Hollywood , California . This is one of four collaborations between Cyrus and Dr. Luke , with EP title track " The Time of Our Lives " , will.i.am 's " Fall Down " and " Wrecking Ball " following in 2013 .
In the United States , the song peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song was the seventh best @-@ selling digital single of 2009 in the United States . It was certified seven times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and quadruple platinum by Music Canada . As of July 2014 , the song has sold 5 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States .
The music video for " Party in the U.S.A. " , directed by Chris Applebaum , pays tribute to the 1978 film Grease and Cyrus ' parents ' courting days . It occurs mainly at a drive @-@ in theater and won the MuchMusic Video Award for Best International Artist Video at the 2010 award show . The song was performed live for Cyrus ' world tours , the 2009 Wonder World Tour , the 2011 Gypsy Heart Tour and the 2014 Bangerz Tour . At the 2009 Teen Choice Awards , Cyrus ' use of a pole during a performance of " Party in the U.S.A. " , which some interpreted to be a dance pole , caused a media uproar . Although co @-@ writer Jessie J originally decided not to record " Party in the U.S.A. " after writing it , she did eventually , among various other artists , perform a cover version of the song . " Party in the U.S.A. " has also been parodied by " Weird Al " Yankovic .
= = Background = =
Soon after signing a record deal with Lava Records , aspiring English singer Jessie J commenced to work on her debut album . She collaborated with songwriters and producers Dr. Luke and Claude Kelly in her first writing session , where " Party in the U.S.A. " was conceived with the intention of being performed by Jessie J. However , she decided not to record the song , believing it was not edgy enough for her to perform . She explained , " And I remember thinking this song is amazing , but I don 't know if it 's me 110 percent , you know . You can kind of feel it . " The song reached Cyrus while she was creating an EP with Dr. Luke . The writing team then reworked the lyrics , intending to write an accompanying theme for Cyrus ' joint clothing line with Max Azria , exclusively sold in Wal @-@ Mart stores . In order to please audiences , Dr. Luke , Kelly and Jessie J fixated on composing a fun , upbeat song that narrated reflections of Cyrus ' personality . " They feel they 're buying into a great experience but also buying into the artist " , Kelly said of the song 's fans . To write his contributions to the song , Kelly said he desired to mimic Cyrus ' songwriting : " It ’ s the same song from a different point of view , you just have to find that unique perspective . " To record the song 's instrumentation , they decided to mingle computerized sound with " the warmth of live instrumentation " , using live electric guitars and drums . Cyrus was pleased with the song and selected it partially due to a need of tracks for The Time of Our Lives . This is the first of two collaborations between Dr. Luke and Cyrus . Dr. Luke would later co @-@ produce Cyrus ' 2013 smash hit single " Wrecking Ball " .
Cyrus has stated " Party in the U.S.A. " is not a reflection of her musically , as she preferred songs with more of an edge . She said the track was " an all @-@ American song " and claimed she had never heard a Jay @-@ Z song in November 2009 , an artist which the lyrics refer to . However , she did state she enjoyed Britney Spears ' music , also mentioned in the song . " Party in the U.S.A. " was chosen as the lead single from The Time of Our Lives , as Cyrus thought personnel were " picking up on it " , although she did not expect for it to be commercially successful . The song was first played on radio stations on July 29 , 2009 , following a leak of the track on the Internet on July 28 , 2009 . " Party in the U.S.A. " was officially released for airplay on August 3 , 2009 , and as a digital download on August 11 , 2009 .
= = Composition = =
" Party in the U.S.A. " is a song with a length of three minutes and 23 seconds . The song has been described as " reggae @-@ powered pop tune " . The song is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute . It is written in the key of F # major and Cyrus ' vocals span two octaves , from F # 3 to D # 5 . Cyrus ' vocals feature belter refrains . It follows the chord progression F # – A # m – D # m – C # . The song 's instrumentation includes a " clash between feathery jazz guitar chords and a booming synth bassline serving as hook " .
The lyrics for " Party in the U.S.A. " are written in first person , about Cyrus ' relocation from Nashville , Tennessee to Hollywood , California . In the verses , she details occurrences in Hollywood , such as peers questioning her attire , that cause for her to feel homesick and intimidated . Towards the conclusion of each verse , the protagonist listens to her favorite Jay @-@ Z and Britney Spears song , respectively , which leads to the refrains describing how her favorite songs make her feel more confident . Vicki Lutas of BBC interpreted , " However cringe it sounds , your favourite song can make you feel okay and feel more confident , even if you 're not really . "
= = Critical reception = =
Michael Hann of The Guardian said " Party in the U.S.A. " was a cute pop song . Later , while reviewing the Wonder World Tour , he elaborated that the song was a reminder " that manufactured pop need not be a bad thing – if the manufacturing is good enough " . Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music said , " Fortunately for Cyrus , [ the other songs from The Time of Our Lives ] flee your brain cells within seconds of their final chords , which means you 're more likely to remember the breezily brilliant hit ' Party in the U.S.A. ' " Mikael Wood of New York City 's Time Out magazine described the song as a " killer tune [ ... ] which proves that Miley makes for a much better rapper than you might expect " . Heather Phares of Allmusic selected the track as one of the EPs best , describing it as a frothy party anthem suitable for Cyrus ' alias , Hannah Montana .
Erik Ernst of The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel said the song was " ridiculously catchy " . Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly decided that " Party in the U.S.A. " was Cyrus ' bouncy attempt at urban music , since she had previously transitioned into other markets . Jessica Holland of The Observer deemed " Party in the U.S.A. " one of the highlights on The Time of Our Lives . Michael Menachem of Billboard stated the song was one of Cyrus ' most entertaining songs . Menachem continued , " [ Dr. Luke ] injects the song with an energy recalling Robyn and early Gwen Stefani . After successfully tackling dance and country formats and delivering one of the year 's strongest ballads ( ' The Climb ' ) , Cyrus continues to show off her impressive range . " Ryan Brockington of The New York Post said that although the track was more mainstream than Cyrus ' prior singles , he did not hate it . Vicki Lutas of BCC described " Party in the U.S.A. " as " a breath of fresh air " while being " seriously stomping " and slightly relatable . She said the song 's best attribute was Cyrus ' voice and concluded that Cyrus contains an ability of making her voice sound interesting all the time . Upon listening to the track , Lutas feels that " suddenly you think someone else is in the room with you and you 've got all the ingredients for , well , a huge party contained in one little song . "
= = Commercial performance = =
" Party in the U.S.A. " debuted and peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending August 29 , 2009 , due to the sale of over 226 @,@ 000 digital downloads , thus becoming the fastest @-@ selling single released by Hollywood Records . It was kept off number one by " I Gotta Feeling " by the Black Eyed Peas . It became Cyrus ' best @-@ charting effort on the chart up to that point , surpassing her prior best @-@ charting effort " The Climb " , which peaked at number four in May 2009 . The week 's appearance also marked the highest debut by a female solo artist since Carrie Underwood 's " Inside Your Heaven " , which debuted at number one in July 2005 . In the succeeding weeks , " Party in the U.S.A. " continued to sell and chart on the Billboard Hot 100 strongly , spending 16 consecutive weeks in the top ten and 28 weeks in total . It also peaked at number one on Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) , and number 13 on Adult Pop Songs . According to Billboard , " Party in the U.S.A. " was the seventh @-@ best selling digital single of 2009 in the US . The single was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments exceeding four million copies and became Hollywood Records ' best @-@ selling single to date . By October 2012 , " Party in the U.S.A " had surpassed the 5 million sales mark in the United States , making Cyrus the youngest artist to have a single that sold more than five million downloads . As of July 2014 , the song has sold 5 @,@ 542 @,@ 000 downloads in the US . The song is among the best @-@ selling singles of all time .
" Party in the U.S.A. " peaked at number three on the Canadian Hot 100 . The single was certified quadruple platinum by the Music Canada for the sales of 320 @,@ 000 digital downloads . The song also became successful in Australia , New Zealand and Japan . On the week ending September 13 , 2009 , " Party in the U.S.A. " debuted at number 14 on the Australian Singles Chart . The following week , the song ascended to a new peak at number nine and peaked at number six on the week ending November 8 , 2009 . The single was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for the shipment of 140 @,@ 000 copies . " Party in the U.S.A. " debuted at number 11 on the New Zealand Singles Chart and peaked at number three on the week ending November 9 , 2009 . The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for the shipment of 272 @,@ 000 copies . On the week ending January 9 , 2010 , " Party in the U.S.A. " debuted at number 49 on the Japan Hot 100 Chart and , in the succeeding week , reached its peak at number four .
In the United Kingdom , " Party in the U.S.A. " entered and peaked at number 11 . The song tied with " See You Again " and " The Climb " , which charted in August 2008 and March 2009 , respectively , for Cyrus ' best @-@ charting effort in the United Kingdom . In Ireland , the song peaked at number five . In mainland Europe , " Party in the U.S.A. " peaked at number 17 on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles Chart , number six on both the French Singles Chart and Hungarian Singles Chart , and peaked at number 12 on Norwegian Singles Chart . It received lower commercial success throughout other regions of Europe , becoming a top 40 hit in Austria , Belgium ( Wallonia and Flanders ) , Czech Republic , Denmark , Spain and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
Cyrus contacted Chris Applebaum to direct the accompanying music video for " Party in the U.S.A. " , with ideologies for the video already conceived . Her ideas for the video 's theme were about " high @-@ gloss , glamorous white trash . " She told Applebaum she desired to pay tribute to one of her favorite films , Grease ( 1978 ) , and her parents ' courting days .
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written by the show creators and executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , based on the book by George R. R. Martin . The episode includes chapters 31 to 36 of the book ( Eddard VII , Tyrion IV , Arya III , Eddard VIII , Catelyn VI , and Eddard IX ) .
The adaptation to the screen has continued with the trend of including new scenes to flesh out characters that in the book are only superficially seen through the point of view characters . These include the dialectical confrontation between Littlefinger and Varys , and the conversation between King Robert and Queen Cersei , and the young lovers Renly and Loras . The show 's writers used this opportunity to make explicit Loras and Renly 's ongoing assignations , which were only hinted at in the books .
= = = Casting = = =
Finn Jones makes his first appearance as Ser Loras Tyrell , the young jouster known as " The Knight of Flowers . " The casting was one of the first to be announced , being confirmed by author George R. R. Martin in June 2010 after it had been leaked before the contract was to be signed . The actor had initially been considered for the role of Jon Snow when the pilot was being filmed .
The new location of the court is also introduced : Scottish actress Kate Dickie was cast as the Lady of the Eyrie , Lysa Arryn , also making her first appearance in this episode . Although Dickie does not resemble the physical description of Lysa given in the books , Martin stated that her acting in the auditions was excellent . The role of her son ( renamed Robin in the series to avoid confusion with King Robert ) went to Lino Facioli , and the knight of the Vale Ser Vardis Egen was played by Brendan McCormack .
Lingerie model Emily Diamond has a role as a prostitute who teases Jory Cassel during the visit to the brothel . Diamond was initially hired as a body double to one of the main stars , but the producers liked her so much that they decided to give her a role . Also appearing in this episode is the casting team 's Robert Sterne , who reprises his cameo role as a page in King 's Landing .
= = = Filming locations = = =
The interiors for the episode were filmed at The Paint Hall studio . The conclusion of the Tourney of the Hand that had begun in the previous episode continued to be filmed in Shane 's Castle . Production moved to Malta to film many King 's Landing exteriors : the dungeons of the Red Keep where Arya is lost while chasing cats were the dungeons of Fort St Angelo , in the Maltese town of Vittoriosa .
For the CGI compositions of the Vale of Arryn , as seen in the establishing shot of the Eyrie and from the sky cells , the visual effects team used images and textures from the Greek rock formations of Meteora . Initially they had been considering the Zhangjiajie Mountains in China , but because the landscape base plates were being shot in Ireland , using Meteora was a better option .
= = = Choreography = = =
In keeping with the transition of the series from exposition to action , each episode shows more fight scenes , and " The Wolf and the Lion " has a large number that had to be choreographed . Fight co @-@ ordinator Buster Reeves designed all the moves and then taught the cast how to make them and give a sense of real aggression . Reeves commented on the ambush by the Hill men as one of the most difficult as he had to show many people fighting on screen at the same time making every one look original and exciting , and also noting how intimidating it could be for the actors to have 20 stuntmen running through their midst with axes and swords .
= = = Dedication = = =
The episode is dedicated " to the memory of Caroline Lois Benoist , " a 26 @-@ year @-@ old animal trainer who had been working on the production for six months , mainly training the dogs that doubled as the series ' direwolves . She fell ill at her home on 18 December 2010 , a few days after filming had finished , and died on 29 December from swine flu .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode 's viewership increased to 2 @.@ 58 million for its first airing , continuing the increasing trend of the last weeks . Combined with its encore , the show was up to 3 @.@ 3 million viewers for the night .
= = = Critical response = = =
" The Wolf and the Lion " was met with highly positive reception by the critics of the show , and many regarded it as the best episode yet . Maureen Ryan of AOL TV gave it a 90 out of 100 , noting the exceptional work by the cast and excellent writing . Both Todd VanDerWerff and David Sims , from the A.V. Club , rated the episode an " A. "
Reviewers agreed that after four episodes presenting the setting and introducing the main characters , the story started to move forward faster and raise the stakes . David Sims considered it " the point at which all of the scheming and conversing and table @-@ setting began to lumber forward and gain some real momentum . " James Poniewozik wrote for Time that the episode " began to let the swords do the talking , " and " while there were some very significant scenes of talk , the dialogue went beyond Westeros History 101 to take the story in some very interesting directions . " IGN 's Matt Fowler wrote that this was " the best episode of the series so far " even though fan @-@ favorite characters like Jon Snow and Daenerys did not appear .
Maureen Ryan believed that one of the reasons the episode worked so well because it left out the storylines with the Night 's Watch and the Dothraki and focused in a single location . VanDerWerff agreed , and added that with each episode the writers got bolder in the sense that they added new scenes not included in the book to round out the source material .
Other aspects of the show that were highlighted by the critics were the effectiveness of the action scenes and the visuals , especially the views of the Eyrie and its sky cells , and the dragon skulls .
= = = Accolades = = =
The episode received a 2011 Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Stunt Coordination .
= Thank God I Found You =
" Thank God I Found You " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It features guest vocals from R & B singer Joe and American boy band 98 Degrees . Written and produced by Carey along with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , the song was released on January 25 , 2000 , through Columbia Records as the second single from her seventh studio album , Rainbow ( 1999 ) . " Thank God I Found You " is an R & B power ballad that was inspired by a relationship Carey was going through at the time , and lyrically recounts a powerful love relationship in which the protagonist tells her lover " thank God I found you . "
" Thank God I Found You " received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics ; some felt it was a great album closer while others deemed it as " un @-@ listenable " and " forgettable " . Nevertheless , the song became Carey 's fifteenth number @-@ one single on the United States Billboard Hot 100 and remained her last chart topping single until 2005 's comeback single " We Belong Together " . The single was later certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Aside from its peak of number two in Canada , the song achieved moderate international charting , reaching the top ten in the United Kingdom and peaking within the top thirty in Australia , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , France , Germany , the Netherlands , and Switzerland .
A music video for " Thank God I Found You " , directed by Brett Ratner , features Carey , Joe , and 98 Degrees performing the song at an outdoor concert . The Make It Last Remix had its own video commissioned , which was shot in a grainy fashion in Hamburg , Germany , and shows Carey and the song 's featured artists performing at a small club . Carey performed the song 's original version and accompanying remix live at the 27th Annual American Music Awards . It was featured on the set @-@ lists of the Rainbow World Tour ( 2000 ) and The Adventures of Mimi Tour ( 2006 ) , with Trey Lorenz serving as the male vocalist .
Carey re @-@ recorded her vocals for the song 's main remix titled " Thank God I Found You " ( Make It Last Remix ) , which features vocals from Joe and Carey 's label @-@ mate , rapper Nas . The remix is a remake of Keith Sweat 's song " Make It Last Forever " ( 1988 ) , and incorporates a few verses from the original version of " Thank God I Found You " . DJ Clue produced the remix , transforming it into a slow groove R & B number . In September 2000 , US songwriters Seth Swirsky and Warryn Campbell filed a copyright infringement lawsuit against Carey claiming that " Thank God I Found You " borrowed heavily from the song " One of Those Love Songs " they composed for R & B group Xscape . The court awarded the case in Carey 's favor , not finding sufficient similarities between the two songs .
= = Background and recording = =
Carey and her husband , Tommy Mottola , who was a Sony CEO , separated in 1997 . This resulted in a strained relationship with Sony . By the spring of 1999 , Carey had begun work on her last album of her contract with Columbia Records , titled Rainbow . Her relationship with Sony had affected her collaboration with writing partner Walter Afanasieff , who had worked with her throughout the first half of her career . As a result , she worked extensively with many other songwriters and producers for the album , including the duo Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , known for their work with Janet Jackson . " Thank God I Found You " was written by Jam and Lewis and co @-@ written by Carey . When Jam and Lewis first started working with Carey , they did not have a definite idea of what Carey expected from them . In an interview with Fred Bronson , Jam and Lewis explained :
It wasn 't like Janet [ Jackson ] , where we all grew up together . Mariah had done her own thing and had been very involved with the arranging and production of her records , so we respected that and said , ' What can we do for you ? ' She would fly into town for five or six hours . She 'd get on a plane and fly to whatever was the next thing she was doing .
One night , Jam and Lewis received a call from Carey 's assistant telling them that Carey had an idea for a song . She asked them to meet her at the studio later that night , and when they arrived , Carey sang the song 's melody for them . Normally when Carey was composing songs , James " Big Jim " Wright would play the chords . He was not present at the studio that night , so Lewis played the chords for Carey . After composing the melody , Carey recorded her vocals . When Carey requested male singers to sing along with her on the track , Jam and Lewis recruited R & B singer Joe . Although Jam and Lewis wanted to feature K @-@ Ci & JoJo on the song , they dropped the idea because they are signed to a different record label . About the recording , Joe said :
She [ Carey ] gave me a call , and she was like , " I would love to do a duet with you . Come by the studio . " When I got there , she played the song for me . I didn 't expect to record the song , but when I heard it , I said , " Man , there 's no way I 'm going to leave this studio without my voice being on that record . " Everything just happened so fast . I didn 't expect for it to be a single or a video . Everything was just great .
Jam and Lewis also asked the boy band 98 Degrees to join Carey and Joe on the track , as they wanted male harmonies . Carey talked about the collaboration in an interview with MTV . " It 's like when I was writing ' One Sweet Day ' . It really cried out for a group to be singing with me and for a strong male @-@ female thing in terms of going back and forth , vocally . So you know , we just naturally came together . " The vocals were recorded at Capri Digital Studios , Capri , Italy and Avatar Studios , New York City . The track was mixed by Supa Engineer Duo at Right Track Recording and mastered by Herb Powers .
= = Composition = =
" Thank God I Found You " was produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , and co @-@ produced by Carey . The song is a moderately @-@ paced R & B power ballad . Arion Berger of Rolling Stone noted that the song also exhibits influences of gospel music . The song carries an upbeat tone , backed by slow " manufactured pop beats " . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , " Thank God I Found You " is written in the key of B ♭ major . The beat is set in common time , and is set at a tempo of sixty @-@ five beats per minute . The song follows the sequence of B ♭ – F / A – Gm7 – F – E ♭ – F as its chord progression . Carey 's and Joe 's vocals in the song span over two octaves , from the note of D ♭ 4 to the high note of D6 . Composed in verse – chorus – bridge form , the chorus of " Thank God I Found You " is sung in the key of B ♭ major ; Carey also makes use of melisma in the song . The arrangement is similar to Carey 's " One Sweet Day " . Lyrically , the song is an inspirational love song , in which the protagonist thanks God for finding her the perfect partner . According to Carey , it was inspired by the relationship she was in with Latin singer Luis Miguel at that time . She stated that she was telling a story through the song .
= = = Remixes = = =
Carey re @-@ recorded her vocals for the song 's main remix titled " Thank God I Found You " ( Make It Last Remix ) . The remix is a remake of Keith Sweat 's " Make It Last Forever " ( 1988 ) , and bears few lyrical similarities to the original version of the song . Carey wrote new lyrics for the song , preserving the chorus of the original song . Produced by DJ Clue of Desert Storm Records , the remix is a midtempo tune backed by " R & B @-@ savvy rhythms " over a slow groove . It features vocals from Joe and rapped verses by Columbia Records label @-@ mate Nas . The remix is included on Joe 's third studio album My Name Is Joe ( 2000 ) . Jose F. Promis of Allmusic wrote that he felt the remix seemed unfinished . He added that could have " simply covered the song and kept its integrity intact , instead of meshing it into a sort of half- " Thank God I Found You " / " Make It Last Forever " creation . " However , while reviewing My Name Is Joe , Matt Diehl of Entertainment Weekly picked the track as the best from the album . He wrote " Nas ' grit and Carey 's expert emoting make Joe sing with unexpected feeling . " Derek Ali of Dayton Daily News commended the collaboration , saying " it works out well . " The " Make It Last " remix is featured on Carey 's first remix album The Remixes ( 2003 ) . The Norwegian production team Stargate produced the UK Stargate radio mix .
= = Critical response = =
" Thank God I Found You " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Jose F. Promis of Allmusic wrote that the song is " [ a ] lush , classic Carey @-@ styled adult contemporary ballad , with uplifting lyrics and a sea of soaring vocals . " The Austin American @-@ Statesman viewed the song as a " dramatic closer " . Arion Berger of Rolling Stone praised the song 's production and the harmony that 98 Degrees ' contributed . Chuck Campbell of The Daily News was also positive stating the song was a " grandiose " album @-@ closer . Steve Jones of USA Today wrote that Carey excelled in the song . Melissa Ruggieri of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch noted that Carey found solace in the song . Anthony Johnson , also of the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch wrote that the track is a " surefire winner " . However , a few other critics deemed the song as forgettable . Dan DeLuca of The Philadelphia Inquirer dismissed the song as a " colorless quality romance " . Robert Hilburn of Los Angeles Times was also negative in his review , calling it as an " overwrought ballad " and wrote it was un @-@ listenable . Dara Cook of MTV Southeast Asia named the song as " a big @-@ production tragicomedy of hilarious histrionics and absurdly dramatic lyrics . " While reviewing Carey 's compilation The Ballads ( 2009 ) , Chuck Campbell of The Press of Atlantic City wrote that at some point in Carey 's career , the quality her songs got " iffier " and commented that " Thank God I Found You " is such an example . He went on to say that the song was a " trifle " . In 2005 Andrew Unterberger of Stylus gave a negative review , writing the song was " a sub @-@ par , extremely lazy example of an artist reaching the top spot almost solely on reputation . " He wrote that the song would have been the end of Carey 's career . At the 43rd Grammy Awards held in February 2001 , the song was nominated in the category of the Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals , but lost to B.B. King and Dr. John for " Is You Is or Is You Ain 't My Baby " . At the First BMI Urban Awards , held in 2001 , Jam , Lewis , and Carey received BMI 's Urban Songwriter Award .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Thank God I Found You " was released to radio stations as the second single from Rainbow in November 1999 . A physical single was later released on January 25 , 2000 , in the US and on February 28 , 2000 , in the United Kingdom . The issue dated December 11 , 1999 , debuted at number eighty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 — Carey 's lowest debut at the time . On the week dated February 19 , 2000 , the song reached number @-@ one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , becoming Carey 's fifteenth number @-@ one single and marked the eleventh consecutive year with a number @-@ one song . It became the second single to surpass the sales of 100 @,@ 000 units in the year 2000 , preceded by Christina Aguilera 's " What a Girl Wants " . It was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in February 2000 . By February 2001 the single had sold about 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 copies in the US alone . " Thank God I Found You " also reached the top spot on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , marking Carey 's seventh R & B chart topper . It finished at number forty @-@ five on Billboard Hot 100 year @-@ end charts of 2000 . " Thank God I Found You " remained Carey 's last number @-@ one hit in the US until 2005 's " We Belong Together " . In Canada , the single debuted at a position of number two on the Canadian Singles Chart , on the Billboard issue dated February 12 , 2000 . The following week , it descended to number three before retreating down the chart steadily .
In Australia , it entered the Australian Singles Chart at its peak of number twenty @-@ seven , on the week dated March 12 , 2000 . The next week it dropped to number forty @-@ seven . In New Zealand , it debuted on the singles chart at a position of number thirty @-@ four , the week dated April 2 , 2000 . The song went down to number thirty @-@ five next week , before dropping to number forty @-@ four . In Europe , " Thank God I Found You " charted in a few countries . In the United Kingdom , the single debuted and peaked at number ten on the UK Singles Chart on the week dated March 11 , 2000 . The single stayed on the chart for ten weeks , including one re @-@ entry at number seventy @-@ one on the week dated May 20 , 2000 . In the Flanders region of Belgium , the song debuted at number forty @-@ seven and peaked at thirty @-@ six . In the Wallonia region , it debuted at number thirty @-@ five and peaked at number twenty @-@ three three weeks after its debut . In France , the single entered the singles chart at number thirty @-@ one , the week dated March 4 , 2000 . The next week it ascended to its peak of number twenty @-@ eight . It stayed on the chart for fifteen weeks . In the Netherlands , " Thank God I Found You " entered the Single Top 100 at number fifty @-@ five , before peaking at number twenty @-@ three the next week . The song also peaked at number twenty @-@ eight in Germany , forty @-@ three in Sweden , thirty @-@ one in Ireland , and at number seventeen in Switzerland .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Thank God I Found You " was filmed by Brett Ratner in Minneapolis . The video is a tape of the performance Carey , Joe , and 98 Degrees gave at the Last Chance Summer Dance summer music concert , organized by 101 @.@ 3 KDWB @-@ FM . It premiered on October 4 , 1999 , on MTV 's Total Request Live ( TRL ) . The video opens with scenes of Carey and Joe in the studio . Carey is with her puppy and talking on a mobile phone . The video shows saturated blue skies and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of Carey carousing with her dog Jack and writing lyrics on a notepad . As the song starts , Carey is shown lying on red sofa , writing the lyrics on the notepad . Then she performs the song on the stage , joined by Joe and 98 Degrees . Additionally , there is a video for the " Make It Last Remix " that features Carey with braids in a nightclub with Joe and Nas . Directed by Sanaa Hamri . The video is grainy ; it was shot at Bar Rosso in Hamburg , Germany on October 16 and 17 , 1999 .
= = Live performances = =
" Thank God I Found You " was performed a number of times between 2000 and 2005 . Carey opened the 27th Annual American Music Awards , held at the Shrine Auditorium , with a medley of the original and remix versions of the song . After Carey appeared on stage wearing a black skirt with a high slit and sporting a blond and straightened hairstyle , Joe joined her with several male and female back @-@ up dancers , all of whom who wore black outfits . After performing the first verse and chorus , Nas joined the duo on stage for the Make It Last Remix . Later on in the show , she was honored with the " Award of Achievement " for earning a number one single in every year of the 1990s . Vibe commended the performance , writing that it " offered an insight into how a little girl from Long Island , New York became hip hop 's answer to Celine Dion . " In 2000 , Carey performed the song on the Italian television show Quelli che ... il Calcio .
Aside from the several televised and the award show performance , Carey included the song on the set @-@ list of her concert tours , starting with the Rainbow World Tour . During the tour , Trey Lorenz , her only male background singer , replaced Joe as the song 's main male vocalist . At the show at Madison Square Garden on April 11 , 2000 , Carey wore a long orange cocktail gown with a long cascading neck line . Lorenz , wearing a black leather sports jacket and matching pants , made another featured appearance on the tour , performing his song " Make You Happy " during an interval of costume changes following the performance . Following the release of her tenth studio effort The Emancipation of Mimi in 2005 , Carey embarked on The Adventures of Mimi Tour in mid 2006 . On several stops of the tour , Carey performed the song as part of the set @-@ list , usually towards the end of the show . Similar to the Rainbow World Tour , Lorenz performed the song alongside Carey instead of Joe . Carey , wearing a midsection @-@ baring turquoise evening gown , introduced the song to the audience by telling of its conception , concept and featured artists , followed by a performance of the song 's remix .
= = Lawsuit = =
On September 15 , 2000 , US songwriters Seth Swirsky and Warren Campbell filed a lawsuit against Carey at the 9th Circuit for copyright infringement , " reverse passing off " and false designation , claiming that " Thank God I Found You " borrowed heavily from a song they composed called " One of Those Love Songs " . It was recorded by the R & B group Xscape in 1998 for their album Traces of My Lipstick . The lawsuit claimed that Carey wrongfully gave the songwriting credits to Jam and Lewis . Swirsky and Campbell had sold the rights of the song to So So Def Recordings in 1998 . " I 'm a fan of Mariah Carey ; this is nothing personal against her . But I really do believe there 's accountability , and it 's very clear what happened here . I 've never sued anybody before " , Swirsky said . According to the district court , an expert witness ( chair of the Musicology Department at the University of California at Los Angeles ) determined that the songs shared a " substantially similar chorus " . The expert stated that although the lyrics and verse melodies of the two songs were different , the songs ' choruses " shared a ' basic shape and pitch emphasis ' in their melodies , which were played over ' highly similar basslines ' and chord changes , at very nearly the same tempo and in the same generic style . " He noted both the songs had their choruses sung in the key of B ♭ . The expert further remarked that " the emphasis on musical notes " on the two songs was the same , which " contribute [ d ] to the impression of similarity one hears when comparing the two songs . " He presented a series of visual transcriptions of his observations . The transcriptions contained details about the pitch sequence of both the songs ' chorus , melody , and bassline .
The district court labeled this evidence as insufficient to survive a motion for summary judgment . It noted the expert 's methodology to be " flawed " and stated that through its own analysis , no instance of substantial similarity was found . The lawsuit was settled in favor of Carey by the US District Judge , who noted that there was no similarity in key , harmonic structure , tempo , or genre between the two songs .
The judgement was later reversed and the lawsuit reinstated in 2004 ; Carey and Swirsky settled out of court in 2006 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Rainbow liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Mass Effect 2 : Kasumi - Stolen Memory =
Mass Effect 2 : Kasumi - Stolen Memory is a downloadable content pack developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts for the action role @-@ playing video game Mass Effect 2 . It was released on April 6 , 2010 for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 . The pack is included in the PlayStation 3 version of Mass Effect 2 , which was released on January 18 , 2011 . Stolen Memory introduces two new missions where the player assumes the role of Commander Shepard , an elite human soldier who must recruit a new squad member named Kasumi Goto and help her steal a graybox that contains important information and memories of her partner .
Stolen Memory was announced to be in development at the Game Developers Conference on March 11 , 2010 . It was the first major Mass Effect 2 downloadable content pack that does not require the game 's Cerberus Network , an online downloadable content and news service that enables free bonus content for the main game . The pack received generally mixed reviews from critics , with an aggregate score of 71 out of 100 for the Xbox 360 version at Metacritic . Reviewers mainly criticized the pack 's short length .
= = Gameplay = =
Mass Effect 2 is an action role @-@ playing game in which the player controls Commander Shepard . Shepard 's gender , appearance , history and combat @-@ training are determined by the player before the game begins . The game features a variety of quests that the player must complete in order to progress . These quests usually involve the player interacting with characters and fighting enemies in combat missions . During the missions , Shepard is assisted by two AI squad members that the player can indirectly control through orders . Combat takes place in real @-@ time , but the player can pause the action at any time to calmly target enemies and select different powers for the squad members to use . Upon completing a quest , the player is awarded with experience points . If a sufficient amount of experience is obtained , the player can develop powers for both Shepard and the members of the squad .
Stolen Memory features both a recruitment mission and a loyalty mission for a new squad member named Kasumi Goto . The recruitment mission involves the player interacting with Kasumi through dialogue options to recruit her . After joining Shepard 's squad , Kasumi can be used throughout the entire rest of the game like any other of the game 's default squad members . The loyalty mission is available immediately after recruiting her and involves exploration and combat . The player must initially engage characters in conversations and explore areas to find a way to infiltrate a vault . Afterwards , the player must fight waves of enemies and defeat a boss . Kasumi is Shepard 's only companion and has the special ability to cloak and appear behind a target to deliver a devastating sneak attack . After completing the mission , Kasumi gains a new ability called Flashbang Grenade , which inflicts minor damage and incapacitates nearby targets . The mission also includes a new weapon and an in @-@ game upgrade that the player can research to enhance several abilities . An achievement is awarded to the player after completing the content .
= = Plot = =
Mass Effect 2 is set within the Milky Way galaxy during the 22nd century where elite human soldier Commander Shepard must save humanity from an insectoid species known as the Collectors . Shepard is tasked to build and gain the loyalty of a diverse team in order to defeat the enemy in a suicide mission . In Stolen Memory , Shepard is sent to recruit Kasumi Goto , a master thief who is located on a colossal space station that serves as the capital of the galactic community . In return for her help , Kasumi asks Shepard 's help on a heist to infiltrate the vault of a ruthless arms dealer named Donovan Hock . She explains that Hock killed her partner , Keiji Okuda , and stole Okuda 's graybox , a neural implant that stores his memories as well as confidential and sensitive information he acquired in the past .
Shepard and Kasumi travel to the planet Bekenstein , where Hock is throwing a party at his mansion for some of the galaxy 's richest people . After getting samples of Hock 's DNA from his private quarters , recording a sample of his voice , and disabling the vault 's defenses , Kasumi and Shepard infiltrate the vault . As Kasumi starts cracking the graybox , the pair is detected and attacked by Hock 's forces . Kasumi and Shepard eventually manage to escape in a shuttle after destroying a gunship piloted by Hock . After the mission , Kasumi accesses the graybox and sees her partner one last time . A hologram of Okuda reveals the data , saying that it would impact humanity 's reputation if made public . He begs her to destroy the data along with his memories . Kasumi has trouble letting him go , showing that their relationship was much more than professional . Shepard can persuade Kasumi to follow Keiji 's wishes or keep the data .
= = Development and release = =
Mass Effect 2 : Kasumi - Stolen Memory was developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts . During development of Mass Effect 2 , Bioware stated that downloadable content was becoming a fundamental part of the company 's overall philosophy . The pack was announced to be in development at the Game Developers Conference on March 11 , 2010 . BioWare remarked that Stolen Memory would have a similar sense to a James Bond mission . The mansion where most of the pack 's events take place was originally suggested to take place on a colony of the in @-@ game alien race Asari before being located on a human planet . It was conceived as " a house in the Hollywood Hills , but with more advanced , Mass Effect @-@ era architecture . " The outfit of the character Kasumi Goto was designed to reflect that of a medieval thief . The character was voiced by Kym Hoy .
The pack was released on April 6 , 2010 for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 . Like Mass Effect 2 's other downloadable content packs Overlord and Lair of the Shadow Broker , Stolen Memory is freely included in the PlayStation 3 version of the game , which was released on January 18 , 2011 . At the release day , the pack was unavailable for download for a brief period of time due to Xbox Live server issues . Stolen Memory is also the first major Mass Effect 2 downloadable content pack that does not require the game 's Cerberus Network , an online downloadable content and news service that enables free bonus content for the main game . The soundtrack was composed by Sonic Mayhem duo Sascha Dikiciyan and Cris Velasco .
= = Reception = =
Mass Effect 2 : Kasumi - Stolen Memory received generally mixed reviews , with most critics criticizing the pack 's short length . IGN reviewer Erik Brudvig opined that Stolen Memory " is a great little quest , but for most the ' little ' part will be a sticking point . At roughly an hour in length , this is one download that doesn 't offer a lot of bang for your buck . " Writing for GameSpot , Kevin VanOrd felt that the character of Kasumi is not interesting and that the mission is too short for her character development compared to the squad members of the base game . Similarly , GameCritics reviewer Brad Gallaway criticized the fact that players cannot directly interact with her once the mission is completed .
In a more positive review , Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer stated that " Stolen Memory does a good job of justifying itself through enjoyable gameplay and clever storytelling . Short , yes , but also surprisingly sweet . " He also highlighted positively the story and opined that the ending " adds more shading to Kasumi 's flirtatious character " , stating that " the obligatory moral choice at the end is dictated by intimate emotional considerations rather than battlefield pragmatism . " Eduardo Reboucas of Game Revolution criticized the fact that the story does not fit in a post @-@ story scenario , stating that Stolen Memory " is intended to be played as you 're making your way through the suicide mission storyline and not in the aftermath . "
GameCritics praised the first part of the loyalty mission , comparing it favorably to Ocean 's Eleven and stating that it is " an unusual and welcome change of pace . " VanOrd credited the fact that players can infiltrate Hock 's private quarters in two different ways , but also admitted that breaking into Hock 's vault " is paced slowly without offering any sense of increasing tension or extended dialogue options to compensate . " Nevertheless , he praised Kasumi 's ability to silently backstab enemies and the combat scenarios for their enemy variety . The final boss battle was said to be predictable but enjoyable and satisfying . VanOrd concluded that " Kasumi - Stolen Memory is still worth a look , but it won 't leave you with any lasting memories of your own . "
= Raising of school leaving age in England and Wales =
The raising of school leaving age ( often shortened to ROSLA ) is the name given by the government to refer to changes regarding the legal age a child is permitted to leave compulsory education , usually falling under an Education Act . In most countries , the school leaving age often reflects when young people are seen to be mature enough within their society , but not necessarily when they are old enough to be regarded as an adult .
In England and Wales , this age has been raised numerous times since the introduction of compulsory education in 1870 . On 1 September 1972 , the age was raised from 15 to 16 , following preparations which began 8 years earlier in 1964 . This increased the legal leaving age from 15 to 16 , leaving a gap year of school leavers who , by law , had to complete an additional year of education from 1973 onwards .
There are several reasons why the government may wish to increase the school leaving age , considering it has raised the age numerous times over the 19th and 20th centuries , the last time being in 2015 . With past age raisings , the reasons given have been focused mainly on generating more skilled labour by providing additional time for students to gain additional skills and qualifications . In recent years , it has become apparent that most 16- to 18 @-@ year @-@ olds are not as motivated to continue their education after completion of their GCSEs , thus increasing the overall unemployment rate , as many are unable to find work . The British government hoped that by making education compulsory up to the age of 17 by 2013 , and 18 by 2015 , it could change this .
= = 19th century = =
Prior to the 19th century , there were very few schools . Most of those that existed were run by the church , for the church , stressing religious education . In the latter part of the 19th Century , compulsory attendance at school ceased to be a matter for local option , with the introduction of the Elementary Education Act 1870 a milestone in the British school education system . Children had to attend between the ages of 5 and 10 though with some local discretion such as early leaving in agricultural areas .
The introduction of the Elementary Education Act 1870 ( applying to England and Wales ) , commonly known as Forster 's Education Act having been drawn up by William Edward Forster , created the concept of compulsory education for children under thirteen , although didn 't insist on compulsory attendance initially , as it only required the provision for education of children up to 10 years of age . In areas where education was considered a problem , elected school boards could be set up . These boards could , at their discretion , create local by @-@ laws , confirmed by Parliament , to require attendance and fine the parents of children who did not attend . There were exemptions for illness , living more than a certain distance ( typically one mile ) from a school , or certification of having reached the required standard ( which varied by board ) which were made mandatory across England and Wales by the 1880 Act .
The Elementary Education Act 1880 insisted on compulsory attendance from 5 – 10 years . For poorer families , ensuring their children attended school proved difficult , as it was more tempting to send them working if the opportunity to earn an extra income was available . Attendance Officers often visited the homes of children who failed to attend school , which often proved to be ineffective . Children under the age of 13 who were employed were required to have a certificate to show they had reached the educational standard . Employers of these children who weren 't able to show this were penalised . An act brought into force thirteen years later went under the name of the Elementary Education ( School Attendance ) Act 1893 , which stated a raised minimum leaving age to 11 . Later the same year , the act was also extended for blind and deaf children , who previously had no means of an official education . This act was later amended in 1899 to raise the school leaving age up to 12 years of age .
= = 20th century = =
The start of the 20th century saw school boards abolished in 1902 and replaced with local education authorities , which are still in use to the present day .
= = = The Fisher Act of 1918 = = =
The year 1918 saw the introduction of the Education Act 1918 , commonly also known as the Fisher Act as it was devised by Herbert Fisher . The act enforced compulsory education from 5 – 14 years , but also included provision for compulsory part @-@ time education for all 14 to 18 @-@ year @-@ olds . There were also plans for expansion in tertiary education , by raising the participation age to 18 . This was dropped because of the cuts in public spending after World War I. This is the first act which starting planning provisions for young people to remain in education until the age of 18 . The 1918 act was not implemented until a further act of 1921 was passed .
= = = Butler 's post @-@ war education changes = = =
In 1944 , Rab Butler introduced the Education Act 1944 which amongst other changes , including the introduction of the Tripartite System , included raising the school leaving age to 15 . Although the act should have been brought into effect as from September 1939 , it was not implemented because of the effects of World War II , but was eventually enforced from April 1947 . The Comprehensive school system has since replaced the Tripartite System brought in by this act across most of England . This act also recommended compulsory part @-@ time education for all children until the age of 18 , but was dropped , in similar fashion to the 1918 Act , to cut spending after World War II .
= = = = Reasons = = = =
Changes in government approaches towards education meant that it was no longer regarded adequate for a child to leave education aged 14 , as that is the age when they were seen to really understand and appreciate the value of education , as well as being the period when adolescence was at its height . It was beginning to be seen as the worst age for a sudden switch from education to employment . Although there were concerns about the effects of having less labour from these children , it was hoped that the outcome of a larger quantity of more qualified , skilled workers would eliminate the deficit problem from the loss of unskilled labour .
= = = = Effects = = = =
This act introduced the concept of the famous 11 + examination , which determined whether a child would be entitled to schooling in a grammar school , secondary modern or technical college , under the Tripartite System . The examination was devised by Rab Butler , but has since been phased out across the majority of the United Kingdom , with just several boroughs in England and Northern Ireland still using it . League tables published in March 2007 , however , show that existing grammar schools throughout the country are outperforming comprehensive schools .
Changes in society and approaches towards education , including equal opportunities , has meant that all children now deserve to have the same education and not singling out those who learn at a slower rate than others , thus every child has the opportunity to gain secondary school level qualifications or similar , regardless of background or intelligence .
= = = Leaving age raised to 16 = = =
In 1964 , preparations began to raise the school leaving age to 16 . These were delayed in 1968 , and eventually the decision was taken in 1971 that the new upper age limit be enforced from 1 September 1972 onwards . As well as raising the school leaving age in 1972 , the year also saw the introduction of the Education ( Work Experience ) Act , allowing LEAs to organise work experience for the additional final year school students . In some counties around the country , these changes also led to the introduction of middle schools in 1968 , where students were kept at primary or junior school for an additional year , meaning that the number of students in secondary schools within these areas remained virtually constant through the change . In others , more radical changes led to middle schools for pupils aged up to 13 opening in smaller secondary school buildings , with other schools accommodating students over 13 . As of 2010 , there are fewer than 300 middle schools across England , situated in just 22 local education authorities ; the number of remaining middle schools has gradually fallen since the mid @-@ 1980s .
= = = = ROSLA Buildings = = = =
For many secondary schools around England and Wales in areas without a Middle School , accommodating for the new 5th year students would be a struggle . A popular solution was to provide those schools with a pre @-@ fabricated building ( often referred to as ROSLA Buildings or ROSLA Blocks ) that were in need of additional capacity , providing them with the resources to cope with the new generation of 5th year students . This solution proved popular with many schools across the country , not least due to the low cost involved for materials and construction , but also the speed which these buildings could be erected . Many were supplied by F. Pratten and Co Ltd .
The ROSLA Buildings were delivered to schools in self assembly packs , being assembled by a team often within days , regardless of weather conditions . Consequently , they were not intended to stand long @-@ term , though some have proven to have stood much longer than was initially planned . Many ROSLA Buildings shared similar exterior attributes such as their design , with the only difference being the separation of rooms within the building . The room separation within the building was decided upon by senior school management , hence many walls are false from being added in after construction .
Although the majority of schools around England and Wales have since replaced the ROSLA Building at their site , there are still numerous schools around the country which are still actively using these buildings . Some schools which still have a standing ROSLA Building that isn 't in use serve for youth centres for the community or are simply derelict . The majority have since been demolished or extensively refurbished .
= = = Education Act 1996 = = =
Between 1976 and 1997 , the minimum school leaving arrangements were :
A child whose sixteenth birthday falls in the period 1 September to 31 January inclusive , may leave compulsory schooling at the end of the Spring term ( the following Easter ) .
A child whose sixteenth birthday falls in the period 1 February to 31 August , may leave on the Friday before the last Monday in May .
Under section 8 ( 4 ) of the Education Act 1996 , a new single school leaving date was set for 1998 and all subsequent years thereafter . This was set as the last Friday in June in the school year which the child reaches the age of 16 .
= = 21st century = =
= = = Education and Skills Act 2008 = = =
Reports published in November 2006 suggested that Education Secretary Alan Johnson was exploring ways to raise the school leaving age in England to 18 , just over 40 years later than the last rise in 1972 , pointing to the decline in unskilled jobs and the need for young people to be equipped for modern day employment .
= = = = Participation Age = = = =
A year later , on 6 November 2007 , Prime Minister Gordon Brown unveiled the government 's plans in his Queen 's Speech . The plans included the duty for parents to assist their children in education or training participation until the date of their 18th birthday , as well as detailing proposed moves to reform the apprenticeship system and to improve achievement for children in care . The Education and Skills Act 2008 , when it came into force in the 2013 academic year , initially required participation in some form of education or training until the school year in which the child turned 17 , followed by the age being raised to the young person 's 18th birthday in 2015 . This was referred to as raising the " participation age " to distinguish it from the school leaving age which remains at 16 . To qualify as participation the young person must be in education or training for the equivalent of one day a week ( at a minimum ) . The local council is responsible for ensuring that a suitable place is available . The Act makes similar powers available to the National Assembly for Wales . A spokesperson for the Welsh Assembly indicated that it would want to encourage more young people to stay in education , but without compulsion , so school leavers there are not required to continue with any education or training .
= = = = Reasons = = = =
Figures were published in June 2006 showing that 76 @.@ 2 % of all young people aged 16 – 18 are already in further education or training , meaning that the rise might only affect around 25 % of young people who may have otherwise sought employment immediately upon finishing compulsory education . This did not specifically state that young people would remain in secondary school , but rather by law be required to continue their education full or part @-@ time , whether that be in sixth form , college or work based training . Around 80 % of 16 @-@ year @-@ olds stay in full @-@ time academic or vocational education , or go on a government @-@ financed training course . In a survey of 859 people , 9 / 10 supported the plans for the age increase .
Reports published by the DfES showed that although there are around 70 % of 16 year olds who remain in full @-@ time education , this declines to less than 50 % by the time they reach 18 , with the majority finding unskilled employment and even fewer going into employment where their training has relevance . There is also a small increase in those who become unemployed by the time they reach 18 , which the government hoped to reduce with the act . It is these cases of unemployment which the government believes to be the toughest , whom it classifies as NEET ( Not in Education , Employment or Training ) . In 2006 an additional 7 % of 16 year olds fell into this category and the proportion rose to 13 % among 18 year olds . In practice , only 1 % of young people are classified as NEET during their time aged 16 – 18 , due to churn between training , employment and NEET classification . In 2015 the percentage of 16 @-@ 18 classified as NEET fell to 7 @.@ 5 % , the lowest figure since 2000 .
The government believed that the changes were needed because of the collapse in unskilled jobs in the economy , which means that young school leavers at 16 years of age are finding it increasingly more difficult to find employment , consequentially in many cases making them unemployable . Within the last 40 years , the number of unskilled jobs available have more than halved , from 8 million in the 1960s to 3 @.@ 5 in the present day , with predictions of further drops to just 600 @,@ 000 by 2020 due to the increasing demand for skilled labour . This , together with fewer students continuing their further education , increase the difficulty for young school leavers to find work if they were either not able , or chose not to , stay on at school and complete further education .
= = = = Opposition = = = =
Whilst the government is eager to implement the changes , many oppose the proposal , some on civil liberties grounds . Compulsory school attendance is usually justified by reference to the argument that minors are incapable of making sufficiently reasoned choices . However , the 16 @-@ 18 age group falls into a grey area , being regarded as effectively adult in a number of contexts . Indeed , in some jurisdictions ( e.g. Scotland ) , individuals are considered to reach full maturity at 16 .
The proposal of using criminal sanctions to enforce attendance under this new system was opposed by MPs from both the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats , who believed compulsion and threats were the wrong approach to increasing participation . A spokesperson for the DfES said the proposals were not about " forcing young people to do something they don 't want to " , and that " we are letting young people down if we allow them to leave education and training without skills at the age of 16 . " However , the Prime Minister 's Queen 's Speech in November 2007 , which discussed the raise in school leaving age , suggested that pupils who failed to comply with new laws are to be expected to face fines or community service , rather than custodial sentencing which had previously been proposed . Local Authorities will also be expected to ensure pupils are participating up to 18 years of age .
= = = = Effects = = = =
The downward trend in the number of unskilled jobs available throughout the country is continuing . The government believes that the extension of compulsory education until the age of 18 will mean many more young people will leave education in a much better position to find skilled employment . Speaking in March 2007 , Chancellor Gordon Brown stated that around 50 @,@ 000 teenagers would be paid a training allowance to sign up to college @-@ based courses , with estimates on the available number of apprenticeships available to double to around 500 @,@ 000 by 2020 , with 80 % being available in England , which will be an increase from the current 250 @,@ 000 apprenticeships available , offered by 130 @,@ 000 employers .
Speaking in June 2007 , Barry Sheerman , Labour MP and chairman of the Commons education and skills select committee , says that " young people not in education are one of the biggest social problems facing a modern government " . The government is hopeful that the changes will also have an effect on preventing the increase in crime levels , as currently a substantial percentage of young people leaving school are turning to a life of crime , most unable to find suitable work due to lack of skills and qualifications .
= Introduction to viruses =
A virus is a biological agent that reproduces inside the cells of living hosts . When infected by a virus , a host cell is forced to produce many thousands of identical copies of the original virus at an extraordinary rate . Unlike most living things , viruses do not have cells that divide ; new viruses are assembled in the infected host cell . But unlike still simpler infectious agents , viruses contain genes , which gives them the ability to mutate and evolve . Over 5 @,@ 000 species of viruses have been discovered .
The origins of viruses are unclear : some may have evolved from plasmids — pieces of DNA that can move between cells — while others may have evolved from bacteria . A virus consists of two or three parts : genes , made from either DNA or RNA , long molecules that carry genetic information ; a protein coat that protects the genes ; and in some viruses , an envelope of fat that surrounds the protein coat and is used , in combination with specific receptors , to enter a new host cell . Viruses vary in shape from the simple helical and icosahedral to more complex structures . Viruses range in size from 20 to 300 nanometres ; it would take 30 @,@ 000 to 750 @,@ 000 of them , side by side , to stretch to 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) .
Viruses spread in many ways . Just as many viruses are very specific as to which host species or tissue they attack , each species of virus relies on a particular method for propagation . Plant viruses are often spread from plant to plant by insects and other organisms , known as vectors . Some viruses of animals , including humans , are spread by exposure to infected bodily fluids . Viruses such as influenza are spread through the air by droplets of moisture when people cough or sneeze . Viruses such as norovirus are transmitted by the faecal – oral route , which involves the contamination of hands , food and water . Rotavirus is often spread by direct contact with infected children . The human immunodeficiency virus , HIV , is transmitted by bodily fluids transferred during sex . Others , such as the Dengue virus , are spread by blood @-@ sucking insects .
Viral infections can cause disease in humans , animals and even plants . However , they are usually eliminated by the immune system , conferring lifetime immunity to the host for that virus . Antibiotics have no effect on viruses , but antiviral drugs have been developed to treat life @-@ threatening infections . Vaccines that produce lifelong immunity can prevent some viral infections .
= = Discovery = =
In 1884 the French microbiologist Charles Chamberland invented a filter , known today as the Chamberland filter or Chamberland – Pasteur filter , that has pores smaller than bacteria . Thus he could pass a solution containing bacteria through the filter and completely remove them from the solution . In the early 1890s the Russian biologist Dmitri Ivanovsky used this filter to study what became known as the tobacco mosaic virus . His experiments showed that extracts from the crushed leaves of infected tobacco plants remain infectious after filtration .
At the same time several other scientists proved that , although these agents ( later called viruses ) were different from bacteria , they could still cause disease , and they were about one hundredth the size of bacteria . In 1899 the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck observed that the agent multiplied only in dividing cells . Having failed to demonstrate its particulate nature he called it a " contagium vivum fluidum " , a " soluble living germ " . In the early 20th century the English bacteriologist Frederick Twort discovered viruses that infect bacteria , and the French @-@ Canadian microbiologist Félix d 'Herelle described viruses that , when added to bacteria growing on agar , would lead to the formation of whole areas of dead bacteria . Counting these dead areas allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the suspension .
With the invention of the electron microscope in 1931 by the German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll came the first images of viruses . In 1935 American biochemist and virologist Wendell Meredith Stanley examined the tobacco mosaic virus and found it to be mostly made from protein . A short time later , this virus was separated into protein and RNA parts . A problem for early scientists was that they did not know how to grow viruses without using live animals . The breakthrough came in 1931 , when the American pathologist Ernest William Goodpasture and Alice Miles Woodruff grew influenza and several other viruses in fertilised chickens ' eggs . Some viruses could not be grown in chickens ' eggs , but this problem was solved in 1949 when John Franklin Enders , Thomas Huckle Weller and Frederick Chapman Robbins grew polio virus in cultures of living animal cells . Over 5 @,@ 000 species of virus have been discovered .
= = Origins = =
Viruses co @-@ exist with life wherever it occurs . They have probably existed since living cells first evolved . The origin of viruses remains unclear because they do not form fossils , so molecular techniques have been the most useful means of hypothesising how they arose . However , these techniques rely on the availability of ancient viral DNA or RNA but most of the viruses that have been preserved and stored in laboratories are less than 90 years old . Molecular methods have only been successful in tracing the ancestry of viruses that evolved in the 20th century . Three main theories speculate on the origins of viruses :
Regressive theory
Viruses may have once been small cells that parasitised larger cells . Over time , genes not required by their parasitism were lost . The bacteria rickettsia and chlamydia are living cells that , like viruses , can reproduce only inside host cells . They lend credence to this theory , as their dependence on parasitism is likely to have caused the loss of genes that enabled them to survive outside a cell .
Cellular origin theory
Some viruses may have evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that " escaped " from the genes of a larger organism . The escaped DNA could have come from plasmids — pieces of DNA that can move between cells — while others may have evolved from bacteria .
Coevolution theory
Viruses may have evolved from complex molecules of protein and DNA at the same time as cells first appeared on earth and would have depended on cellular life for many millions of years .
There are problems with all of these hypotheses : the regressive hypothesis does not explain why even the smallest of cellular parasites do not resemble viruses in any way . The escape hypothesis does not explain the structures of virus particles . The coevolution , or virus @-@ first hypothesis , contravenes the definition viruses , in that they are dependent on host cells . But viruses are recognised as ancient and to have origins that pre @-@ date the divergence of life into the three domains . This discovery has led modern virologists to reconsider and re @-@ evaluate these three classical hypotheses .
= = Structure = =
A virus particle , also known as a virion , consists of genes made from DNA or RNA which are surrounded by a protective coat of protein called a capsid . The capsid is made of many smaller , identical protein molecules which are called capsomers . The arrangement of the capsomers can either be icosahedral ( 20 @-@ sided ) , helical or more complex . There is an inner shell around the DNA or RNA called the nucleocapsid , which is formed by proteins . Some viruses are surrounded by a bubble of lipid ( fat ) called an envelope .
= = = Size = = =
Viruses are among the smallest infectious agents , and most of them can only be seen by electron microscopy . Most viruses cannot be seen by light microscopy ( in other words , they are sub @-@ microscopic ) ; their sizes range from 20 to 300 nm . They are so small that it would take 30 @,@ 000 to 750 @,@ 000 of them , side by side , to stretch to one cm . By contrast bacterial sizes are typically around 1 micrometre ( 1000 nm ) in diameter , and the cells of higher organisms a few tens of micrometres . Some viruses such as megaviruses and pandoraviruses are relatively large . At around 1 micrometer , these viruses , which infect amoebae , were discovered in 2003 and 2013 . They are around a thousand times larger than influenza viruses and the discovery of these " giant " viruses astonished scientists .
= = = Genes = = =
Genes are made from DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ) and , in many viruses , RNA ( ribonucleic acid ) . The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA or RNA . Most organisms use DNA , but many viruses have RNA as their genetic material . The DNA or RNA of viruses consists of either a single strand or a double helix .
Viruses reproduce rapidly because they have only a few genes compared to humans who have 20 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 . For example , influenza virus has only eight genes and rotavirus has eleven . These genes encode structural proteins that form the virus particle , or non @-@ structural proteins , that are only found in cells infected by the virus .
All cells , and many viruses , produce proteins that are enzymes called DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase which make new copies of DNA and RNA . A virus 's polymerase enzymes are often much more efficient at making DNA and RNA than the host cell 's . However , RNA polymerase enzymes often make mistakes , and this is one of the reasons why RNA viruses often mutate to form new strains .
In some species of RNA virus , the genes are not on a continuous molecule of RNA , but are separated . The influenza virus , for example , has eight separate genes made of RNA . When two different strains of influenza virus infect the same cell , these genes can mix and produce new strains of the virus in a process called reassortment .
= = = Protein synthesis = = =
Proteins are essential to life . Cells produce new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information coded in DNA . Each type of protein is a specialist that usually only performs one function , so if a cell needs to do something new , it must make a new protein . Viruses force the cell to make new proteins that the cell does not need , but are needed for the virus to reproduce . Protein synthesis consists of two major steps : transcription and translation .
Transcription is the process where information in DNA , called the genetic code , is used to produce RNA copies called messenger RNA ( mRNA ) . These migrate through the cell and carry the code to ribosomes where it is used to make proteins . This is called translation because the protein 's amino acid structure is determined by the mRNA 's code . Information is hence translated from the language of nucleic acids to the language of amino acids .
Some nucleic acids of RNA viruses function directly as mRNA without further modification . For this reason , these viruses are called positive @-@ sense RNA viruses . In other RNA viruses , the RNA is a complementary copy of mRNA and these viruses rely on the cell 's or their own enzyme to make mRNA . These are called negative @-@ sense RNA viruses . In viruses made from DNA , the method of mRNA production is similar to that of the cell . The species of viruses called retroviruses behave completely differently : they have RNA , but inside the host cell a DNA copy of their RNA is made with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase . This DNA is then incorporated into the host 's own DNA , and copied into mRNA by the cell 's normal pathways .
= = Life @-@ cycle = =
When a virus infects a cell , the virus forces it to make thousands more viruses . It does this by making the cell copy the virus 's DNA or RNA , making viral proteins , which all assemble to form new virus particles .
There are six basic , overlapping stages in the life cycle of viruses in living cells :
Attachment is the binding of the virus to specific molecules on the surface of the cell . This specificity restricts the virus to a very limited type of cell . For example , the human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) infects only human T cells , because its surface protein , gp120 , can only react with CD4 and other molecules on the T cell 's surface . Plant viruses can only attach to plant cells and cannot infect animals . This mechanism has evolved to favour those viruses that only infect cells in which they are capable of reproducing .
Penetration follows attachment ; viruses penetrate the host cell by endocytosis or by fusion with the cell .
Uncoating happens inside the cell when the viral capsid is removed and destroyed by viral enzymes or host enzymes , thereby exposing the viral nucleic acid .
Replication of virus particles is the stage where a cell uses viral messenger RNA in its protein synthesis systems to produce viral proteins . The RNA or DNA synthesis abilities of the cell produce the virus 's DNA or RNA .
Assembly takes place in the cell when the newly created viral proteins and nucleic acid combine to form hundreds of new virus particles .
Release occurs when the new viruses escape or are released from the cell . Most viruses achieve this by making the cells burst , a process called lysis . Other viruses such as HIV are released more gently by a process called budding .
= = Effects on the host cell = =
The range of structural and biochemical effects that viruses have on the host cell is extensive . These are called cytopathic effects . Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell . The causes of death include cell lysis ( bursting ) , alterations to the cell 's surface membrane and apoptosis ( cell " suicide " ) . Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal activity due to proteins produced by the virus , not all of which are components of the virus particle .
Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell . Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally . This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years . This is often the case with herpes viruses .
Some viruses , such as Epstein @-@ Barr virus , often cause cells to proliferate without causing malignancy ; but some other viruses , such as papillomavirus , are an established cause of cancer . When a cell 's DNA is damaged by a virus , and if the cell cannot repair itself , this often triggers apoptosis . One of the results of apoptosis is destruction of the damaged DNA by the cell itself . Some viruses have mechanisms to limit apoptosis so that the host cell does not die before progeny viruses have been produced ; HIV , for example , does this .
= = Viruses and diseases = =
Common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold , the flu , chickenpox and cold sores . Serious diseases such as Ebola and AIDS are also caused by viruses . Many viruses cause little or no disease and are said to be " benign " . The more harmful viruses are described as virulent . Viruses cause different diseases depending on the types of cell that they infect . Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections where the viruses continue to reproduce in the body despite the host 's defence mechanisms . This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections . People chronically infected with a virus are known as carriers . They serve as important reservoirs of the virus . If there is a high proportion of carriers in a given population , a disease is said to be endemic .
There are many ways in which viruses spread from host to host but each species of virus uses only one or two . Many viruses that infect plants are carried by organisms ; such organisms are called vectors . Some viruses that infect animals , including humans , are also spread by vectors , usually blood @-@ sucking insects . However , direct transmission is more common . Some virus infections , such as norovirus and rotavirus , are spread by contaminated food and water , hands and communal objects and by intimate contact with another infected person , while others are airborne ( influenza virus ) . Viruses such as HIV , hepatitis B and hepatitis C are often transmitted by unprotected sex or contaminated hypodermic needles . It is important to know how each different kind of virus is spread to prevent infections and epidemics .
= = = Diseases of plants = = =
There are many types of plant virus , but often they only cause a loss of yield , and it is not economically viable to try to control them . Plant viruses are often spread from plant to plant by organisms ( vectors ) . These are normally insects , but some fungi , nematode worms and single @-@ celled organisms have been shown to be vectors . When control of plant virus infections is considered economical ( perennial fruits , for example ) efforts are concentrated on killing the vectors and removing alternate hosts such as weeds . Plant viruses are harmless to humans and other animals because they can only reproduce in living plant cells .
= = = Bacteriophages = = =
Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria and archaea . The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses officially recognises 28 genera of bacteriophages that belong to 11 families . They are important in marine ecology : as the infected bacteria burst , carbon compounds are released back into the environment , which stimulates fresh organic growth . Bacteriophages are useful in scientific research because they are harmless to humans and can be studied easily . These viruses can be a problem in industries that produce food and drugs by fermentation and depend on healthy bacteria . Some bacterial infections are becoming difficult to control with antibiotics , so there is a growing interest in the use of bacteriophages to treat infections in humans .
= = = Host resistance = = =
= = = = Innate immunity of animals = = = =
Animals , including humans , have many natural defences against viruses . Some are non @-@ specific and protect against many viruses regardless of the type . This innate immunity is not improved by repeated exposure to viruses and does not retain a " memory " of the infection . The skin of animals , particularly its surface , which is made from dead cells , prevents many types of viruses from infecting the host . The acidity of the contents of the stomach destroys many viruses that have been swallowed . When a virus overcomes these barriers and enters the host , other innate defences prevent the spread of infection in the body . A special hormone called interferon is produced by the body when viruses are present , and this stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours . Inside cells , there are enzymes that destroy the RNA of viruses . This is called RNA interference . Some blood cells engulf and destroy other virus infected cells .
= = = = Adaptive immunity of animals = = = =
Specific immunity to viruses develops over time and white blood cells called lymphocytes play a central role . Lymphocytes retain a " memory " of virus infections and produce many special molecules called antibodies . These antibodies attach to viruses and stop the virus from infecting cells . Antibodies are highly selective and attack only one type of virus . The body makes many different antibodies , especially during the initial infection ; however , after the infection subsides , some antibodies remain and continue to be produced , often giving the host lifelong immunity to the virus .
= = = = Plant resistance = = = =
Plants have elaborate and effective defence mechanisms against viruses . One of the most effective is the presence of so @-@ called resistance ( R ) genes . Each R gene confers resistance to a particular virus by triggering localised areas of cell death around the infected cell , which can often be seen with the unaided eye as large spots . This stops the infection from spreading . RNA interference is also an effective defence in plants . When they are infected , plants often produce natural disinfectants which destroy viruses , such as salicylic acid , nitric oxide and reactive oxygen molecules .
= = = = Resistance to bacteriophages = = = =
The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes which destroy foreign DNA . These enzymes , called restriction endonucleases , cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells .
= = = Prevention and treatment of viral disease in humans and other animals = = =
= = = = Vaccines = = = =
Vaccination is a way of preventing diseases caused by viruses . Vaccines simulate a natural infection and its associated immune response , but do not cause the disease . Their use has resulted in the eradication of small
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filmed by John Marzano ( Aerial Director Of Photography ) using a helicopter mounted with a Wescam 35 on the nose of a helicopter , and Cineflex 's V14 surveillance system , hanging from the side . Its 1 – 40 zoom allowed the filmmakers to fly very high and then zoom out of Ferris strolling through a market @-@ place , creating the film 's final shot .
= = = Music = = =
The film score was composed by Marc Streitenfeld , who has now composed music for Ridley Scott for three features . He recorded the orchestral portions of his score at the Eastwood Scoring Stage at Warner Brothers Studios . Of note is the presence of a song in the film named " If the World " , performed by Guns N ' Roses , and taken from their long @-@ delayed Chinese Democracy album . The track plays over the beginning of the end credits , but is not included on the official film soundtrack . Streitenfeld also collaborated with Mike Patton and Serj Tankian on the song " Bird 's Eye " , which was written specially for the musical score of the film . It was not included on the soundtrack album but was released separately as a single .
= = = Release = = =
The film was commercially released in the United States on October 10 , 2008 . The film has also been purchased by Turner Broadcasting System to screen on the television networks TBS and Turner Network Television .
The film was screened on September 30 , 2008 at Michigan Technological University , and October 2 , 2008 at Duke University , New York Film Academy , University of Maryland and University of Virginia . It was also pre @-@ screened on October 3 at Worcester Polytechnic Institute , at Michigan State University , at the University of Michigan , the University of Kansas , East Carolina University , and the University of Chicago on October 7 and at Carnegie Mellon University , Cornell University , Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute , The University at Buffalo , Columbia University , James Madison University , Syracuse University , the University of Colorado , the University of Washington , and Georgia Southern University on October 9 .
Warner Home Video released Body of Lies on DVD on February 17 , 2009 . The single @-@ disc region one release included surround sound and subtitles in English , French , and Spanish ; the two @-@ disc special edition included commentaries by the director , screenwright and original novel author , and a behind the scenes documentary ; the Blu @-@ ray edition also included additional commentary on the film 's themes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Body of Lies received mixed reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 54 % , based on 203 reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 8 / 10 . The critical consensus reads , " Body of Lies relies too heavily on the performances of DiCaprio and Crowe to lift it above a conventional espionage thriller . " On Metacritic the film has a score of 57 out of 100 , based on 37 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Roger Ebert , writing in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , awarded the film three out of four stars . He praised the " convincing " acting and " realistic locations and terse dialogue " but questioned the verisimilitude of the story and concluded , " Body of Lies contains enough you can believe , or almost believe , that you wish so much of it weren 't sensationally implausible . " Kenneth Turan reached the same conclusion in the Los Angeles Times , " The skill of top @-@ flight director Ridley Scott and his veteran production team , not to mention the ability of stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Russell Crowe , ensure that this story of spies and terrorism in the Middle East is always crisp and watchable , " he writes , " but as the film 's episodic story gradually reveals itself , it ends up too unconvincing and conventional to consistently hold our attention . " Lou Lumenick in the New York Post writes that , " There 's nothing here we haven 't seen in many other movies " and Lisa Kennedy in the Denver Post summarised : " Body of Lies is an A @-@ list project with B @-@ game results . The movie might be set in the Age of Jihad . But the rules of trust and mistrust are wholly familiar . "
Critics observed the film 's adherence to conventions of the spy thriller genre ; Ebert called it " a James Bond plot " and David Denby pointed out the " usual tropes of the genre — surveillance shots from drones , S.U.V.s tearing across the desert , explosions , scenes of torture " but praised Scott 's superior management of space and timing . While Todd McCarthy in Variety praised the initial set @-@ up and conceit of the plot device , he criticised the formulaic approach leading to a " cornball denouement " . A. O. Scott in The New York Times writes that director Scott 's " professionalism is , as ever , present in every frame and scene , but this time it seems singularly untethered from anything like zeal , conviction or even curiosity . " Joe Neumaier writes in the New York Daily News that the film " aims to be up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ moment – yet feels same @-@ old , same @-@ old . " Kennedy called the love story between DiCaprio and Farahani contrived , saying that while DiCaprio seemed more at home in those scenes , it made the film seem " foolish " . Ebert thought the cultural context of their relationship was well established , but that it essentially existed as a convenience of the plot , to set up the unlikely conclusion . Scott would have preferred the psychological tensions linking the three leading men were allowed develop further .
Mark Strong 's performance was mentioned by several critics , with Scott calling it " a marvel of exotic suavity and cool insinuation " while Ebert " particularly admired " his aura of suave control .
= = = Box office = = =
Body of Lies earned $ 12 @.@ 9 million on its first weekend in theatres in the United States and Canada , 40 % less than expected . This placed it as the third highest earning film that weekend , behind Disney 's Beverly Hills Chihuahua , which turned out to be No. 1 with a take of $ 17 @.@ 5 million in its second week , and Sony / Screen Gems 's Quarantine , which earned $ 14 @.@ 2 million — about $ 2 million more than it cost to make . A Warner Bros. executive said he was disappointed with the film 's opening and attributed it to its controversial storyline , although Body of Lies fared better than previous pictures about the " war on terrorism " such as Rendition , In the Valley of Elah , and Lions for Lambs , which all performed well below studios ' expectations . In a fourteen @-@ week theatrical run in the United States and Canada , the film earned $ 39 million .
Outside North America it opened reasonably well . In Australia it was the highest @-@ earning film in its opening weekend of October 9 – 12 , 2008 with $ 2 @,@ 104 @,@ 319 , ahead of Pixar Animation 's Wall @-@ E , which fell to second place , while Beverly Hills Chihuahua held third . In the United Kingdom , the film 's earnings were the second @-@ highest behind Quantum of Solace during November 21 – 23 , its opening weekend . It earned £ 991 @,@ 939 from 393 screens . Overall , while the film grossed only $ 40 million at the North American box office , it has grossed $ 115 @,@ 097 @,@ 286 worldwide . In the United States , contemporary war films have performed relatively poorly . Warner Bros. had hoped the large budget and Scott 's direction could better them , but the film performed relatively poorly compared to his others ; analysts attributed this to the film 's Middle East setting and exploration of terrorism . Brandon Gray pointed out that people read these themes in the news media already , and there is a perception that Hollywood films are biased .
= Lemurs ' Park =
Lemurs ' Park ( also known locally as Parc de lémuriens à Madagascar ) is a small botanical garden and lemur reserve covering 5 ha ( 12 acres ) , and is located 22 km ( 14 mi ) southwest of Antananarivo , Madagascar . It was founded around 2000 by Laurent Amouric and Maxime Allorge . Most of its nine lemur species are free @-@ ranging within the park , which also contains more than 70 of Madagascar 's endemic plant species . The park is open to the public , offering guided tours as well as standard amenities , a gift shop , and a restaurant . Visitors can arrange transportation between downtown Antananarivo and Lemurs ' Park on a private park shuttle .
Most of the park 's lemurs were confiscated pets , entrusted to the park by the Ministry of Water and Forests . The lemurs are rehabilitated and bred for reintroduction into the wild . The park also collaborates with Colas Madagascar and TOTAL Madagascar to provide environmental education to local primary school children and to plant native trees as part of a reforestation program . Most of the park 's staff come from the neighboring communities .
= = History = =
Established around 2000 , Lemurs ' Park is a private , 5 ha ( 12 acres ) botanical park situated next to the Katsaoka River and between the villages of Fenoarivo and Imerintsiatosika , 22 km ( 14 mi ) southwest of Antananarivo along Route Nationale 1 ( RN1 ) in the direction of Ampefy . It functions as a lemur reserve that gradually reintroduces captive @-@ born lemurs back into nature . The park was founded by Laurent Amouric and Maxime Allorge , the grandson of Pierre Boiteau , Founding Director of the Tsimbazaza Zoo ( Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza ) in Antananarivo .
= = Attractions = =
The park , which primarily consists of pine forest and bamboo vegetation , contains nearly 6 @,@ 000 trees and more than 70 plant species endemic to Madagascar , all of which are segregated into separate climatic zones throughout the park . Lemurs ' Park also has a vivarium which houses chameleons , radiated tortoises , iguanas and other lizards .
The main attraction , for which the park is named , is its free @-@ ranging lemurs . Featured daily feeding times occur every two hours between 10 : 00 a.m. and 4 : 00 p.m. There are nine species , seven of which are active during the day ( diurnal ) and two are active at night ( nocturnal ) . Many of the lemurs are confiscated pets , and the staff work towards rehabilitating them for reintroduction into the wild .
= = Conservation = =
Confiscated pet lemurs are entrusted to Lemurs ' Park by the Ministry of Water and Forests ( Ministère des eaux et Forêts ) for ex situ conservation . This allows the urban population near Antananarivo to see free @-@ ranging lemurs in a natural environment . In addition to rehabilitation , Lemurs ' Park has also successfully bred Coquerel 's sifakas ( Propithecus coquereli ) since 2007 .
Because many of these lemurs have become endangered as a result of deforestation in Madagascar , Lemurs ' Park participates in a reforestation program supported by Colas Madagascar and Total Madagascar . Between December 2008 and May 2013 , approximately 37 @,@ 163 students and 1 @,@ 270 teachers from the public primary schools around Antananarivo have helped plant 170 native trees and participated in environmental education at Lemurs ' Park . For many of the children , this program has allowed them to see free @-@ ranging lemurs for the first time . In total , more than 11 @,@ 000 trees have been planted as part of this collaborative project , including rosewood , Terminalia , and amontana as of May 2013 . Saplings of endemic plants , including baobabs , from the Madagascar spiny thickets in the southern part of the island have also been transported to the park and planted with the help of Colas .
According to the park , the partnership with Colas Madagascar and TOTAL Madagascar has also helped prevent layoffs of its staff during difficult economic times , over 90 % of whom come from the surrounding communities .
= = Business details = =
Lemurs ' Park ( Parc de lémuriens à Madagascar ) is open all year , seven days a week from 9 : 00 a.m. until 5 : 00 p.m. , and the latest admission into the park is at 4 : 15 p.m. As of March 2015 , the admission price was 25 @,@ 000 ariary for adults and 10 @,@ 000 ariary for children ages 4 – 12 , while admission for children under the age of 4 is free . Entrance fees also cover a required tour with a park guide . Stays are limited to 1 hour and 30 minutes . The park provides standard amenities , and has a restaurant that requires 48 @-@ hour advance booking . Between January and April , both the restaurant and gift shop are closed on Mondays .
Visits to the park do not require advance booking , although reservations are required to take the park 's minibus from the heart of Antananarivo ( Analakely ) to the facility . The cost of the shuttle includes the admission into the park . The shuttle departs at 9 : 00 a.m. and 2 : 00 p.m. each day .
Lemurs ' Park also has a liaison office in Antananarivo that is only open on Monday .
= Dreamtime ( book ) =
Dreamtime : Concerning the Boundary between Wilderness and Civilization is an anthropological and philosophical study of the altered states of consciousness found in shamanism and European witchcraft written by German anthropologist Hans Peter Duerr . First published in 1978 by Syndikat Autoren @-@ und Verlagsgesellschaft under the German title of Traumzeit : Über die Grenze zwischen Wildnis und Zivilisation , it was translated into English by the Hungarian @-@ American anthropologist Felicitas Goodman and published by Basil Blackwell in 1985 .
Dreamtime opens with the premise that many of those accused of witchcraft in early modern Christendom had been undergoing visionary journeys with the aid of a hallucinogenic salve which was suppressed by the Christian authorities . Duerr argues that this salve had been a part of the nocturnal visionary traditions associated with the goddess Diana , and he attempts to trace their origins back to the ancient world , before looking at goddesses associated with the wilderness and arguing that in various goddess @-@ centred cultures , the cave represented a symbolic vagina and was used for birth rituals .
Later in the book , Duerr looks at ethnographic examples of shamanism , focusing on the shamanic use of hallucinogens and the experiences which such entheogens induce . He argues that " archaic cultures " recognize that a human can only truly understand themselves if they go to the mental boundary between " civilization " and " wilderness " , and that it is this altered state of consciousness which both the shaman and the European witch reached in their visionary journeys . Believing that the modern western worldview failed to understand this process , Duerr criticizes the work of those anthropologists and scientists who had tried to understand " archaic " society through a western rationalist framework , instead advocating a return to " archaic " modes of thought .
Dreamtime was a controversial best @-@ seller upon its initial release in West Germany , and inspired academic debate leading to the publication of Der Gläserne Zaun ( 1983 ) , an anthology discussing Duerr 's ideas , edited by Rolf Gehlen and Bernd Wolf . Reviews in the Anglophone world were mixed , with critics describing Dreamtime as unoriginal , factually inaccurate , and difficult to read , but also innovative and well referenced .
= = Background = =
According to his own account , the idea for writing Dreamtime first came to Duerr when he was in New Mexico in the summer of 1963 . He had spent the day visiting the Puye Cliff Dwellings and was returning to the Albuquerque Greyhound Bus Station , where he met a Tewa Native yerbatero ( herbalist ) buying a cup of coffee , and struck up a conversation . Duerr asked the yerbatero if he could help him find a Native family living in one of the pueblos north of Santa Fe with whom he could stay , to conduct anthropological research into the nightly dances that took place in the subterranean kivas . The Native told him that if he wanted to find out about the dances in the kivas , then he should go to the Pueblo of Our Lady of the Angels and study at the University of California . Duerr would later relate that this blow to his vanity first provided him with the idea of writing Dreamtime .
Duerr presented some of his ideas in a lecture given to the members of a philosophy seminar at the University of Constance in the autumn of 1975 , which he repeated at a housewives ' club in Mannheim . He was " greatly encouraged " in his preparation for the work by the noted English anthropologist E. E. Evans @-@ Pritchard ( 1902 – 1973 ) , who died before its publication .
The anthropologist Rik Pinxten noted that Dreamtime was published at a time of new advancements in German anthropology . After a period of intellectual stagnation during the preceding decades , the 1970s saw the rising popularity of the discipline , with a dramatic increase in the number of students enrolling to study ethnography at West German universities . It also saw increasing interdisciplinary collaboration between anthropologists and philosophers , with several scholars arguing that ethnography was relevant to " philosophical analysis " . This increase in philosophical discussion within German anthropology was largely rejected by the " official academic representatives " of the discipline , who believed that it exceeded the " limits of scientific respectability " , but it was nonetheless adopted by Duerr in Dreamtime .
= = Publication = =
When the book was first published in West Germany in 1978 , it sold hundreds of thousands of copies , becoming a bestseller and arousing both popular and academic interest . According to the American Indologist Wendy Doniger O 'Flaherty , Dreamtime became " the canon of a cult for intellectual former hippies " , dealing as it did with issues such as " drugs , sex , anarchy , [ and ] lurid religions " . British anthropologist Charles Stewart noted that it was popular among members of the alternativer German subculture , and for this reason believed that the book could tell anthropologists " a considerable amount about the strivings of modern German society " .
The book was translated into English by Felicitas D. Goodman ( 1914 – 2005 ) , a Hungarian @-@ born American anthropologist who had written several books of her own on the subject of religious trance journeys . Duerr noted that of all the translators he had worked with , Goodman showed the greatest dedication to her work . For the English @-@ language translation , Duerr included a new preface , in which he noted that he had refused to make changes to the original text despite the insistence of the publisher . Explaining his reasoning , he remarked that " a book is not a dishwasher , where it is advisable to change malfunctioning parts . " He accepted that the book had faults , and expressed his hope that the reader would forgive him for leaving them intact in the English translation . In the English @-@ language edition , the main text takes up the first 133 pages of the book , while the footnotes and bibliography occupy the next 324 pages .
= = Synopsis and arguments = =
Duerr examines the use of flying ointment in early modern witchcraft and draws ethnographic parallels from accused witches among the Shona people of Rhodesia and witchcraft beliefs of the Normanby Archipelago in the South Pacific . He concludes that some of those accused of witchcraft in early modern Europe had applied hallucinogenic ointments to their skin to make themselves believe that they were flying to the so @-@ called witches ' sabbat , a ritual gathering of witches . Noting the apparent lack of recipes for this salve in the witch trial records , Duerr posits the view that the Christian authorities intentionally covered up the existence of hallucinogenic ointments , fearing that their existence would cast doubt on various aspects of the witches ' accounts , including their alleged encounters with the Devil . Duerr maintains that this knowledge might have ultimately led people to cast doubt on even the Devil , a key aspect of early modern Christian cosmology . Although the use of hallucinogenic ointments was not a factor in every witch trial , it was more prevalent in the earlier trials of the Alpine region . Duerr connects its use to the nocturnal visionary traditions associated with the goddess Diana in that region .
Duerr then looks into the origins of the nocturnal visionary traditions , beginning with the ancient Greek deity Artemis and her influence on the Roman goddess Diana . In Alpine lore , Diana survived Christianization as the leader of the nocturnal procession . Duerr goes further back into the Palaeolithic , where Venus figurines are interpreted as a " prototype " for the later Greek Artemis , a goddess who was " the unrestrained mistress of animals and plants " . Duerr then describes the relationship between ancient goddesses and caves as a symbol of the female vagina and explores stories involving caves in Greek mythology , Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Yakut folklore . Duerr proposes that the association between caves and the vagina is global in scope , as societies around the world use caves in rituals symbolizing birth .
Various folk traditions across Europe are analyzed , such as the Alpine Perchtenlaufen , where women broke social conventions by attacking men or engaging in lesbianism . Duerr compares these traditions to the benandanti of early modern Friuli , and to the Livonian werewolf , viewing them as representing the clash between order and chaos . Christian society in the Late Middle Ages began to construe the witch as a creature inside of society rather than outside it , which partly led to the witch trials of the early modern period . Duerr argues that the societies of European Christendom began to increasingly accept female nudity in art and fashion during the Late Middle Ages .
Examples in the historical European folk tradition where criminals have been declared to be outside of the law and banished from the community are illustrated . Duerr connects these outsiders to executioners and warriors who were also outside the law because they had entered the world of the dead . Similarly , the witches of the early modern period also left the everyday world , and like the shamans of Siberia experienced their " wild " or " animal aspect " in order to understand their human side . Duerr uses ethnographic examples from around the world to show that many cultures have used hallucinogenic substances to reach states of consciousness beyond ordinary societal boundaries .
Duerr provides additional ethnographic examples showing how societal rules were reversed at special times of the year . In shamanic terms , societies which espouse an " archaic mentality " understand who they are by understanding who they are not ; according to Duerr , modern societies fail to understand this concept . Datura , a plant that contains toxic hallucinogens is discussed . The plant was introduced to Europe in the early modern period . Among the Huichol people of central Mexico , shamans have told anthropologists that Datura is used by malevolent witches . Duerr makes note of the anthropologists who have undertaken shamanic experiences with the people they are studying , such as Barbara Myerhoff and Carlos Castenada , but argues that such ethnographers have failed to truly understand what shamans mean when they describe their experiences as " flying " . In Duerr 's view , shamans learn to evaporate their " ego boundaries " , thereby experiencing themselves in a different way ; it is this feeling that can be described as shamanic flying . Duerr ties these shamanic practices into the werewolves of early modern Europe , arguing that these werewolves did not physically transform into wolves , but that they embraced their " wolf nature " by crossing over the boundary from " civilisation " to " wilderness " .
Duerr then offers a philosophical discussion on the nature of reality , criticizing psychiatrists like George Devereux for their beliefs that shamans were mentally ill . Instead he champions the idea that the visionary experiences of shamans should be treated as real rather than illusionary , drawing from the ideas of the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein to support his argument . The author then examines the role of animals in shamanic visions , paying particular reference to the experiences of the Peruvian anthropologist Carlos Castaneda . Duerr argues that the conversations between the animal and the individual undertaking the vision are neither literal nor delusional , but that the only way to understand this is to situate oneself " on the fence " , between the worlds of civilisation and wilderness .
Duerr argues that modern Western society lacks important facets found in " archaic " societies who adhere to shamanic beliefs , and he asserts that the majority of Western anthropologists who have performed ethnographic fieldwork in these cultures have failed to truly understand them . To correct this , Duerr argues that anthropologists must understand that people in such societies take a " mythic perspective " to the world , often comparing objects and places in the material world to objects and places that exist " outside of time " , in the eternal realm of mythology . He connects this with the Indigenous Australian concept of Dreamtime , an otherworld outside of ordinary space and time .
Finally , Duerr once again criticises the approach of Western society and its anthropologists to studying " archaic " spiritual beliefs . He asserts that in these " archaic " cultures , people " have a much clearer idea about the fact that we can not be only what we are if at the same time , we are also what we are not , and that we can only know who we are if we experience our boundaries " . He denounces Western scientists and anthropologists for their approaches to the study of such cultures , arguing that they have misrepresented them by attempting to fit them within the Western ideas of objectivity . He argues that in future , anthropologists must reach their own boundaries , and recognize the wilderness of their consciousness before they can truly understand the worldview of " archaic " humans .
= = Reception = =
= = = Academic reviews = = =
Writing in The Journal of Religion , Gail Hinich claimed that Duerr 's Dreamtime had a " maverick whimsy and passion " that stemmed from its argument that Western society had unfairly forced the " otherworld " into " an autistic tyranny of the self " . On a critical note , Hinich believed that despite Duerr 's extensive bibliography , he had failed to understand the " critical context in which the intellectual history of the demonized outsider continues to be examined " , ignoring the ideas put forward by Edward Dudley and Maximilian Novack in their edited volume The Wild Man Within ( 1972 ) or John Block Friedman in his The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought ( 1981 ) . In a review published in the journal Forest & Conservation History , Paul Fayter praised Dreamtime , considering it to be a " groundbreaking ethnographic study " that invites the reader to consider what Western society has lost in its over @-@ reliance on science and rationalism . Fayter also commented positively on Goodman 's translation , noting that she had successfully conveyed Duerr 's dry humour and self @-@ deprecating wit .
Joseph J. Valadez of the Harvard School of Public Health reviewed Duerr 's Dreamtime for the journal Contemporary Sociology . He felt that the book had brought him to the " edges of [ his ] own logics " , but that this had not been the result of any intellectual argument posed by Duerr ; indeed , he suggested that there were " crucial scholarly weaknesses " that made much of Duerr 's argument suspect . He ultimately felt that because Duerr had refused to correct his factual mistakes for the English translation , the book had left the realms of scholarship and instead become an " obscure cultural artifact " , one which was " represented by the myriad descriptions of cryptic symbols " that are discussed within its pages . Going on to comment on Duerr 's main argument regarding the relationship between Wilderness and Civilization , Valadez also expressed his opinion that Duerr had made a " fundamental error " in assuming that Wilderness is not accessible to everyone " by virtue of genetic heritage . "
In the Comparative Civilizations Review journal , Anthony M. Stevens @-@ Arroyo proclaimed that it was easy " to get lost " in Dreamtime , believing that the multitude of ethnographic and historical facts presented by Duerr often distracted from the book 's main arguments . Although praising the book 's contents , Stevens @-@ Arroyo expressed his annoyance at Duerr 's use of humour , believing that it was inappropriate in such a serious work of scholarship . He also remarked that Duerr " practices what he preaches " , noting that the book was something of an apologia for his involvement in the counter @-@ cultural and drug subcultures of the 1960s and his continuing advocacy of the use of mind @-@ altering substances , in the same style as Timothy Leary . Considering the work to be an attack on social convention , he believes that Duerr has made use of mind @-@ altering drugs to cross boundaries into altered states of consciousness and that Dreamtime is his invitation for others to join him . Stevens @-@ Arroyo did praise Goodman 's English translation , but argued that the index was too limited .
In a commentary piece for the Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford , Charles Stewart expressed his opinion that Dreamtime is best described as " the sort of book that Carlos Castaneda might have written if he were a German philosopher . " He identifies a series of commonalities between Duerr 's work and Castenada 's , claiming that Duerr 's description of his encounter with the Native American yerbatero in the book 's preface is an " allusion " to Castenada 's meeting with Don Juan Matus , which he described in The Teachings of Don Juan ( 1968 ) . Praising Duerr 's use of source material , Stewart notes that many anthropologists would be critical of using ethnographic data to " construct a moral parable " for Western society , and he went on to question whether it was really necessary for Westerners to return to " archaic " modes of thought .
= = = Press reviews = = =
The American Indologist Wendy Doniger O 'Flaherty of the University of Chicago published a review of Duerr 's Dreamtime in the New York Times . She expressed her opinion that Duerr had put forward a " bold hypothesis " but that Dreamtime was a " paradigm of borderline academia " , consisting of chapter titles written with " charm and wit " that hid " a mountainous scholarly apparatus – 236 pages of 827 notes , with an 86 @-@ page bibliography of some 2 @,@ 400 titles , to support 133 pages of text . " She also identified multiple influences on Duerr 's thinking , including historian and philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend , the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein , the historian of religions Mircea Eliade , and the anthropologist Carlos Castenada .
Ultimately , Doniger O 'Flaherty was critical of Dreamtime , commenting that " Duerr is attempting to hunt with the hounds and run with the hare , and his book is likely to infuriate both ordinary readers and scholars . " Although initially appearing suitable for the average reader , she felt that most would be put off by the " daunting scholarly apparatus " he had employed , and the " heaviness of the argument " . Believing that the book was difficult to read , she felt that Duerr had hidden his arguments in the footnotes , and that reading the first third of the book was akin to " wandering stoned through the stacks of a very fine European library , browsing in the sections devoted to witchcraft , hallucinogens and orgiastic cults . It is good fun , but it is not for all tastes . " She equally felt that the book would be criticized by academics and other scholars working in the fields of witchcraft history and the history of religion , who would recognize that the book not only contained multiple factual errors , but also that many of Duerr 's arguments were unoriginal , having previously been made by Mircea Eliade and Victor Turner .
Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Kenneth Atchity described Duerr 's book as being " outstanding for its weirdness and provocation " despite the fact that its " anthropology is neither original nor precise . " Atchity maintains that Dreamtime offers nothing new except " the energy of its serendipity " , noting similarities with books such as James Frazer 's The Golden Bough ( 1890 ) , Robert Graves ' The White Goddess ( 1948 ) , and the works of Carlos Castenada . Although of the opinion that it contained " patches of brilliant illumination " , Atchity ultimately considered Dreamtime to be an " obscure essay on the human experience . "
= = = Wider influence = = =
In 1983 , German academics Rolf Gehlen and Bernd Wolf published Der Gläserne Zaun : Aufsätze zu Hans Peter Duerrs " Traumzeit " ( " The Glass Fence : Essays on Hans Peter Duerr 's Dreamtime " ) , an edited volume of papers discussing Duerr 's work . Duerr 's theories were evaluated by Belgian anthropologist Rik Pinxten in an academic paper entitled " Dreamtime : Relativism and Irrationality in the Work of Hans Peter Duerr " ( 1992 ) , published in the Cognitive Relativism and Social Science volume . Pinxten discussed the role of German anthropology within academia and its influence on philosophy and described Dreamtime as " the most important publication " to emerge from the interaction between the two disciplines .
In her study of feminist @-@ orientated Wicca in New Zealand ( 2004 ) , the anthropologist Kathryn Rountree remarked that along with historian Carlo Ginzburg 's Ecstasies : Deciphering the Witches ' Sabbath ( 1989 ) , Dreamtime offered " perhaps the most detailed investigation so far " of the witches ' sabbath . Similarly , Duerr 's work was referenced by anthropologist Susan Greenwood in her study of the Wiccan and ceremonial magical communities of London , Magic , Witchcraft and the Otherworld ( 2000 ) .
According to Dutch historian Willem de Blécourt , Dreamtime was responsible for first introducing the 1692 case of Thiess of Kaltenbrun , the ' Livonian werewolf ' , to Anglophone scholarship . Prior to this , he noted , scholarly debate on the case had been restricted to German @-@ speaking scholars . Duerr had briefly discussed the case in the chapter " Wild Women and Werewolves " , in which he compared it with various European folk traditions in which individuals broke social taboos and made mischief in public , arguing that they represented a battle between the forces of chaos and order .
= Ottoman – Egyptian invasion of Mani =
The Ottoman – Egyptian Invasion of Mani was a campaign during the Greek War of Independence that consisted of three battles . The Maniots fought against a combined Egyptian and Ottoman army under the command of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt .
On March 17 , 1821 , the Maniots ( residents of the central peninsula on the southern part of the Peloponnese ) declared war on the Ottoman Empire , preceding the rest of Greece in joining the revolution by about a week . The various Greek forces won a quick string of victories . However , disputes broke out amongst the leaders and anarchy ensued . The Ottomans seized this chance and called for reinforcements from Egypt . The reinforcements came under the command of Ibrahim Pasha , the son of the leader of Egypt , Muhammad Ali . With the Greeks in disarray , Ibrahim ravaged the Peloponnese and after a four months siege he captured the city of Missolonghi in April . He then went back to the Peloponnese and turned his attention in June to Mani .
Ibrahim tried to enter Mani from the north @-@ east near Almiro on June 21 , 1826 , but he was forced to stop at the fortifications at Vergas . His army of 7 @,@ 000 men was held off by an army of 2 @,@ 000 Maniots and 500 refugees from other parts of Greece . Despite Egyptian and Ottoman artillery , the outnumbered Maniots managed to hold off the Ottomans . Ibrahim sent 1 @,@ 500 men to attempt a landing near Areopolis and go north to threaten the Maniot rear . This force was initially successful ; however the women and old men of the area fought back and repelled them with heavy losses . When the Egyptians at Vergas heard that Theodoros Kolokotronis was advancing on their rear they retreated .
In August , Ibrahim renewed the offensive and he sent a group of regular soldiers down the coast and they reached Kariopoli before they retreated . Ibrahim sent a force of 8 @,@ 000 men down to Polytsaravo and on the way they destroyed a tower that was opposing them . When they reached Polytsaravo , they were faced by the Maniots in their forts . The Egyptians and the Ottomans were forced to retreat with significant losses . This was the last time Mani was invaded during the War for Independence , as Greece was liberated in 1828 .
= = Prelude = =
The Greek War of Independence had started on the March 17 , 1821 , when the Maniots declared war on the Ottoman Empire at Areopoli . On March 21 , the Maniot army of 2 @,@ 000 men under the command of Petros Mavromichalis which also included Theodoros Kolokotronis , marched from Areopolis and headed for Messenia . The next day , they reached Kalamata , which had an Ottoman garrison and they captured the city on March 23 .
The rest of Greece joined the war when Bishop Germanos of Patras declared Greece in rebellion on March 25 . At Kalamata , the Greeks established the Messenian Senate which governed affairs in the southern Peloponnese . Kolokotronis wanted to attack Tripoli but Petros Mavromichalis convinced him to attack the smaller towns first . Petrobey also sent letters to the courts of Europe telling them of the Greeks ' plan . Petrobey finished off the letters by signing it with Petrobey Mavromichalis , Prince and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . On April 28 , the Maniot army joined Kolokotronis forces at Karytainia . From there they went to Tripoli and started to besiege the city . The city eventually fell on September 23 , 1821 and was sacked by the Greeks .
Due to the unrelenting losses and stories of Greek atrocities in Tripolis , the Sultan became desperate and in 1824 he called on his Viceroy in Egypt , Muhammad Ali , to aid him . Ali promised to aid him in return for cession of the island of Crete , Cyprus , as well as making his son Ibrahim Pasha , Pasha of the Peloponnese . After his offer was accepted , Ali sent his son in command of the expedition . Meanwhile , the Greeks were in disarray because of political rivalries which had caused a civil war . Kolokotronis was arrested , his son Panos was killed , and his nephew Nikitaras forced to flee .
Ibrahim used the confusion to land at Methoni in the Peloponnese . From Methoni , Ibrahim started pillaging the Peloponnese and taking many people as slaves . Ibrahim captured Tripolis but was stopped from capturing Nauplion by Kostantinos Mavromichalis and Dimitrios Ypsilantis . In retaliation , Ibrahim burnt down Argos before returning to Tripoli . Ibrahim decided to go with his army and join Reshid Pasha at Missolonghi in Central Greece . The Egyptians reached the city on December 12 , 1825 and helped the Ottomans with the siege . On April 10 , 1826 , the city fell to the invaders and the city was sacked .
= = Battle of Vergas = =
Ibrahim sent an envoy to Mani demanding its surrender or else he would pillage it . He received the Maniotic reply of :
From the few Greeks of Mani and the rest of Greeks who live there to Ibrahim Pasha . We received your letter in which you try to frighten us saying that if we don 't surrender , you 'll kill the Maniots and plunder Mani . That 's why we are waiting for you and your army . We , the inhabitants of Mani , sign and wait for you .
Ibrahim , furious with the response , ordered an attack on northwestern Mani from Kalamata on June 23 , 1826 . Under his command was a force of 7 @,@ 000 men , a mixture of infantry and cavalry . The invaders were forced to stop at the fortifications of the Maniots at Vergas near Almiro . Defending the walls were 2 @,@ 000 Maniot soldiers and 500 Greek refugees .
The Egyptian artillery failed to breach the walls , so Ibrahim decided to launch two ships with cannons and have them bombard the Maniot defences from the sea . He also combined this attack with infantry assaults , however these failed as the invaders were driven back from the walls eight times . The attacks lasted for a few more days before the Egyptians and Ottomans were forced to retreat when news arrived that Kolokotronis was approaching their rear with 2 @,@ 000 men . The Maniots chased the Egyptians up to Kalamata before withdrawing . Ibrahim lost 2 @,@ 500 men at Vergas and the Greek losses are unknown .
= = Battle of Diro = =
During the Battle of Vergas , Ibrahim decided to attack the Maniots from the rear . His plan was to send a small fleet with a few soldiers to land at the Bay of Diros , 2 kilometers south of Areopolis . The aim of this was to capture the unguarded Areopoli , which cut the communication lines of the defenders at Vergas and demoralize them as well . He would then be able to attack the Maniots from the rear and control the mountain passes to eastern Mani and Gytheio . Authors Peter Greenhalgh and Edward Eliopoulos describe this plan as excellent .
On June 23 , he sent a small fleet carrying 1 @,@ 500 to land at the Bay of Diros and to capture Areopolis . Aid came from other villages . On June 26 , the surviving Egyptians were rescued by Ibrahim 's fleet from the beach and those who were not rescued had to swim to the ships or be killed by the Maniots . This battle cost Ibrahim 1 @,@ 000 men and he was forced to retreat from Mani after being defeated at Vergas .
= = Battle of Polytsaravo = =
After his retreat from Mani due to the defeats at Vergas and Diros Pasha renewed his offensive in August . Ibrahim 's army was led by a Laconian from Bardounia named Bosinas who had assistance from the Egyptian fleet . On August 27 , he reached Kariopoli in an attempt to
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outset . " The atmosphere of the establishment is described in precise detail , from the faces of the players to the " greasy " wallpaper and the tablecloth " worn by the friction of gold " . The emphasis on money evoked in the first pages – and its contrast with the decrepit surroundings – mirrors the novel 's themes of social organization and economic materialism .
The confluence of realist detail with symbolic meaning continues when Valentin enters the antique shop ; the store represents the planet itself . As he wanders about , he tours the world through the relics of its various epochs : " Every land of earth seemed to have contributed some stray fragment of its learning , some example of its art . " The shop contains a painting of Napoleon ; a Moorish yataghan ; an idol of the Tartars ; portraits of Dutch burgomasters ; a bust of Cicero ; an Ancient Egyptian mummy ; an Etruscan vase ; a Chinese dragon ; and hundreds of other objects . The panorama of human activity reaches a moral fork in the road when the shopkeeper leads Valentin to Raphael 's portrait of Jesus Christ . It does not deter him from his goal , however ; only when he finds the skin does Valentin decide to abort his suicidal mission . In doing so , he demonstrates humanity favoring ego over divine salvation .
= = = Opening image = = =
At the start of the novel , Balzac includes an image from Laurence Sterne 's 1759 novel Tristram Shandy : a curvy line drawn in the air by a character seeking to express the freedom enjoyed " whilst a man is free " . Balzac never explained his purpose behind the use of the symbol , and its significance to La Peau de chagrin is the subject of debate . In his comprehensive review of La Comédie humaine , Herbert J. Hunt connects the " serpentine squiggle " to the " sinuous design " of Balzac 's novel . Critic Martin Kanes , however , suggests that the image symbolizes the impossibility of language to express an idea fully . This dilemma , he proposes , is directly related to the conflict between will and knowledge indicated by the shopkeeper at the start of the novel .
= = Themes = =
= = = Autobiography = = =
Balzac mined his own life for details in the first parts of La Peau de Chagrin , and he likely modeled the protagonist Raphaël de Valentin on himself . Details recounted by Valentin of his impoverished living quarters are autobiographical allusions to Balzac 's earliest days as an author : " Nothing could be uglier than this garret , awaiting its scholar , with its dingy yellow walls and odor of poverty . The roofing fell in a steep slope , and the sky was visible through chinks in the tiles . There was room for a bed , a table , and a few chairs , and beneath the highest point of the roof my piano could stand . " Although they allow for a degree of embellishment , biographers and critics agree that Balzac was drawing from his own experience .
Other parts of the story also derive from the author 's life : Balzac once attended a feast held by the Marquis de Las Marismas , who planned to launch a newspaper – the same situation in which Valentin finds himself after expressing his first wish to the talisman . Later , Valentin visits the opera armed with a powerful set of glasses that allow him to observe every flaw in the women on stage ( to guard against desire ) . These may also have been drawn from Balzac 's experience , as he once wrote in a letter about a set of " divine " opera glasses he ordered from the Paris Observatory .
More significant is the connection between the women in the novel and the women in Balzac 's life . Some critics have noted important similarities between Valentin 's efforts to win the heart of Foedora and Balzac 's infatuation with Olympe Pélissier . A scene in which Valentin hides in Foedora 's bedroom to watch her undress is said to come from a similar situation wherein Balzac secretly observed Pélissier . It 's probable that Pélissier was not the model for Foedora , however , since she accepted Balzac 's advances and wrote him friendly letters ; Foedora , by contrast , declares herself outside the reach of any interested lover . Critics agree that the " Woman without a Heart " described in the novel is a composite of other women Balzac knew . The character of Pauline , meanwhile , was likely influenced by another of Balzac 's mistresses , Laure de Berny .
= = = Vouloir , pouvoir , and savoir = = =
At the start of the book , the shopkeeper discusses with Valentin " the great secret of human life " . They consist of three words , which Balzac renders in capital letters : VOULOIR ( " to will " ) , POUVOIR ( " to be able " ) , and SAVOIR ( " to know " ) . Will , he explains , consumes us ; power ( or , in one translation , " to have your will " ) destroys us ; and knowledge soothes us . These three concepts form the philosophical foundation of the novel .
The talisman connects these precepts to the theory of vitalism ; it physically represents the life force of its owner , and is reduced with each exercise of the will . The shopkeeper tries to warn Valentin that the wisest path lies not in exercising his will or securing power , but in developing the mind . " What is folly " , he asks Valentin , " if not an excess of will and power ? " Overcome with the possibilities offered by the skin , however , the young man throws caution to the wind and embraces his desire . Upon grabbing the talisman , he declares : " I want to live with excess . " Only when his life force is nearly depleted does he recognize his mistake : " It suddenly struck him that the possession of power , no matter how enormous , did not bring with it the knowledge of how to use it ... [ he ] had had everything in his power , and he had done nothing . "
The will , Balzac cautions , is a destructive force that seeks only to acquire power unless tempered by knowledge . The shopkeeper presents a foil for Valentin 's future self , offering study and mental development as an alternative to consuming desire . Foedora also serves as a model for resistance to the corruption of will , insofar as she seeks at all times to excite desire in others while never giving in to her own . That Valentin is happiest living in the material squalor of his tiny garret – lost in study and writing , with the good @-@ hearted Pauline giving herself to him – underscores the irony of his misery at the end of the book , when he is surrounded with the fruits of his material desire .
= = = Society = = =
The novel extrapolates Balzac 's analysis of desire from the individual to society ; he feared that the world , like Valentin , was losing its way due to material excess and misguided priorities . In the gambling house , the orgiastic feast , the antique shop , and the discussions with men of science , Balzac examines this dilemma in various contexts . The lust for social status to which Valentin is led by Rastignac is emblematic of this excess ; the gorgeous but unattainable Foedora symbolizes the pleasures offered by high society .
Science offers no panacea . In one scene , a group of doctors offer a range of quickly formulated opinions as to the cause of Valentin 's feebleness . In another , a physicist and a chemist admit defeat after employing a range of tactics designed to stretch the skin . All of these scientific approaches lack an understanding of the true crisis , and are therefore doomed to fail . Although it is only shown in glimpses – the image of Christ , for example , painted by Valentin 's namesake , the Renaissance artist Raphael – Balzac wished to remind readers that Christianity offered the potential to temper deadly excess . After failing in their efforts to stretch the skin , the chemist declares : " I believe in the devil " ; " And I in God " , replies the physicist .
The corruption of excess is related to social disorganization in a description at the start of the final section . Physically feeble though living in absolute luxury , Raphaël de Valentin is described as retaining in his eyes " an extraordinary intelligence " with which he is able to see " everything at once " :
That expression was painful to see ... It was the inscrutable glance of helplessness that must perforce consign its desires to the depths of its own heart ; or of a miser enjoying in imagination all the pleasures that his money could procure for him , while he declines to lessen his hoard ; the look of a bound Prometheus , of the fallen Napoleon of 1815 , when he learned at the Elysee the strategical blunder that his enemies had made , and asked for twenty @-@ four hours of command in vain ...
= = Reception and legacy = =
The novel sold out immediately after going on sale , and was reviewed in every major Parisian newspaper and magazine . In some cases Balzac wrote the reviews himself ; using the name " Comte Alex de B — " , he announced that the book proved he had achieved " the stature of genius " . Independent reviews were less sweeping , but also very positive . Poet Émile Deschamps praised the rhythm of the novel , and the religious commentator Charles Forbes René de Montalembert indicated approvingly that it highlighted the need for more spirituality in society as a whole . Although some critics chastised Balzac for reveling in negativity , others felt it simply reflected the condition of French society . German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe declared it a shining example of the " incurable corruption of the French nation " . Critics argue about whether Goethe 's comments were praise for the novel or not .
This storm of publicity caused a flurry of activity as readers around France scrambled to obtain the novel . Balzac 's friend and La Caricature editor Charles Philipon wrote to the author one week after publication : " there is no getting hold of La Peau de chagrin . Grandville had to stop everything to read it , because the librarian sent round every half @-@ hour to ask if he had finished . " Friends near and far wrote to Balzac indicating their similar difficulties in locating copies . The second edition was released one month later , and it was followed by parodies and derivative works from other writers . Balzac 's friend Théophile Gautier included a comical homage in his 1833 story collection Les Jeunes @-@ France when , during a recreation of the feast from Balzac 's novel , a character says : " This is the point at which I 'm supposed to pour wine down my waistcoat ... It says so in black and white on page 171 of La Peau de chagrin ... And this is where I have to toss a 100 @-@ sou coin in the air to see whether or not there 's a God . "
The novel established Balzac as a prominent figure in the world of French literature . Publishers fought among themselves to publish his future work , and he became a mainstay on the list of invitation for social functions around Paris . Balzac took pride in his novel 's success , and declared to the editor of the journal L 'Avenir that " Elle est donc le point de départ de mon ouvrage " ( " This is the point of departure for my body of work " ) . Consistently popular even after his death , La Peau de chagrin was republished nineteen times between 1850 and 1880 .
When he developed his scheme for organizing all of his novels and stories into a single sequence called La Comédie humaine , Balzac placed La Peau de chagrin at the start of the section called Études philosophiques ( " Philosophical Studies " ) . Like the other works in this category – including the similarly autobiographical Louis Lambert ( 1832 ) – it deals with philosophy and the supernatural . But it also provides a bridge to the realism of the Études des mœurs ( " Study of Manners " ) , where the majority of his novels were located .
= = = L 'Étrangère = = =
The popularity of the novel extended to Ukraine , where a baroness named Ewelina Hańska read about Balzac 's novels in newspapers she received from Paris . Intrigued , she ordered copies of his work , and she read them with her cousins and friends around Volhynia . They were impressed by the understanding he showed toward women in La Physiologie du mariage , but felt that La Peau de chagrin portrayed them in a cruel and unforgiving light . Hańska wrote a letter to Balzac , signed it as L 'Étrangère ( " The Stranger " ) , and mailed it from Odessa on 28 February 1832 .
With no return address , Balzac was left to reply in the Gazette de France , with the hope that she would see the notice . She did not , but wrote again in November : " Your soul embraces centuries , monsieur ; its philosophical concepts appear to be the fruit of long study matured by time ; yet I am told you are still young . I would like to know you , but feel I have no need to do so . I know you through my own spiritual instinct ; I picture you in my own way , and feel that if I were to actually set eyes upon you , I should instantly exclaim , ' That is he ! ' "
Eventually she revealed herself to him , and they began a correspondence that lasted for fifteen years . Although she remained faithful to her husband Wacław , Mme. Hańska and Balzac enjoyed an emotional intimacy through their letters . When the baron died in 1841 , the French author began to pursue the relationship outside the written page . They wed in the town of Berdychiv on 14 March 1850 , five months before he died .
= = = Recurring characters = = =
Because it was among the first novels he released under his own name , Balzac did not use characters in La Peau de chagrin from previous works . He did , however , introduce several individuals who resurfaced in later stories . Most significant of these is Eugène de Rastignac , the older gentleman who tutors Valentin in the vicious ways of high society . Thirty pages into the writing of his 1834 novel Le Père Goriot , Balzac suddenly crossed out the name he had been using for a character – Massiac – and used Rastignac instead . The relationship between teacher and student in La Peau de chagrin is mirrored in Le Père Goriot , when the young Rastignac is guided in the ways of social realpolitik by the incognito criminal Vautrin .
Balzac used the character Foedora in three other stories , but eventually wrote her out of them after deciding on other models for social femininity . In later editions of La Peau de chagrin , he changed the text to name one of the bankers " Taillefer " , whom he had introduced in L 'Auberge rouge ( 1831 ) . He also used the name Horace Bianchon for one of the doctors , thus connecting the book to the famous physician who appears in thirty @-@ one stories in La Comédie humaine . So vividly had the doctor been rendered that Balzac himself called out for Bianchon while lying on his deathbed .
The use of recurring characters lends Balzac 's work a cohesion and atmosphere unlike any other series of novels . It enables a depth of characterization that goes beyond simple narration or dialogue . " When the characters reappear " , notes the critic Samuel Rogers , " they do not step out of nowhere ; they emerge from the privacy of their own lives which , for an interval , we have not been allowed to see . " Although the complexity of these characters ' lives inevitably led Balzac to make errors of chronology and consistency , the mistakes are considered minor in the overall scope of the project . Readers are more often troubled by the sheer number of people in Balzac 's world , and feel deprived of important context for the characters . Detective novelist Arthur Conan Doyle said that he never tried to read Balzac , because he " did not know where to begin " .
= = = Influence = = =
Balzac 's novel was adapted for the libretto of Giselher Klebe 's 1959 opera Die tödlichen Wünsche ( The Deadly Wishes ) . 1977 – 1978 the German composer Fritz Geißler composed Das Chagrinleder after a libretto by Günther Deicke . In 1989 – 1990 the Russian composer Yuri Khanon wrote the ballet L ’ Os de chagrin ( The Shagreen Bone ) , based on Balzac 's text , which included an opera @-@ interlude of the same name . In 1992 a biographic pseudo @-@ documentary in the form of an opera @-@ film based on his opera L 'os de Chagrin ( « Chagrenevaia Kost » , ru ) was released .
The novel has also been cited as a possible influence on Oscar Wilde for his 1890 novel The Picture of Dorian Gray , although this hypothesis is rejected by most scholars . The protagonist , Dorian Gray , acquires a magical portrait that ages while he remains forever youthful .
Russian literature specialist Priscilla Meyer maintains in her book How the Russians Read the French , that both La Peau de Chagrin and Pere Goriot were extensively paralleled , subverted and inverted , by Dostoevsky in Crime and Punishment .
In 1960 Croatian animator Vladimir Kristl made an animated short entitled Šagrenska koža ( The Piece of Shagreen Leather ) inspired by Balzac 's novel .
Toward the end of his life , Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud felt a special connection to Balzac 's novel , since he believed that his world was shrinking like Valentin 's talisman . Diagnosed with a fatal tumor , Freud resolved to commit suicide . After re @-@ reading La Peau de chagrin , he said to his doctor : " This was the proper book for me to read ; it deals with shrinking and starvation . " The next day , his doctor administered a lethal dose of morphine , and Freud died .
In 2011 French director Marianne Badrichani staged an adaptation of La Peau de Chagrin in London 's Holland Park .
= 2011 Helmand Province incident =
The 2011 Helmand Province incident was the killing , on 15 September 2011 , of an injured Taliban insurgent by Royal Marines . Three Royal Marines , known during their trial as Marines A , B , and C , were anonymously tried by court @-@ martial . On 8 November 2013 , Marines B and C were acquitted , but Marine A was found guilty of the murder of the Afghan combatant , in contravention of section 42 of the Armed Forces Act 2006 . This made him the first British soldier to be convicted of a battlefield murder whilst serving abroad since the Second World War .
On 5 December , Lord Chief Justice Lord Thomas and two other High Court judges lifted the existing anonymity order on Marine A , allowing him to be named as Sergeant Alexander Wayne Blackman . On 6 December , Blackman was sentenced to life imprisonment with a minimum term of 10 years , and dismissed with disgrace from the British Armed Forces . On 22 May 2014 , the Court of Appeal reduced his minimum term to 8 years .
On 19 December 2013 , the anonymity order on Marines B and C was also lifted by the Court , and they were named as Corporal Christopher Glyn Watson and Marine Jack Alexander Hammond .
On 28 October 2015 , the Ministry of Defence banned a large number of serving soldiers from attending a rally in support of Sergeant Blackman , saying that the event was a ' political protest ' . However , lawyers representing the rally organisers stated that was not the case , rather , the event was ' a show of support to one of our fellow Royal Marines and not a ' political protest . ' A related online government petition raised over 100 @,@ 000 signatures calling for Sergeant Blackman 's immediate release stating that the soldier had been condemned for defending his country . Within hours of the MOD 's decision Michael Fallon , Minister for Defence , put out a government statement saying that the UK would maintain military operations in Afghanistan for the foreseeable future .
= = Murder = =
The incident took place in Helmand Province during Operation Herrick 14 , part of the British effort in the War in Afghanistan . Blackman , of 42 Commando , Royal Marines , was part of a Marine patrol that came across an Afghan fighter in a field wounded by Apache Helicopter gunfire . Blackman ordered the Afghan to be moved out of sight of the British Persistent Ground Surveillance System , a camera on a balloon above British Forward Operating Base Shazad , Helmand , covering the area Blackman 's patrol had been sent to . Video evidence played at the Marines ' subsequent trial shows some of the patrol dragging the man across the field and then kicking him . Blackman ordered Marine B and C to stop administering first aid to the insurgent and eventually shot the man in the chest with a 9 mm pistol , saying : " Shuffle off this mortal coil , you cunt . It 's nothing you wouldn 't do to us . " He then added : " I just broke the Geneva Convention . "
= = Criminal trial and sentencing = =
After the 15 September incident , Blackman continued with his tour of duty , leaving Helmand Province in late October 2011 . On 13 October 2012 , at the decision of the Service Prosecution Authority , Marines A – E were charged with the murder of the unnamed Afghan insurgent . The lead came after British civilian police discovered suspicious video footage on a serviceman 's laptop . Marines D and E had charges against them dropped on 5 February 2013 . Marines A , B and C first appeared in court in August 2013 , where they entered a not @-@ guilty plea . The military trial of Marines A , B and C , protected from view in court behind a screen because of an anonymity order , began on 23 October 2013 and lasted two weeks . Their court @-@ martial board ( equivalent to a jury in the civilian justice system ) was seven members strong , instead of the five used for less serious cases .
The verdict ( 8 November 2013 ) and sentence ( 6 December 2013 ) were both delivered at the Military Court Centre in Bulford , Wiltshire . The judge advocate ( the civilian judge heading up the panel at a court @-@ martial ) was Judge Advocate General Jeff Blackett . The verdict carried with it a mandatory life sentence , so it was only in the judge advocate 's and court @-@ martial board 's power to decide on the minimum sentence once the board had found Blackman guilty . He was sentenced to a minimum of 10 years in prison . On 22 May 2014 , at the Courts Martial Appeal Court , its most senior judge , Lord Chief Justice Lord Thomas , upheld the life sentence , but reduced Blackman 's minimum term to 8 years .
= = Anonymity orders = =
Running in parallel to the Marines ' criminal trial were legal proceedings relating to the anonymity of the defendants . In the autumn of 2012 , Judges Advocate Elsom and Blackett issued anonymity orders for the Marine defendants due to the risk that , once named , the defendants would become targets for terrorists . The move had been opposed by elements of the UK media . A lawyer for the Press Association argued that anonymity orders should not be issued in this case because , firstly , British military award recipients named in the media had not been previously targeted ; and , secondly , that the names of those British service personnel investigated following the death of Baha Mousa had not been similarly protected . The 2012 anonymity orders were upheld at the beginning of the trial in October 2013 . The order was lifted for Blackman ( hitherto Marine A ) on 5 December 2013 by the High Court . The most senior figure involved in that verdict was Lord Chief Justice Lord Thomas . The same ruling had it that the identities of Marines B and C also be revealed unless they submit an appeal to the Supreme Court . No such appeal was lodged within the set deadline , and so , on 19 December 2013 , Marine B was named as Corporal Christopher Glyn Watson and Marine C was named as Marine Jack Alexander Hammond . The anonymity of Marines D and E was upheld on 19 December " pending any further order by the Judge Advocate General " .
Jeff Blackett also restricted public access to the evidence used at the trial , releasing on 8 November stills , audio clips and transcripts from the serviceman 's video that was played to the court @-@ martial board , but ruling that the full video itself not be released , since doing so " would increase the threat of harm to British service personnel . " On 5 December 2013 , the Court Martial Appeal Court upheld the earlier decisions prohibiting the release of the video footage of the attack and some of the stills from it . The Court stated , however , that the prohibition was to prevent the material being used for radicalisation , rather than it posing a risk to the life of the defendants .
= = Reactions = =
The legal proceedings relating to the Marines garnered widespread British public and media attention .
Reacting to Marine A 's guilty verdict , Royal Marines Brigadier Bill Dunham called the murder a " shocking and appalling aberration " that was " not consistent with the ethos , values and standards of the Royal Marines " , but was nevertheless an " isolated incident " . General Sir Mike Jackson said he was " saddened " by the case .
Marine A 's guilty verdict led to a showing of public support for the Marine , with people creating social media groups and online petitions alternately asking that he be given a lenient sentence and calling for his release.The Daily Telegraph supported one Change.org petition for leniency .
When Blackman was sentenced to 10 years , General Sir Nick Houghton called his actions a " heinous crime " and commented that " murder is murder " . By contrast , Blackman 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Simon Chapman , 42 Commando , said in a letter read to the court that Blackman had had a " momentary ... lapse of judgment " and was " not a bad man " , and added that Blackman had his " full support " . Blackman himself said in a statement that he was " devastated " and " very sorry for any damage caused to the Royal Marines " .
In September 2015 Colonel Oliver Lee , commanding officer of 45 Commando , resigned in protest of Blackman 's treatment .
= Thomas Wilcher =
Thomas Wilcher is a high school athletic coach and teacher who was previously a National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I track and field national champion in the indoor 55 m hurdles and a three @-@ time NCAA All @-@ American in track and field for the University of Michigan . Wilcher was also a running back for the Michigan Wolverines football team from 1983 – 1986 . In his redshirt senior year , he was a member of the Big Ten Conference football champion team as well as a 110 m hurdles Big Ten individual champion .
In high school , Wilcher was a Michigan High School Athletic Association ( MHSAA ) record @-@ setting hurdler and four @-@ time All @-@ American . As an athlete , he is a ten @-@ time MHSAA track and field champion and a two @-@ time Michigan High School Track and Cross Country Athlete of the Year award winner . He was also a Junior Olympics champion in the 110 m hurdles and an All @-@ state and All @-@ American tailback in football . He was also an All @-@ City swimmer .
As of 2013 , Wilcher is the head coach for the football team and the boys ' track & field team as well as the physical education teacher at Cass Technical High School in Detroit . As a boys ' track coach , he is a three @-@ time MHSAA team track and field champion , and his school has also twice been the MHSAA runner up . In his role as a football coach , he is the current MHSAA Division 1 champion and a former Detroit Free Press Coach of the Year , who once convinced Vernon Gholston , the 2007 Big Ten Conference Defensive lineman of the year and 2008 NFL Draft sixth overall pick , to try playing football and to return to the sport after quitting . His 2010 and 2013 teams advanced to the MHSAA semifinals and 2011 and 2012 teams won back @-@ to @-@ back Division 1 championship games .
= = High school = =
At Detroit Central High School , in track and field , he was a four @-@ time All @-@ American , ten @-@ time MHSAA champion ( three @-@ time team , four @-@ time relay , three @-@ time individual ) and Michigan High School Track and Cross Country Athlete of the Year award winner in both 1981 and 1982 . He led Detroit Central to three consecutive state MHSAA Class A championships as a team from 1980 – 1982 . As a sophomore in 1980 , he was the anchor of the Class A state champion 4 × 440 yard relay race team . As a junior in 1981 , he won the MHSAA Class A 120 @-@ yard ( 110 m ) high hurdles , as well as participated on the 4 × 440 and 4 × 110 MHSAA champions . As a senior , he won both the low hurdles ( 300 m ) and high hurdles ( 110 m ) as well as participated on the state champion 4 × 100 meter MHSAA champions . His time of 13 @.@ 5 in the 110 metre hurdles was the state all class record from 1981 – 1986 and continues to be tied for the second fastest time in state high school history . His 1982 time of 13 @.@ 6 seconds continues to be the fastest 110 meter hurdles time ever run at the MHSAA state championship meet . Although not officially recognized as a record due to metric conversions from yards to meters , the 1982 time of 41 @.@ 7 in the 4 × 100 is considered indistinguishable from the official record and is described as a notable performance according to state records .
Nationally , he was the number one ranked scholastic high hurdler as a junior as well as the number one ranked long ( low ) hurdler as a senior and was undefeated by high school athletes in both years in the respective events . As a junior , he won the 1981 AAU Junior Olympic Games in the high hurdles ( By some accounts he was an AAU Junior champion in 1982 ) . As a senior , he won the International Prep and Golden West low hurdle races . He was timed as fast as 13 @.@ 48 seconds and 13 @.@ 28 ( wind @-@ aided ) . In addition to his track accolades , he was an All @-@ state and All @-@ American tailback and All @-@ City swimmer .
Some sources regard his 13 @.@ 2 time in the 1982 AAU Junior Olympic Men 110 Meter Hurdles Young event a national record as of May 2013 . As of 2009 , the AAU considered it to be the national record . However , as of 2013 , AAU regarded Booker Nunley 's July 27 , 2008 13 @.@ 41 time to be the junior Olympic record for the newly named 17 @-@ 18 division ( which was said to be formerly known as the Young division ) .
= = College = =
Wilcher was recruited to the University of Michigan by Thomas E. Moss , Sr. , the former Deputy Chief of Police for the Detroit Police Department . In 1986 , he won the NCAA indoor 55 meter hurdles Championship , and he placed fifth in the NCAA outdoor 110 m hurdles with a time of 13 @.@ 57 , earning both indoor and outdoor track & field All @-@ American honors . He had also placed third in the outdoor 110m hurdles in 1985 earning All @-@ American honors . In 1987 , he was the outdoor Big Ten Conference 110 meter hurdles champion and earned first team All @-@ Big Ten honors . Wilcher holds numerous Michigan Wolverines records in the high hurdles including both the team indoor 60 meters ( converted ) , team outdoor 110 meters , and Michigan indoor track building records . Wilcher 's personal best and team record time of 13 @.@ 52 seconds in the 110 meter hurdles came at the 1985 Penn Relays where he was also the event champion . He was the Big Ten winter sports athlete of the week in January 1986 for his hurdling performance .
In February 1985 , Wilcher was involved in an altercation stemming from an intramural basketball game . Thomas Wilcher incurred penalties of 72 hours of public service deferred sentence , US $ 429 court costs and restitution in Ann Arbor District Court .
Wilcher , who wore # 27 as a 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) 185 @-@ pound ( 84 kg ; 13 @.@ 2 st ) Wolverine , redshirted as a true freshman in 1982 and played sparringly in his second and third seasons . He earned varsity letters in football as a redshirt junior and redshirt senior for coach Bo Schembechler . He totaled 758 yards ( 693 m ) rushing and eight touchdowns as a tailback in the same backfield as Jamie Morris . However , he never caught a pass . In his final season , he totaled 397 rushing yards and six touchdowns . That year , he was a member of the 1986 Big Ten Conference football champions who went on to the 1987 Rose Bowl , but accumulated no statistics in the Rose Bowl . He accumulated statistics in eleven of the thirteen games played and started twice . He had also started one game in 1985 . In his best games , he rushed for 104 yards ( 95 m ) and a touchdown on 16 carries in a 34 – 3 win against the South Carolina Gamecocks football team on September 21 , 1985 , and he rushed for two touchdowns and 74 yards ( 68 m ) in Morris ' absence in a 34 – 17 win against the Wisconsin Badgers football team on October 4 , 1986 . His touchdowns were the first two in what became Schembechler 's 200th victory . On September 27 , 1986 , his seven @-@ yard ( 6 m ) touchdown run cemented a homecoming victory against the Florida State Seminoles football team by putting the team up 20 – 10 with 1 : 27 remaining .
After graduating , Wilcher competed for the University of Chicago Track Club while training for the United States Olympic Trials for the 1988 Summer Olympic Games . On May 8 , 1988 he won the Jesse Owens Classic with a 110 @-@ meter high hurdles time of 13 @.@ 70 . At the Olympic Trials on July 23 , 1988 at Indiana University Track and Field Stadium , his second @-@ round heat included Arthur Blake , Jack Pierce , and Greg Foster who placed first , second and third respectively as well as Tony Dees .
= = Coaching = =
Wilcher is the current football head coach at Cass Technical High School in Detroit , where entering the 2011 MHSAA semifinals , the team had compiled a 99 – 56 ( .639 ) record and competed in the MHSAA Class @-@ A playoffs ten times since he became head coach in 1997 . He was the 1998 Detroit Free Press High School Football Coach of the Year , with his Detroit City Class @-@ A runner @-@ up team . At Cass , some of his athletes have included Vernon Gholston , and Marko Cooper , who was 1999 All @-@ USA second team . One of the first star players he coached ( as an assistant coach ) was future Michigan Wolverines @-@ leading rusher and NFL @-@ athlete Clarence Williams . In 2007 , Joseph Barksdale was the Detroit News ' No. 1 Blue Chip Prospect , Parade All @-@ American , U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl Participant ( East Roster ) , USA Today All @-@ USA High School First Team , The ESPN.com 150 , Rivals.com Top 100 for 2007 , Scout.com Hot 100 for 2007 , and SuperPrep All @-@ American . The 2010 team went 12 – 1 and lost 24 – 21 in the MHSAA Division I semifinals , when they fumbled on the 6 @-@ yard line on second @-@ and @-@ 4 with less than a minute remaining . The 2011 team won the state Division 1 championship by 49 – 13 margin against Detroit Catholic Central High School at Ford Field with a freshman quarterback , Jayru Campbell , who also plays basketball and runs track . The 2012 team won the third consecutive district championship and qualified for the state Division I championships . The 2012 team defended their championship by defeating Detroit Catholic Central High School 36 – 21 at Ford Field in a rematch of the prior year 's state championship match . In 2013 , Detroit Catholic Central upset Cass Tech in the state semifinals by a 28 – 0 score . The following year , Saline High School upset Cass Tech in the state semifinals 30 – 15 .
Wilcher is also the Cass boys ' track and field coach . The team won the MHSAA Class A track and field championships in 1994 , 1995 , and 1996 under Wilcher . The team was state runner up in the MHSAA Lower Peninsula Division 1 Championships in 2001 and 2002 . Among the track athletes he has trained are NCAA All @-@ American Pierre Vinson , and current Michigan Wolverine , Nick McCampbell .
= = = Vernon Gholston = = =
Vernon Gholston did not play football at Cass until his sophomore year and did not play on defense ( at linebacker ) until his senior year . Gholston did not even see himself as a football player when he was in high school , yet he has gone on to become an Ohio State Buckeyes football defensive end , the 2007 Big Ten Conference Defensive lineman of the year and the sixth overall selection in the 2008 NFL Draft . According to Gholston , " It was between periods and I was going to my next class . . . .He thought I was actually somebody ’ s father walking down the hall . He asked me whom was I looking for . I was like , ' Nobody . I go here . ' He really couldn 't believe it . He kind of grabbed me at that point and put me on the team . "
A similar , although more indepth , story of the recruitment of Gholston has been told by Wilcher : " He was walking down the hall with a Bible in his hands , " Wilcher said . " He was already built like a grown man ; he was all cut up ( like a bodybuilder ) . I asked him , ' Can I help you sir ? ' He looked around to see who I was talking to . I said , ' Are you looking for a student ? ' He said , ' No , I go here . ' He said he was a freshman . I thought he was lying . " When the defensive coordinator kicked Gholston off the team for being too soft , Wilcher went to his house and dragged him back into the program : " I told him I didn 't care if he wasn 't tough enough , he was going to play football for me , " Wilcher said . " I knew that he had desire to play . My only regret is that I didn 't put him at running back . I didn 't know how fast he was . "
= = Head coaching record = =
source :
= = Personal = =
He and his wife Crystal had a son Kishon and daughters Kaila and Kiersten . As of November 2013 Kishon is a redshirt sophomore cornerback for the Toledo Rockets . Kaila was the 2012 Detroit Public School League champion in the 300 meter dash .
= Typhoon Krovanh ( 2003 ) =
Typhoon Krovanh , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Niña , was a moderate tropical cyclone that caused a swath of damage stretching from the Philippines to Vietnam in August 2003 . The fifteenth named storm and sixth typhoon in the western Pacific that year , Krovanh originated from a tropical disturbance within the monsoon trough on August 13 . Despite rather favorable conditions , the initial tropical depression did not intensify significantly and degenerated into a remnant low on August 18 . However , these remnants were able to reorganize and the system was reclassified as a tropical cyclone a day later . Intensification was rather rapid upon the storm 's reformation – the depression reached tropical storm status on August 20 and then typhoon intensity two days later . Shortly after , Krovanh made landfall on Luzon at peak intensity with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The typhoon emerged into the South China Sea as a much weaker tropical storm , though it was able to restrengthen over warm waters . Once again at typhoon intensity , Krovanh clipped Haiyan before moving over the Leizhou Peninsula on its way to a final landfall near Cẩm Phả , Vietnam on August 25 . Quick weakening due to land interaction occurred as Krovanh moved across northern Vietnam , where the storm met its demise the following day .
Krovanh first struck the Philippines , resulting in heavy rainfall and displacing approximately 1 @,@ 000 families . The flooding caused severe damage and killed one person . Krovanh 's effects were much more severe in China . In Hong Kong , eleven people were injured and isolated flooding occurred as a result of the typhoon 's outer rainbands . However , Guangdong Province , Hainan Province , and Guangxi were the Chinese regions most extensively impacted . The typhoon brought record wind gusts into Guangxi . In those three regions combined , 13 @,@ 000 homes were estimated to have collapsed and a large swath of farmland was damaged . Two people were killed in China and economic losses approximated at ¥ 2 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 253 million ) . Due to its positioning and track , of all areas in Vietnam only the country 's more northern regions were impacted by Krovanh . Flash flooding occurred in those regions , and 1 @,@ 000 homes were flattened . One person was killed and five others were injured in Vietnam . Overall , the typhoon was responsible for the deaths of four persons .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origin of Typhoon Krovanh can be traced back to an area of persistent convection well east of Chuuk State on August 13 . Over the course of the day the disturbance gradually consolidated within favorable atmospheric conditions , and at 1800 UTC that day the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) assessed the system to have organized sufficiently to be classified as a tropical depression . Shower activity was suppressed by a nearby upper @-@ level low for much of the storm 's early existence ; however , at 0600 UTC on August 15 , the system was classified by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) as a tropical depression . The depression tracked northwestward under the influence of a nearby ridge . Strengthening and development of the tropical cyclone was very minimal over the next few days , and on August 18 , both tracking agencies discontinued monitoring the system due to the lack of an identifiable low @-@ level circulation center .
Redevelopment of the disturbance was a possibility following its degeneration , and on August 19 , convection once again increased , prompting the JTWC to resume monitoring the system as a tropical depression at 0900 UTC , with the JMA following suit nine hours later . Due to slight wind shear , the depression 's circulation center remained slightly displaced from the stronger convection . At 0600 UTC on August 20 , the JTWC determined that the disturbance had intensified to reach tropical storm status . Upon the 1200 UTC upgrade to such an intensity by the JMA , the tropical cyclone was assigned the name Krovanh . Subsequently following reclassification , Krovanh began to quickly intensify as it tracked in a somewhat southwest bearing . By August 21 , the tropical storm had begun to develop a banding eye feature . At 0600 UTC that day , the JMA upgraded Krovanh to severe tropical storm intensity , whilst the JTWC indicated that the storm intensified into a typhoon . On August 22 , the JMA reassessed Krovanh as a typhoon and determined that the storm had reached its peak intensity with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Meanwhile , the JTWC analyzed the storm to have peaked with one @-@ minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) ; this was followed by the storm making landfall on Luzon , just north of Palanan , Isabela , at 1115 UTC later that day .
Land interaction during Krovanh 's passage of Luzon significantly weakened the cyclone , and upon the system 's reemergence into the South China Sea by 2000 UTC on August 22 , Krovanh was classified as only a tropical storm by the JMA . Redevelopment was rather rapid following emergence , and just four hours later the storm was redesignated as a severe tropical storm . On August 24 , the storm began to develop tight banding and reformed its prior banding eye feature , which later organized into a well defined eye . Later that day Krovanh clipped the northeastern coast of Hainan before crossing the Leizhou Peninsula on August 25 . During this time , the JMA upgraded Krovanh back to typhoon intensity and indicated that the storm was reaching a secondary peak in strength . The JTWC indicated a similar development as the typhoon traversed the Gulf of Tonkin . However , according to the JMA , Krovanh waned into a severe tropical storm shortly before the storm made its final landfall on Cẩm Phả , Vietnam at approximately 1500 UTC on August 25 . Over land , Krovanh deteriorated rapidly , and both agencies ceased monitoring the system on August 26 while it was well northwest of Hanoi .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = China = = =
As Krovanh was approaching the Philippines , Taiwan 's Central Weather Bureau cautioned the residents of the island against strong winds and warning ships in the Bashi Channel . After the typhoon entered the South China Sea , sea warnings were issued for areas offshore Hainan . Additional warnings were issued and expanded as Krovanh moved closer to the Chinese coast . In preparation for the storm , shipping routes across the Qiongzhou Strait were suspended , while security measures for river dykes and reservoirs were strengthened in both Hainan and Guangdong . In Hong Kong , the Hong Kong Observatory issued a Standby Signal No. 1 on August 23 , which was upgraded to a Strong Wind Signal No. 3 at around noon the following day . All warning signals in Hong Kong were discontinued on August 25 . In Guangzhou , 15 flights were cancelled in anticipation of Krovanh , stranding 500 passengers .
In Hong Kong , Krovanh 's outer rainbands brought squally weather , coupled with strong winds . Rainfall in the Hong Kong area peaked at 232 mm ( 9 @.@ 13 in ) on High Island , Hong Kong , much of which occurred on August 25 . Other rainfall totals of at least 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 75 in ) were measured over a majority of the country . Gusts peaked at 144 km / h ( 89 mph ) on Cheung Chau . The strong winds and gusts uprooted trees and caused scaffolding at an estate to collapse . In the province , 11 people were injured due to effects from Krovanh . A ferry service and four bus routes were temporarily suspended following the storm .
Guangdong and Hainan provinces , as well as Guangxi , were the regions of China most heavily impacted by Krovanh . In Zhanjiang , Guangdong , two people were killed . Economic losses from western Guangdong alone amounted to ¥ 1 @.@ 2 billion ( US $ 144 million ) . In Hainan , heavy rainfall was reported , peaking at 394 mm ( 15 @.@ 51 in ) in Jinjiang . Roughly 1 @,@ 700 homes collapsed and 16 reservoirs were contaminated and destroyed . Widespread power outages occurred , impacting several neighborhoods . Strong winds also toppled coconut palms . Direct economic losses in the province totaled ¥ 683 million ( US $ 82 million ) . Beihai City was the city most severely affected in Guangxi . Beginning on August 25 , the entire population of Beihai temporarily suffered a water shortage . In the city alone , losses reached ¥ 988 million ( US $ 119 million ) . In Weizhou Island , a weather station reported a wind gust of 190 km / h ( 119 mph ) ; this would be the strongest wind gust reported in Guangxi since 1982 . Overall , a total of 13 @,@ 000 residences collapsed and 140 @,@ 000 ha ( 350 @,@ 000 acres ) of farmland were impacted across China . The total economic loss was in excess of ¥ 2 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 253 million ) .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Striking Luzon in the Philippines on August 22 , Krovanh brought heavy precipitation . Rainfall in the Philippines peaked at 342 mm ( 13 @.@ 46 in ) in Dagupan . Other high rainfall totals included 263 mm ( 10 @.@ 35 in ) in Baguio and 203 mm ( 7 @.@ 99 in ) in Iba , Zambales . The flooding rains displaced 1000 families on the archipelago and killed a girl . Although full damage reports were never released , damages were estimated at ₱ 4 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 73 @,@ 000 ) and of " severe extent " .
Typhoon Krovanh was the strongest tropical cyclone to affect Vietnam in 2003 . One person was killed in Móng Cái after their house collapsed . Hundreds of other homes were unroofed and traffic was halted . Trees were also uprooted and power outages resulted from strong winds , particularly in Quảng Ninh Province . Heavy rains triggered flash flooding in northern Vietnam . Five additional persons were injured by flying debris . About 1 @,@ 000 homes in Vietnam were flattened by the storm .
= A Love Surreal =
A Love Surreal is the third studio album by American neo soul singer Bilal , released on February 26 , 2013 , by eOne . He recorded the album for five months at various studios with most of the recording crew from his 2010 album Airtight 's Revenge , including producer Shafiq Husayn , drummer Steve McKie , and pianist Robert Glasper . Bilal wrote and produced most of the album , which he titled in reference to his unreleased album Love for Sale and John Coltrane 's 1965 album A Love Supreme .
A Love Surreal explores different stages of love in a cycle of slow @-@ burning songs that Bilal deliberately wrote for female listeners . Its songs eschew the personal and societal themes of Airtight 's Revenge in favor of upbeat songs about cultivating a romance and meditative laments on its dissolution . Bilal wanted to make the album sound multidimensional and drew on the surrealist art of Salvador Dalí for inspiration .
Bilal premiered the album 's music in his performance at World Cafe Live in Philadelphia . Its lead single " Back to Love " was released on December 11 , 2012 . A Love Surreal received universal acclaim from music critics , who praised Bilal 's expressive singing , clever songwriting , and mellow musical style .
= = Background = =
After writing his 2010 album Airtight 's Revenge with themes intended for male listeners , Bilal wrote A Love Surreal for female listeners with lyrics about love . He described writing the album as a surrealistic exploration of love . He was inspired by the surrealism of Spanish painter Salvador Dalí , after viewing a 2005 Salvador Dalí exhibit at the Philadelphia Museum of Art . He also drew on the shelving of his unreleased album Love for Sale , which inspired A Love Surreal 's title . He elaborated on the inspiration behind the album in an interview for Okayplayer :
Bilal was motivated to sign with eOne by the artistic freedom they had given fellow recording artist Dwele . The album 's title was also inspired by John Coltrane 's 1965 album A Love Supreme .
= = Recording = =
After preparing it on his Logic recording software , Bilal recorded A Love Surreal in five months , which he said was the fastest he had recorded an album . Recording sessions for the album took place at Brooklyn Recording and Breeding Grounds Studio in Brooklyn , New York ; Lalabelle Music and Lamont Caldwell 's Bedroom in Clifton , New Jersey ; Pine Studios in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ; and Prime Rib Productions and The Krusty Lab in Los Angeles , California . He recorded his vocals at a beach @-@ side studio in Los Angeles .
Bilal originally intended to record A Love Surreal as an extended play when he entered the studio , but , according to him , " it was just so easy that the music started to flow ... by the fifth day we were like ' damn , we made a mistake and wrote five extra songs " . He worked with most of the recording crew from Airtight 's Revenge and produced 10 of the album 's 14 songs . Bilal viewed that his role as a producer had progressed from his 2001 debut 1st Born Second to A Love Surreal , which he felt best conveyed his vision for the album 's sound .
Bilal recorded the song " Butterfly " with Robert Glasper , a friend of his since college who had played on each of his albums . Bilal had previously worked with Glasper on the latter 's 2012 album Black Radio . For the song " Back to Love " , Bilal originally programmed the music 's drums on his Logic , but decided to record them live after bringing in other musicians at Pine Studios in Philadelphia . While recording " Astray " , he persuaded his drummer to play in the parking lot and record him live , which he recalled in an interview for The Huffington Post : " I just had this feeling in my head like , ' man , I want this shit to feel big ! ' And when I would park my car in the parking lot , the acoustics in there made you feel like was a Catholic church with all of the sounds echoing off of everything . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album comprises a cycle of slow @-@ burning songs about different stages of love , including infatuation , seduction , romance , estrangement , longing , renewal , and existential peace . Bilal 's intimate lyrics address love 's ephemeral nature and how to sustain happiness . It veers between danceable , upbeat songs about cultivating a new romance and bluesy , meditative songs about how romances dissolve . In contrast to Airtight 's Revenge , A Love Surreal deals more with feelings of lust and flirting rather than personal and societal issues .
The album is also lighter and mellower musically than its predecessor , and deemphasizes electronics in its production . The songs feature subtle melodic hooks , muted drum programming , glimmering keyboards , sparse indie rock guitars , and defined jazz piano . Evan Rytlewski of Paste observes unconventional applications of jazz throughout A Love Surreal , but characterizes it as a neo soul album due to its " heady , post @-@ Dilla hip @-@ hop thump and periodic psychedelic drift " . The songs are interspersed with long instrumental sections during which Bilal croons wordlessly , while doubling and tripling his voice . His singing veers between a soulful baritone and supple falsetto . Bilal 's sense of melody and harmony is informed by past operatic and jazz training , and his reverence for atmospheric psychedelic soul albums .
The album 's opening series of songs have straightforward lyrics . On " Back to Love " , Bilal flatters his date 's shoes and is backed by a bubbling funk groove . The song draws on the music of Prince , while the jazz guitar licks of " Winning Hand " draw on Steely Dan . " Climbing " has a rugged beat and a lyrical allusion to The Notorious B.I.G. ' s 1993 song " Party and Bullshit " . The middle section of the album explores broader emotions and themes of loss and lament . " Slipping Away " is a slow @-@ building meditation on loss , with sentimental music backing the narrator 's plea to a departing love . On the slow burning pop rock song " Lost for Now " , he comes to terms with being alone and leaves town , but finds salvation in " a smile that changes everything " as the song closes with a shimmer of cymbal . The stark ballad " Butterfly " is built around Bilal 's soaring falsetto and Glasper 's rippling piano . Its music explores jazz , and also features dreamy Moog accents . The album closes with lyrics about the promise of tomorrow : " Woke up this morning to the sound of a bluebird singing / Suddenly I knew just where to begin / Something so simple / How can it speak so loud to me ? "
= = Promotion = =
On December 6 , 2012 , Bilal released a free mixtape , The Retrospection , on his Facebook page . " Back to Love " was released as the lead single from A Love Surreal on December 11 , 2012 . On January 8 , 2013 , a music video for the song was released online . Bilal premiered " West Side Girl " through his SoundCloud page on February 5 . He performed the album for the first time at World Cafe Live in Philadelphia on February 13 . A Love Surreal was released by eOne on February 26 , 2013 .
= = Critical reception = =
A Love Surreal received universal acclaim from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 82 , based on 11 reviews . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman gave it four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars and wrote that , although he has improved as a producer and songwriter , Bilal " remains supernaturally skilled and creative " as a vocalist , " swooping , diving , wailing , and sighing , all with complete command . " Phillip Mlynar of Spin said that the album " pleasingly " reveals Bilal 's production and songwriting skills , which he called " savvy " . Paste magazine 's Evan Rytlewski viewed it as his "
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an absolutist state law . Over the next few decades , the Supreme Court rejected attempts to review the sole constitutionality of a preclusion sanction .
= = = Taylor 's trial = = =
On August 6 , 1981 , Ray Taylor was arrested for the murder of Jack Bridges in a fight in Chicago . In advance of the trial , the prosecutor submitted a request for all the defense witnesses in the case . The defense attorney for Taylor provided a list of four individuals , which did not include witnesses Alfred Wormley and Pam Berkhalter . When the defendant tried to introduce these witnesses on the second day of the trial , the trial judge sanctioned the defense for failing to put the witness names on the original list provided to the prosecution . Therefore , it ruled the two unlisted witnesses would not be allowed to testify . The trial judge was specifically frustrated that the witness , Wormley , was known to the defense prior to trial , but was hidden away from the prosecution .
A jury convicted Taylor of the murder charge and the Illinois Appellate Court affirmed . It held that when " discovery rules are violated , the trial judge may exclude the evidence which the violating party wishes to introduce " . The Appellate Court 's ruling further gave the trial judge discretion in the appropriate remedy in such a case – whether to exclude entirely the ' surprise ' witnesses .
Taylor sought a writ of certiorari to the United States Supreme Court to review his case , which was accepted .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Justice John Paul Stevens wrote the opinion , which affirmed the decision of the Illinois Appellate Court , and upheld Taylor 's conviction . He began by addressing the position of the state of Illinois , who argued that there is never a Compulsory Process Clause concern when preclusion of a witness is used as a discovery sanction . The Court had held the converse view , Stevens wrote that " few rights are more fundamental than that of an accused to present witnesses in his own defense " . This strong footing of Sixth Amendment values forced the Court to reject the State 's absolutist argument .
At the same time though , the Court rejected the defendant 's broad claim that there could never be preclusion of a defense witness . Stevens wrote that " [ t ] he Compulsory Process Clause provides [ the defendant ] with an effective weapon , but it is a weapon that cannot be used irresponsibly " . The whole adversarial process would be destroyed , Stevens argued , if either side could simply refuse to follow the basic rules of the Court . There are " countervailing public interests " which weigh against the absolute defense position .
The broader idea embedded in the opinion was the idea that willful misconduct of an attorney lowers the truthfulness of proffered testimony . In the instant case , the Court held that a trial judge could hold the " presumption " that a new witnesses ' testimony is perjured due to " a pattern of discovery violations " . The pattern in Taylor 's case was a series of two amendments to the witness list done in bad faith . " It would demean the high purpose of the [ Clause ] to construe it as encompassing an absolute right to an automatic continuance or mistrial " , Stevens wrote .
As the misconduct of the judge towards the defense counsel did not implicate the Sixth Amendment 's Compulsory Process Clause , there was no need to disrupt the lower courts ' decisions . Further , even though the defendant was harmed by the defense counsel error , Stevens wrote that such an argument could not excuse the counsel 's fault .
Despite the rejection of Taylor 's constitutional position , the Court did create the framework for a balancing test for lower courts to use in handling future discovery preclusion questions . A trial court must balance the defendant 's interest in a robust defense with the ( i ) state 's interest in ' efficient ' justice , ( ii ) state 's interest in excluding evidence lacking integrity , ( iii ) state 's interest in a strong judicial authority with followed rules , and ( iv ) the prosecution interest in avoiding prejudice due to a defendant 's discovery violation .
= = = Brennan 's dissent = = =
Justice Brennan 's dissenting opinion was joined by Justices Marshall and Blackmun . Brennan argued that the " Court 's balancing test creates a conflict of interest in every case involving a discovery violation " such that a better approach would be to hold that the " Compulsory Process Clause per se bars discovery sanctions that exclude criminal defense evidence " .
Brennan quoted at length from Washington v. Texas , a 1967 case which announced broad rights for defendants to present a defense . " The exclusion of criminal defense evidence undermines the central truthseeking aim of our criminal justice system " , Brennan opined , " because it deliberately distorts the record at the risk of misleading the jury into convicting an innocent person " . He went on to argue that simple preclusion of a defense witness was too extreme a penalty for a discovery violation , to the point that it " subverts criminal justice by basing convictions on a partial presentation of the facts " .
= = = Blackmun 's dissent = = =
Justice Blackmun wrote a separate one @-@ paragraph long dissenting opinion . He stressed that " the State 's legitimate interests might well occasion a result different from what should obtain in the factual context of the present case " .
= Rudolf Vrba =
Rudolf " Rudi " Vrba ( 11 September 1924 – 27 March 2006 ) escaped from the Auschwitz concentration camp in German Nazi @-@ occupied Poland on 10 April 1944 , at the height of the Holocaust , and co @-@ wrote a report containing the most detailed information available at the time about the mass murder taking place inside the camp .
Originally from Slovakia , Vrba and fellow escapee Alfréd Wetzler fled Auschwitz three weeks after German forces invaded Hungary and began deporting its Jewish population to the camp . The 60 pages of information the men dictated to Jewish officials when they arrived in Slovakia on 24 April , which included that arrivals were being gassed and not resettled as expected , became known as the Vrba – Wetzler report . While it confirmed material in earlier reports from Polish and other escapees , historian Miroslav Kárný writes that it was unique in its " unflinching detail . "
There was a delay of several weeks before the report was distributed widely enough to gain the attention of governments . Mass transports of Hungary 's Jews to Auschwitz began on 15 May 1944 at a rate of 12 @,@ 000 people a day . Most went straight to the gas chambers . Vrba argued until the end of his life that the deportees would have refused to board the trains had they known they were not being resettled . His position is generally not accepted by Holocaust historians .
Throughout June and into July 1944 , material from the Vrba – Wetzler and earlier reports appeared in newspapers and radio broadcasts in the United States and Europe , particularly in Switzerland , prompting world leaders to appeal to Hungarian regent Miklós Horthy to halt the deportations . On 7 July 1944 he ordered an end to them , possibly fearing he would be held responsible after the war . By then 437 @,@ 000 Jews had been deported , constituting almost the entire Jewish population of the Hungarian countryside , but another 200 @,@ 000 in Budapest were saved .
= = Early life and arrest = =
Vrba was born Walter Rosenberg in Topoľčany , Czechoslovakia . ( He took the name Rudolf Vrba in April 1944 after his escape , and changed his name legally after the war . ) His parents , Elias Rosenberg and Helena Rosenberg ( née Gruenfeldová ) , the latter from Zbehy , Slovakia , owned a steam sawmill in Jaklovce , near Margecany , Slovakia .
Because he was a Jew , Vrba was excluded at age 15 from the gymnasium ( high school ) in Bratislava , and went to work as a labourer . There were restrictions in Slovakia on Jews ' education , housing and travel , and they were required to wear a yellow badge . Available jobs went first to non @-@ Jews .
In 1942 the Slovak authorities announced that Jews were to be sent to " reservations " in Poland , starting with the young men . Then aged 17 , Vrba decided instead to join the Czechoslovak Army in England . At the Hungarian border the guards handed him back to the Slovak authorities , who in turn sent him to the Nováky transition camp , a holding camp for Jews awaiting deportation . He managed to escape briefly , but was caught by a policeman who , Vrba wrote , became suspicious when he saw that Vrba was wearing two pairs of socks .
= = Auschwitz = =
= = = Auschwitz I = = =
Vrba was deported on 15 June 1942 to the Majdanek concentration camp , a Nazi @-@ German camp in Poland , and on 30 June was sent to Auschwitz I , the administrative centre of the Auschwitz camps , where he was housed in Block 4 . He was assigned to work in the Aufräumungskommando in Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau , the extermination camp , which lay two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half miles ( 4 km ) away from the main camp . Property from new inmates was taken to storage facilities Effektenlager I and II there , and repackaged , much of it to be sent to Germany .
The facilities occupied several dozen barracks in the Big sector of Auschwitz II . The prisoners called the barracks Canada I and Canada II , because they contained food , clothes and medicine . It was thanks to this access that Vrba was able to stay healthy .
The work included sorting through the arrivals ' property on the Judenrampe at Auschwitz II , where trains carrying Jews arrived , and removing the dead from the trains . Some new prisoners were selected to work as slave labour , but most went straight to the gas chamber . Vrba worked there from 18 August 1942 until 7 June 1943 . In 1985 he told Claude Lanzmann , for the documentary film Shoah , that he had seen around 200 trains arrive during those 10 months .
= = = Auschwitz II = = =
From 15 January 1943 Vrba was housed in Block 16 of Auschwitz II , where he continued to work in the " Canada " facility , now tattooed as prisoner no . 44070 . He tried to remember the numbers he saw arriving and the place of origin of each transport . Many had brought clothes for different seasons , as well as utensils , suggesting they believed the stories about resettlement . This strengthened Vrba 's conviction that he had to escape .
In June 1943 he was given the job of registrar in the quarantine section at Birkenau sector B II , which allowed him to speak to deportees selected as slave labour . He had his own office with a desk , chair and bunk bed . From the window he could see the lorries driving towards the gas chambers , and estimated that 10 percent of each transport was selected to work and the rest killed . By April 1944 he calculated that 1 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 Jews had been killed , a figure higher than that accepted by historians , but which decades later he insisted was accurate .
= = = Hungarian Jews = = =
On 15 January 1944 a Polish kapo told Vrba , according to the latter 's memoir , that a million Hungarian Jews would soon arrive at Auschwitz , and that a railway line was being built straight to the crematoria . Vrba said he also overheard SS guards discuss how they would soon have Hungarian salami . When Jews from the Netherlands arrived , he wrote , they brought cheese , French Jews halva and Greek Jews olives , and now it was Hungarian salami . Although Vrba is clear that he overheard these conversations , and that warning the Hungarian community was one of the motives for his escape , there is no mention of Hungarian Jews in the Vrba – Wetzler report . The discrepancy has led several historians , including Miroslav Kárný and Randolph L. Braham , to dispute Vrba 's later recollections , though not the report itself .
= = = Escape = = =
In Birkenau Vrba found an acquaintance from Trnava , Alfréd Wetzler ( prisoner no . 29162 ) , who was working in the mortuary . The men hatched an escape plan , and on 7 April 1944 , with the help of two other prisoners , they hid inside a pile of wood stacked between the inner and outer perimeter fences , sprinkling the area with tobacco soaked in gasoline to fool the dogs . According to Kárný , at 20 : 33 that evening SS @-@ Sturmbannführer Fritz Hartjenstein , the Birkenau commander , learned by teleprinter that two Jews were missing .
The men hid for three nights and throughout the fourth day . They knew from escape attempts by others that the guards would keep searching for three days . Wetzler wrote in his memoir that they tied strips of flannel across their mouths and tightened them whenever they felt a tickle in their throats . At 9 pm on 10 April , they crawled out of the wood pile and headed south toward Slovakia 80 miles ( 130 km ) away , walking parallel to the Soła river .
= = Vrba – Wetzler report = =
= = = Writing the report = = =
The men crossed the Polish @-@ Slovakian border on 21 April 1944 . They went to see a local doctor in Čadca , Dr. Pollack , someone Vrba knew from his time in the first transit camp . Pollack had a contact in the Slovak Judenrat ( Jewish Council ) , which was operating an underground group known as the " Working Group , " and arranged for them to send people from their headquarters in Bratislava to meet the men . Pollack was distressed to learn the probable fate of his parents and siblings , who had been deported in 1942 .
Vrba and Wetzler spent the night in Čadca in the home of a relative of the rabbi Leo Baeck , and the next day , 24 April , met the chairman of the Jewish Council , Dr. Oscar Neumann , a German @-@ speaking lawyer . Neumann placed the men in different rooms in a former old people 's home and interviewed them separately over three days . Vrba writes that he began by drawing the inner layout of Auschwitz I and II , and the position of the ramp in relation to the two camps . He described the internal organization of the camps , how Jews were being used as slave labour for Krupp , Siemens , IG Farben and D.A.W. , and the mass murder in gas chambers of those who had been chosen for Sonderbehandlung , or " special treatment . "
The report was written and re @-@ written several times . Wetzler wrote the first part , Vrba the third , and the two wrote the second part together . They then worked on the whole thing together , re @-@ writing it six times . Neumann 's aide , Oscar Krasniansky , an engineer and stenographer who later took the name Oskar Isaiah Karmiel , translated it from Slovak into German with the help of Gisela Steiner . They produced a 40 @-@ page report in German , which was completed by Thursday , 27 April 1944 . Vrba wrote that the report was also translated into Hungarian . The original Slovak version was not preserved .
= = = Content = = =
The report contained a detailed description of the geography and management of the camps , and of how the prisoners lived and died . It listed the transports that had arrived at Auschwitz since 1942 , their place of origin , and the numbers " selected " for work or the gas chambers . Kárný writes that the report provides details known only to prisoners , including , for example , that discharge forms were filled out for prisoners who were gassed , indicating that death rates in the camp were actively falsified .
It also contained sketches and information about the layout of the gas chambers . In a sworn deposition for the trial of SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann in 1961 , and in his book I Cannot Forgive ( 1964 ) , Vrba said that he and Wetzler obtained the information about the gas chambers and crematoria from Sonderkommando Filip Müller and his colleagues who worked there . Müller confirmed this in his Eyewitness Auschwitz ( 1979 ) . Auschwitz scholar Robert Jan van Pelt wrote in 2002 that the description contains errors , but that " given the conditions under which information was obtained , the lack of architectural training of Vrba and Wetzlar [ sic ] , and the situation in which the report was compiled , one would become suspicious if it did not contain errors . ... Given the circumstances , the composite ' crematorium ' reconstructed by two escapees without any architectural training is as good as one could expect . " The report offered the following description :
At present there are four crematoria in operation at BIRKENAU , two large ones , I and II , and two smaller ones , III and IV . Those of type I and II consist of 3 parts , i.e. , : ( A ) the furnace room ; ( B ) the large halls ; and ( C ) the gas chamber . A huge chimney rises from the furnace room around which are grouped nine furnaces , each having four openings . Each opening can take three normal corpses at once and after an hour and a half the bodies are completely burned . This corresponds to a daily capacity of about 2 @,@ 000 bodies . Next to this is a large " reception hall " which is arranged so as to give the impression of the antechamber of a bathing establishment . It holds 2 @,@ 000 people and apparently there is a similar waiting room of the floor below . From there a door and a few steps lead down into the very long and narrow gas chamber . The walls of this chamber are also camouflaged with simulated entries to shower rooms in order to mislead the victims . This roof is fitted with three traps which can be hermetically closed from the outside . A track leads from the gas chamber to the furnace room .
The gassing takes place as follows : the unfortunate victims are brought into hall ( B ) where they are told to undress . To complete the fiction that they are going to bathe , each person receives a towel and a small piece of soap issued by two men clad in white coats . They are then crowded into the gas chamber ( C ) in such numbers there is , of course , only standing room . To compress this crowd into the narrow space , shots are often fired to induce those already at the far end to huddle still closer together .
When everybody is inside , the heavy doors are closed . Then there is a short pause , presumably to allow the room temperature to rise to a certain level , after which SS men with gas masks climb on the roof , open the traps , and shake down a preparation in powder form out of tin cans labeled " CYKLON " " For use against vermin , " which is manufactured by a Hamburg concern . It is presumed that this is a " CYANIDE " mixture of some sort which turns into gas at a certain temperature . After three minutes everyone in the chamber is dead . No one is known to have survived this ordeal , although it was not uncommon to discover signs of life after the primitive measures employed in the Birch Wood . The chamber is then opened , aired , and the " special squad " carts the bodies on flat trucks to the furnace rooms where the burning takes place . Crematoria III and IV work on nearly the same principle , but their capacity is only half as large . Thus the total capacity of the four cremating and gassing plants at BIRKENAU amounts to about 6 @,@ 000 daily .
= = = Distribution = = =
The dates on which the report was passed to certain individuals has become a matter of importance within Holocaust historiography . This is partly because there is a question as to what the Hungarian government knew about the gas chambers before it facilitated the mass deportations , which began on 15 May 1944 , and partly because Vrba alleged that lives were lost because the report was not distributed quickly enough by Jewish leaders , particularly Rudolf Kastner of the Budapest Aid and Rescue Committee .
Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer writes that Oscar Krasniansky of the Jewish Council , who translated the report into German from Slovak as Vrba and Wetzler were writing and dictating it , gave conflicting statements after the war . In the first , he said he had handed the report to Kastner on 26 April 1944 during the latter 's visit to Bratislava , but Bauer writes that the report was not finished until 27 April . In another statement , he said he had given it to Kastner on 28 April in Bratislava , but Hansi Brand , an Aid and Rescue Committee worker who was in a relationship with Kastner , said that Kastner was not in Bratislava until August . Bauer writes that it is nevertheless clear from Kastner 's post @-@ war statements that he had early access to the report , though perhaps not in April as Krasniansky claimed . Randolph L. Braham writes that Kastner had a copy by 3 May when he visited Kolozsvar ( Cluj ) , his home town . Kastner 's reasons for not making the document public are unknown , but Vrba believed until the end of his life that Kastner withheld it in order not to jeopardize negotiations between the Aid and Rescue Committee and Adolf Eichmann , the SS officer in charge of the transport of Jews out of Hungary .
= = = Deportations continue = = =
Arnost Rosin ( prisoner no . 29858 ) and Czesław Mordowicz ( prisoner no . 84216 ) escaped from Auschwitz on 27 May 1944 and arrived in Slovakia on 6 June , the day of the Normandy landings . Hearing about the invasion of Normandy and believing the war was over , they got drunk to celebrate , using dollars they had smuggled out of Auschwitz . They were promptly arrested for violating the currency laws , and spent eight days in prison before the Jewish Council paid their fines .
Rosin and Mordowicz already knew Vrba and Wetzler . Vrba wrote that anyone who survived more than a year in Auschwitz was a senior member of the " old hands Mafia , " and all were known to each other . On 15 June Rosin and Mordowicz were interviewed by Oscar Krasniansky , the engineer who had translated the Vrba – Wetzler report into German . They told him that , between 15 and 27 May 1944 , 100 @,@ 000 Hungarian Jews had arrived at Birkenau , and that most were killed on arrival , apparently with no knowledge of what was about to happen to them . Vrba concluded that the report had been suppressed .
= = = Deportations halted = = =
Braham writes that the report was taken to Switzerland by Florian Manoliu of the Romanian Legation in Bern and given to George Mantello , a Jewish businessman from Transylvania who was working as the first secretary of the El Salvador consulate in Geneva . It was thanks to Mantello that the report received , in the Swiss press , its first wide coverage . According to David Kranzler , Mantello asked for the help of the Swiss @-@ Hungarian Students ' League to make 50 mimeographed copies of the Vrba – Wetzler and two shorter Auschwitz reports ( jointly known as the Auschwitz Protocols , which by 23 June 1944 he had distributed to the Swiss government and Jewish groups . The students made thousands of other copies , which were passed to other students and MPs .
On 19 June Richard Lichtheim of the Jewish Agency in Geneva , who had received a copy of the report from Mantello , wrote to the Jewish Agency in Jerusalem to say that they knew " what has happened and where it has happened , " and reported the Vrba – Wetzler figure that 90 per cent of Jews arriving at Birkenau were being killed . Vrba and Oscar Krasniasnky met Vatican Swiss legate Monsignor Mario Martilotti at the Svätý Jur monastery on 20 June . Martilotti had seen the report and questioned Vrba about it for six hours .
As a result of the coverage in the Swiss press , details began to appear elsewhere , including the New York Times and BBC World Service . Daniel Brigham , the New York Times correspondent in Geneva , published a story on 3 July 1944 , " Inquiry Confirms Nazi Death Camps , " and on 6 July a second , " Two Death Camps Places of Horror ; German Establishments for Mass Killings of Jews Described by Swiss . " Braham writes that several appeals were made to Horthy , including by the Swiss government , President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Gustaf V of Sweden and , on 25 June , Pope Pius XII , possibly after Martilotti passed on the report . On 26 June Richard Lichtheim of the Jewish Agency in Geneva sent a telegram to England calling on the Allies to hold members of the Hungarian government personally responsible for the killings . The cable was intercepted by the Hungarian government and shown to Prime Minister Döme Sztójay , who passed it to Horthy . Horthy ordered an end to the deportations on 7 July and they stopped two days later .
That the Germans were using gas chambers was confirmed on 23 July , when the Majdanek concentration camp near Lublin , Poland , was captured by Soviet soldiers , with its gas chambers intact and 820 @,@ 000 shoes . Auschwitz itself was liberated by the 28th and 106th corps of the 1st Ukrainian Front of the Red Army on 27 January 1945 . Van Pelt writes that the SS learned the lesson of Majdanek and tried to destroy some of the evidence , but the Red Army nevertheless found what was left of four crematoria , as well as 5 @,@ 525 pairs of women 's shoes and 38 @,@ 000 pairs of men 's , 348 @,@ 820 men 's suits , 836 @,@ 225 items of women 's clothing , large numbers of toothbrushes , glasses and dentures , and seven tons of hair .
= = Vrba 's allegations = =
= = = " Blood for goods " proposals = = =
The timing of the report 's distribution remains a source of controversy . For reasons that remain unclear it was not distributed widely until several weeks after Vrba 's escape in April . Between 15 May and 7 July 1944 , 437 @,@ 000 Hungarian Jews ( 12 @,@ 000 a day ) were sent by train to Auschwitz . Vrba believed they would have run or fought had they known they were being sent to their deaths .
He alleged that the report had been withheld deliberately by Rudolf Kastner and the Jewish @-@ Hungarian Aid and Rescue Committee in Budapest in order not to jeopardize complex , and ultimately futile , negotiations with Adolf Eichmann . Eichmann had suggested that the committee arrange an exchange of up to one million Jews for money and trucks from the US or UK , the so @-@ called " blood for goods " proposal . Vrba wrote later that the Jewish communities in Slovakia and Hungary had placed their trust either in secular Zionist leaders such as Kastner , or in Orthodox Jewish leaders . The Nazis were aware of this , Vrba wrote , which is why they lured those members of the community into negotiations , supposedly designed to lead to the release of Jews . He maintained that the Nazis intended only to placate the Jewish leadership to avoid panic , which would have slowed down the transports .
= = = Kastner train = = =
The Aid and Rescue Committee 's first meeting with Eichmann was on 25 April 1944 . On 28 April the first trainload of Hungarian Jews left for Auschwitz , although not as part of the mass transports . At around the same time Kastner is believed to have received a copy of the Vrba – Wetzler report , though possibly in German and not yet translated .
Vrba alleged that Kastner failed to distribute the report in order not to jeopardize the Eichmann deal , but acted on it privately by arranging for a trainload of 1 @,@ 684 Hungarian Jews to escape to Switzerland on the Kastner train , which left Budapest on 30 June . According to John Conway , the escaping party consisted of " themselves , their relatives , a coterie of Zionists , some distinguished Jewish intellectuals , and a number of wealthy Jewish entrepreneurs . " Other scholars dispute this emphasis . Ladislaus Löb writes that the party also included over 200 children under 14 , many of them orphans , and hundreds of ordinary people such as teachers and nurses . Yehuda Bauer argues that Kastner put his own family on the train to show the other passengers that it was safe , and that in any event he could hardly be expected to exclude his family .
The allegations against Kastner became part of a libel case in Jerusalem in 1954 , after Malchiel Gruenwald , an Israeli hotelier , accused him in a self @-@ published pamphlet of being a Nazi collaborator . Because Kastner was by then a senior Israeli civil servant , the Israeli government sued Gruenwald . Although Kastner was later exonerated by the Supreme Court , the lower court ruled against the government , and Kastner was assassinated in March 1957 as a result of the ensuing publicity .
= = = Response = = =
Bauer writes that , by the time the Vrba – Wetzler report was prepared , it was already too late for anything to alter the Nazis ' deportation plans . He cautions about the need to distinguish between the receipt of information and its " internalization " – the point at which information is deemed worthy of action – arguing that this is a complicated process : " During the Holocaust , countless individuals received information and rejected it , suppressed it , or rationalized about it , were thrown into despair without any possibility of acting on it , or seemingly internalized it and then behaved as though it had never reached them . " Bauer argues that Vrba 's " wild attacks on Kastner and on the Slovak underground are ahistorical and simply wrong from the start ... " Vrba , in response , alleged that Bauer was one of the Israeli historians who had downplayed Vrba 's role in Holocaust historiography in order to defend the Israeli establishment .
= = After the report = =
= = = Resistance activities = = =
After he handed his information to the Slovakian Jewish Council in April 1944 , Vrba said Krasniansky had assured him that the report was in the right hands . Vrba and Wetzler spent the next six weeks in Liptovský Mikuláš , and continued to make and distribute copies of their report whenever they could . The Slovak Judenrat gave Vrba papers in the name of Rudolf Vrba , showing that he was a " pure Aryan " going back three generations , and supported him financially to the tune of 200 Slovak crowns a week , equivalent to an average worker 's salary , and as Vrba wrote , " sufficient to sustain me in an illegal life in Bratislava . " On 29 August 1944 the Slovak Army rose up against the Nazis and the reestablishment of Czechoslovakia was announced . Vrba joined the Czechoslovak partisan units in September 1944 , and was later awarded the Czechoslovak Medal of Bravery .
= = = After the war = = =
In the summer of 1944 he met a childhood friend Gerta ; they married ( she took the surname Vrbová , the female version of Vrba ) and had two daughters , though the marriage failed shortly thereafter . The couple moved to Prague in 1945 , where Vrba attended the Prague Technical University . In 1951 he received his doctorate in chemistry and biochemistry ( Dr. Tech . Sc . ) for a thesis entitled " On the metabolism of butyric acid . " This was followed by post @-@ doctoral research at the Czechoslovak Academy of Science , where he received his C.Sc. in 1956 .
In 1958 Vrba received an invitation to an international conference in Israel , and while there he defected . He worked for the next two years at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot . He said later that he could not continue to live in Israel because the same men who had , in his view , betrayed the Jewish community in Hungary were now in positions of power there . He decided in 1960 to move instead to England , and became a British citizen in 1966 . In England he worked for two years in the Neuropsychiatric Research Unit in Carshalton , Surrey , and seven years for the British Medical Research Council .
On 11 May 1960 Eichmann was captured by the Mossad in Buenos Aires and taken to Jerusalem to stand trial . Vrba contacted Alan Bestic of the Daily Herald in the UK , and his story was published in five installments over one week in March 1961 , on the eve of Eichmann 's trial . Vrba submitted a statement in evidence against Eichmann to the Israeli Embassy in London , and with Bestic 's help wrote his memoir , I Cannot Forgive ( 1964 ) , republished as Escape from Auschwitz ( 1964 ) and I Escaped from Auschwitz ( 2002 ) . He also gave evidence at one of the Frankfurt Auschwitz trials in 1964 .
= = = Move to Canada , Zündel trial and death = = =
Vrba moved to Canada in 1967 , where he worked for the Medical Research Council of Canada from 1967 to 1973 . He became a Canadian citizen in 1972 . From 1973 to 1975 he was a research fellow at Harvard Medical School , focusing on cancer research , where he met his second wife , Robin . They returned to Vancouver , where she became a real @-@ estate agent and he an associate professor of pharmacology at the University of British Columbia . He worked there until the early 1990s , publishing over 50 research papers on the chemistry of the brain , diabetes and cancer .
Vrba testified in January 1985 at the seven @-@ week trial in Toronto of Holocaust denier Ernst Zündel , which ended with Zündel 's conviction for knowingly publishing false material about the Holocaust . Vrba acknowledged that several passages in I Cannot Forgive ( 1964 ) were based on secondhand accounts . According to his deposition for Eichmann 's trial in 1961 , he obtained his information about the gas chambers and crematoria from Sonderkommando Filip Müller and others who worked there , something that Müller confirmed in 1979 . Zündel 's lawyer , Doug Christie , accused Vrba of lying about Auschwitz and asked whether he had seen anyone gassed . Vrba replied that he had watched people being taken into the buildings and had seen SS officers throw in gas canisters after them :
Therefore , I concluded it was not a kitchen or a bakery , but it was a gas chamber . It is possible they are still there or that there is a tunnel and they are now in China . Otherwise , they were gassed .
Vrba died of cancer on 27 March 2006 in Vancouver . He was survived by his first wife , Gerta , his second wife , Robin , his daughter , Zuza Vrbová Jackson , and his grandchildren , Hannah and Jan. He was pre @-@ deceased by his elder daughter , Dr. Helena Vrbová . His wife made a gift of his papers to the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library in New York . Vrba 's fellow escapee , Alfréd Wetzler , died in Bratislava , Slovakia , on 8 February 1988 . Wetzler was the author of Escape From Hell : The True Story of the Auschwitz Protocol ( 2007 ) , first published as Čo Dante nevidel ( 1963 ) under the pseudonym Jozef Lánik .
= = Reception = =
= = = Documentaries , books = = =
Several documentaries have told Vrba 's story , including Genocide ( 1973 ) , directed by Michael Darlow for ITV in the UK ; Auschwitz and the Allies ( 1982 ) , directed by Rex Bloomstein and Martin Gilbert for the BBC ; and Shoah ( 1985 ) , directed by Claude Lanzmann . He was featured in Witness to Auschwitz ( 1990 ) , directed by Robin Taylor for the CBC in Canada ; Auschwitz : The Great Escape ( 2007 ) for the UK 's Channel Five ; and Escape From Auschwitz ( 2008 ) for PBS in the United States .
Vrba featured in an essay by George Klein , the Hungarian @-@ Swedish biologist , " The Ultimate Fear of the Traveller Returning from Hell , " in Klein 's Pietà ( 1992 ) , and was the focus of Ruth Linn 's Escaping Auschwitz ( 2004 ) . An academic conference was held in New York in April 2011 to discuss the impact of the Vrba – Wetzler and other Auschwitz reports , resulting in a book , The Auschwitz Reports and the Holocaust in Hungary ( 2011 ) , edited by Randolph L. Braham and William vanden Heuvel and published by Columbia University Press .
= = = Awards = = =
In 1998 , at the instigation of Ruth Linn , the University of Haifa awarded Vrba an honorary doctorate . He received the Order of the White Double Cross , 1st class , from the Slovakian government in 2007 . British historian Martin Gilbert supported an unsuccessful campaign in 1992 to have Vrba awarded the Order of Canada .
The Czech One World festival annually presents the " Rudolf Vrba Award " for original documentaries that draw attention to an unknown theme about human rights . The award was established in Vrba 's name by Mary Robinson , then United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights , and Václav Havel , then President of the Czech Republic .
= = = Discrepancies = = =
Several historians have argued that Vrba embellished his later accounts , though not the Vrba – Wetzler report itself . He wrote in his memoir in 1963 that he had overheard SS officers in Auschwitz discuss how a new area was being constructed and that they would soon have " Hungarian salami ... by the ton , " allegedly a reference to the imminent arrival of Hungarian Jews , but he did not mention this in his report in April 1944 . Although Vrba maintained that warning the Hungarian community was one of the motives for his escape , the report said : " Work is now proceeding on a still larger compound which is to be added later on to the already existing camp . The purpose of this extensive planning is not known to us . " It also stated : " When we left on April 7 , 1944 we heard that large convoys of Greek Jews were expected . "
Miroslav Kárný wrote in 1998 :
It is generally accepted that at the time Vrba and Wetzler were preparing their escape , it was known in Auschwitz that annihilation mechanisms were being perfected in order to kill hundreds of thousands of Hungary 's Jews . It was this knowledge , according to Vrba , that became the main motive for their escape . ... But in fact , there is no mention in the Vrba and Wetzler report that preparations were under way for the annihilation of Hungary 's Jews . ... If Vrba and Wetzler considered it necessary to record rumors about the expected arrival of Greece 's Jewish transports , then why wouldn 't they have recorded a rumor – had they known it – about the expected transports of hundreds of thousands of Hungary 's Jews ?
Kárný argues that , long after the war was over , Vrba wanted to testify about the deportations out of a sense of longing , to force the world to face the magnitude of the Nazis ' crimes . The suspicion is that this led to a degree of embellishment in later accounts . In a later edition of his memoirs , Vrba responded that he is certain the reference to the imminent Hungarian deportations was in the original Slovakian version of the Vrba – Wetzler report , some of which he wrote by hand , but which did not survive . He wrote that he recalled Oscar Krasniansky of the Slovakian Jewish Council , who translated the report into German , arguing that only actual deaths should be recorded , and not speculation , to lend the report maximum credibility . Vrba speculated that this was the reason Krasniansky omitted the references to Hungary from the German translation , which was the version that was copied around the world .
= = = Survivor versus expert discourse = = =
Vrba was criticized in 200
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move as it searches for insects to eat , and in winter it is often found with flocks of tits . It may be killed by birds of prey or carry parasites , but its large range and population mean that it is not considered to present any significant conservation concerns .
= = Description = =
The goldcrest is the smallest European bird , 8 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 7 in ) in length , with a 13 @.@ 5 – 15 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 1 in ) wingspan and a weight of 4 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 0 g ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 25 oz ) . It is similar in appearance to a warbler , with olive @-@ green upper @-@ parts , buff @-@ white underparts , two white wing bars , and a plain face with conspicuous black irises . The crown of the head has black sides and a narrow black front , and a bright crest , yellow with an orange centre in the male , and entirely yellow in the female ; the crest is erected in display , making the distinctive orange stripe of the male much more conspicuous . The small , thin bill is black , and the legs are dark flesh @-@ brown . Apart from the crest colour , the sexes are alike , although in fresh plumage , the female may have very slightly paler upper @-@ parts and greyer underparts than the adult male . The juvenile is similar to the adult , but has duller upper @-@ parts and lacks the coloured crown . Although the tail and flight feathers may be retained into the first winter , by then the young birds are almost indistinguishable from adults in the field . The flight is distinctive ; it consists of whirring wing @-@ beats with occasional sudden changes of direction . Shorter flights while feeding are a mix of dashing and fluttering with frequent hovering . It moves restlessly among foliage , regularly creeping on branches and up and down trunks .
= = = Identification = = =
The goldcrest is usually easily distinguished from other small birds in its range , but poor views could possibly lead to confusion with the common firecrest or yellow @-@ browed warbler . The adult common firecrest has a distinguishing face pattern showing a bright white supercilium ( eyebrow ) and black eye @-@ stripe , and the juvenile usually shows enough of this face pattern to be readily distinguished from the plain @-@ faced goldcrest . The yellow @-@ browed warbler has a yellowish supercilium and pale crown stripe , so also shows a different head pattern . The ruby @-@ crowned kinglet , an American Regulus species and a potential vagrant in Europe , could be more difficult to distinguish . It has a plain face like its Old World cousin , but the male has a red crest without any yellow or a black border . Female and juvenile ruby @-@ crowned kinglets lack the ruby @-@ red crown patch , but compared with the similarly crestless juvenile goldcrest , the American bird is larger in size , has an obvious whitish eyering , and yellowish wing bars .
= = Voice = =
The typical contact call of the goldcrest is a thin , high @-@ pitched zee given at intervals of 1 – 4 seconds , with all the notes at the same pitch . It sometimes has a more clipped ending , or is delivered more rapidly . The call is higher and less rough than that of the firecrest . The song of the male goldcrest is a very high , thin double note cedar , repeated 5 – 7 times and ending in a flourish , cedarcedar @-@ cedar @-@ cedar @-@ cedar @-@ stichi @-@ see @-@ pee . The entire song lasts 3 – 4 seconds and is repeated 5 – 7 times a minute . This song , often uttered while the male is foraging , can be heard in most months of the year . There is also a subdued rambling subsong . Male goldcrests sometimes show a territorial response to recordings of the songs or calls of the common firecrest , but the reverse is apparently not true , since the songs of the common firecrest are simpler in construction than those of its relatives .
The songs of mainland goldcrests vary only slightly across their range and consist of a single song type , but much more divergence has occurred in the isolated Macaronesian populations . Not only are there variations between islands and within an island , but individual males on the Azores can have up to three song types . The dialects on the Azores fall into two main groups , neither of which elicited a response from male European goldcrests in playback experiments . There are also two main dialect groups on the Canary islands , a widespread group similar to the European version , and another that is restricted to the mountains of Tenerife . The song variations have been used to investigate the colonisation pattern of the Macaronesian islands by goldcrests , and identified a previously unknown subspecies .
= = Taxonomy = =
The kinglets are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblers , but frequently given family status , especially as recent research shows that despite superficial similarities , they are phylogenetically remote from the warblers . The names of the family , Regulidae , and its only genus , Regulus , are derived from the Latin regulus , a diminutive of rex , a king . The goldcrest was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Motacilla regulus ( characterised as [ Motacilla ] remigibus secundaras exteriori margine flavis , medio albis ) . It was moved to the warbler genus Sylvia by English naturalist John Latham in 1790 , and to its current genus by French zoologist Georges Cuvier in 1800 .
The relationships of the flamecrest or Taiwan firecrest ( Regulus goodfellowi ) of Taiwan have also been a source of much debate . It is sometimes viewed as a race of firecrest , but its territorial song resembles those of the Himalayan races of goldcrest , and genetic data show that it is the closest relative of that species , and , despite its alternative name , only distantly related to the firecrest . The flamecrest diverged from the goldcrest 3 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 mya ( million years ago ) .
= = = Subspecies = = =
= = = = Continental Eurasia = = = =
Several subspecies of the goldcrest have been described . In continental Eurasia , there are nine generally accepted and very similar subspecies , differing only in details such as plumage shade . At the genetic level , the two Central Asian forms , R. r. sikkimensis and R. r. himalayensis , are very close to each other , and have differentiated only in the recent past , but they diverged from the western subspecies around 2 @.@ 8 mya .
R. r. regulus ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) . Breeds in most of Europe ; this is the nominate subspecies .
R. r. himalayensis ( Bonaparte , 1856 ) . Breeds in the Himalayas ; it is similar to the nominate subspecies , but slightly paler above and with whiter underparts .
R. r. japonensis ( Blakiston , 1862 ) . Breeds in Eastern Asia , including Japan , Korea , China and Siberia ; it is greener and has darker upper @-@ parts than the nominate form , and has broad white wingbars .
R. r. tristis ( Pleske , 1892 ) . Breeds in China and Central Asia , wintering in northeastern Afghanistan . Records of this race from Ladakh claimed by Meinertzhagen are considered to be fraudulent . It is distinctive , with the black edges to the crest largely absent . The crown of the male is yellower than in other forms , and the underparts are much duller and greyer .
R. r. coatsi ( Sushkin , 1904 ) . Breeds in Russia and Central Asia , and is paler above than the nominate subspecies .
R. r. yunnanensis ( Rippon , 1906 ) . Breeds in the Eastern Himalayas , Burma and China ; it is like R. r. sikkimensis , but darker overall with dark green upper @-@ parts and darker buff underparts .
R. r. hyrcanus ( Zarudny , 1910 ) . Breeds only in Iran ; it is like R. r. buturlini , but slightly darker .
R. r. buturlini ( Loudon , 1911 ) . Breeds in Eastern Europe , the Caucasus and Central Asia . It is paler above than the nominate subspecies , and greyish @-@ green rather than olive .
R. r. sikkimensis ( Meinertzhagen R. & Meinertzhagen A. , 1926 ) . Breeds in India and China . It is darker than R. r. himalayensis , and greener than the nominate subspecies .
= = = = The Atlantic islands = = = =
Two groups of goldcrest taxa are found on the Atlantic islands of Macaronesia . Birds on the Canary Islands are ancient colonists , whereas those on The Azores are of more recent origin . There are no goldcrests on Madeira , where the Madeira firecrest is the only Regulus species .
The Canary Islands were colonised in two waves . The first step was the occupation of Tenerife and La Gomera 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 3 million years ago , followed by a separate invasion of El Hierro and La Palma 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 8 mya .
Birds from the Canary Islands are particularly distinctive having a black forehead , pink @-@ buff underparts and a darker closed wing , and have been sometimes treated either as a subspecies of the common firecrest or as a different Regulus species altogether . They were sometimes called the Tenerife goldcrest , no matter which of the islands they lived on ; however , a 2006 study of the vocalisations of these birds indicate that they actually comprise two subspecies of the goldcrest that are separable on voice ; R. r. teneriffae occurring on Tenerife and the newly described subspecies , R. r. ellenthalerae , the western Canary Islands goldcrest , occurring on the smaller islands of La Palma and El Hierro .
Tenerife goldcrest R. r. teneriffae ( Seebohm , 1883 ) . Found only on Tenerife , Canary Islands ; it is a distinctive , small subspecies with a black forehead and pink @-@ buff underparts .
Western Canary Islands goldcrest R. r. ellenthalerae ( Päckert et al , 2006 ) . Resident on La Palma and El Hierro , Canary Islands .
Differences in songs , genetics and morphology suggests that the Azores were colonised in a single invasion in the late Pleistocene , about 100 @,@ 000 years ago . It is likely that the initial colonisation was of the easternmost islands , with a subsequent spread to the central and western island groups from the western caldera of São Miguel , where both eastern and western song types are found .
Sao Miguel Goldcrest R. r. azoricus ( Seebohm , 1883 ) . Found only on São Miguel , Azores ; it is like R. r. inermis , except the underparts are more olive @-@ buff .
Western Azores goldcrest R. r. inermis ( Murphy & Chapin , 1929 ) . Resident on Flores , Faial , Terceira , São Jorge and Pico , Azores ; its upper @-@ parts are a darker olive @-@ green than those of the nominate form , and the underparts are also darker .
Santa Maria goldcrest R. r. sanctaemariae ( Vaurie , 1954 ) . Found only on Santa Maria Island ( Azores ) ; it is paler than other Azores subspecies and whitish below .
= = = Fossils = = =
There are a few Pleistocene ( 2 @.@ 6 million to 12 @,@ 000 years BP ) records from Europe of extant Regulus species , mostly goldcrests or unidentifiable to species . The only fossil of an extinct Regulus is a left ulna from 2 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 95 mya in Bulgaria , which was identified as belonging to an extinct species , Regulus bulgaricus . The goldcrest lineage diverged from this apparent ancestor of the common firecrest in the Middle Pleistocene .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The goldcrest breeds in mature lowland and mountain coniferous woodlands , mainly up to 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) , and occasionally to 4 @,@ 800 m ( 15 @,@ 700 ft ) . It uses spruce , larch , Scots pine , silver fir and mountain pine , and in man @-@ made landscapes also introduced conifers such as douglas fir . Breeding densities of up to 591 pairs per square km ( 1 @,@ 530 pairs per square mile ) have been recorded in Norway spruce in Ireland , and goldcrests constituted over 60 % of all birds found in Welsh Douglas fir and Norway spruce plantations . Broad @-@ leaved woods are used , only when some spruce or firs are also present . Sites such as parks and cemeteries are used only when they offer suitable conifers that are not otherwise locally available . The height and nature of any undergrowth is irrelevant . Unlike more specialised birds such as the Eurasian nuthatch and the Eurasian treecreeper , both of which forage on tree trunks , the kinglets do not need large woodlands , and their population density is independent of forest size . Once breeding is over , this species will readily move into deciduous trees and shrubs , heathland and similar more open habitats .
The Tenerife subspecies occurs in the mountain region previously occupied by laurisilva , but now dominated by tree heaths . It is common only in that habitat , becoming rare in pine forest , where it occurs only where tree @-@ heath is also available .
The goldcrest has a huge range in Eurasia , breeding from Macaronesia to Japan . It is common in middle and northern temperate and boreal latitudes of Europe , between the 13 – 24 ° C ( 55 – 75 ° F ) July isotherms , and thus predominantly in cooler climates than the firecrest . Further east it occurs discontinuously through southern Siberia to Sakhalin and Japan , in the Tian Shan mountains , northern Iran , and from the Himalayas east to central China .
This species has bred in Iceland since about 1999 , and was widespread by 2004 , although numbers are affected by hard winters . Breeds occurs intermittently in the Faroes . The goldcrest has occurred as a vagrant in Jordan and Morocco .
This species is partly migratory , northernmost populations deserting their breeding areas in winter . Birds winter in Europe and Asia south of the breeding range . Birds in northern Fennoscandia and Russia vacate their territories between late August and early November , with most leaving in late September to mid @-@ October as the first cold weather arrives . Adverse conditions may lead to disorientation , large numbers gathering on ships on overcast or wet nights . Large influxes include 15 @,@ 000 birds on the Isle of May in October 1982 , and nearly 21 @,@ 000 birds through a single site in Latvia during September and October 1983 . Spring migration is complete by late March on the Mediterranean islands , but continues to late April or early May in northern Europe . The spring passage is much lighter than in autumn , suggesting high mortality on migration .
A study in the Baltic region showed that northern goldcrests were more likely to migrate , and increased their body mass beforehand ; non @-@ migratory southern birds did not increase their fat reserves . The travel speed of migrating goldcrests increased for those leaving later in the autumn , and was greater for the northernmost populations . Migration was faster on routes that crossed the Baltic Sea than on coastal routes , and the birds with the largest fat reserves travelled at the highest speeds . The ability to lay down fat is adversely affected in this tiny bird by poor health . In Hungary , goldcrests stopping temporarily on migration were mostly found in scrub , including blackthorn , hawthorn and pear , which provided some protection from sparrowhawks . Females migrated slightly earlier than males , but overall there were more males , with an average sex ratio of 1 @.@ 6 : 1 . Goldcrests can fly 250 – 800 km ( 160 – 500 mi ) in one day , although they keep at a lower level in heavy headwinds . This is a tame and inquisitive bird , and tired migrants will land near or on humans , sometimes searching for food on their clothing .
The North Atlantic oscillation is an atmospheric phenomenon affecting the weather in Western Europe . When the atmospheric pressure variations in the North Atlantic are large , the springs in Europe are warmer . This brings forward the northward migration of those bird species ( including the goldcrest ) that winter mainly within western or southern Europe . A general climatic change resulting in more frequent positive North Atlantic oscillation events has led to earlier spring migration of these short @-@ distance migrants since the 1980s . The warmer spring weather brings on plant growth , thus preparing the habitat for returning migrants . The effect is greatest in western and central Europe .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The goldcrest is monogamous . The male sings during the breeding season , usually while foraging rather than from a perch . It has a display involving bowing its head towards another bird and raising the coloured crest . Firecrests will sometimes defend their territories against goldcrests , but the amount of actual competition between the species may not be very great . A Spanish study suggested that territorial conflicts between species , and other phenomena like males singing mixed or alternating songs , were most frequent when one species locally far outnumbered the other ; in other circumstances , the two species learned to ignore each other 's songs . However , in very small areas of conifers it is rare for the goldcrest and the firecrest to share territories ; either one or the other is present , but not both . A male goldcrest will defend his territory against either species , sometimes including some firecrest phrases in his song .
The goldcrest 's nest is a well @-@ insulated cup @-@ shaped structure built in three layers . The nest 's outer layer is made from moss , small twigs , cobwebs and lichen , the cobwebs also being used to attach the nest to the thin branches that support it . The middle layer is moss , which is lined by an inner layer of feathers and hair . The nest is larger , shallower and less compact than that of the firecrest , with an internal diameter of about 9 @.@ 0 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) , and is constructed by both sexes , although the female does most of the work . It is often suspended from a hanging branch , usually at no great height , although Eric Simms reported nests at heights from 1 @.@ 0 – 22 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 72 @.@ 2 ft ) . One pair built their nest just 1 @.@ 0 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) above that of a sparrowhawk .
Laying starts at the end of April into early May . The eggs are whitish with very indistinct buff , grey or brown markings at the broad end . The eggs are 14 mm × 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 in × 0 @.@ 39 in ) and weigh 0 @.@ 8 g ( 0 @.@ 028 oz ) , of which 5 % is shell . The clutch size in Europe is typically 9 – 11 eggs , but ranges from 6 – 13 . The eggs are piled up in the nest and the female keeps the eggs warm with her brood patch and also by putting her warm legs into the middle of the pile between the eggs . Within a clutch the size of eggs increases gradually and the last laid egg may be 20 % larger than the first egg . Second clutches , which are common , are laid usually while the first nest still has young . The male builds the second nest , then feeds the young in the first nest while the female is incubating in the second ; when the first brood has fledged , he joins the female in feeding the second brood . The female goldcrest is not normally fed by her mate while incubating . She is a tight sitter , reluctant to leave the nest when disturbed , and has been recorded as continuing to attend the nest when it has been moved , or even when it is being held . The eggs are maintained at 36 @.@ 5 ° C ( 97 @.@ 7 ° F ) , the female regulating the temperature of the eggs by varying the time spent sitting . She leaves the nest more with increasing air temperature , and incubates more tightly when the light intensity is lower early and late in the day . The female incubates the eggs for 16 to 19 days to hatching , and broods the chicks , which fledge in a further 17 to 22 days later . Both parents feed the chicks and fledged young , and in very hot weather , the female has been noted as taking drops of water to her chicks in her bill . This species becomes sexually mature after one year , and has an annual adult mortality of over 80 percent giving a life expectancy of around eight months , which is the shortest for any bird apart from a few Coturnix species . There are nonetheless records of an individual surviving to 4 years 10 months , and even a report of a bird ringed in Winchester in 1989 and found dead in Morocco 7 years 7 months later .
Although their ranges overlap substantially , hybridisation between goldcrests and firecrests seems to be prevented by differences in courtship rituals and different facial patterns . Even in aviary studies in which a female goldcrest was given an artificial eyestripe to facilitate mating with a male firecrest , the chicks were never raised by the mixed pair , and appeared to be poorly adapted compared to the parent species .
= = = Feeding = = =
All Regulus species are almost exclusively insectivorous , preying on small arthropods with soft cuticles , such as springtails , aphids and spiders . They also feed on the cocoons and eggs of spiders and insects , and occasionally take pollen . All species will catch flying insects while hovering . Although the similarly sized goldcrest and firecrest are often found together , there are a number of factors that minimise direct competition for food . Goldcrests prefer smaller prey than common firecrests . Although both will take trapped insects from spider webs on autumn migration , firecrests will also eat the large orb @-@ web spiders ( on rare occasions kinglets have been found stuck in a spider web , either unable to move or dead ) .
The goldcrest takes a wide variety of prey , especially spiders , caterpillars , bugs , springtails and flies . Larger prey such as oak bush crickets and tortrix moths may sometimes be taken . Flying insects are taken in hovering flight but not normally pursued ; there is a record of a goldcrest attacking a large dragonfly in flight , only to be dragged along by the insect before releasing it unharmed . Goldcrests will occasionally feed on the ground among leaf @-@ litter with tits . Non @-@ animal food is rare , although goldcrests have been seen drinking sap from broken birch twigs together with tits and nuthatches .
The goldcrest feeds in trees , frequently foraging on the undersides of branches and leaves . This is in contrast to the common firecrest , which mainly exploits the upper surface of branches in coniferous habitat and of leaves in deciduous trees . In winter , flocks of goldcrests cover a given distance at only one @-@ third of the speed of common firecrests , taking the smallest prey items ignored by their relative . The differences in behaviour are facilitated by subtle morphological differences ; firecrests have broader bills with longer rictal bristles ( which protect a bird 's eye from food items it is trying to capture ) , and these features reflect the larger prey taken by the species . The firecrest 's less forked tail may reflect its longer episodes of hovering while hunting . Firecrests forage more often while on foot , and have a foot better adapted for perching , whereas the goldcrest 's longer hind toe reflects its habit of moving vertically along branches while feeding . It also has deep furrows in the soles of its feet capable of gripping individual needles , while firecrests have a smoother surface . The goldcrest has much the same range and habitat preference as the common chiffchaff , and there is some evidence that high breeding densities of the kinglet depress the population of the warbler , although the converse is not true . There is no evidence that the species compete for territories , and in any case the chiffchaff is 50 % heavier than the goldcrest . Nevertheless , there are 1 @.@ 5 million breeding pairs of goldcrests in Finland , compared with 0 @.@ 4 million breeding pairs of chiffchaffs , and only the kinglet has increased in numbers as the area of spruce woodland in the country has expanded . The goldcrest may be out @-@ competing the warbler for food , especially as the larger bird faces more competition from other insectivores , including other Phylloscopus warblers . Both birds occur in similar forests , but the chiffchaff is found within 100 m ( 330 ft ) of the forest edge , with the goldcrest breeding deeper in the woodland . Nevertheless , there is no conclusive evidence that the decline of the chiffchaff subspecies Phylloscopus collybita abietinus in parts of Finland is due to competition with the willow warbler and goldcrest .
Outside the breeding season , small groups of goldcrests maintain exclusive winter feeding territories , which they defend against neighbouring groups . As they roam around their territory , they frequently join loose flocks of other wanderers such as tits and warblers . This kinglet , like other species that prefer mixed @-@ species foraging flocks in winter , hunts over a greater range of heights and vegetation types than when feeding alone . For species that tend to feed in flocks , foraging success while in a flock was about twice that for solitary birds . A consequence of feeding in a flock is that foraging sites may be restricted to avoid competition with other species . In a Swedish study , coal tits and goldcrests foraged in the outer foliage , while the larger willow and European crested tits used the inner canopy . In sites where the numbers of willow and crested tits was artificially reduced , goldcrests and coal tits extended their foraging to include the inner canopy , but did not do so where the larger tits were retained . In some areas , wintering birds have developed the habit of coming to feeding stations and bird tables to take fat , sometimes with warblers such as the common chiffchaff and blackcap .
= = = Winter survival = = =
Several small passerine species survive freezing winter nights by inducing a lower metabolic rate and hypothermia , of a maximum of 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) below normal body temperature , in order to reduce energy consumption overnight . However , in freezing conditions , it may be that for very small birds , including the tiny goldcrest , the energy economies of induced hypothermia may be insufficient to counterbalance the negative effects of hypothermia including the energy required to raise body temperature back to normal at dawn . Observations of five well @-@ fed birds suggest that they maintain normal body temperatures during cold nights by metabolising fat laid down during the day , and that they actually use behavioural thermoregulation strategies , such as collective roosting in dense foliage or snow holes to survive winter nights . Two birds roosting together reduce their heat loss by a quarter , and three birds by a third . During an 18 ‑ hour winter night , with temperatures as low as − 25 ° C ( − 13 ° F ) in the north of its range , goldcrests huddled together can each burn off fat equivalent to 20 % of body weight to keep warm .
Migrating birds rely largely on stored fat and they also metabolise protein as a supplementary source of energy . Those with a relatively large amount of fat , may make stops during migration of only 1 – 2 days ; although they have lost weight since commencing their journey , they have enough energy reserves to reach the wintering areas . The proportion of migrating males increases as they travel south through Europe . There is competition within the species even during migration , and the larger and more aggressive males may get more food . Their death rate is therefore lower than that of the females both on the southward migration , and in resident populations .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Throughout the goldcrest 's range , the main predator of small woodland birds is the Eurasian sparrowhawk , which has a diet consisting of up to 98 % of birds . Merlins , tawny and long @-@ eared owls also hunt goldcrests . The erratic movements and flights of small woodland birds , which are vulnerable to attack while away from cover , may help to confuse their predators . The goldcrest has only very rarely been recorded as a host of the common cuckoo , a widespread European brood parasite .
The goldcrest is a host of the widespread moorhen flea , Dasypsyllus gallinulae , and of the louse Philopterus reguli . The amblycerous mite Ricinus frenatus has been found on the eastern goldcrest subspecies , R. r. japonensis in Japan , and at the other end of the range in birds of the nominate subspecies on the Faroes and in Spain . These lice move over the host 's body , and have strong mouthparts that pierce the host 's skin so that they can feed on blood , and sometimes feather material . A number of feather mites have been recorded in the genus Regulus ; these mites live on fungi growing on the feathers . The fungi found on the plumage may feed on the keratin of the outer feathers or on feather oil .
= = Status = =
The goldcrest has a large range , estimated at 13 @.@ 2 million km2 ( 5 @.@ 1 million mi2 ) and a total population estimated at 80 – 200 million individuals , and it is therefore classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List . There was some northward range expansion in Scotland , Belgium , Norway , and Finland during the 20th century , assisted by the spread of conifer plantations . The population is currently stable , although there may be temporary marked declines in harsh winters .
Although dense conifer growth can provide shelter for roosting at night , losses in hard winters can be heavy . In a Finnish study , only one @-@ tenth of the wintering goldcrest population , which mainly fed on spiders , survived to spring . Each group roamed within a defined winter territory , and their winter survival depended on the density of the food supply . For these northern birds there is a trade off between staying put and risking starvation , or facing the perils of migration . Even in somewhat milder regions , where over @-@ wintering is normal , exceptionally cold winters can cause such heavy losses that breeding populations take several years to recover . In 1930 , the English ornithologist Thomas Coward wrote :
Until the severe winter of 1916 – 17 the Goldcrest was abundant and widespread , nesting in all the wooded portions of our islands ; in 1920 it could have little more than an obituary notice , for the nesting stock was practically " wiped out . " ... and for some years , even as a winter visitor , the Goldcrest remained rare , absent from most of its nesting haunts . It is , however , now fully re @-@ established .
Conversely , populations can expand rapidly after a series of mild winters . In lowland Britain , there was an increase of 48 % following the 1970 / 71 winter , with many pairs spreading into deciduous woodlands where they would not normally breed .
= = In culture = =
Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ) and Pliny ( 23 – 79 AD ) both wrote about the legend of a contest among the birds to see who should be their king , the title to be awarded to the one that could fly highest . Initially , it looked as though the eagle would win easily , but as he began to tire , a small bird that had hidden under the eagle 's tail feathers emerged to fly even higher and claimed the title . Following from this legend , in much European folklore the wren has been described as the " king of the birds " or as a flame bearer . However , these terms were also applied to the Regulus species , the fiery crowns of the goldcrest and firecrest making them more likely to be the original bearers of these titles , and , because of the legend 's reference to the " smallest of birds " becoming king , the title was probably transferred to the equally tiny wren . The confusion was probably compounded by the similarity and consequent interchangeability of the Greek words for the wren ( βασιλεύς basileus , " king " ) and the crests ( βασιλισκος basiliskos , " kinglet " ) . In English , the association between the goldcrest and Eurasian wren may have been reinforced by the kinglet 's old name of " gold @-@ crested wren " .
This tiny woodland bird has had little other impact on literature , although it is the subject of Charles Tennyson Turner 's short poem , " The Gold @-@ crested Wren " , first published in 1868 . An old English name for the goldcrest is the " woodcock pilot " , since migrating birds preceded the arrival of Eurasian woodcocks by a couple of days . There are unfounded legends that the goldcrest would hitch a ride in the feathers of the larger bird , and similar stories claimed that owls provided the transport . Suffolk fishermen called this bird " herring spink " or " tot o 'er seas " because migrating goldcrests often landed on the rigging of herring boats out in the North Sea .
= Passing ( novel ) =
Passing is a novel by American author Nella Larsen , first published in 1929 . Set primarily in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City in the 1920s , the story centers on the reunion of two childhood friends — Clare Kendry and Irene Redfield — and their increasing fascination with each other 's lives . The title and central theme of the novel refer to the practice of racial " passing ; " Clare Kendry 's passing as white with her white husband , John ( Jack ) Bellew , is its most significant depiction in the novel , and a catalyst for the tragic events .
Larsen 's exploration of race was informed by her own mixed racial heritage and the increasingly common practice of racial passing in the 1920s . Praised upon publication , the novel has since been celebrated in modern scholarship for its complex depiction of race , gender and sexuality . As one of only two novels by Larsen , Passing has been significant to her ranked at the forefront of several literary canons and has been the subject of considerable scholarly criticism .
= = Background = =
= = = Biographical context = = =
As early as 1925 , Nella Larsen had decided that she wanted to be among the " New Negro " writers who were receiving considerable attention at the time . Initially writing short stories that were sold early in 1926 to a ladies magazine , she was rumored that year to be writing a novel . In a letter to her friend Carl Van Vechten , she acknowledges that " it is the awful Truth . But , who knows if I 'll get through with the damned thing . Certainly not I. " In April 1927 , Larsen and her husband Elmer Imes moved from Jersey City , New Jersey to Harlem in order to be closer to this cultural phenomenon . The following year , Larsen published her first novel Quicksand with New York @-@ based publisher Knopf , and its favorable critical reception encouraged her ambitions to become known as a novelist . She published only these two novels ( including Passing ) and some short stories .
= = = Historical context = = =
The 1920s in the United States was a period marked by considerable anxiety and discussion over the crossing of racial boundaries — the so @-@ called " color line " between blacks and whites — exacerbated by the Great Migration , in which hundreds of thousands of blacks left the rural south for northern and midwestern cities where , together with new waves of immigrants , they changed the social makeup . The practice of persons crossing the color line and attempting to claim recognition in another racial group different from the one they were believed to belong to was known as " passing , " even when it was based on a person 's ancestry . As many African Americans had European ancestry in varying proportions , some appeared visibly European . The US history of slavery as a racial caste , together with the imposition of the " one @-@ drop rule " in the early 20th century , were used by whites to try to harden racial lines that were more fluid in history ; at any time , the concept of race was " historically contingent . " Although the exact numbers of people who passed is , for obvious reasons , not known , many estimates were made at the time ; the sociologist Charles S. Johnson ( 1893 – 1956 ) calculated that 355 @,@ 000 blacks had passed between 1900 and 1920 .
A significant precedent for Larsen 's depiction of Clare Kendry 's and Jack Bellew 's relationship was the 1925 legal trial known as the " Rhinelander Case " ( or Rhinelander v. Rhinelander ) . Wealthy , white Leonard Kip Rhinelander sued his wife , Alice Beatrice Jones , for annulment and fraud ; urged by his family , he alleged that she had failed to inform him of her " colored " blood . The case was also about status and class , as he had met her when she was working as a domestic . She contended that her mixed race was obvious and she had never denied it . Although the jury eventually returned a verdict for Alice , it came at a devastating social cost for both parties ; intimate exchanges between the couple were read out in court , and Alice Rhinelander was forced to partially disrobe in front of the jury in the judge 's chambers in order for them to assess the darkness of her skin . Larsen refers to this case near the end of the novel , when Irene wonders about the consequences of Jack discovering Clare 's racial status : “ What if Bellew should divorce Clare ? Could he ? There was the Rhinelander case ” . The case received substantial coverage in the press of the time , and Larsen could assume that it was common knowledge to her readers .
= = Plot summary = =
The story is written as a third person narrative from the perspective of Irene Redfield , a light @-@ skinned black woman who lives in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City . Part One of the book , titled " Encounter , " opens with Irene receiving a letter from Clare Kendry , causing her to recall a past chance encounter she had with her at the roof restaurant of the Drayton Hotel in Chicago , during a brief stay in the city . The women grew up together but lost touch when Clare 's white father died and she was taken to live with her two paternal white aunts . Irene learns that Clare " passes " for white , living primarily in Europe with her unsuspecting , rich , white husband and their daughter . Although Irene tries to avoid further engagement with Clare , she later visits Clare for tea along with another childhood friend , Gertrude Martin . Toward the end of the visit , Clare 's husband John ( Jack ) Bellew arrives . Unaware that all three women are black , Jack expresses some very racist views and makes the women uneasy . However , the women play it off in an effort to maintain Clare 's secret identity . Afterward , Irene and Gertrude decide that Clare 's situation is too dangerous for them to continue associating with her . Irene receives a letter of apology from Clare but destroys it and goes on with her life with her husband , Brian , and two sons .
Part Two of the book , " Re @-@ encounter , " returns to the present , with Irene having received this new letter from Clare . After Irene ignores Clare 's letter , Clare visits in person so Irene reluctantly agrees to see her . When it is brought up that Irene serves on the committee for the " Negro Welfare League " ( NWL ) Clare invites herself to their upcoming dance , despite Irene 's advising against it for fear that Jack will find out . Clare attends the dance and enjoys herself without her husband finding out , which encourages her to continue spending time in Harlem . Irene and Clare resume their childhood companionship , and Clare frequently visits Irene 's home .
The third and final part of the novel begins before Christmas , as Irene 's relationship with her husband has become increasingly fraught . Aware of her friend 's appeal , Irene becomes convinced that her husband is having an affair with Clare . During a shopping trip with her visibly black friend Felise Freeland , Irene encounters Jack , who becomes aware of her — and by extension , Clare 's — racial status . Irene considers warning Clare about Jack 's new @-@ found knowledge but decides against it , worried that the pair 's divorce might encourage her husband to leave her for Clare . Later , Clare accompanies Irene and Brian to a party hosted by Felise . The gathering is interrupted by Jack , who accuses Clare of being a " damned dirty nigger ! " Irene rushes to Clare , who is standing by an open window . Suddenly , Clare falls out of the window from the top floor of the building to the ground below , where she is pronounced dead by the guests who eventually gather at the site . Whether she has fallen accidentally , was pushed by Irene or Bellew , or committed suicide , is unclear . The book ends with Irene 's fragmented anguish at Clare 's death .
= = Themes = =
= = = Race and the " Tragic Mulatto " = = =
Passing has been described as " the tragic story of a beautiful light @-@ skinned mulatto passing for white in high society . " The tragic mulatto ( also " mulatta " when referring to a woman ) is a stock character in early African @-@ American literature . Such accounts often featured the light @-@ skinned offspring of a white slaveholder and his black slave , whose mixed heritage in a race @-@ based society means she is unable to identify or find a place with either blacks or whites . The resulting feeling of exclusion was portrayed as variably manifested in self @-@ loathing , depression , alcoholism , sexual perversion , and attempts at suicide .
On the surface , Passing conforms to this stereotype in its portrayal of Clare Kendry , whose passing for white has tragic consequences ; however , the book resists the conventions of the genre , as Clare refuses to feel the expected anguish at the betrayal of her black identity and socializes with blacks for the purposes of excitement rather than racial solidarity . Scholars have more generally considered Passing as a novel in which the major concern is not race . For instance , Claudia Tate describes the issue as " merely a mechanism for setting the story in motion , sustaining the suspense , and bringing about the external circumstances for the story 's conclusion . "
= = = Homosexuality = = =
Scholars have identified a homoerotic subtext between Irene and Clare , centered on the erotic undertones in Irene 's descriptions of Clare and appreciation of her beauty . In this interpretation , the novel 's central metaphor of " passing " under a different identity " occurs at a surprisingly wide variety of levels , " including sexual . The apparently sexless marriage between Brian and Irene — e.g. , their separate bedrooms and identification as co @-@ parents rather than sexual partners — allows Larsen to " flirt , if only by suggestion , with the idea of a lesbian relationship between [ Clare and Irene ] " . With Irene considered " an unreliable narrator " , she is portrayed as mistaken about events and her interpretations of them . The character of her husband Brian has been subject to a similar interpretation : Irene 's labeling of him as queer and his oft @-@ expressed desire to go to Brazil — a country then widely thought to be more tolerant of homosexuality than the United States — are given as evidence . It is also shown that Brazil is considered to be a place with more relaxed ideas about race .
= = = Identity = = =
The 1920s witnessed violent attempts to establish and regulate social and racial boundaries , and there was a great deal of national discourse on the so @-@ called " color line " . Larsen , however , challenged the traditional ideologies of identity politics at the time ; her " nuanced handling of Clare 's passing and Irene 's ' allegiance ' demonstrates that ideologies which conceptualize race as an ethics , whether originating in black pride or white racism , vary enormously , depending in large part , upon whether they attempt an answer to ... ' what race is . ' " Rather than reflect that rigid views of race that were prevalent and resulting
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November . He entered the match with Jamaica already 2 – 0 down , replacing Darren Mattocks after 62 minutes , but was unable to affect the score . Donaldson started against Haiti , and scored the only goal of the match after 62 minutes with a header from a corner .
= = Personal life = =
His brother , Jahsiah Donaldson , signed schoolboy forms with Leeds United in July 2008 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 7 May 2016
= = = International = = =
As of match played 13 June 2016
= = = International goals = = =
As of match played 13 June 2016 . Jamaica score listed first , score column indicates score after each Donaldson goal .
= = Honours = =
Brentford
League One runner @-@ up : 2013 – 14
Individual
York City Clubman of the Year : 2005 – 06
Brentford Player of the Year : 2012 – 13
= 1000 Forms of Fear =
1000 Forms of Fear is the sixth studio album by Australian singer Sia . It was released on 4 July 2014 by Monkey Puzzle and RCA Records worldwide , and Inertia Records in Australia . Primarily an electropop album , the record also incorporates influences from reggae and hip hop . Lyrically , the record showcases Sia struggling to deal with drug addiction and bipolar disorder .
1000 Forms of Fear received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who praised Furler 's vocals as well as the album 's lyrical content . The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 52 @,@ 000 copies . As of October 26 , 2015 , it has been certified Gold by the RIAA denotining sales of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The release also charted atop the charts of Australia and Canada , and reached the top five charts of Denmark , New Zealand , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom .
The album spawned four singles . Its lead single , " Chandelier " , released in March 2014 , became a worldwide top @-@ 10 single ; it also peaked at number eight on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the first song by Furler to enter the chart as a lead artist . " Big Girls Cry " was released in June 2014 . Furler 's solo version of " Elastic Heart " , which was originally a collaboration with The Weeknd and Diplo , was released in January 2015 . " Fire Meet Gasoline " was released as the fourth and final single in Germany on June 19 , 2015 . The official music video for Chandelier has been viewed on YouTube more than 1 @.@ 2 billion times , and video for " Elastic Heart " has been viewed more than 600 million times .
To promote the project , Furler appeared on a number of TV shows , including The Ellen DeGeneres Show and Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , where she recruited Maddie Ziegler , who starred in three music videos from the album , as her persona onstage , during 2014 and 2015 . 1000 Forms of Fear earned Furler three ARIA Music Awards in 2014 and was listed as one of the best albums of 2014 by several publications , including The Boston Globe and Rolling Stone . The lead single " Chandelier " received four Grammy nominations for Song of the Year , Record of the Year , Best Pop Solo Performance , and Best Music Video .
= = Background = =
In 2010 , Furler released her fifth studio album , We Are Born , which peaked at number two on the ARIA Albums Chart and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association . Following the release of We Are Born , Furler decided to retire from the career as a recording artist and established a career as a songwriter . She wrote the song " Titanium " for American singer Alicia Keys , but it was later sent to David Guetta , who included Sia 's original demo vocals on the song and released it as a single in 2011 . " Titanium " was a commercial success worldwide , peaking within the top five of record charts in the United States , Australia and numerous European regions . However , Furler was not pleased with the success of the single : " [ ... ] I never even knew it was gonna happen , and I was really upset . Because I had just retired , I was trying to be a pop songwriter , not an artist . " From 2011 to 2013 , Furler became well known for writing songs for Beyoncé , Flo Rida , Christina Aguilera , and Rihanna .
By September 2013 , Furler was recording vocal tracks at her home studio with the hope of releasing a new album the following spring . Later that year , a team of RCA Records representatives including the label 's CEO Peter Edge met with Furler to discuss a record deal . The singer agreed to a contract for a new album in which she was not obliged to tour or do press appearances to promote the album . In an interview published by NME in February 2015 , Furler revealed that 1000 Forms of Fear was released as a contractual obligation : " Basically , I put this out to get out of my publishing deal . I was planning to be a pop song writer for other artists . But my publishing deal was as an artist so I had to put one more album out . I didn 't want to get famous so I kept all the songs I wanted and had a lot of fun making it . "
= = Composition = =
1000 Forms of Fear is primarily an electropop album , with influences of hip hop and reggae . It opens with " Chandelier " , an electropop song that features a reggae @-@ influenced beat . Lyrically , the track talks about " the glitter and fatigue of a party girl 's life . " The follow @-@ up , " Big Girls Cry " , was compared to Alanis Morissette 's " Hands Clean " . On " Burn the Pages " , Furler described a friend she wants to cheer up : " You 're twisted up like a slipknot / Tied by a juicehead who just took his T @-@ shot . " " Eye of the Needle " is a " military @-@ march " piano ballad , while " Hostage " is a new wave pop and ska track that features Sia 's voice " cracking like a punk singer . " The sixth song , " Straight for the Knife " , is instrumented by strings and lyrically details a tempestuous relationship : " But will someone find me swinging from the rafters / I ’ m hanging on your every word . "
" Fair Game " , where Furler sings " Watch me squirm baby , but you 're just what I need , " is a minimalist and string @-@ laden song about the desire to find an equal partner . The solo version of " Elastic Heart " , which originally featured The Weeknd and Diplo , is a trap song . The song addresses " the overwhelming strength [ Sia ] needed to convince herself that life was worth living after coming out of a crushing relationship . " " Free the Animal " lyrically " imagines being killed in lurid , masochistic detail " with the lyrics " Detonate me / Shoot me like a cannon ball / Granulate me / Kill me like an animal . " The tenth song , " Fire Meet Gasoline " , was compared to Beyoncé 's " Halo " by Harriet Gibsone from The Guardian . " Cellophane " is an electropop track , where Furler likens her self to " a basket filled with pain . " 1000 Forms of Fear concludes with " Dressed in Black " , which Heather Phares of AllMusic described as a ballad " with more depth than the ones she writes for hire . "
= = Singles = =
" Chandelier " served as 1000 Forms of Fear 's lead single . It was released for digital download onto the iTunes Stores on 17 March 2014 . A music video for the song was released on 6 May 2014 and has been viewed on YouTube more than 1 @.@ 2 billion times . It features dancer Maddie Ziegler in a blonde wig resembling a Sia hairstyle . The single became a commercial success , peaking at number eight on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the first single by Furler to appear on the chart as a lead artist . " Chandelier " also peaked within the top five of record charts in Europe and Oceania countries , including : Flanders and France ( number one ) , Australia and Norway ( number two ) , New Zealand ( number three ) , United Kingdom ( number six ) , and Slovakia ( number five ) . The track was certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association and gold by Recorded Music NZ .
" Eye of the Needle " was released digitally on 3 June 2014 as a promotional single. while " Big Girls Cry " was made available for music download on 25 June . " Elastic Heart " was released as the fourth single from 1000 Forms of Fear in January 2015 . A music video for the song was released on 7 January 2015 and features Ziegler in the same blonde wig dancing in a giant birdcage opposite actor Shia LaBeouf . It has been viewed on YouTube more than 500 million times . " Elastic Heart " peaked at number 17 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and charted within the top five charts of several countries , including Australia and Ireland . On 2 April 2015 , a music video for " Big Girls Cry " was released , starring Ziegler in the same blonde wig . " Fire Meet Gasoline " was officially released as a single in Germany on June 19 , 2015 .
= = Promotion = =
In an interview with Dazed & Confused , Furler explained that she had decided not to show her face in videos and press shots in the campaign for 1000 Forms of Fear ; instead , she focused on creating visual art through her videos . During the promotion of the album , Furler recruited Ziegler to be her persona on stage and performed with her back facing to the camera . On 19 May 2014 , Furler performed " Chandelier " on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , where Maddie Ziegler recreated the choreography in the music video . Furler also performed the song on Late Night with Seth Meyers on 9 June 2014 , with Girls star Lena Dunham performing the choreography . On 4 July 2014 , Furler made an appearance on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , where she performed " Chandelier " , " Big Girls Cry " and " Elastic Heart " .
On 30 July 2014 , Furler performed " Chandelier " , " Elastic Heart " and Big Girls Cry " on the VH1 's show " SoundClash " . On 17 January 2015 , Sia performed " Chandelier " and " Elastic Heart " on Saturday Night Live . On 8 February 2015 , Furler and Ziegler together with actress Kristen Wiig performed " Chandelier " in a room reminiscent of the video set on the 2015 Grammy Awards telecast .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 76 , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , based on 28 reviews . The Boston Globe critic Sarah Rodman described the release as " dynamite , " while Heather Phares from AllMusic called the album " the sound of [ Sia ] owning her success . " Writing for The Daily Telegraph , Helen Brown praised the album 's production and " inspirational " lyrics showcasing Furler struggling to deal with drug addiction and bipolar disorder . Rolling Stone 's Julianne Escobedo Shepherd simply wrote that " she sounds like a superstar ; " while Maura Johnston of Spin characterised 1000 Forms of Fear as " a chunk of the human emotional spectrum committed to record . " On behalf of The New York Times , Jon Pareles lauded the " loopy , unresolved passions " on the album in favour of " the triumphal , laminated , computer @-@ perfected tone of Sia ’ s clients . "
Writing for Slant Magazine , Annie Galvin opined that 1000 Forms of Fear " should be the vessel that rockets the singer out of relative obscurity and into the stratosphere populated by those more recognizable stars who 've come to dominate the pop @-@ music universe thanks , in part , to her songwriting skills . " Mikael Wood writing for the Los Angeles Times praised Sia 's vocals and the production held by Greg Kurstin . Likewise , Entertainment Weekly 's Adam Markovitz positively viewed Sia 's voice as " astonishing , " giving the album a B score .
On a less enthusiastic review , The Guardian Harriet Gibsone shared that the album was so impeccable and " contemporary @-@ sounding " that " its impact may fade with time . " The A.V. Club writer Annie Zaleski wrote : " 1000 Forms of Fear certainly has the songs and contemporary sheen to make Sia a star in her own right , but it 's at the expense of both her emotional intimacy and her offbeat personality . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe labelled 1000 Forms of Fear the " Best Surprise " of 2014 . It ranked number 13 on Digital Spy 's list of Top 15 Albums of 2014 . Jon Pareles from The New York Times placed the album at number 5 on his list of favourite albums of the year . It also appeared on the lists of the best albums of 2014 of Slant Magazine ( number 13 ) and The Daily Telegraph ( number 44 ) . Rolling Stone ranked it number 20 on its list of 20 Best Pop Albums of 2014 . At the ARIA Music Awards of 2014 , Furler won Album of the Year , Best Female Artist and Best Pop Release for 1000 Forms of Fear . The lead single " Chandelier " received four Grammy nominations for Song of the Year , Record of the Year , Best Pop Solo Performance and Best Music Video at the 57th Grammy Awards .
= = Commercial performance = =
1000 Forms of Fear debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 52 @,@ 000 copies . By doing so , it became the lowest sales figure for a number @-@ one album on the chart in nearly two years . The Guardian 's Clem Bastow commented on the album 's success in the United States : " Australian artists typically fare better in the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart , but even then , Furler finds herself in rarefied company . " On behalf of The Sydney Morning Herald , George Palathingal opined that the album 's debuting atop the Billboard 200 is the result of " a stroke of ( anti- ) marketing genius " and " a case of quality pop music standing proud . " As of December 2015 , 1000 Forms of Fear had sold 374 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
In Australia , the release debuted atop the ARIA Albums Chart on 20 July 2014 and remained on the chart for 20 weeks . In April 2015 , the album was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for having shipped 70 @,@ 000 units in the country . 1000 Forms of Fear also peaked at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart . The release also charted within the top five albums charts of several countries , including Norway ( number two ) , New Zealand , Sweden and Switzerland ( number four ) and Denmark ( number five ) . In the United Kingdom , 1000 Forms of Fear peaked at number 5 on the UK Albums Chart and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry . As of February 2016 , the album has sold 268 @,@ 949 copies in the United Kingdom .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from 1000 Forms of Fear liner notes
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal producer
^ b signifies a co @-@ producer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Release history = =
= Cricket World Cup =
The ICC Cricket World Cup is the international championship of One Day International ( ODI ) cricket . The event is organised by the sport 's governing body , the International Cricket Council ( ICC ) , every four years , with preliminary qualification rounds leading up to a finals tournament . The tournament is one of the world 's most viewed sporting events and is considered the " flagship event of the international cricket calendar " by the ICC .
The first World Cup was organised in England in June 1975 , with the first ODI cricket match having been played only four years earlier . However , a separate Women 's Cricket World Cup had been held two years before the first men 's tournament , and a tournament involving multiple international teams had been held as early as 1912 , when a triangular tournament of Test matches was played between Australia , England and South Africa . The first three World Cups were held in England . From the 1987 tournament onwards , hosting has been shared between countries under an unofficial rotation system , with fourteen ICC members having hosted at least one match in the tournament .
The finals of the World Cup are contested by the ten full members of the ICC ( all of which are Test @-@ playing teams ) and a number of teams made up from associate and affiliate members of the ICC , selected via the World Cricket League and a later qualifying tournament . A total of twenty teams have competed in the eleven editions of the tournament , with fourteen competing in the 2015 tournament . Australia has won the tournament five times , with the West Indies , India ( twice each ) , Pakistan and Sri Lanka ( once each ) also having won the tournament . The best performance by a non @-@ full @-@ member team came when Kenya made the semi @-@ finals of the 2003 tournament .
= = History = =
= = = Before the first Cricket World Cup = = =
The first international cricket match was played between Canada and the United States , on 24 and 25 September 1844 . However , the first credited Test match was played in 1877 between Australia and England , and the two teams competed regularly for The Ashes in subsequent years . South Africa was admitted to Test status in 1889 . Representative cricket teams were selected to tour each other , resulting in bilateral competition . Cricket was also included as an Olympic sport at the 1900 Paris Games , where Great Britain defeated France to win the gold medal . This was the only appearance of cricket at the Summer Olympics .
The first multilateral competition at international level was the 1912 Triangular Tournament , a Test cricket tournament played in England between all three Test @-@ playing nations at the time : England , Australia and South Africa . The event was not a success : the summer was exceptionally wet , making play difficult on damp uncovered pitches , and attendances were poor , attributed to a " surfeit of cricket " . Since then , international Test cricket has generally been organised as bilateral series : a multilateral Test tournament was not organised again until the triangular Asian Test Championship in 1999 .
The number of nations playing Test cricket increased gradually over time , with the addition of West Indies in 1928 , New Zealand in 1930 , India in 1932 , and Pakistan in 1952 . However , international cricket continued to be played as bilateral Test matches over three , four or five days .
In the early 1960s , English county cricket teams began playing a shortened version of cricket which only lasted for one day . Starting in 1962 with a four @-@ team knockout competition known as the Midlands Knock @-@ Out Cup , and continuing with the inaugural Gillette Cup in 1963 , one @-@ day cricket grew in popularity in England . A national Sunday League was formed in 1969 . The first One @-@ Day International match was played on the fifth day of a rain @-@ aborted Test match between England and Australia at Melbourne in 1971 , to fill the time available and as compensation for the frustrated crowd . It was a forty over game with eight balls per over .
In the late 1970s , Kerry Packer established the rival World Series Cricket ( WSC ) competition . It introduced many of the now commonplace features of One Day International cricket , including coloured uniforms , matches played at night under floodlights with a white ball and dark sight screens , and , for television broadcasts , multiple camera angles , effects microphones to capture sounds from the players on the pitch , and on @-@ screen graphics . The first of the matches with coloured uniforms was the WSC Australians in wattle gold versus WSC West Indians in coral pink , played at VFL Park in Melbourne on 17 January 1979 . The success and popularity of the domestic one @-@ day competitions in England and other parts of the world , as well as the early One @-@ Day Internationals , prompted the ICC to consider organising a Cricket World Cup .
= = = Prudential World Cups ( 1975 – 1983 ) = = =
The inaugural Cricket World Cup was hosted in 1975 by England , the only nation able to put forward the resources to stage an event of such magnitude at the time . The 1975 tournament started on 7 June . The first three events were held in England and officially known as the Prudential Cup after the sponsors Prudential plc . The matches consisted of 60 six @-@ ball overs per team , played during the daytime in traditional form , with the players wearing cricket whites and using red cricket balls .
Eight teams participated in the first tournament : Australia , England , India , New Zealand , Pakistan , and the West Indies ( the six Test nations at the time ) , together with Sri Lanka and a composite team from East Africa . One notable omission was South Africa , who were banned from international cricket due to apartheid . The tournament was won by the West Indies , who defeated Australia by 17 runs in the final at Lord 's .
The 1979 World Cup saw the introduction of the ICC Trophy competition to select non @-@ Test playing teams for the World Cup , with Sri Lanka and Canada qualifying . The West Indies won a second consecutive World Cup tournament , defeating the hosts England by 92 runs in the final . At a meeting which followed the World Cup , the International Cricket Conference agreed to make the competition a quadrennial event .
The 1983 event was hosted by England for a third consecutive time . By this stage , Sri Lanka had become a Test @-@ playing nation , and Zimbabwe qualified through the ICC Trophy . A fielding circle was introduced , 30 yards ( 27 m ) away from the stumps . Four fieldsmen needed to be inside it at all times . The teams faced each other twice , before moving into the knock @-@ outs . India , an outsider , quoted at 66 – 1 to win by bookmakers before the competition began , were crowned champions after upsetting the West Indies by 43 runs in the final .
= = = Different champions ( 1987 – 1996 ) = = =
India and Pakistan jointly hosted the 1987 tournament , the first time that the competition was held outside England . The games were reduced from 60 to 50 overs per innings , the current standard , because of the shorter daylight hours in the Indian subcontinent compared with England 's summer . Australia won the championship by defeating England by 7 runs in the final , the closest margin in World Cup final history .
The 1992 World Cup , held in Australia and New Zealand , introduced many changes to the game , such as coloured clothing , white balls , day / night matches , and a change to the fielding restriction rules . The South African cricket team participated in the event for the first time , following the fall of the apartheid regime and the end of the international sports boycott . Pakistan overcame a dismal start in the tournament to eventually defeat England by 22 runs in the final and emerge as winners .
The 1996 championship was held in the Indian subcontinent for a second time , with the inclusion of Sri Lanka as host for some of its group stage matches . In the semi @-@ final , Sri Lanka , heading towards a crushing victory over India at Eden Gardens after the hosts lost eight wickets while scoring 120 runs in pursuit of 252 , were awarded victory by default after crowd unrest broke out in protest against the Indian performance . Sri Lanka went on to win their maiden championship by defeating Australia by seven wickets in the final at Lahore .
= = = Australian treble ( 1999 – 2007 ) = = =
In 1999 the event was hosted by England , with some matches also being held in Scotland , Ireland , Wales and the Netherlands . Twelve teams contested the World Cup . Australia qualified for the semi @-@ finals after reaching their target in their Super 6 match against South Africa off the final over of the match . They then proceeded to the final with a tied match in the semi @-@ final also against South Africa where a mix @-@ up between South African batsmen Lance Klusener and Allan Donald saw Donald drop his bat and stranded mid @-@ pitch to be run out . In the final , Australia dismissed Pakistan for 132 and then reached the target in less than 20 overs and with eight wickets in hand .
South Africa , Zimbabwe and Kenya hosted the 2003 World Cup . The number of teams participating in the event increased from twelve to fourteen . Kenya 's victories over Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe , among others – and a forfeit by the New Zealand team , which refused to play in Kenya because of security concerns – enabled Kenya to reach the semi @-@ finals , the best result by an associate . In the final , Australia made 359 runs for the loss of two wickets , the largest ever total in a final , defeating India by 125 runs .
In 2007 the tournament was hosted by the West Indies and expanded to sixteen teams . Following Pakistan 's upset loss to World Cup debutants Ireland in the group stage , Pakistani coach Bob Woolmer was found dead in his hotel room . Jamaican police had initially launched a murder investigation into Woolmer 's death but later confirmed that he died of heart failure . Australia defeated Sri Lanka in the final by 53 runs ( D / L ) in farcical light conditions , and extended their undefeated run in the World Cup to 29 matches and winning three straight championships .
= = = Hosts triumph ( 2011 @-@ 2015 ) = = =
India , Sri Lanka and Bangladesh together hosted the 2011 Cricket World Cup . Pakistan were stripped of their hosting rights following the terrorist attack on the Sri Lankan cricket team , with the games originally scheduled for Pakistan redistributed to the other host countries . The number of teams participating in the World Cup dropped down to fourteen . Australia lost their final group stage match against Pakistan on 19 March 2011 , ending an unbeaten streak of 35 World Cup matches , which had begun on 23 May 1999 . India won their second World Cup title by beating Sri Lanka by 6 wickets in the final in Mumbai , and became the first country to win the final on home soil .
Australia and New Zealand jointly hosted the 2015 Cricket World Cup . The number of participants remained at fourteen . Ireland was the most successful Associate nation with a total of three wins in the tournament . New Zealand beat South Africa in a thrilling first semi @-@ final to qualify for their maiden World Cup final . Australia defeated New Zealand by seven wickets in the final at Melbourne to lift the World Cup for the fifth time .
= = Format = =
= = = Qualification = = =
The Test @-@ playing nations qualify automatically for the World Cup main event while the other teams have to qualify through a series of preliminary qualifying tournaments . A new qualifying format was introduced for the 2015 Cricket World Cup . The top two teams of the 2011 – 13 ICC World Cricket League Championship qualify directly . The remaining six teams join the third and fourth @-@ placed teams of 2011 ICC World Cricket League Division Two and the top two teams of the 2013 ICC World Cricket League Division Three in the World Cup Qualifier to decide the remaining two places .
Qualifying tournaments were introduced for the second World Cup , where two of the eight places in the finals were awarded to the leading teams in the ICC Trophy . The number of teams selected through the ICC Trophy had varied throughout the years . The World Cricket League ( administered by the International Cricket Council ) is the qualification system provided to allow the Associate and Affiliate members of the ICC more opportunities to qualify . The name " ICC Trophy " has been changed to " ICC World Cup Qualifier " .
Under the current qualifying process , the World Cricket League , all Associate and Affiliate members of the ICC are able to qualify for the World Cup . Associate and Affiliate members must play between two and five stages in the ICC World Cricket League to qualify for the World Cup finals , depending on the Division in which they start the qualifying process .
Process summary in chronological order ( 2011 @-@ 2014 ) :
2011 ICC World Cricket League Division Two : 6 Teams – Top 2 were promoted to the 2011 – 13 ICC World Cricket League Championship . The third and fourth @-@ placed teams qualified for the 2014 Cricket World Cup Qualifier . The fifth and sixth @-@ placed teams were relegated to the Division Three for 2013 .
2011 – 13 ICC World Cricket League Championship : 8 Teams – Top 2 automatically qualified for the 2015 Cricket World Cup . The remaining six teams qualified for the 2014 Cricket World Cup Qualifier .
2013 ICC World Cricket League Division Three : 6 Teams – Top 2 were qualified for the 2014 Cricket World Cup Qualifier . The fifth and sixth @-@ placed teams were relegated to the Division Four for 2014 .
2014 Cricket World Cup Qualifier : 10 Teams – Top 2 qualified for the 2015 Cricket World Cup and the 2015 – 17 ICC World Cricket League Championship . The third and fourth @-@ placed teams qualified for the 2015 – 17 ICC World Cricket League Championship . The fifth , sixth , seventh , and eighth @-@ placed teams remained in the Division Two for 2015 . The ninth and tenth @-@ placed teams were relegated to the Division Three for 2014
= = = Tournament = = =
The format of the Cricket World Cup has changed greatly over the course of its history . Each of the first four tournaments was played by eight teams , divided into two groups of four . The competition consisted of two stages , a group stage and a knock @-@ out stage . The four teams in each group played each other in the round @-@ robin group stage , with the top two teams in each group progressing to the semi @-@ finals . The winners of the semi @-@ finals played against each other in the final . With South Africa returning in the fifth tournament in 1992 as a result of the end of the apartheid boycott , nine teams played each other once in the group phase , and the top four teams progressed to the semi @-@ finals . The tournament was further expanded in 1996 , with two groups of six teams . The top four teams from each group progressed to quarter @-@ finals and semi @-@ finals .
A distinct format was used for the 1999 and 2003 World Cups . The teams were split into two pools , with the top three teams in each pool advancing to the Super 6 . The Super 6 teams played the three other teams that advanced from the other group . As they advanced , the teams carried their points forward from previous matches against other teams advancing alongside them , giving them an incentive to perform well in the group stages . The top four teams from the Super 6 stage progressed to the semi @-@ finals , with the winners playing in the final .
The format used in the 2007 World Cup involved 16 teams allocated into four groups of four . Within each group , the teams played each other in a round @-@ robin format . Teams earned points for wins and half @-@ points for ties . The top two teams from each group moved forward to the Super 8 round . The Super 8 teams played the other six teams that progressed from the different groups . Teams earned points in the same way as the group stage , but carried their points forward from previous matches against the other teams who qualified from the same group to the Super 8 stage . The top four teams from the Super 8 round advanced to the semi @-@ finals , and the winners of the semi @-@ finals played in the final .
The format used in the 2011 and 2015 World Cups featured two groups of seven teams , each playing in a round @-@ robin format . The top four teams from each group proceeded to the knock out stage consisting of quarter @-@ finals , semi @-@ finals and ultimately the final .
= = Trophy = =
The ICC Cricket World Cup Trophy is presented to the winners of the World Cup . The current trophy was created for the 1999 championships , and was the first permanent prize in the tournament 's history . Prior to this , different trophies were made for each World Cup . The trophy was designed and produced in London by a team of craftsmen from Garrard & Co over a period of two months .
The current trophy is made from silver and gild , and features a golden globe held up by three silver columns . The columns , shaped as stumps and bails , represent the three fundamental aspects of cricket : batting , bowling and fielding , while the globe characterises a cricket ball . The seam is tilted to symbolize the axial tilt of the Earth . It stands 60 centimetres high and weighs approximately 11 kilograms . The names of the previous winners are engraved on the base of the trophy , with space for a total of twenty inscriptions . The ICC keeps the original trophy . A replica differing only in the inscriptions is permanently awarded to the winning team .
= = Media coverage = =
The tournament is the world 's third largest with only the FIFA World Cup and the Summer Olympics exceeding it . The 2011 Cricket World Cup final was televised in over 200 countries to over 2 @.@ 2 billion television viewers . Television rights , mainly for the 2011 and 2015 World Cup , were sold for over US $ 1 @.@ 1 billion , and sponsorship rights were sold for a further US $ 500 million . The 2003 Cricket World Cup matches were attended by 626 @,@ 845 people , while the 2007 Cricket World Cup sold more than 672 @,@ 000 tickets .
Successive World Cup tournaments have generated increasing media attention as One @-@ Day International cricket has become more established . The 2003 World Cup in South Africa was the first to sport a mascot , Dazzler the zebra . An orange mongoose known as Mello was the mascot for the 2007 Cricket World Cup . Stumpy , a blue elephant was the mascot for the 2011 World Cup .
On 13 February , the opening of the 2015 tournament was celebrated with a Google Doodle .
= = Selection of hosts = =
The International Cricket Council 's executive committee votes for the hosts of the tournament after examining the bids made by the nations keen to hold a Cricket World Cup .
England hosted the first three competitions . The ICC decided that England should host the first tournament because it was ready to devote the resources required to organising the inaugural event . India volunteered to host the third Cricket World Cup , but most ICC members preferred England as the longer period of daylight in England in June meant that a match could be completed in one day . The 1987 Cricket World Cup was held in India and Pakistan , the first hosted outside England .
Many of the tournaments have been jointly hosted by nations from the same geographical region , such as South Asia in 1987 , 1996 and 2011 , Australasia in 1992 and 2015 , Southern Africa in 2003 and West Indies in 2007 .
= = Tournament history = =
Notes
= = Results = =
Twenty nations have qualified for the Cricket World Cup at least once ( excluding qualification tournaments ) . Seven teams have competed in every finals tournament , five of which have won the title . The West Indies won the first two tournaments , Australia has won five , India has won two , while Pakistan and Sri Lanka have each won once . The West Indies ( 1975 and 1979 ) and Australia ( 1999 , 2003 and 2007 ) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles . Australia has played in seven of the eleven final matches ( 1975 , 1987 , 1996 , 1999 , 2003 , 2007 , 2015 ) . England has yet to win the World Cup , but has been runners @-@ up three times ( 1979 , 1987 , 1992 ) . The best result by a non @-@ Test playing nation is the semi @-@ final appearance by Kenya in the 2003 tournament ; while the best result by a non @-@ Test playing team on their debut is the Super 8 ( second round ) by Ireland in 2007 .
Sri Lanka as a co @-@ host of the 1996 Cricket World Cup was the first host to win the tournament though the final was held in Pakistan . India won in 2011 as host and was the first team to win in a final played in their own country . Australia repeated the feat in 2015 . England is the only other host to have made the final , in 1979 . Other countries which have achieved or equalled their best World Cup results while co @-@ hosting the tournament are New Zealand as finalists in 2015 ; Zimbabwe who reached the Super Six in 2003 ; and Kenya as semi @-@ finalists in 2003 . In 1987 , co @-@ hosts India and Pakistan both reached the semi @-@ finals , but were eliminated by Australia and England respectively . Australia in 1992 , England in 1999 , South Africa in 2003 , and Bangladesh in 2011 have been the host teams that were eliminated in the first round .
= = = Teams ' performances = = =
An overview of the teams ' performances in every World Cup :
† No longer exists .
Before the 1992 World Cup , South Africa was banned due to apartheid .
The number of wins followed by Run @-@ rate is the criteria for determining the rankings till the 1987 World Cup .
The number of points followed by , head to head performance and then net run @-@ rate is the criteria for determining the rankings for the World Cups from 1992 onwards .
Legend
1st – Winner
2nd – Runner up
SF – Semi @-@ finals
S8 – Super Eight ( 2007 )
S6 – Super Six ( 1999 – 2003 )
QF – Quarter @-@ finals ( 1996 , 2011 – 2015 )
GP – Group – First round
Q – Qualified
= = = Debutant teams = = =
† No longer exists .
= = = Overview = = =
The table below provides an overview of the performances of teams over past World Cups , as of the end of group stage of the 2015 tournament . Teams are sorted by best performance , then by appearances , total number of wins , total number of games , and alphabetical order respectively .
The Win percentage excludes no results and counts ties as half a win .
† No longer exists .
= = Awards = =
= = = Man of the tournament = = =
Since 1992 , one player has been declared as " Man of the Tournament " at the end of the World Cup finals :
= = = Man of the Match in the Final = = =
There were no Man of the Tournament awards before 1992 but Man of the Match awards have always been given for individual matches . Winning the Man of the Match in the final is logically noteworthy , as this indicates the player deemed to have played the biggest part in the World Cup final . To date the award has always gone to a member of the winning side . The Man of the Match award in the final of the competition has been awarded to :
= = Tournament records = =
= Action of 31 March 1800 =
The Action of 31 March 1800 was a naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars fought between a Royal Navy squadron and a French Navy ship of the line off Malta in the Mediterranean Sea . By March 1800 Valletta , the Maltese capital , had been under siege for eighteen months and food supplies were severely depleted , a problem exacerbated by the interception and defeat of a French replenishment convoy in mid @-@ February . In an effort to simultaneously obtain help from France and reduce the number of personnel maintained in the city , the naval commander on the island , Contre @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve , ordered his subordinate Contre @-@ Admiral Denis Decrès to put to sea with the large ship of the line Guillaume Tell , which had arrived in the port shortly before the siege began in September 1798 . Over 900 men were carried aboard the ship , which was to sail for Toulon under cover of darkness on 30 March .
The British had maintained a blockade off Malta since the beginning of the siege , ostensibly led by Rear @-@ Admiral Lord Nelson , who by March 1800 was defying a direct order from his superior officer Lord Keith by remaining in Palermo with his lover Emma , Lady Hamilton . In his absence the blockade was under the command of Captain Manley Dixon of HMS Lion and Nelson 's flag captain Sir Edward Berry , who were notified of Decrés ' departure by the patrolling frigate HMS Penelope and gave chase . The large ship of the line was initially only attacked by Penelope , which manoeuvered around Guillaume Tell 's stern , causing severe damage and delaying the French ship sufficiently for Berry to bring his squadron into action . Despite being heavily outnumbered , Decrés continued to fight for more than three hours , fighting off two British ships but ultimately unable to resist the combined weight of Berry 's attacks . Casualties and damage were severe on both sides , and the defiance of the French ship was celebrated in both countries as a brave defence against overwhelming odds .
= = Background = =
In May 1798 , a French fleet under General Napoleon Bonaparte crossed the Mediterranean Sea , sailing for Egypt . Pausing at Malta on 9 June , Bonaparte landed soldiers and seized the island leaving a sizeable French garrison at Valletta under General Claude @-@ Henri Belgrand de Vaubois while the rest of the fleet continued on to Alexandria . After the successful landing in Egypt , Bonaparte marched inland at the head of his army . The fleet anchored in Aboukir Bay to support the troops ashore and was surprised and almost completely destroyed on 1 August by a British fleet under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson . Only two ships of the line and two frigates escaped the Battle of the Nile from the 17 French ships that participated in the action . Of the survivors , the ship of the line Généreux sailed for Corfu while Guillaume Tell , under Contre @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve , reached Malta with the two frigates .
When Villeneuve arrived at Malta in September 1798 , the island was already in turmoil : the dissolution of the Roman Catholic Church on the island under French rule had been highly unpopular with the Maltese population , who forced the French garrison to retreat into the fortress of Valletta on 2 September . By the start of October , British and Portuguese troops had supplemented the Maltese irregulars , while a naval
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re @-@ released on services such as the Virtual Console ; critics reaffirmed the appeal of some , while the appeal of others has been deemed to have diminished with time . Although the genre lacks the same presence it did in the late 1980s , some titles such as Viewtiful Joe and God Hand kept the genre alive .
In recent years , the beat ' em up genre has seen a revival in the form of popular 3D hack and slash games in the style of Devil May Cry ( 2001 onwards ) , including Ninja Gaiden ( 2004 onwards ) , God of War ( 2005 onwards ) , Heavenly Sword ( 2007 ) , Afro Samurai ( 2009 ) , and Bayonetta ( 2009 ) . Several traditional 2D scrolling beat ' em ups have also been released in recent years , including Scott Pilgrim vs. the World : The Game ( 2010 ) . The popular Grand Theft Auto series also has elements of the beat ' em up genre .
= R.C. Pro @-@ Am II =
R.C. Pro @-@ Am II is a racing video game developed by Rare and released by Tradewest for the Nintendo Entertainment System in December 1992 . The game is the sequel to the 1988 R.C. Pro @-@ Am and features similar gameplay with a wider variety of tracks , currency @-@ based vehicle and weapon upgrades , and bonus stages . In R.C. Pro @-@ Am II , four players , either human or artificial intelligence , race on a series of tracks to finish first while avoiding obstacles and hazards . The winner receives race points and money . The game features a multiplayer mode in which up to four human players can compete against each other simultaneously .
Reviewers praised the sequel 's additional features and variety , while others found its gameplay unoriginal compared to the original and its contemporaries . Critics lauded the multiplayer mode , which some said was a reason alone to buy the game . The game was released in Rare 's 2015 Rare Replay compilation for Xbox One .
= = Gameplay = =
R.C. Pro @-@ Am II is a racing video game in which four vehicles compete on a series of 24 different tracks : eight standard racetracks , eight " cityscape " tracks , and eight offroad tracks . The difficulty level increases between each type of course . Players must navigate around course obstacles to finish the race . In the single @-@ player mode , the players races against three artificial intelligence opponents . The game also has a multiplayer mode in which up to four human players can race against each other . The objective of each race is to finish in the top three places to receive race points and money , which is used to upgrade vehicles and buy weapons . The top three finishers are qualified to participate in the next race while other players must use a continue . The game ends when the players run out of continues .
Players steer with the directional pad , accelerate with one button , and fire their weapon with the other . Before each race , players can use money earned from previous races to buy vehicle performance upgrades and weapons , which can be used on other competitors . Upgrades and weapons include the following : motors ( increased speed ) ; tires ( better turning ) ; missiles , bombs , and " freeze beams " ; and buckshots ( steal opponents ' cash ) . Other purchasable goods include additional ammunition . Players can save money to purchase better , more expensive upgrades later in the game . Players can also collect letters that spell " PRO AM II " that are scattered on the track . Upon finishing the collection , the player receives a new , faster vehicle with tighter controls . Track terrain varies , including winter environments , crossroads , and rivers . Track hazards like water , bombs , mud , ice , ridges , oil , and bomb @-@ dropping aircraft slow player speed . The game includes two types of bonus stages ( tug of war and drag race ) that award race points and cash .
= = Reception = =
R.C. Pro @-@ Am II was developed by Rare and published by Tradewest . It was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System in December 1992 . Nintendo Power praised the game 's controls and upgrade options , which made the game strategic . The magazine criticized the difficulty as unfair , with aircraft hazards that gave players no reaction time in which to dodge attacks . Nintendo Magazine System praised the game overall and its multiplayer in particular , but felt that better games were available . In 1993 , GamePro said that the game was better than its predecessor , but noted that the graphics and sound could have been better . Jeuxvideo.com appreciated how the sequel 's cars had better traction , but thought the game was technically unrefined considering its few advances in four years ' time . For example , they criticized Rare for recycling the original game 's audio . In 1994 , Game Players had high praise for the game 's multiplayer , screeching sound effects , vehicle handling , and replay value . They criticized its lack of in @-@ game music and current weapon indicators , and struggled to anticipate turns in the track in the game 's angled perspective .
Retrogaming magazine Retro Gamer said that R.C. Pro @-@ Am II was not substantially different from its predecessor . They found the racing game mechanics similar apart from the upgrade features . The reviewer added that players expected more , especially for a title that was released five years after the original . He also noted that while the single @-@ player mode was " passable " , the multiplayer mode was what made the game stand out on its own , providing " excellent gaming despite its lack of originality " .
R.C. Pro @-@ Am II was named Nintendo Power 's best NES game of 1993 over Battletoads & Double Dragon and Kirby 's Adventure . The magazine credited the game 's excellent controls and course variety . R.C. Pro @-@ Am II is included in Rare Replay , a compilation of 30 Rare titles , released on the Xbox One on August 4 , 2015 .
= Keith Johnson ( cricket administrator ) =
Keith Ormond Edley Johnson , MBE , ( 28 December 1894 – 19 October 1972 ) was an Australian cricket administrator . He was the manager of the Australian Services cricket team in England , India and Australia immediately after World War II , and of the Australian team that toured England in 1948 . The 1948 Australian cricket team earned the sobriquet The Invincibles by being the first side to complete a tour of England without losing a single match .
Johnson joined the Australian Board of Control for International Cricket in 1935 as a delegate for New South Wales and served in the Royal Australian Air Force during World War II , performing public relations work in London . With the allied victory in Europe , first @-@ class cricket resumed and Johnson was appointed to manage the Australian Services team , which played England in a series of celebratory matches known as the Victory Tests to usher in the post @-@ war era . The series was highly successful , with unprecedented crowds raising large amounts for war charities . As a result , further matches were scheduled and Johnson 's men toured British India and Australia before being demobilised . Johnson 's administration was regarded as a major factor in the success of the tour .
In 1948 , Johnson managed the Australian tour of England , which again brought record profits and attendances , in spite of Australia 's overwhelming dominance . Johnson 's management of the tour — which generated large amounts of media attention — was again lauded . However , in 1951 – 52 , the Australian Board of Control excluded Sid Barnes from the team for " reasons other than cricket " . Barnes took the matter to court , and in the ensuing trial , his lawyer embarrassed Johnson , who contradicted himself several times under cross @-@ examination . Following the trial , Johnson resigned from the board and took no further part in cricket administration .
= = Early years and pre @-@ World War II career = =
Johnson was born on 28 December 1894 in the inner @-@ Sydney suburb of Paddington . He later moved to the north shore suburb of Mosman , where he worked as a mechanic before serving briefly in the 3rd Field Company Army Engineers . On 8 October 1916 , in the middle of World War I , Johnson enlisted in the First Australian Imperial Force as a gunner in the 5th Field Artillery Brigade . His unit left Sydney on 10 February 1917 and headed for Europe . He returned to Australia on 1 July 1919 .
After the end of World War I , Johnson married his wife Margaret . Johnson joined the Australian Board of Control for International Cricket in 1935 as a delegate for the New South Wales Cricket Association , having been affiliated with the Mosman Cricket Club in Sydney Grade Cricket . He had attended the annual general meeting in September 1934 as a proxy for Billy Bull , who was travelling back to Australia with the national team , which had been touring England .
= = Managerial career = =
= = = Australian Services = = =
During World War II , Johnson served in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He enlisted in the RAAF on 13 April 1942 in Sydney . Johnson rose to the rank of flight lieutenant and was deployed to London , where he did public relations work at the RAAF 's overseas headquarters . In June 1945 , he was appointed as manager of the Australian Services cricket team on its tour of Britain for the Victory Tests , India and Australia from mid @-@ 1945 to early @-@ 1946 . Officially a military unit , the team 's commanding officer was Squadron leader Stan Sismey of the RAAF , although the on @-@ field captain was Warrant officer Lindsay Hassett of the Second Australian Imperial Force .
Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack praised Johnson 's organisational work in arranging the services ' tour : " A stranger to this country , he found the programme in only skeleton form ; and that the tour proved such a success from every point of view was due to his hard work and courtesy . " The almanack reprinted Johnson 's message of thanks to the English cricket community in full before the team sailed to India .
The Victory Tests started in May 1945 between the Australian Services and England in celebration of the allied victory in Europe . In previous seasons , the English cricket administrator and former captain Pelham Warner had organised matches between the RAAF and various English military teams as an expression of defiance against Nazi air raids , and the Victory Tests were a continuation of this , although the matches were only three days long and did not have Test status .
In the First Victory Test , the Australian Servicemen scraped home by six wickets with only two balls and minutes to spare . The last pre @-@ war series between England and Australia in 1938 had been an attritional and hard @-@ nosed contest , but in the afterglow of the war victory , the cricketers played flamboyantly with abandon in front of packed crowds . The attractive , attacking style of play was widely praised by commentators and the match raised £ 1 @,@ 935 for war relief charities . England then levelled the series by winning the Second Victory Test at Bramall Lane , Sheffield with a hard @-@ fought battle , by 41 runs . Australia won the Third Victory Test by four wickets late on the final day and drew the Fourth Victory Test at Lord 's . That would have been the end of the series , but because of the record attendance of 93 @,@ 000 at Lord 's , another match was appended . England drew the series by winning the Fifth Victory Test in front of another capacity crowd . The Victory Tests were regarded as an outstanding success , with a total attendance of 367 @,@ 000 and bright and attacking play .
Due to the unexpectedly strong success of the Victory Tests , the government of Australia , acting on the impetus of Foreign Minister H.V. " Doc " Evatt , ordered the Australian Services to delay their demobilisation . With the team raising so much money for war charities , the government directed them to travel home via India and Ceylon to play further matches , in order to raise more funds for the Red Cross .
Johnson found himself in a difficult situation during the Indian leg of the tour . The team — mostly made up of RAAF personnel — had been ill with food poisoning and dysentery , and travelled across the Indian subcontinent by long train journeys . The airmen wanted to travel by air , and threatened to abandon the tour or replace Hassett , an AIF member , with either Keith Carmody or Keith Miller , who were RAAF fighter pilots . However , the standoff was ended when Sismey arranged for a RAAF plane to transport the team . On the playing arena , it was not a happy tour for Johnson and his men . They lost the three @-@ match series against India 1 – 0 and recorded only one victory , against South Zone , in their nine matches .
Johnson 's team arrived in Australia towards the end of 1945 , but the armed services and Australian Board of Control ordered them to play another series against the various Australian states . Johnson had sought fixtures for his team in Australia , but this was before the Evatt had added the matches in the subcontinent . He implored the administrators to recognise that the players were already overworked , but was ignored . The Services performed poorly ; after playing out consecutive draws against Western Australia and South Australia , they were crushed by an innings by both Victoria and New South Wales , before drawing against Queensland and Tasmania , the smallest state in the country .
Johnson was involved in another administrative dispute during the Australian leg of the campaign . Cec Pepper — whom teammates Miller and Dick Whitington regarded as one of the best all rounders in the world and a certainty for Australian Test selection — appealed for leg before wicket against Australian captain Don Bradman in the match against South Australia . The appeal was turned down and Pepper complained to the umpire Jack Scott , prompting Bradman — who was also a member of the Australian Board of Control and the board of the South Australian Cricket Association — to ask Scott whether Pepper 's behaviour was acceptable . As he was an employee of the SACA , Scott answered to Bradman , and he lodged a complaint about Pepper to the Australian Board of Control . Pepper was never selected for Australia . Cricket historian Gideon Haigh said that " Johnson was clearly upset by the affair , and also by the failure of the [ national ] selection panel [ Bradman among them ] ... to send Pepper , second only to Miller as a cricketer in the Services XI , to New Zealand " . Johnson tried to intercede on Pepper 's behalf , to no avail , although the other board members claimed that no pressure had been placed on the selectors to exclude Pepper .
The home leg of the tour was a poor end to the long and taxing Australian Services campaign . As the military men played poorly in Australia , the national selectors concluded that their achievements against England must have been against weak opposition , and only Hassett and Miller were selected for the Australian tour of New Zealand . Johnson then helped to arrange England 's first post @-@ war tour of Australia , in 1946 – 47 .
= = = 1948 tour = = =
Johnson was a late appointment as manager for the 1948 tour of England , taking over from his New South Wales colleague Bill Jeanes , who was secretary of the Australian Board of Control and had managed the previous Australian tour of England in 1938 . Jeanes had become increasingly unpopular among the players because of an approach that Haigh called " increasingly officious and liverish " .
Led by Bradman — widely regarded as the greatest batsman in history — the Australians went through their 34 matches without defeat , earning the sobriquet The Invincibles . They won 25 of their matches , 17 of these by an innings , and crushed England 4 – 0 in the five Tests , winning most games heavily .
Despite the Australians ' domination of the local teams , the English public showed unprecedented levels of interest in the cricket . Record gate takings were registered at most venues , even when rain affected the matches , and the record attendance for a Test match in England was broken twice , in the Second Test at Lord 's and the Fourth Test at Headingley . The 158 @,@ 000 spectators that watched the proceedings at Headingley remain a record for a Test on English soil . As a result , Australia made £ 82 @,@ 671 from the tour , resulting in a profit of £ 54 @,@ 172 . The popularity of the team meant that they were inundated with invitations for social appointments with government officials and members of the royal family , and they had to juggle a plethora of off @-@ field engagements , with 103 days of scheduled cricket in the space of 144 days . As a result , Johnson was flooded with phone calls and letters , which he had to attend to by himself , as he was the only administrator among the touring party . Bradman later said he was worried that Johnson 's tireless work would cause health problems because he " worked like a slave day and night " and that " it was the tribute to a bulldog determination to see the job through " . The journalist Andy Flanagan said that Johnson was " ' on the ball ' every minute of the waking day , and it would be safe to say half the night too . "
Johnson was again praised by Wisden in its report on the 1948 tour . " Indebtedness for the smooth running of the tour and general harmony of the team was due largely to the manager , Mr Keith Johnson , hard @-@ working and always genial , " it said . " Paying tribute to the loyalty of the players , Mr Johnson said there had not been a discordant note in the party throughout the tour . " Flanagan labelled Johnson as " conscientious , reserved , dignified , extraordinarily industrious and scrupulously trustworthy " . He went on to say that " No organization , no body corporate , no individual could ever hope to have a more loyal , a more devoted , or a more conscientious officer ... Although to the world in general all the praise and glory for the unequalled triumph the tour proved to be goes to Sir Donald Bradman , only those who travelled with the team will ever have a proper conception of the part played in that triumph by Keith Johnson . " Bradman said that Johnson " created friends and goodwill everywhere both for himself and the team , and no side could have wished for a better Manager " . On the journey back to Australia , the players presented Johnson with a silver Georgian salver , with their signatures engraved on the memento .
In a " farewell message " to England quoted in Wisden , Johnson said that the " most lasting memory " would be the team 's visit to Balmoral Castle . Johnson said " We felt we were going into an Englishman 's home and into his family heart " . " It was difficult to believe that we were being entertained by Royalty . My personal wish would be for everybody in the Empire to spend an hour or so with the King and Queen . It would do them a tremendous amount of good . "
= = = Barnes libel case = = =
Johnson 's claim of tour harmony and player loyalty in 1948 was thrown into a different light by events less than four years later . The opening batsman Sid Barnes — a core member of the 1948 team — was seeking a return to Test cricket . Barnes was known for being a somewhat eccentric self @-@ promoter . During the 1948 tour , Barnes organised a multitude of business deals while not playing cricket , and avoided paying customs duties on the enormous amount of goods he acquired in Britain by disembarking at Melbourne instead of Sydney .
Barnes then made himself unavailable for first @-@ class cricket , preferring to pursue business interests instead , and ridiculed the fee paid for the 1949 – 50 tour of South Africa . He wrote a column for Sydney 's The Daily Telegraph , titled " Like It or Lump It " , in which he often lampooned the administration of the game .
However , in 1951 – 52 , Barnes made a return to cricket , and sought selection in the national team to play the West Indies during the 1951 – 52 Australian season . Australia had been unable to find a reliable opener to accompany Barnes 's former partner Arthur Morris . Australia 's batsmen struggled in the first two Tests , and before the Third Test , Barnes scored 107 against Victoria , putting on 210 in partnership with Morris for New South Wales . The Sporting Globe in Melbourne had presciently predicted that the board would object if the selectors chose Barnes .
Barnes was duly selected for the Third Test by a panel of three , chaired by his former captain Bradman , but the choice was vetoed by the Australian Board of Control " for reasons outside of cricket " . Bradman was one of four board members to support Barnes 's selection , while 10 objected , including Johnson .
The matches took place and Barnes did not play . He was unable to find out why he had been excluded and was resigned to making an appearance before the board at its next meeting in September 1952 to ask for an explanation .
In the meantime , the team was not announced at the scheduled time due to the delay caused by the veto . Journalists deduced the story and Barnes became a cause célèbre for many weeks , missing all the remaining Tests . Speculation abounded as to the nature of his supposed misdeeds . These included jumping the turnstile at a ground when he forgot his player 's pass , insulting the royal family , theft from team @-@ mates , drunkenness , stealing a car , parking his car in someone else 's space , or that Barnes had lampooned the board in the narration accompanying the home movies he made of the 1948 tour . In later years , a file of unknown authorship regarding Barnes 's behaviour was deposited in the NSWCA library . It accused Barnes of allowing young spectators to enter the playing arena to field the ball instead of doing so himself , and of denigrating umpires by cupping his hands over his eyes and showing dissent by implying that they were blind .
Barnes continued to score heavily , and during one match , he crossed paths with Johnson , who reportedly apologised to him for the exclusion from the team . However , Johnson advised Barnes to " keep quiet and say nothing " and added that " You will come out of it all right , you will be a certainty for the 1953 trip [ to England ] " .
On 24 April 1952 , a letter appeared in Sydney 's Daily Mirror from Jacob Raith , a baker from Stanmore in Sydney , in response to a letter from Barnes 's friend Stacy Atkin , which condemned the board for vetoing Barnes 's selection . Raith 's letter said that the board must have had good reason to exclude Barnes .
The board is an impartial body of cricket administrators made up of men who have given outstanding service to the game . It must be abundantly clear to all that they would not have excluded Mr Barnes from an Australian XI capriciously and only for some matter of a sufficiently serious nature . In declining to meet his request to publish reasons , the board may well be acting kindly towards him .
The Board of Control had previously granted itself the power to exclude a player from the national team " on grounds other than cricket ability " following the poor behaviour of some members of the 1912 team that toured England . Instead , Barnes sued Raith for libel and engaged a top Sydney lawyer , Jack Shand — described by Haigh as " the foremost trial lawyer of his day " — to represent him , with the aim of uncovering the reasons for his exclusion . Bradman felt that Raith 's letter was a premeditated set @-@ up to give Barnes a pretext to instigate a trial . The libel trial , held in August 1952 , was a sensation , and Johnson , still a member of the board , was the central figure . According to Haigh , " it was effectively the Board , not Raith , in the dock " .
It emerged very quickly during the trial that Raith had no particular knowledge of the workings of the board . A series of administrators came forward to say that Barnes had reportedly misbehaved on the 1948 tour , even though Johnson 's official report as manager had made no mention of any disharmony . Aubrey Oxlade , the chairman of the board and one of the four board members who voted to ratify Barnes 's selection , said that the batsman 's indiscretions were " childish things " and " not serious at all " . Later , Frank Cush , another board member who had supported Barnes 's inclusion , replied " none at all " when asked if there were any legitimate reasons for excluding Barnes . Selector Chappie Dwyer said " I have a very high opinion of him as a cricketer ... and I have no objection to him as a man " .
Johnson was called as a witness , and , under questioning from Shand , a different story came out . Johnson agreed that his written report of the 1948 tour had said that the team had behaved " in a manner befitting worthy representatives of Australia " and that " on and off the field their conduct was exemplary " . However , in a verbal report , Johnson said he had drawn the board 's attention to various misdemeanours by Barnes that , in his opinion , were sufficiently serious to warrant the player 's exclusion from future Australian Test sides . Johnson said that Barnes had shown a " general reluctance for anything savouring of authority " . The misdeeds included taking pictures as the Australian team was presented to the royal family on the playing arena during the Test match at Lord 's , asking permission to travel alone in England ( Barnes ' family was living in Scotland at the time ) , and " abducting " twelfth man Ernie Toshack to play tennis during the match at Northampton on a court " 300 yards from the pavilion " . Under cross @-@ examination , Johnson said that Barnes 's taking pictures of the royal family at Lord 's was the most serious of these misdemeanours . He admitted he had not known that Barnes had received permission from the MCC and the royal family 's protocol chief to take the photos . Shand also established that Barnes had then shown the films to raise money for various charities . He further showed that Barnes had not agitated when reminded of the policy against players meeting with family members on tour . However , Johnson believed that the cumulative effect of the misdeeds " warranted omission from the team " and he saw no problem in the fact that his verbal advice to the board recommending Barnes ' exclusion was at odds with the written report on the 1948 tour . Under pressure from Shand , Johnson admitted that " I don 't always write what I think " . According to Haigh , " Shand effortlessly twisted him [ Johnson ] inside out " .
Shand : Will you admit one of two things : either your report to the Board or your statement that that was your state of mind , that you thought his conduct was so serious as to be left out of the team — one or other is a deliberate lie ?
Johnson : No .
Shand : Think what you are saying . One or other was a deliberate and wicked lie .
Johnson : No .
Shand : How could you really have thought that he had behaved in a manner befitting worthy representatives of Australia and on and off the field his conduct was exemplary if you thought his conduct was so serious as to warrant his omission from the team ? How do you reconcile those two ?
Johnson : After a lot of thought .
Shand : I am not asking for a lot of thought .
Johnson : I have to report on the team as a whole , and that is my opinion .
Shand : You admit that applies to every one of them .
Johnson : Yes .
Shand : And yet one of them was guilty of conduct so serious in your opinion as to warrant his omission ... These reports are circulated .
Johnson : Yes .
...
Shand : And it would be a misleading report ?
Johnson : Yes .
Shand : You still claim to be a responsible person ?
Johnson : Yes .
Shand : You consider it is reasonable to mislead the various state associations ?
Johnson : In a case like that , yes .
Shand : Depending on the circumstances you have no misgivings about misleading people ?
Johnson : I would not mislead people .
Shand : You did , didn 't you — the state bodies , about Barnes ?
Johnson : Yes .
Shand had nearly reduced Johnson to tears , having previously caused a senior police officer to cry during the hearing of a royal commission the year before . A colleague of Shand 's recalled his " capacity of insinuation in tone which could annoy and bring a witness into antagonism " . Shand then asked Johnson about a hypothetical case of Barnes being selected in the future . Johnson evaded the matter of whether he would select the player until Shand asked him to assume that " Barnes is in the best possible form and he is the best cricketer in Australia " , to which Johnson replied that he would not .
On the trial 's second day , soon after Barnes had taken to the witness stand , Raith 's counsel withdrew his client 's defence . It had been his task , he said , to prove a plea that the allegation in Raith 's letter was true , and that Barnes had not been excluded capriciously . Counsel remarked that " seldom in the history of libel actions has such a plea failed so completely and utterly . " The case ended at that point ; Barnes was vindicated , and Raith 's counsel issued him with a public apology . According to fellow administrator Alan Barnes , Johnson was a " wide @-@ open type of bloke " who was vulnerable to manoeuvring . Colleagues advised Johnson to hire a lawyer before the case started , but he refused , saying that the libel case was merely a sporting matter , not a legal one .
= = = Aftermath = = =
After the libel trial , Johnson resigned from the board on 9 February 1953 , and played no further part in cricket administration in Australia . He also resigned from the NSWCA and withdrew his candidature for the manager 's position for the 1953 tour of England . Philip Derriman wrote in his history of the NSWCA that Johnson " may be said to have been a victim of that affair no less than Barnes " . Johnson wrote to the Australian Board of Control , ostensibly tendering his resignation on the grounds of difficulties in travelling to meetings , and thanking the other members for their " courtesy , cooperation and help " . He was not mentioned again in the board minutes again until his death was noted almost two decades later .
Johnson retained the support of many of the players : six Victorian members of the 1948 team , including Lindsay Hassett , Ian Johnson and Neil Harvey , wrote to the Herald newspaper in Melbourne expressing their " confidence , respect and affection " for the tour manager . Derriman described Johnson as a " considerate , patient , inoffensive man for whom nothing was too much trouble . As a cricket official , he was efficient and dedicated . " Johnson was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire for services to cricket in the 1964 Queen 's Birthday Honours , and died in 1972 after collapsing when rising to make a speech at a charity lunch in Sydney .
= Pilot ( The Cosby Show ) =
" Pilot " ( also known as " Theo 's Economic Lesson " ) is the pilot and the first episode of the first season of the American sitcom The Cosby Show . " Pilot " originally aired in the United States on NBC on Thursday September 20 , 1984 , at 8 : 00 PM Eastern time . This episode debuted the week before the official start of the 1984 – 85 United States network television season . The confrontation with Theo in this episode is seen again in a flashback in the series finale " And So We Commence " . The episode was directed by Jay Sandrich and written by Ed . Weinberger and Michael J. Leeson . The episode was a critical and commercial success , achieving both high ratings and positive critical feedback .
Theo 's ( Malcolm @-@ Jamal Warner ) report card contained four Ds , which upset his mother , Clair ( Phylicia Ayers @-@ Allen ) . Theo attempts to pacify his father , Cliff ( Bill Cosby ) , by letting him know that since he did not intend to go to college , his low grades did not matter to him . His reasoning was that it is his destiny to be a " regular person . " In an attempt to guide his son by analogy , Cliff gives fatherly advice using Monopoly money as a teaching tool about the blue @-@ collar economic facts of life for the everyday American . Although the lessons seem harsh , Cliff makes it clear that his instruction is an attempt to convince him that it is important to try his best . Cliff is troubled upon meeting Denise 's ( Lisa Bonet ) latest admirer ( Todd Hollowell ) who is a former merchant marine and Turkish prisoner .
= = Plot = =
Clair Huxtable , an attorney , and her children are having dinner at home . Clair is upset with Theo due to the poor grades on his recent report cards . His younger sister Vanessa was trying to get Theo in trouble for throwing food at her as well . Dr. Cliff Huxtable comes home from a long day at his job as an obstetrician / gynecologist just after the meal .
Cliff confronts Theo about his poor grades and asks how he plans to get into college with such grades . When Theo replies that he 's not planning to go to college , Cliff replies " Damn right . " Theo explains that he just plans to get a job after school as a regular person . Cliff uses play money from a Monopoly game to show just how far a " regular person " ' s income would actually go in the adult world . Cliff gives him an amount of money representing a generous monthly salary for a " regular person " . He then takes money out of Theo 's hand in amounts representing various costs such as housing , food , clothes , transportation and finally a girlfriend , until there is nothing left .
Cliff also meets Denise 's earring @-@ wearing beau , who had recently been in a Turkish prison . When Cliff tells his daughter about what time he expects her home and what attire she should wear , she scoffs at the notion since it is a Friday night and thus , " not a school night . " Cliff responds by asking her if she went to school that day and that it was a " school night . "
Theo responds that he should accept his son 's weaknesses and love him unconditionally because they are father and son — a typical sentimental idiom in family sitcoms of that time , and one which generated the typical applause from the studio audience . Cliff , however , to the audience 's surprise and amused approval , immediately and angrily calls this sentiment " the dumbest thing I 've ever heard in my life " . He completely rejects the notion that loving his son means he must quietly and willingly accept it when the boy does not give his best effort in school , and famously threatened him with the often quoted line , " I brought you in this world , and I 'll take you out . " Cliff then tells his son that he expects him to work to his potential and tells Theo that he loves him .
At the end of the day , Clair and Cliff settle into bed . As he becomes amorous , she reminds him that was how they got all those troublesome kids . This puts him off for a few seconds . Then Vanessa and Rudy knock on the bedroom door because Rudy was scared of " the Wolf Man " in their closet . Clair invites the kids to sleep with her and Cliff .
= = Cast = =
Bill Cosby as Dr. Clifford " Cliff " Huxtable , OB @-@ GYN ( the only episode for which he was Clifford rather than Heathcliff )
Phylicia Ayers @-@ Allen as Clair Olivia Huxtable , Esq .
Malcolm @-@ Jamal Warner as Theodore Aloysius " Theo " Huxtable
Keshia Knight Pulliam as Rudith Lillian " Rudy " Huxtable
Tempestt Bledsoe as Vanessa Huxtable
Lisa Bonet as Denise Huxtable
= = Production = =
Taping of the pilot took place in May 1984 , prior to being green @-@ lighted as a full series for the NBC fall schedule . Although this episode was written by Weinberger and Leeson , the headwriter for the series was Earl Pomerantz . The episode , which was filmed in two live performances , was based on Cosby 's real life conversation with his son Ennis about " regular people " , but included elements of Cosby 's stand @-@ up comedy routine . Rather than producing the show in Hollywood , the show was produced in New York City . During the 1983 – 84 United States television season , no sitcoms had finished in the top 10 in the rankings and only one sitcom ( AfterMASH ) was renewed . As the networks battled to preempt each other 's thunder for the 1984 – 85 United States television season , the Cosby Show became one of seven NBC shows ( along with Punky Brewster , Miami Vice , Hunter , Highway to Heaven , Partners in Crime , Hot Pursuit ) to debut prior to the September 24 date that marked the official beginning of the season . In the show , Bill Cosby is an obstetrician with his office located below his family 's residence in a brownstone home . Less than three months before the show debuted , its producers had not yet decided whether the brownstone would be set in Brooklyn or Manhattan .
The set used for the pilot episode of The Cosby Show was notably different than the one used during the remainder of the series . In the first episode , the first floor has extra rooms that it does not have in the rest of the series . In the pilot , Cliff and Clair Huxtable have only four children . The fifth child , Sondra - who was the eldest child - was not introduced until the tenth episode of the first season , entitled " Bon Jour , Sondra " . Her being away at college is the reason given for her absence in the earlier part of the season . In this episode , the plaque outside Cliff 's office lists his full first name as " Clifford . " In the rest of the episodes , however , his name is Heathcliff .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Cosby was a three @-@ time winner of the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series , but Tom Selleck was the incumbent winner and Cosby had had three failed series since his success with I Spy . Cosby 's sitcom was slotted against Selleck 's Magnum , P.I. , which had dominated the time slot for years . The show placed first in the Nielsen Media Research ratings for the week with a 21 @.@ 6 million person viewership . This placed it ahead of runner @-@ up 60 Minutes , which had an audience of 20 @.@ 7 million . It was the most popular premier for NBC since the 1977 premier of What Really Happened to the Class of ' 65 ? .
= = = Critical review = = =
John J. O 'Connor of The New York Times wrote that " With only the premiere to go on , The Cosby Show is by far the classiest and most entertaining new situation comedy of the season . " After the pilot aired , David Bianculli wrote in the Sunday Philadelphia Inquirer that " This sitcom will lose to CBS 's Magnum , P.I. , but it 's too funny , and Cosby is too good , for NBC to dump it . " In a separate article in the same edition , he spoke more glowingly describing it as " the best TV sitcom since Cheers , and a good bet to become an instant classic . Cosby is delightful , and his series is both funny and intelligent . " He also described the family as " amazingly real " . According to Associated Press syndicated writer Jerry Buck , in the episode , " Cosby handles his son in a manner that is not only funny but intelligent . " Mike Boone of The Gazette described Cosby and Ayers @-@ Allen as " credible parents " and Cosby 's fatherly advice as a " delightful confrontation " . Boone also noted that " understanding the special world of children " has always been a part of Cosby 's comedy , and that this was present in the comical scene where Cliff and Theo discuss serious matters using play money . Star @-@ Banner said " The dialogue is typically Cosby — easy and funny — and you can just see yourself getting to like these people very much . " According to Associated Press writer Fred Rothenberg , the response to the opening episode was glowing with the Los Angeles Times praising the show as " the best comedy of the fall season by a long , long , lonnnnnnng shot . " ; The New York Times saying " by far the classiest and most entertaining situation comedy . " ; and The Washington Post calling it " the best , funniest , most humane new show of the season . " He also noted that marketing executives were not surprised at the reaction to the show .
= = = Awards = = =
Weinberger and Leeson won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for this episode at the 37th Primetime Emmy Awards on September 22 , 1985 , where the series won three of its eight nominations . Jay Sandrich won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series at the Directors Guild of America Awards 1984 for this episode .
= Mike Junkin =
Michael Wayne Junkin ( born November 21 , 1964 ) is a former American football linebacker who played in the National Football League ( NFL ) for three seasons with the Cleveland Browns and the Kansas City Chiefs . He played in 20 games over the course of his NFL career .
Junkin played four years of college football at Duke University . In the 1987 NFL Draft , the Cleveland Browns traded up to select him with the fifth overall pick . He played in parts of two seasons for the Browns , both of which ended early due to injury . Junkin was then traded to the Kansas City Chiefs for a fifth @-@ round selection and played in five more games . After his release from the Chiefs , he did not play another game in the NFL . His failure to establish himself in the NFL has caused him to be regarded as a draft bust .
= = High school and college = =
Junkin was born in North Little Rock , Arkansas to Kirk , a United Airlines pilot , and Doris , a substitute teacher . His brother Trey Junkin was an NFL player as well . Junkin attended Belvidere High School in Belvidere , Illinois , and played tight end on the football team . In 1982 , his senior year , he was the team 's MVP and captain . He was named to the Belvidere Bucs Football Hall of Fame in 2013 .
After graduating from high school , Junkin played college football with the Duke Blue Devils . He played in three games for the Blue Devils as a freshman . In one game against North Carolina State , Junkin had 25 tackles en route to a 27 – 26 Duke victory ; head coach Steve Sloan stated afterwards that it was " one of the best games I have ever seen a freshman play . " Between his freshman and sophomore seasons , Junkin went from 205 pounds to 240 to help get more playing time . As a sophomore , he spent the 1984 season as one of five starting linebackers on a modified Duke defense , which normally would have three or four linebackers . In his junior season , he was again a starting linebacker and finished the season with 162 tackles despite playing on an injured knee . Junkin started off his senior year with 15 tackles against Northwestern despite battling a head cold . Three weeks later in a game against Virginia , Junkin had 18 tackles and was named Atlantic Coast Conference defensive player of the week . Junkin graduated from Duke after the 1986 season as the school record @-@ holder for career tackles with 512 . Due to his performance his senior year , Junkin was named to the Second Team College Football All @-@ American .
= = Professional career = =
Junkin was selected with the fifth overall pick in the 1987 NFL Draft by the Cleveland Browns . To acquire him , the Browns traded Chip Banks along with their first and second @-@ round picks to the San Diego Chargers for their first and second @-@ round picks . In regards to the selection , head coach Marty Schottenheimer stated that scout Dom Anile had watched him play , and compared his playing style to " a mad dog in a meat market . " However , Anile saw him as a second @-@ round talent despite the quote , and felt he was not worth the fifth overall selection , but Schottenheimer overruled his scouts and selected Junkin with that pick . The Browns ' archrival , the Pittsburgh Steelers , were surprised at the pick as they had expected the Browns to select Shane Conlan after trading up for the pick ; the St. Louis Cardinals selection of Kelly Stouffer and the Buffalo Bills selection of Conlan eventually allowed the Steelers to select future Hall of Fame cornerback Rod Woodson , haunting the Browns for years .
Entering the 1987 Cleveland Browns season , Junkin was projected to be the starting outside linebacker opposite Clay Matthews , Jr. despite playing inside linebacker in college , which generated criticism around the league as a transition that would be difficult for him to make . After a 16 @-@ day holdout , the Browns and Junkin agreed to a four @-@ year deal worth nearly two million dollars . After missing the first preseason game against the St. Louis Cardinals , he made his debut against the New York Giants . In that game , he played the second half and failed to record a tackle . By the end of training camp , due to struggles learning the outside linebacker position , he made the roster , but lost the starting job to Anthony Griggs . After the Browns moved to a 4 @-@ 3 defense for the second game against the Pittsburgh Steelers , Junkin made his debut , and the plan was for him to gradually see more playing time each week . In early November , due to a combination of a players ' strike and an injured wrist , Junkin was placed on the injured reserve list and replaced on the active roster by David Grayson .
Due to a combination of the Browns drafting Clifford Charlton and Junkin 's desire to move back inside , the Browns planned to move him back to inside linebacker for the 1988 season . He spent training camp competing with Eddie Johnson for the second inside linebacker position alongside Mike Johnson , and by the end of preseason play , Junkin had won the starting job . In his first career start against the Kansas City Chiefs , Junkin had six tackles , including the first one of the game in a 6 – 3 Browns win . A month later , Junkin injured his knee , and was forced to miss several games . He returned to the team in early November , but Johnson had played so well in Junkin 's absence that he spent the next few weeks as the backup inside linebacker . He was given the starting job again to end the season , but missed tackles and a lack of impact plays led to his second season being considered a disappointment .
In early 1989 , Schottenheimer was fired as Browns head coach , and took the head coaching job with the Kansas City Chiefs . He still had faith in Junkin , unlike the Browns , and traded a fifth @-@ round pick to bring him to Kansas City . Two weeks after the trade , a report came out that Junkin had taken steroids provided by a doctor to treat an injured ankle , and had failed a drug test at the scouting combine as a result . Entering the 1989 Kansas City Chiefs season , Junkin competed with Walker Lee Ashley for the second inside linebacker spot alongside Dino Hackett . Ashley won the job , and Junkin played five games before a shoulder injury sidelined him for the rest of the season . He was released from the Chiefs after season 's end , and retired after not being signed by any team through the 1990 season .
Junkin became known as a draft bust due to his unproductive career . An ESPN article in 2008 noted Junkin noted as the eighth biggest draft bust of all time . He was also named one of the Cleveland ' Browns worst three draft picks from 1995 or earlier .
= Lat =
Datuk Mohammad Nor Khalid ( Jawi : محمد نور خالد ) , more commonly known as Lat , ( born 5 March 1951 ) is a Malaysian cartoonist . Winner of the Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize in 2002 , Lat has published more than 20 volumes of cartoons since he was 13 years old . His works mostly illustrate Malaysia 's social and political scenes , portraying them in a comedic light without bias . Lat 's best known work is The Kampung Boy ( 1979 ) , which is published in several countries across the world . In 1994 , the Sultan of Perak bestowed the honorific title of datuk on Lat , in recognition of the cartoonist 's work in helping to promote social harmony and understanding through his cartoons .
Born in a village , Lat spent his youth in the countryside before moving to the city at the age of 11 . While in school , he supplemented his family 's income by contributing cartoon strips to newspapers and magazines . He was 13 years old when he achieved his first published comic book , Tiga Sekawan ( Three Friends Catch a Thief ) . After failing to attain the grades that were required to continue education beyond high school , Lat became a newspaper reporter . In 1974 , he switched careers to be an editorial cartoonist . His works , reflecting his view about Malaysian life and the world , are staple features in national newspapers such as New Straits Times and Berita Minggu . He adapted his life experiences and published them as his autobiographies , The Kampung Boy and Town Boy , telling stories of rural and urban life with subtle comparisons between the two .
Lat 's style has been described as reflective of his early influences , The Beano and The Dandy . He has , however , come into his own way of illustration , drawing the common man on the streets with bold strokes in pen and ink . A trademark of his Malay characters is their three @-@ loop noses . Lat paid
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attention to family life and children because of his idolisation of Raja Hamzah , a senior cartoonist who was also popular in the 1960s with his comics about swashbuckling heroes . Rejabhad , a well @-@ respected cartoonist , was Lat 's mentor , and imbued the junior cartoonist with a preference to be sensitive to the subjects of his works . Lat 's attention to details gained him popularity , endearing his works to the masses who find them believable and unbiased .
Aside from writing and publishing cartoons , Lat has ventured into the fields of animation , merchandising , and theme parks with his creations . His name and works are recognised internationally ; foreign cartoonists , such as Matt Groening and Sergio Aragonés , admire his art , and foreign governments invite Lat to tour their countries , hoping to gain greater exposure for their countries through Lat 's cartoons of his experiences in them . After 27 years of living and working in Kuala Lumpur , Lat moved back to Ipoh for a more sedate lifestyle in semi @-@ retirement .
= = Childhood and education = =
Mohammad Nor Khalid was born on 5 March 1951 in a kampung ( village ) in Ipoh , Perak , Malaysia . His father was a government clerk with the Malaysian Armed Forces , and his mother a housewife . Khalid was a stocky boy with a cherubic face , which led his family to nickname him bulat ( round ) . His friends shortened it to " Lat " ; it became the name by which he was more commonly known in his kampung and later in the world . Lat was the eldest child in his family , and he often played in the jungles , plantations , and tin mines with his friends . Their toys were usually improvised from everyday sundries and items of nature . Lat liked to doodle with materials provided by his parents , and his other forms of recreation were reading comics and watching television ; Lat idolised local cartoonist Raja Hamzah , who was popular with his tales of swashbuckling Malay heroes . Malaysian art critic and historian Redza Piyadasa believes Lat 's early years in the kampung ingrained the cartoonist with pride in his kampung roots and a " peculiarly Malay " outlook — " full of [ ... ] gentleness and refinement " .
Lat 's formal education began at a local Malay kampung ( village ) school ; these institutions often taught in the vernacular and did not aspire to academic attainment . The boy changed schools several times ; the nature of his father 's job moved the family from one military base to another across the country , until they settled back at his birthplace in 1960 . A year later , Lat passed the Special Malay Class Examination , qualifying him to attend an English medium boarding school — National Type Primary School — in the state 's capital , Ipoh . His achievement helped his father make the decision to sell their kampung estate and move the family to the town ; society in those days considered education at an English medium school a springboard to a good future . Lat continued his education at Anderson School , Perak 's " premier non @-@ missionary English medium school " . Redza highlights Lat 's move to Ipoh for higher schooling as a significant point in the cartoonist 's development ; the multi @-@ racial environment helped establish his diverse friendships , which in turn broadened his cultural perspectives .
At the age of nine , Lat began to supplement his family 's income through his artistic skills , by drawing comics and selling them to his friends . Four years later , in 1964 , the young cartoonist achieved his first published work : a local movie magazine — Majallah Filem — printed his comic strips , paying him with movie tickets . Lat 's first comic book publication , Tiga Sekawan ( Three Friends Catch a Thief ) , was published by Sinaran Brothers that year . The company had accepted Lat 's submission , mistaking him for an adult and paying him 25 Malaysian ringgits ( RM ) for a story about three friends who band together to catch thieves . In 1968 , at the age of 17 , Lat started penning Keluarga Si Mamat ( Mamat 's Family ) , a comic strip for Berita Minggu ( the Sunday edition of Berita Harian ) . The series ran in the paper every week for 26 years . Although still a schoolboy , Lat was earning a monthly income of RM100 , a large sum in those days , from his cartoons . His education finished two years later at the end of Form 5 ; his Third Grade in the Senior Cambridge examinations was not enough for him to advance to Form 6 . Graduating with an education equivalent to that of high school , Lat started looking for a job and had his sights set on becoming an illustrator .
= = Reporter to cartoonist = =
Moving to the Malaysian capital Kuala Lumpur , Lat applied for a cartoonist 's position at Berita Harian . He was told there was no vacancy , but the paper 's editor , Abdul Samad Ismail , offered him the post of a crime reporter . Lat accepted , a decision he explained was borne from necessity rather than choice : " It was a question of survival . I had to earn money to help support the family . " At that time , Lat 's father had fallen seriously ill and could not work ; Lat had to become the breadwinner of his family . Aside from taking the job , he continued contributing cartoons to other publications . Lat was later transferred to Berita 's parent publication , New Straits Times . Moving throughout the city to report on crimes gave Lat opportunities to observe and interact with the myriads of lives in the urban landscape , enabling him to gather material for his cartoons and increasing his understanding of the world . Nevertheless , he felt he lacked the persistently inquisitive nature needed to succeed as a crime reporter . Furthermore , his " breathtakingly detailed , lurid and graphically gory descriptions " of the aftermaths of crimes had to be frequently toned down by his seniors . Lat became convinced that he was a failure at his job , and his despondency led him to tender his resignation . Samad , believing Lat had a bright future with the press , furiously rejected the letter .
Lat 's career took a turn for the better on 10 February 1974 ; Asia Magazine , a periodical based in Hong Kong , published his cartoons about Bersunat — a circumcision ceremony all Malaysian boys of the Islamic faith have to undergo . The cartoons impressed Tan Sri Lee Siew Yee , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the New Straits Times . Lee found Lat 's portrayal of the important ceremony humorous yet sensitive , and grumbled that the newspaper should have hired the artist . He was surprised to be told that Lat was already working within his organisation . Lat was called to Lee 's office to have a talk , which raised the reporter 's profile in the company . He became the paper 's column cartoonist , taking up a position created for him by Samad , now deputy editor of the New Straits Times . His first duty was to document Malaysian culture in a series of cartoons titled Scenes of Malaysian Life . The newspaper also sent him to study for four months at St Martin 's School of Art in London , where he was introduced to English editorial cartoons and newspapers . Returning to Malaysia full of fascination with his experience , Lat transformed Scenes of Malaysian Life into a series of editorial cartoons . His approach proved popular , and at the end of 1975 he was appointed full @-@ time cartoonist with total freedom in his work .
Lat produced a steady stream of editorial cartoons that entertained Malaysian society . By 1978 , two collections of his works ( Lots of Lat and Lat 's Lot ) had been compiled and sold to the public . Although Malaysians knew of Lat through Scenes of Malaysian Life , it was his next work that propelled him into national consciousness and international recognition . In 1979 , Berita Publishing Sendirian Berhad published Lat 's The Kampung Boy , an autobiographical cartoon account of his youth . The book was a commercial hit ; according to Lat , the first printing — 60 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 copies — sold out within four months of the book 's release . Readers of the book were captivated by his " heart @-@ warming " portrayal of Malaysian rural life , rendered with " scribbly black @-@ and @-@ white sketches " and accompanied by " simple but eloquent prose " . By 2009 , the book has been reprinted 16 times and published in several other countries in various languages , including Portuguese , French , and Japanese . The success of The Kampung Boy established Lat as the " most renowned cartoonist in Malaysia . "
= = After The Kampung Boy = =
In 1981 , Town Boy was published . It continued The Kampung Boy 's story , telling of the protagonist 's teenage life in an urban setting . Two more compilations of Lat 's editorial cartoons ( With a Little Bit of Lat and Lots More Lat ) were published and the number of people who recognised him continued to grow . In 1984 , partly from a desire to step away from the limelight , Lat resigned from the New Straits Times to become a freelancer , but continued to draw Scenes of Malaysia Life for the newspaper . He set up his own company , Kampung Boy Sendirian Berhad ( Village Boy private limited ) , to oversee the merchandising of his cartoon characters and publishing of his books . In 2009 , Kampung Boy partnered Sanrio and Hit Entertainment in a project to open an indoor theme park which would later be called as Puteri Harbour Family Theme Park in Nusajaya , Johor in August 2012 . One of the park 's attractions will be the sight of performers dressed up as Kampung Boy characters beside those in Hello Kitty and Bob the Builder costumes and also reported in August 2012 will be a Lat @-@ inspired diner called Lat 's Place . It will be designed in a Malaysian village setting , coupled with animations for patrons to interact with .
Lat has experimented with media other than paper . In 1993 he produced a short animated feature , Mina Smiles , for Unesco ; the video , featuring a female lead , was for a literacy campaign . Personal concerns motivated Lat for his next foray into animation ; judging that Western animation of the 1980s and 90s had negative influences , he wanted to produce a series for Malaysian children that espoused local values . The result was Kampung Boy the television series ( 1997 ) , an adaptation of his trademark comic . The 26 @-@ episode series received positive reviews for technical details and content . There were comments on its similarities to The Simpsons , and on its English which was not entirely local . His most recent involvement with animation was in 2009 ; Lat 's Window to the World , a musical animated feature , played at the Petronas Philharmonic Hall . Lat had been commissioned to help create three animated vignettes based on The Kampung Boy to accompany the instruments of the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra . The scores , composed by Carl Davis , complemented Lat 's visuals , capturing the spirit of kampung childhood in a " simple , idyllic past " .
In 1997 , after 27 years of living in Kuala Lumpur , Lat moved back to Ipoh with his family . Aside from retreating slightly from the cartooning scene , he wanted to be close to his old kampung and let his children experience life in a small town or village ; he had married in 1977 , and the couple have four children — two daughters and two sons . Lat said that raising his children has helped him cope with the pressures of his fame and made him realise that he might be losing touch with the new generation of Malaysians who have different tastes in cartoons . His wife helps him in his work , scanning his completed cartoons and emailing them to the newspaper offices in Kuala Lumpur . Lat still draws with his usual pens and inks , avoiding the use of computers except to read his emails . In 2011 – 12 , he is to join other artists from around the world in Italy for the Civitella Ranieri Fellowship programme . During their one @-@ month stay , they are encouraged to share ideas in an environment fostered to stimulate their creativity .
= = Art style = =
Lat covers various genres in his works . His portfolio is diverse ; John A. Lent , a scholar of Asian cartoons , found it to difficult to classify the cartoonist into any particular field . In his Keluarga Si Mamat series , Lat drew slapsticks and satires that examined the encounters between traditional and modern values . Humorous stories of children at play also populated the series . Jennifer Rodrigo Willmott , writer for Reader 's Digest , stated that :
Lat 's cartoon characters have always been ordinary people — a villager in his checkered sarong , a money @-@ changer in his white dhoti , a Malay government servant in his bush jacket and sometimes even Lat himself : that character with the flat , round face ; the nose slightly off centre ; the untidy mop of dark , curly hair ; and the constant toothy grin .
Using a large cast of characters — a wide assortment of personalities and cultures — allows Lat to comment on a wider range of topics than is possible with a small group of characters . Malaysian comics scholar Muliyadi Muhamood commented that the humour in Lat 's cartoons is evoked through graphical and textual means ; " short , compact dialogues " and puns form the text while " facial expressions and actions " of the characters help to bring out the funny side of things . Muliyadi further stated that Lat 's works offer many levels of interpretation ; one reader would laugh at Lat 's cartoon for its slapstick , while another would find the same work hilarious for its subtle critique of society . As an example , Muliyadi referred to a Keluarga Si Mamat strip published in 1972 . Malaysia was facing a shortage of qualified physical education teachers then , and such duties were often placed on the shoulders of teachers of other faculties . Lat illustrated an obese teacher who conducted a physical education session to his eventual collapse . Muliyadi suggested that the cartoon could be interpreted as a simple tease of the teacher 's plight , a suggestion to examine the curriculum taught ( change physical education to an informal session ) , a remark on the shortage of teachers , or more extremely , a criticism of the government 's failure to prevent the situation from happening .
The narration of Lat 's early cartoons , such as Tiga Sekawan and Keluarga Si Mamat , was in Malay . His later works , however , were mostly in English ; Scenes of Malaysian Life ran only in the English @-@ language New Straits Times . The English idiom in his works reflects the local pidgin form — " Malglish " — containing smatterings of Malay words and a simpler grammatical structure . After a string of successful English publications , Lat worried he had neglected Malaysians who were not proficient in English . He drew Mat Som , a story of a kampung boy who moved to the city to work as a writer and courted a pretty city girl . The comic was in Malay and a commercial hit ; its first print of 30 @,@ 000 copies sold out in three months . Far Eastern Economic Review journalist Suhaini Aznam remarked that Lat 's strength was his ability to portray the plight of the common man in a satiric light without any form of bias .
= = = Early style = = =
Lat 's artistic skills were cultivated from youth and self @-@ taught . The cartoonist believes he inherited the talent and interest from his father , who doodled as a hobby and was notorious for his sense of humour as the " village jester " . Lat says his siblings were also gifted in drawing , but they never bothered to develop their talents . His parents actively encouraged him to develop his artistic skills , although his father occasionally told him not to make a career of it . He also received encouragement from outside his family ; Lat 's primary school teacher Mrs Moira Hew ( the inspiration for one of his characters , the Butterfly @-@ Glassed Lady ) , helped nurture his gift , frequently asking him to illustrate lessons in class . Her teachings expanded Lat 's mind and made him more receptive to ideas that looked beyond his kampung .
The early influences on his art style were from the West . Like most of the Malaysian children in the 1950s , Lat watched Hanna @-@ Barbera cartoons ( The Flintstones and The Jetsons ) on television and read imported British comics , such as The Dandy and The Beano . He studied them and used their styles and themes in his early doodles . After the foreign influences in his works were noticed by a family friend , Lat was advised by his father to observe and draw upon ideas from their surroundings instead . Heeding the advice , the young cartoonist intimated himself with local happenings . Tiga Sekawan was conceived as a humorous crime @-@ fighting story of a local flavour . Keluarga Si Mamat and its protagonist were named after his youngest brother Mamat , its stories based on Lat 's observations of his fellow villagers and schoolmates . The inspiration for his cartoons about Bersunat came about when he was on assignment at a hospital . As he was taking breaks from investigating the dead victims of crime brought to the morgue , Lat chanced upon the circumcisions performed by the hospital on ethnic Malay boys . He found their experiences clinical , devoid of the elaborate and personal ceremonies that celebrated his own rite to manhood in the village . Lat felt compelled to illustrate the differences between life in his kampung and the city .
When Lat formally entered the cartooning industry , he was not totally unfamiliar with the profession . He had the benefit of the mentorship of Rejabhad , an experienced political cartoonist . Rejabhad was well respected by his countrymen , who titled him the " penghulu ( chief ) of Malay cartoonists " . After noticing Lat 's submissions to newspapers and magazines , he corresponded with the young cartoonist . When Rejabhad was requested by Lat 's mother to take care of her 15 @-@ year @-@ old son in the cartooning industry , he accepted . He gave advice and influenced Lat 's growth as a cartoonist . Lat treated Rejabhad with great respect , holding up his mentor as a role model . The affection and admiration was mutual . Thirty @-@ six years after taking Lat under his wing , Rejabhad recounted their relationship in these words :
Lat and I are so far apart but so close in heart . When I meet him , my mouth is sewed up . When the love is very close , the mouth is dumb , can 't speak a word . Lat is on top of the mountain , as he doesn 't forget the grass at the foot of the mountain . When he goes here and there , he tells people I 'm his teacher .
Rejabhad was not the first local figure to have exerted an influence on Lat . Raja Hamzah , popular with his action comics and ghost stories , was Lat 's " hero " in his childhood . It was Raja Hamzah 's cartoons of local swashbuckling adventurers that inspired Lat to become a cartoonist . Tiga Sekawan was the culmination of that desire , the success after numerous failed submissions and an affirmation to Lat that he could become a cartoonist like his idol . Raja Hamzah also had success with comic strips on family life , such as Mat Jambul 's Family and Dol Keropok and Wak Tempeh . These cartoons imbued Lat with a fascination of family life and the antics of children , which served him well in his later works . Lat was interested in studying the details of his surroundings and capturing them in his works . Keluarga Si Mamat and The Kampung Boy faithfully depicted their characters ' appearances and attitudes . Their narrations were written in a style that was natural to the locals . Thus , Lat was able to make his readers believe his stories and characters were substantially " Malay " .
= = = Later style = = =
After his study trip to London in 1975 , Lat 's works exhibited the influences of editorial cartoonists such as Frank Dickens , Ralph Steadman , and Gerald Scarfe . In 1997 , Ron Provencher , a professor emeritus at Northern Illinois University , reported that Lat 's style reminded his informants on the Malaysian cartooning scene of The Beano . Muliyadi elaborated that The Beano and The Dandy 's " theme of a child 's world " is evident in Lat 's Keluarga Si Mamat . Others commented that Lat 's art stood out on its own . Singaporean cartoonist Morgan Chua believed that Lat " managed to create an impressively local style while remaining original " , and although comics historian Isao Shimizu found Lat 's lines " somewhat crude " , he noted that the cartoonist 's work was " highly original " and " full of life " . Redza 's judgement was that The Beano and The Dandy were " early formative [ influences ] " on Lat before he came into his own style . Lent gave his assessment in 1999 :
It is Lat 's drawing that is so evocative , so true to life , despite its very exaggerated distortion . Lat 's Malaysian characters are distinguished by their ethnic linkages ( for example , his Malay characters have three loop noses ) , which in itself , is no mean feat . The drawings are bold strokes , expressive dialogue in English and Bahasa Malaysian , as well as in what portends to be Chinese , Tamil , and entertaining backgrounds that tell their own stories .
Lat 's work with pen and ink so impressed Larry Gonick that the American cartoonist was tempted into experimenting with this medium for part of his The Cartoon History of the Universe . Gonick tried to use the medium as he did his regular brushes ; however , the results proved unsatisfactory . Lat occasionally colours his works , such as those in his Kampong Boy : Yesterday and Today ( 1993 ) , using watercolour or marker pens . According to Lent , Redza judged that Lat had " elevated cartooning to the level of ' high visual arts ' through his social commentary and ' construction of the landscape ' " . The art critic was not alone in having a high regard for Lat 's works . Jaafar Taib , cartoonist and editor of Malaysian satirical magazine Gila @-@ Gila , found Lat 's cartoons retained their humour and relevance throughout time . He explained that this quality arose from the well @-@ thought @-@ out composition of Lat 's works , which helped to clearly express the ideas behind the cartoons .
= = = Sensitive topics = = =
At the time that Lat started drawing for the New Straits Times , local political cartoonists were gentle in their treatment of Malaysian politicians ; the politicians ' features were recreated faithfully and criticisms were voiced in the form of subtle poems . Lat , however , pushed the boundaries ; although he portrayed the politicians with dignity , he exaggerated notable features of their appearances and traits . Lat recalled that in 1974 , he was told to change one of his works , which portrayed Malaysian Prime Minister Abdul Razak from the back . Lee refused to print the work unchanged , and pointedly asked the cartoonist " You want to go to jail ? ! " In 1975 , however , Lat 's next attempt at a political cartoon won Lee 's approval . The satire featured a caricature of Razak 's successor — Hussein Onn — on the back of a camel , travelling back to Kuala Lumpur from Saudi Arabia ; its punchline was Hussein 's hailing of his mount to slow down after reading news that a pay raise for the civil service would be enacted on his return .
Malaysia 's political class grew comfortable with Lat 's caricatures , and like the rest of the country , found them entertaining . Muliyadi described Lat 's style as " subtle , indirect , and symbolic " , following traditional forms of Malaysian humour in terms of ethics and aesthetics . The cartoonist 's compliance with tradition in his art earned him the country 's respect . When Lat was critical of politicians , he portrayed them in situations " unusual , abnormal or unexpected " to their status or personalities , using the contrast to make the piece humorous . Mahathir bin Mohamad , Malaysia 's fourth Prime Minister , was Lat 's frequent target for much of his political career , providing more than 20 years worth of material to the cartoonist — enough for a 146 @-@ page compilation Dr Who ? ! ( 2004 ) . Lat 's political wit targeted not only local politicians , but also Israeli actions in the Middle East and foreign figures such as prominent Singaporean politician Lee Kwan Yew . Despite his many works of political nature , Lat does not consider himself a political cartoonist and openly admits that there are others better than he is in this field .
Lat prefers to portray his ideas with as little antagonism as possible . He heeds the advice of his mentor , Rejabhad , and is aware of sensitivities , especially those of race , culture , and religion . As he devises the concept for his cartoon , he eliminates anything he believes to be malicious or insensitive . At the Fourth Asian Cartoon Exhibition in Tokyo , Lat revealed that when it came to making religious comments in his work , he only did so on his own religion ( Islam ) . In such cases , Lat uses his art to help educate the young about his faith . Lat trusts his editors to do their jobs and cull what is socially unacceptable for print . In an interview , he revealed his discomfort with the concept of self @-@ publishing , believing that unadulterated or unsupervised cartoon drawing could lead to " rubbish " . He prefers to be assertive in areas with which he is comfortable or competent . Lat is adamant on not changing what he has already drawn ; several pieces of his cartoons remain unpublished because editors refused to print them unchanged . When that happens , the editors spike ( blank ) the space for his regular cartoon in the newspaper . Lat admitted of his unprinted works : " Okay , maybe I 've pushed the line a little bit , but I 've never got into trouble and , frankly , only a handful of my cartoons were ever spiked . "
= = Interests and beliefs = =
Music has played a crucial part in Lat 's life since his youth ; he revealed in an interview that listening to songs such as Peggy March 's " I Will Follow Him " and Paul & Paula 's " Hey Paula " helped him learn English . Listening to music had also become an important ritual in his work , providing him with inspiration in his art . When he sketches " fashionable girls " , he puts on Paul McCartney 's tracks , and switches to Indonesian gamelan when he needs to draw intricate details . He enjoys pop music , particularly rock music of the 1950s and 60s , listening to The Beatles , Bob Dylan , and Elvis Presley . Lat is also partial to country music , and to singers such as Hank Williams and Roy Rogers because he finds their tunes " humble " . His enjoyment of music is more than a passive interest ; he is proficient with the guitar and piano , and can play them by ear .
Malaysian society used to look down on cartoonists , assuming that those who practised the trade were intellectually inferior to writers , or were lesser artists ; Lat was not the only cartoonist to be paid with movie tickets in the 1950s ; Rejabhad once received one ticket for ten cartoons , and many others were likewise recompensed , or were paid very little money . Despite the lowly reputation of his profession at that time , Lat is very proud of his choice of career ; he once took umbrage with an acquaintance 's girlfriend for her presumption that the words and ideas in his cartoons were not his own . Drawing cartoons is more than a career to him :
If it is a job then how come it 's been going on for 33 years , from childhood to now ? A job is something you do at a certain time . You go to work , you finish it , you retire . If this is a job , then by now I should have retired . But I am still drawing . It 's not a job to me . It is something expected of me .
The elongated " L " in Lat 's signature was born from his joy in completing a work . He professes that his primary aim in drawing cartoons is to make people laugh ; his role as a cartoonist is " to translate the reaction of the people into humorous cartoons " . He has no intentions to preach his beliefs through his art , believing that people should be free to make up their own minds and that the best he can do is to make readers ponder the deeper meanings behind a humorous scene . The reward he has sought from drawing since his youth is simple :
It gives a good feeling when people are amused by your funny drawings , especially for a kid . I felt like an entertainer when my drawings were shown to relatives and friends , and they laughed or even smiled .
Lat 's pride in cartooning pushed him to promote the art as a respectable career . In 1991 , he banded together with fellow cartoonists Zunar , Rejabhad , and Muliyadi to start " Pekartun " ( Persatuan Kartunis Selangor dan Kuala Lumpur ) . This association holds exhibitions and forums , to raise public awareness of cartooning and to build relationships among its members . It also helps to clarify legal issues such as copyrights to its members , and acts as an intermediary between them and the government . In the previous year , Lat 's company , Kampung Boy , had organised the first Malaysian International Cartoonists Gathering , bringing together cartoonists from several countries across the world to exhibit their art and participate in conferences to educate others in their work . In Redza 's opinion , Lat played a great role in making cartooning respectable among his fellow Malaysians .
Aside from promoting the rights of fellow cartoonists , Lat developed an interest in encouraging conservation of the natural environment . Several of his works caricature the consequences of pollution and over @-@ exploitation of resources . Invited to give a speech at the 9th Osaka International Symposium on Civilisation in 1988 , Lat talked about the environmental problems associated with overpopulation and heavy industrialisation . He further reminisced about the simple cleaner life he had enjoyed as a child in the kampung . In 1977 , when a protest was organised against logging activities in the Endau @-@ Rompin Reserves , Lat helped gain support for the movement by drawing cartoons in the newspapers that highlighted the issue . Lat is also particularly concerned over what he sees as the negative side of urban development . He believes that such developments have contributed to the loss of the traditional way of life ; people forget the old culture and values as they ingratiate themselves with the rapid pace and sophistication of urban lifestyles . His defence and fondness of the old ways are manifested in his The Kampung Boy , Town Boy , Mat Som , and Kampung Boy : Yesterday and Today , which champion the old lifestyles as spiritually superior .
= = Influence and legacy = =
Recognised globally , and widely popular in his country , Lat has been styled " cultural hero " , " his nation 's conscience in cartoon form " and " Malaysian icon " among other effusive titles . The Malaysian Press Institute felt Lat had " become an institution in [ his ] own right " , honouring him with their Special Jury Award in 2005 . Cartoonists in the Southeast Asian region , such as Muliyadi , Chua , and Rejabhad , have given high praise to Lat , and his admirers further abroad include North American cartoonists Matt Groening and Eddie Campbell . Groening , creator of The Simpsons , gave a testimonial for the United States version of The Kampung Boy , praising Lat 's signature work as " one of the all @-@ time great cartoon books " . Sergio Aragonés , the creator of Groo the Wanderer , is another of Lat 's American fans . After visiting Malaysia in 1987 , Aragonés used the experience to create a story for Groo in which the bumbling swordsman chances on the isle of Felicidad , whose inhabitants and natural habitat were modelled after those of the Southeast Asian country . Aragonés drew the noses of the islanders in Lat 's distinctive style , and named one of the prominent native characters — an inquisitive boy — after the Malaysian cartoonist .
Lent ( 2003 ) and Shimizu ( 1996 ) both suggest that the Malaysian comic industry began to boom after Lat joined the profession on a full @-@ time basis in 1974 . Lent further hazards that the cartoonist profession was made more respectable in Malaysia by the award to Lat in 1994 of a datuk title ( equivalent to a knighthood ) . Bestowed on Lat by the Sultan of Perak , the title was Malaysia 's highest recognition of the cartoonist 's influence on his countrymen and his contributions to the country . Before Lat 's emergence , Malaysian cartooning was largely unappreciated by the public , despite the popular works of Raja Hamzad and Rejabhad . Lat 's successes showed Malaysians that they could thrive and succeed as cartoonists , and inspired them to look to the cartooning profession for potential careers . Several younger artists imitated his style in the hopes of capturing equivalent rewards . Zambriabu and Rasyid Asmawi copied the distinctive three loop noses and hairstyles of Lat 's characters . Others , such as Reggie Lee and Nan , incorporated Lat 's detailed " thematic and stylistic approaches " in their works . Muliyadi dubbed Lat the " Father of Contemporary Malaysian Cartoons " , for being the first Malaysian cartoonist to achieve global recognition and for helping to improve the industry 's image in their country .
The effects of Lat 's works were not confined to the artistic sector . In the period before his debut , Malaysian cartoonists supported calls for national unity . The characters in a cartoon were often of one race , and negative focus on the foibles of particular races or cultures worked its way into the mainstream . Such cartoons did not help to sooth racial tensions that were simmering then . The situation erupted with the racial riots of 1969 , and for several years after these incidents relationships among the races were raw and fragile . According to Redza , Lat soothed the nation 's racial woes with his works . Drawing members of various races in his crowd scenes and showing their interactions with one another , Lat portrayed Malaysians in a gentle and unbiased comic manner . Redza pointed out although one may argue that Lat was forced into the role of racial and cultural mediator ( because of his employment with his country 's " leading English @-@ language newspaper serving a multi @-@ racial readership " ) , he possessed the necessary qualities — intimate knowledge of various races and culture — to succeed in the job . Lat 's fans recognised the trademark of his oeuvre as " a safe and nice humour that made everyone feel good and nostalgic by appealing to their benevolent sides rather than by poking at their bad sides " . It proved to be a successful formula ; more than 850 @,@ 000 copies of his books were sold in the twelve years after the first compilation of his editorial cartoons went on sale in 1977 . The comfort that readers sought from his works was such that when in September 2008 Lat deviated from his usual style , to draw a cartoon about racially charged politicking in his country , it shocked journalist Kalimullah Hassan . She found the illustration of a group of Malaysians huddled under an umbrella , taking shelter from a rain of xenophobic phrases , full of profound sadness .
Lat 's works have been used in academic studies — the fields of which are diverse , spanning law , urban planning , and diets . The academics use his drawings to help them illustrate their points in a humorous yet educational manner . Foreign embassy officials have sought Lat for his insight into the cultures of their societies . They have invited him to tour their countries , in the hope that he will record his experiences in cartoon form to share with the world . The first country to do so was the United States , followed by others such as Australia , Germany , and Japan . In 1998 , Lat became the first cartoonist to be made an Eisenhower Fellow and revisited the United States ; his research programme was the study of relationships among the many races in United States society . In 2007 , the National University of Malaysia awarded him an Honorary Doctorate in Anthropology and Sociology . Lat 's works are recognised as visual records of Malaysia 's cultural history ; he was awarded a Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize in 2002 for preserving Malay rural culture in his works .
In 1986 , Lat became the first cartoonist to exhibit his work at the National Museum in Kuala Lumpur ; the event drew a record number of 600 @,@ 000 visitors in two months . He is treated as a celebrity , and his cartoon characters decorate stamps , financial guides , and aeroplanes . When Reader 's Digest asked Malaysians in 2010 to rank which of 50 local personalities was most worthy of trust , Lat was returned fourth on the list . According to Jaafar , " 100 % of Malaysians respect and admire Lat , and see a Malaysian truth , whether he is drawing a policeman , teachers , or hookers . "
= = List of major honours = =
1994 – Honorific title of datuk
1998 – Eisenhower Fellowship
2002 – Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize
2005 – Petronas Journalism Awards ( Special Jury Award )
2007 – Honorary Doctorate in Anthropology and Sociology
2010 – Civitella Ranieri Visual Arts Fellowship
= = List of selected works = =
This is a partial list of Lat 's books ( first prints ) ; excluded are translations and commissioned works , such as Latitudes ( 1986 ) for Malaysian Airlines and the annual personal financial management guides ( since 1999 ) for Bank Negara Malaysia .
Tiga Sekawan : Menangkap Penchuri [ Three Friends Catch a Thief ] ( in Malay ) . Penang , Malaysia : Sinaran Brothers . 1964 .
Lots of Lat . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . February 1977 .
Lat 's Lot . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . June 1978 .
The Kampung Boy . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1979 .
Keluarga Si Mamat [ Mamat 's Family ] ( in Malay ) . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1979 .
With a Little Bit of Lat . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1980 .
Town Boy . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1981 .
Lots More Lat . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1980 .
Lat and His Lot Again ! . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1983 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 404 @-@ 6 .
Entahlah Mak ... ! [ I Don 't Know , mother ... ! ] ( in Malay ) . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1985 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 076 @-@ 8 .
It 's a Lat Lat Lat Lat World . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1985 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 075 @-@ X.
Lat and Gang . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1987 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 157 @-@ 8 .
Lat with a Punch . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1988 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 180 @-@ 2 .
Better Lat than Never . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1989 . ISBN 978 @-@ 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 211 @-@ 2 .
Mat Som ( in Malay ) . Selangor , Malaysia : Kampung Boy . 1989 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 075 @-@ X.
Lat as Usual . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1990 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 262 @-@ 0 .
Be Serious Lat . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1992 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 398 @-@ 8 .
Kampung Boy : Yesterday and Today . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1993 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 307 @-@ 4 .
Lat 30 Years Later . Selangor , Malaysia : Kampung Boy . 1994 . ISBN 983 @-@ 99617 @-@ 4 @-@ 8 .
Lat Was Here . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1995 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 347 @-@ 3 .
Lat Gets Lost . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1996 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 455 @-@ 0 .
The Portable Lat . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1998 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 500 @-@ X.
Lat at Large . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 1999 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 508 @-@ 5 .
Dr Who ? ! : Capturing the Life and Times of a Leader in Cartoons . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : Berita Publishing . 2004 . ISBN 967 @-@ 969 @-@ 528 @-@ X.
Lat : The Early Series . Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia : New Straits Times Publishing . 2009 . ISBN 978 @-@ 983 @-@ 871 @-@ 037 @-@ 4 .
= Ebla =
Ebla ( Arabic : إبلا , modern : تل مرديخ , Tell Mardikh ) , was one of the earliest kingdoms in Syria . Its remains constitute a tell located about 55 km ( 34 mi ) southwest of Aleppo near the village of Mardikh . Ebla was an important center throughout the third millennium BC and in the first half of the second millennium BC . Its discovery proved the Levant was a center of ancient , centralized civilization equal to Egypt and Mesopotamia , and ruled out the view that the latter two were the only important centers in the Near East during the early Bronze Age . Karl Moore described the first Eblaite kingdom as the first recorded world power .
Starting as a small settlement in the early Bronze Age ( c . 3500 BC ) , Ebla developed into a trading empire and later into an expansionist power that imposed its hegemony over much of northern and eastern Syria . Its language , Eblaite , is now considered the earliest attested Semitic language after Akkadian . Ebla was destroyed during the 23rd century BC ; it was then rebuilt and was mentioned in the records of the Third Dynasty of Ur . The second Ebla was a continuation of the first , ruled by a new royal dynasty . It was destroyed at the end of the third millennium BC , which paved the way for the Amorite tribes to settle in the city , forming the third Ebla . The third kingdom also flourished as a trade center ; it became a subject and an ally of Yamhad ( modern @-@ day Aleppo ) until its final destruction by the Hittite king Mursili I in c . 1600 BC .
Ebla maintained its prosperity through a vast trading network . Artifacts from Sumer , Cyprus , Egypt and as far as Afghanistan were recovered from the city 's palaces . The political organization of Ebla had features different from the Sumerian model . Women enjoyed a special status and the queen had major influence in the state and religious affairs .
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The pantheon of gods was mainly north Semitic and included deities exclusive to Ebla . The city was excavated starting in 1964 , and became famous for the Ebla tablets , an archive of about 20 @,@ 000 cuneiform tablets found there , dated to around 2350 BC . Written in both Sumerian and Eblaite and using the cuneiform , the archive has allowed a better understanding of the Sumerian language and provided important information over the political organization and social customs of the mid third millennium BC 's Levant .
= = History = =
A possible meaning of the word " Ebla " is " white rock " , referring to the limestone outcrop on which the city was built . Ebla was first settled around 3500 BC ; its growth was supported by many satellite agricultural settlements . The city benefited from its role as an entrepôt of growing international trade , which probably began with an increased demand for wool in Sumer . Archaeologists designate this early habitation period " Mardikh I " ; it ended around 3000 BC . Mardikh I is followed by the first and second kingdoms era between about 3000 and 2000 BC , designated " Mardikh II " . I. J. Gelb consider Ebla as part of the Kish civilization , which was a cultural entity of East Semitic @-@ speaking populations that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to the western Levant .
= = = First kingdom = = =
During the first kingdom period between about 3000 and 2300 BC , Ebla was the most prominent kingdom among the Syrian states , especially during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC , which is known as " the age of the archives " after the Ebla tablets .
= = = = Early period = = = =
The early period between 3000 and 2400 BC is designated " Mardikh IIA " . General knowledge about the city 's history prior to the written archives is obtained through excavations . The first stages of Mardikh IIA is identified with building " CC " , and structures that form a part of building " G2 " , which was apparently a royal palace built c . 2700 BC . Toward the end of this period , a hundred years ' war with Mari started . Mari gained the upper hand through the actions of its king Saʿumu , who conquered many of Ebla 's cities . In the mid @-@ 25th century BC , king Kun @-@ Damu defeated Mari , but the state 's power declined following his reign .
= = = = Archive period = = = =
The archive period , which is designated " Mardikh IIB1 " , lasted from c . 2400 BC until c . 2300 BC . The end of the period is known as the " first destruction " , mainly referring to the destruction of the royal palace ( called palace " G " and built over the earlier " G2 " ) , and much of the acropolis . During the archive period , Ebla had political and military dominance over the other Syrian city @-@ states of northern and eastern Syria , which are mentioned in the archives . Most of the tablets , which date from that period , are about economic matters but also include royal letters and diplomatic documents .
The written archives do not date from before Igrish @-@ Halam 's reign , which saw Ebla paying tribute to Mari , and an extensive invasion of Eblaite cities in the middle Euphrates region led by the Mariote king Iblul @-@ Il . Ebla recovered under King Irkab @-@ Damu in about 2340 BC ; becoming prosperous and launching a successful counter @-@ offensive against Mari . Irkab @-@ Damu concluded a peace and trading treaty with Abarsal ; it is one of the earliest @-@ recorded treaties in history .
At its greatest extent , Ebla controlled an area roughly half the size of modern Syria , from Ursa 'um in the north , to the area around Damascus in the south , and from Phoenicia and the coastal mountains in the west , to Haddu in the east . Half of kingdom was under the direct control of the king and was administered by governors ; the rest consisted of vassal kingdoms paying tribute and supplying military assistance to Ebla . One of the most important of these vassals was Armi , which is the city most often mentioned in the Ebla tablets . Ebla had more than sixty vassal kingdoms and city @-@ states , including Hazuwan , Burman , Emar , Halabitu and Salbatu .
The vizier was the king 's chief official . The holder of the office possessed great authority ; the most powerful vizier was Ibrium , who campaigned against Abarsal during the term of his predecessor Arrukum . During the reign of Isar @-@ Damu , Ebla continued the war against Mari , which defeated Ebla 's ally Nagar , blocking trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia . Ebla conducted regular military campaigns against rebellious vassals , including several attacks on Armi , and a campaign against the southern city of Ibal — close to Qatna . In order to settle the war with Mari , Isar @-@ Damu allied with Nagar and Kish . The campaign was headed by the Eblaite vizier Ibbi @-@ Sipish , who led the combined armies to victory in a battle near Terqa . The alliance also attacked Armi and occupied it , leaving Ibbi @-@ Sipish 's son Enzi @-@ Malik as governor . Ebla suffered its first destruction a few years after the campaign , probably following Isar @-@ Damu 's death .
= = = = First destruction of Ebla = = = =
The first destruction occurred c . 2300 BC ; palace " G " was burned , baking the clay tablets of the royal archives and preserving them . Many theories about the cause and the perpetrator have been posited :
High ( early ) dating hypothesis : Giovanni Pettinato supports an early dating for Ebla that would put the destruction at around 2500 BC . Pettinato , while preferring the date of 2500 BC , later accepted the event could have happened in 2400 BC . The scholar suggests the city was destroyed in 2400 BC by a Mesopotamian such as Eannatum of Lagash — who boasted of taking tribute from Mari — or Lugalzagesi of Umma , who claimed to have reached the Mediterranean .
Akkadian hypothesis : Both kings Sargon of Akkad and his grandson Naram @-@ Sin claimed to have destroyed a town called Ibla , The discoverer of Ebla , Paolo Matthiae , considers Sargon a more likely culprit ; his view is supported by Trevor Bryce , but rejected by Michael Astour .
Mari 's revenge : According to Alfonso Archi and Maria Biga , the destruction happened approximately three or four years after the battle of Terqa . Archi and Biga say the destruction was caused by Mari in retaliation for its humiliating defeat at Terqa . This view is supported by Mario Liverani . Archi says the Mariote king Isqi @-@ Mari destroyed Ebla before ascending the throne of his city .
Natural catastrophe : Astour says a natural catastrophe caused the blaze which ended the archive period . He says the destruction was limited to the area of the royal palace and there is no convincing evidence of looting . He dates the fire to c . 2290 BC ( Middle Chronology ) .
= = = Second kingdom = = =
The second kingdom 's period is designated " Mardikh IIB2 " , and spans the period between 2300 and 2000 BC . The second kingdom lasted until Ebla 's second destruction , which occurred anytime between 2050 and 1950 BC , with the 2000 BC dating being a mere formal date . The Akkadians under Sargon and his descendant Naram @-@ Sin invaded the northern borders of Ebla aiming for the forests of the Amanus Mountain ; the intrusions were separated by roughly 90 years and the areas attacked were not attached to Akkad . Archi accept that the Ibla mentioned in the annals of Sargon and Naram @-@ Sin is the Syrian Ebla but do not consider them responsible for the destruction which ended the Archive period . By the time of Naram @-@ Sin , Armi was the hegemonic city in northern Syria and was destroyed by the Akkadian king .
A new local dynasty ruled the second kingdom of Ebla , but there was continuity with its first kingdom heritage . Ebla maintained its earliest features , including its architectural style and the sanctity of the first kingdom 's religious sites . A new royal palace was built in the lower town , and the transition from the archive period is marked only by the destruction of palace " G " . Little is known about the second kingdom because no written material have been discovered aside from one inscription dating to the end of the period .
The second kingdom was attested to in contemporaneous sources ; in an inscription , Gudea of Lagash asked for cedars to be brought from Urshu in the mountains of Ebla , indicating Ebla 's territory included Urshu north of Carchemish in modern @-@ day Turkey . Texts that dates to the seventh year of Amar @-@ Sin ( c . 2040 BC ) , a ruler of the Ur III empire , mention a messenger of the Ensí ( " Megum " ) of Ebla . The second kingdom was considered a vassal by the Ur III government , but the nature of the relation is unknown and it included the payment of tribute . A formal recognition of Ur 's overlordship appears to be a condition for the right of trade with that empire .
The second kingdom disintegrated toward the end of the 21st century BC , and ended with the destruction of the city by fire , although evidence for the event has only been found outside of the so called " Temple of the Rock " , and in the area around palace " E " on the acropolis . The reason for the destruction is not known ; according to Astour , it could have been the result of a Hurrian invasion c . 2030 BC , led by the former Eblaite vassal city of Ikinkalis . The destruction of Ebla is mentioned in the fragmentary Hurro @-@ Hittite legendary epic " Song of Release " discovered in 1983 , which Astour considers as describing the destruction of the second kingdom . In the epic , an Eblaite assembly led by a man called " Zazalla " prevents king Meki from showing mercy to prisoners from Ebla 's former vassal Ikinkalis , provoking the wrath of the Hurrian storm god Teshub and causing him to destroy the city .
= = = Third kingdom = = =
The third kingdom is designated " Mardikh III " ; it is divided into periods " A " ( c . 2000 – 1800 BC ) and " B " ( c . 1800 – 1600 BC ) . In period " A " , Ebla was quickly rebuilt as a planned city . The foundations covered the remains of Mardikh II ; new palaces and temples were built , and new fortifications were built in two circles — one for the low city and one for the acropolis . The city was laid out on regular lines and large public buildings were built . Further construction took place in period " B " .
The first known king of the third kingdom is Ibbit @-@ Lim , who described himself as the Mekim of Ebla . A basalt votive statue bearing Ibbit @-@ Lim 's inscription was discovered in 1968 ; this helped to identify the site of Tell @-@ Mardikh with the ancient kingdom Ebla . The name of the king is Amorite in the view of Pettinato ; it is therefore probable the inhabitants of third kingdom Ebla were predominantly Amorites , as were most of the inhabitants of Syria at that time .
By the beginning of the 18th century BC , Ebla had become a vassal of Yamhad , an Amorite kingdom centered in Aleppo . Written records are not available for this period , but the city was still a vassal during Yarim @-@ Lim III of Yamhad 's reign . One of the known rulers of Ebla during this period was Immeya , who received gifts from the Egyptian Pharaoh Hotepibre , indicating the continuing wide connections and importance of Ebla . The city was mentioned in tablets from the Yamhadite vassal city of Alalakh in modern @-@ day Turkey ; an Eblaite princess married a son of King Ammitaqum of Alalakh , who belonged to a branch of the royal Yamhadite dynasty .
Ebla was destroyed by the Hittite King Mursili I in about 1600 BC . Indilimma was probably the last king of Ebla ; a seal of his crown prince Maratewari was discovered in the western palace " Q " . According to Archi , the " Song of Release " epic describes the destruction of the third kingdom and preserves older elements .
= = = Later periods = = =
Ebla never recovered from its third destruction . It was a small village in the phase designated " Mardikh IV " ( 1600 – 1200 BC ) , and was mentioned in the records of Alalakh as a vassal to the Idrimi dynasty . " Mardikh V " ( 1200 – 535 BC ) was a rural , early Iron Age settlement that grew in size during later periods . Further development occurred during " Mardikh VI " , which lasted until c . 60 AD . " Mardikh VII " began in the 3rd century AD and lasted until the 7th century , after which the site was abandoned .
= = Organization = =
= = = City layout = = =
Ebla consisted of a lower town and a raised acropolis in the center . During the first kingdom , the city had an area of 56 hectares and was protected by mud @-@ brick fortifications . Ebla was divided into four districts — each with its own gate in the outer wall . The acropolis included the king 's palace " G " , and one of two temples in city dedicated to Kura ( called the " Red Temple " ) . The lower city included the second temple of Kura in the southeast called " Temple of the Rock " . During the second kingdom , a royal palace ( Archaic Palace " P5 " ) was built in the lower town northwest of the acropolis , in addition to temple " D " built over the destroyed " Red Temple " .
During the third kingdom , Ebla was a large city nearly 60 hectares in size , and was protected by a fortified rampart , with double chambered gates . The acropolis was fortified and separated from the lower town . New royal palace " E " was built on the acropolis ( during Mardikh IIIB ) , and a temple of Ishtar was constructed over the former " Red " and " D " temples ( in area " D " ) . The lower town was also divided into four districts ; palace " P5 " was used during Mardikh IIIA , and replaced during Mardikh IIIB by the " Intermediate Palace " .
Other building included the vizier palace , the western palace ( in area " Q " ) , the temple of Shamash ( temple " N " ) , the temple of Rasap ( temple " B1 " ) and the northern palace ( built over the " Intermediate Palace " ) . In the north of the lower town , a second temple for Ishtar was built , while the former " Temple of the Rock " was replaced by a temple of Hadad . Beneath the western palace , natural caves constituted a royal burial ground ; it includes many tombs such as the " Tomb of the Lord of the Goats " and " Tomb of the Princess " .
= = = Government = = =
The first kingdom government consisted of the king ( styled Malikum ) and the grand vizier , who headed a council of elders ( Abbu ) and the administration . The central administration was located in the acropolis . The queen shared the running of affairs of state with the king , the crown prince was involved in internal matters and the second prince was involved in foreign affairs . Most affairs , including military ones , were handled by the vizier and the administration , which consisted of 13 court dignitaries — each of whom controlled between 400 and 800 men forming a bureaucracy with 11 @,@ 700 people . Each of the four quarters of the lower city was governed by a chief inspector and many deputies . Smaller cities were governed by governors , each of whom was under the authority of the grand vizier . Women received salaries equal to those of men and could accede to important positions and head government agencies .
The second kingdom was a monarchy but little is known about it because of a lack of written records . The third kingdom was a city @-@ state monarchy with reduced importance under the authority of Yamhad .
= = = = Kings of Ebla = = = =
The Eblaites worshiped dead kings as gods . For the first kingdom monarchs , tablets listing offerings to kings mention ten names , and another list mentions 33 kings . No kings are known from the second kingdom and all dates are estimates according to the Middle chronology .
= = People , language and culture = =
= = = The first and second kingdoms = = =
Mardikh II 's periods shared the same culture. the population of Ebla during Mardikh IIB1 is estimated to have numbered around 40 @,@ 000 in the capital , and over 200 @,@ 000 people in the entire kingdom . The Eblaites of Mardikh II were Semites . Giovanni Pettinato said the Eblaite language was a West Semitic language ; Gelb and others said it was an East Semitic dialect closer to the Akkadian language . Academic consensus considers Eblaite an East @-@ Semitic language which exhibits both West @-@ Semitic and East @-@ Semitic features .
Ebla held several religious and social festivals , including rituals for the succession of a new king , which normally lasted for several weeks . The Eblaite calendars were based on a solar year divided into twelve months . Two calendars were discovered ; the " old calendar " used during the reign of Igrish @-@ Halam , and a " new calendar " introduced by vizier Ibbi @-@ Sipish . Many months were named in honor of deities ; in the new calendar , " Itu be @-@ li " was the first month of the year , and meant " the month of the lord " . Each year was given a name instead of a number .
The Eblaites imported Kungas from Nagar , and used them to draw the carriages of royalty and high officials , as well as diplomatic gifts for allied cities . Society was less centered around the palace and the temple than in Mesopotamian kingdoms . The Eblaite palace was designed around the courtyard , which was open toward the city , thus making the administration approachable . This contrasts with Mesopotamian palaces , which resembled citadels with narrow entrances and limited access to the external courtyard . Music played an important part in the society and musicians were both locals , or hired from other cities such as Mari . Ebla also hired acrobats from Nagar , but later reduced their number and kept some to train local Eblaite acrobats .
= = = The third kingdom = = =
The Mardikh III population was predominately Semitic Amorite . The Amorites were mentioned in the first kingdom 's tablets as neighbors and as rural subjects . They came to dominate Ebla after the destruction of the second kingdom and formed the bulk of its population . The city witnessed a great increase in construction , and many palaces , temples and fortifications were built . The Amorite Eblaites worshiped many of the same deities as the Eblaites of earlier periods , and maintained the sanctity of the acropolis in the center of the city . The third kingdom 's iconography and royal ideology were under the influence of Yamhad 's culture ; kingship was received from the Yamhadite deities instead of Ishtar of Ebla , which is evident by the Eblaite seals of Indilimma 's period .
= = Economy = =
During the first kingdom period , the palace controlled the economy , but wealthy families managed their financial affairs without government intervention . The economic system was redistributive ; the palace distributed food to its permanent and seasonal workers . It is estimated that around 40 @,@ 000 persons contributed to this system , but in general , and unlike in Mesopotamia , land stayed in the hands of villages , which paid an annual share to the palace . Agriculture was mainly pastoral ; large herds of cattle were managed by the palace . The city 's inhabitants owned around 140 @,@ 000 head of sheep and goats , and 9 @,@ 000 cattle .
Ebla derived its prosperity from trade ; its wealth was equal to that of the most important Sumerian cities , and its main commercial rival was Mari . Ebla 's main articles of trade were probably timber from the nearby mountains , and textiles . Handicrafts also appear to have been a major export , evidenced by the quantity of artifacts recovered from the palaces of the city . Ebla possessed a wide commercial network reaching as far as modern @-@ day Afghanistan . It shipped textiles to Cyprus , possibly through the port of Ugarit , but most of its trade seems to have been directed by river @-@ boat towards Mesopotamia — chiefly Kish . The main palace G was found to contain artifacts dating from Ancient Egypt bearing the names of Pharaohs Khafra and Pepi I.
Ebla continued to be a center of trade during the second kingdom , evidenced by the surrounding cities that appeared during its period and were destroyed along with the city . Trade continued to be Ebla 's main economic activity during the third kingdom ; archaeological finds show there was an extensive exchange with Egypt and coastal Syrian cities such as Byblos .
= = Religion = =
Ebla was a polytheistic state . During the first kingdom , the pantheon had three genres of deities ; in the first and most common there were pairs of gods , such as the deity and his female consort , or divine couples such as the deities that cooperate to create the cosmos , as in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian pantheons . The second genre included single deities , while the third genre consisted of divine pairs who were actually a single deity that had two names . Eblaites worshiped few Mesopotamian deities , preferring northern Semitic gods , some of which were unique to Ebla .
The first genre included the eastern Semitic chief god Dagan , and his consort , Belatu ( " his wife " ) . The patron gods of the city were Kura , who was unique to Ebla , and his consort Barama . Other major deities included Hadad ( Hadda ) and his consort Habadu , and Rasap and his consort Adamma .
The second genre included the Syrian goddess Ishara , who was the goddess of the royal family . Ishtar was also worshiped but was mentioned only five times in one of the monthly offering lists , while Ishara was far more important , appearing 40 times . Other deities included Damu ; Nidakul , who was exclusive to Ebla ; the Mesopotamian god Utu ; Ashtapi ; and Shipish the goddess of the sun who had a temple dedicated to her cult .
The third genre included the artisan god Kamish / Tit , Kothar @-@ wa @-@ Khasis and the planet Venus represented by twin mountain Gods ; Shahar as the morning star and Shalim as the evening star . Eblaites also practiced the deification of dead kings . The four city gates were named after the gods Dagan , Hadda , Rasap and Utu , but it is unknown which gate had which name . Overall , the offering list mentioned about 40 deities receiving sacrifices .
During the third kingdom , Amorites worshiped common northern Semitic gods ; the unique Eblaite deities disappeared . Hadad was the most important god , while Ishtar took Ishara 's place and became the city 's most important deity apart from Hadad .
= = = Biblical connection theories = = =
At the beginning of the process of deciphering the tablets , Pettinato made claims about a possible connections between Ebla and the Bible , citing an alleged references in the tablets to the existence of Yahweh , the Patriarchs , Sodom and Gomorrah and other Biblical references . However , much of the initial media excitement about a supposed Eblaite connections with the Bible , based on preliminary guesses and speculations by Pettinato and others , is now widely discredited as " exceptional and unsubstantiated claims " and " great amounts of disinformation that leaked to the public " . In Ebla studies , the focus has shifted away from comparisons with the Bible ; Ebla is now studied as a civilization in its own right . The change came after a bitter personal and academic conflict between the scholars involved , as well as what some described as political interference by the Syrian authorities .
= = Discovery and library = =
In 1964 , Italian archaeologists from the University of Rome La Sapienza under the direction of Paolo Matthiae began excavating at Tell Mardikh . In 1968 , they recovered a statue dedicated to the goddess Ishtar bearing the name of Ibbit @-@ Lim , mentioning him as king of Ebla . That identified the city , long known from Lagashite and Akkadian inscriptions . In the next decade , the team discovered a palace ( palace G ) dating from c . 2500 – 2000 BC . Finds in the palaces include a small sculpture made out of precious materials , black stones and gold . Other artifacts included wood furniture inlaid with mother @-@ of @-@ pearl and composite statues created from colored stones . A silver bowl bearing king Immeya 's name was recovered from the " Tomb of the Lord of the Goats " , together with Egyptian jewels and an Egyptian ceremonial mace presented by pharaoh Hotepibre . Ebla 's first kingdom is an example of early Syrian centralized states , and is considered one of the earliest empires by scholars including Samuel Finer and Karl Moore , who consider it the first @-@ recorded world power . Ebla 's discovery changed the former view of Syria 's history as a bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt ; it proved the region was a center of civilization in its own right .
About 20 @,@ 000 cuneiform tablets consisting of 2 @,@ 500 well @-@ preserved , complete tablets and thousands of fragments , were discovered in the site . About 80 % of the tablets are written using the usual Sumerian combination of logograms and phonetic signs , while the others exhibited an innovative , purely phonetic representation using Sumerian cuneiform of a previously unknown Semitic language , which was called " Eblaite " . Bilingual Sumerian / Eblaite vocabulary lists were found among the tablets , allowing them to be translated .
Ebla 's close link to southern Mesopotamia , where the script had developed , further highlights the contemporaneous links between the Sumerians and Semitic cultures . The tablets provide many important insights into the cultural , economic and political life in northern Mesopotamia around the middle of the 3rd millennium BC . They also provide insight into the everyday lives of the inhabitants and containing information about state revenues , Sumerian @-@ Eblaite dictionaries , school texts , an archive of provisions and tribute , law cases , diplomatic and trade contacts , and a scriptorium where apprentices copied texts . The tablets also contain writings on Ebla 's hymns , legends , scientific observations and magic .
= = = Library = = =
The tablets constitute one of the oldest archives and libraries ever found ; there is tangible evidence of their arrangement and even classification . The larger tablets had originally been stored on shelves , but had fallen onto the floor when the palace was destroyed . The locations of the fallen tablets allowed the excavators to reconstruct their original positions on the shelves ; they found the tablets had originally been shelved according to subject .
These features were absent from earlier Sumerian excavations . Sophisticated techniques of arrangement of texts , coupled with their composition , evidence the great antiquity of archival and library practices , which may be far older than was assumed to be the case before the discovery of the Ebla library . A sizable portion of the tablets contain literary and lexicographic texts ; evidence seems to suggest the collection also served — at least partially — as a true library rather than a collection of archives intended solely for use by the kings , their ministers , and their bureaucracy . The tablets show evidence of the early transcription of texts into foreign languages and scripts , classification and cataloging for easier retrieval , and arrangement by size , form and content . The Ebla tablets have thus provided scholars with new insights into the origin of library practices that were in use 4 @,@ 500 years ago .
= = Current situation = =
As a result of the Syrian Civil War , excavations of Ebla stopped in March 2011 , and large @-@ scale looting occurred after the site came under the control of an opposition armed group . Many tunnels were dug and a crypt full of human remains was discovered ; the remains were scattered and discarded by the robbers , who hoped to find jewelry and other precious artifacts . Digging all around the mound was conducted by nearby villagers with the aim of finding artifacts ; some villagers removed carloads of soil suitable for making ceramic liners for bread @-@ baking ovens from the tunnels .
= Prester John =
Prester John ( Latin : Presbyter Johannes ) is a legendary Christian patriarch and king popular in European chronicles and tradition from the 12th through the 17th century . He was said to rule over a Nestorian ( Church of the East ) Christian nation lost amid the Muslims and pagans of the Orient . The accounts are varied collections of medieval popular fantasy , depicting Prester John as a descendant of the Three Magi , ruling a kingdom full of riches , marvels , and strange creatures .
At first , Prester John was imagined to reside in India ; tales of the Nestorian Christians ' evangelistic success there and of Thomas the Apostle 's subcontinental travels probably provided the first seeds of the legend . After the coming of the Mongols to the Western world , accounts placed the king in Central Asia , and eventually Portuguese explorers convinced themselves that they had found him in Ethiopia .
= = Origin of the legend = =
Though its immediate genesis is unclear , the legend of Prester John drew strongly from earlier accounts of the Orient and of Westerners ' travels there . Particularly influential were the stories of Saint Thomas the Apostle 's proselytizing in India , as recorded in the 3rd @-@ century work known as the Acts of Thomas , and reports of the Church of the East in Greater Persia . The Church of the East , also called the Nestorian church , had gained a wide following in the Eastern nations and engaged the Western imagination as an assemblage both exotic and familiarly Christian . Particularly inspiring were the Nestorians ' missionary successes among the Mongols and Turks of Central Asia ; René Grousset ( 1970 ) suggested that one of the seeds of the story may have come from the Keraites , which had thousands of its members converted to Nestorian Christianity shortly after the year 1000 . By the 12th century , the Keraite rulers were still following a custom of bearing Christian names , which may have fueled the legend .
Additionally , a kernel of the tradition may have been drawn from the shadowy early Christian figure John the Presbyter of Syria , whose existence is first inferred by the ecclesiastical historian and bishop Eusebius of Caesarea based on his reading of earlier church fathers . This man , said in one document to be the author of two of the Epistles of John , was supposed to have been the teacher of the martyr bishop Papias , who had in turn taught Eusebius ' own teacher Irenaeus . However , little links this figure , supposedly active in the late 1st century , to the Prester John legend beyond the name .
The later accounts of Prester John borrowed heavily from literary texts concerning the East , including the great body of ancient and medieval geographical and travel literature . Details were often lifted from literary and pseudohistorical accounts , such as the tale of Sinbad the Sailor . The Alexander romance , a fabulous account of Alexander the Great 's conquests , was especially influential in this regard .
Scholars have debated over the origins of Prester John ’ s name , speculating that Prester could be a corruption of either the word " Presbyter " or " priest " . Sir John Mandeville , a medieval writer who was famous in his lifetime for his travel accounts , wrote of an emperor named John who decides to become a priest after an audience with a Christian knight , in which the " emperour seyde , that he wolde no longer ben clept kyng ne emperour , but preest " . This reference suggests that the latter reading of Prester as " preest " as the correct interpretation of Prester John 's name .
The legend is first recorded in the early 12th century with reports of visits of an " Archbishop of India " to Constantinople , and of a " Patriarch of India " to Rome at the time of Pope Callixtus II ( 1119 – 1124 ) . These visits cannot be confirmed , evidence of both being secondhand reports . What is certain is that German chronicler Otto of Freising reported in his Chronicon of 1145 that the previous year he had met a certain Hugh , bishop of Jabala in Syria , at the court of Pope Eugene III in Viterbo . Hugh was an emissary of Prince Raymond of Antioch seeking Western aid against the Saracens after the Siege of Edessa , and his counsel incited Eugene to call for the Second Crusade . He told Otto , in the presence of the pope , that Prester John , a Nestorian Christian who served in the dual position of priest and king , had regained the city of Ecbatana from the brother monarchs of Medes and Persia , the Samiardi , in a great battle " not many years ago " . Afterwards Prester John allegedly set out for Jerusalem to rescue the Holy Land , but the swollen waters of the Tigris compelled him to return to his own country . His fabulous wealth was demonstrated by his emerald scepter ; his holiness by his descent from the Three Magi .
Silverberg connects this account with historical events of 1141 , when the Kara @-@ Khitan Khanate under Yelü Dashi defeated the Seljuk Turks near Samarkand . While the Kara @-@ Khitan at the time were Buddhists and not Christian , several vassals of the Kara @-@ Khitan practiced Nestorian Christianity , which may have contributed to the legend as well as the possibility that the Europeans , who were unfamiliar with the concept of Buddhism , assumed that if the leader was not Muslim , he must be Christian . The report of the defeat would have inspired a notion of " deliverance from the East " , and it is possible Otto recorded Hugh 's report to prevent complacency in the Crusade 's European backers ; according to his account , no help could be expected from a powerful Eastern king .
= = Letter of Prester John = =
No more of the tale is recorded until about 1165 when copies of what was certainly a forged Letter of Prester John started spreading throughout Europe . An epistolary wonder tale with parallels suggesting its author knew the Romance of Alexander and the above @-@ mentioned Acts of Thomas , the Letter was supposedly written to the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenus ( 1143 – 1180 ) by Prester John , descendant of one of the Three Magi and King of India . The many marvels of richness and magic it contained captured the imagination of Europeans , and it was translated into numerous languages , including Hebrew . It circulated in ever more embellished form for centuries in manuscripts , a hundred examples of which still exist . The invention of printing perpetuated the letter 's popularity in printed form ; it was still current in popular culture during the period of European exploration . Part of the letter 's essence was that a lost kingdom of Nestorian Christians still existed in the vastnesses of Central Asia .
The credence given to the reports was such that Pope Alexander III sent a letter to Prester John via his physician Philip on September 27 , 1177 . Nothing more is recorded of Philip , but it is most probable that he did not return with word from Prester John . The Letter continued to circulate , accruing more embellishments with each copy . In modern times , textual analysis of the letter 's variant Hebrew versions has suggested an origin among the Jews of northern Italy or Languedoc : several Italian words remained in the Hebrew texts . At any rate , the Letter 's author was most likely a Westerner , though his or her purpose remains unclear .
= = Mongol Empire = =
In 1221 , Jacques de Vitry , Bishop of Acre , returned from the disastrous Fifth Crusade with good news : King David of India , the son or grandson of Prester John , had mobilized his armies against the Saracens . He had already conquered Persia , then under the Khwarezmian Empire 's control , and was moving on towards Baghdad as well . This descendant of the great king who had defeated the Seljuks in 1141 planned to reconquer and rebuild Jerusalem . Controversial Soviet historian and ethnologist Lev Gumilev speculated that the much reduced crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem in the Levant resuscitated this legend in order to raise Christian hopes and to encourage European monarchs who by that time had lost interest in getting involved in costly crusades in a distant region that was far removed from their own states and affairs .
The bishop of Acre was correct in thinking that a great King had conquered Persia ; however " King David " , as it turned out , was Tengrist warlord Genghis Khan . His reign took the story of Prester John in a new direction . Though Genghis was at first seen as a scourge of Christianity 's enemies , he proved to be tolerant of religious faiths among those subjects that did not resist the empire , and was the first East Asian ruler to invite clerics from three major religions ( Christianity , Islam , and Buddhism ) to a symposium so that he might learn more about their beliefs . The Mongol ruler was also reputed to have a Nestorian Christian favorite among his many wives , whom the Europeans imagined as influential in the disastrous Mongol sack of Baghdad .
The Mongol Empire 's rise gave Western Christians the opportunity to visit lands that they had never seen before , and they set out in large numbers along the Empire 's secure roads . Belief that a lost Nestorian kingdom existed in the east , or that the Crusader states ' salvation depended on an alliance with an Eastern monarch , was one reason for the numerous Christian ambassadors and missionaries sent to the Mongols . These include Franciscan explorers Giovanni da Pian del Carpine in 1245 and William of Rubruck in 1253 .
The link between Prester John and Genghis Khan was elaborated upon at this time , as the Prester became identified with Genghis ' foster father , Toghril , king of the Keraites , given the Jin title Ong Khan Toghril . Fairly truthful chroniclers and explorers such as Marco Polo , Crusader @-@ historian Jean de Joinville , and the Franciscan voyager Odoric of Pordenone stripped Prester John of much of his otherworldly veneer , portraying him as a more realistic earthly monarch . Odoric places John 's land to the west of Cathay en route to Europe , and mentions its capital as Casan , which may correspond to Kazan , the Tatar capital near Moscow . Joinville describes Genghis Khan in his chronicle as a " wise man " who unites all the Tartar tribes and leads them to victory against their strongest enemy , Prester John . William of Rubruck says a certain " Vut " , lord of the Keraites and brother to the Nestorian King John , was defeated by the Mongols under Genghis . Genghis made off with Vut 's daughter and married her to his son , and their union produced Möngke , the Khan at the time William wrote . According to Marco Polo 's Travels , the war between the Prester and Genghis started when Genghis , new ruler of the rebellious Tartars , asked for the hand of Prester John 's daughter in marriage . Angered that his lowly vassal would make such a request , Prester John denied him in no uncertain terms . In the war that followed , Genghis triumphed and Prester John perished .
The historical figure behind these accounts , Toghril , was in fact a Nestorian Christian monarch defeated by Genghis . He had fostered the future Khan after the death of his father Yesugei and was one of his early allies , but the two had a falling out . After Toghril rejected a proposal to wed his son and daughter to Genghis ' children , the rift between them grew until war broke out in 1203 . Genghis captured Sorghaghtani Beki , daughter of Toghril 's brother Jaqa Gambu , and married her to his son Tolui ; they had several children , including Möngke , Kublai , Hulagu , and Ariq Böke .
The major characteristic of Prester John tales from this period is the king 's portrayal not as an invincible hero , but merely one of many adversaries defeated by the Mongols . But as the Mongol Empire collapsed , Europeans began to shift away from the idea that Prester John had ever really been a Central Asian king . At any rate they had little hope of finding him there , as travel in the region became dangerous without the security the Empire had provided . In works such as The Travels of Sir John Mandeville and Historia Trium Regum by John of Hildesheim , Prester John 's domain tends to regain its fantastic aspects and finds itself located not on the steppes of Central Asia , but back in India proper , or some other exotic locale . Wolfram von Eschenbach tied the history of Prester John to the Holy Grail legend in his poem Parzival , in which the Prester is the son of the Grail maiden and the Saracen knight Feirefiz .
A theory was put forward by the Russian scholar Ph. Bruun in 1876 , who suggested that Prester John might be found among the kings of Georgia , which , at the time of Crusades , experienced military resurgence challenging the Muslim power . However , this theory , though regarded with certain indulgence by Henry Yule and some modern Georgian historians , was summarily dismissed by Friedrich Zarncke .
= = Ethiopia = =
Prester John had been considered the ruler of India since the legend 's beginnings , but " India " was a vague concept to the Europeans . Writers often spoke of the " Three Indias " , and lacking any real knowledge of the Indian Ocean , they sometimes considered Ethiopia one of the three . Westerners knew that Ethiopia was a powerful Christian nation , but contact had been sporadic since the rise of Islam . No Prester John was to be found in Asia , so European imagination moved him around the blurry frontiers of " India " until it found an appropriately powerful kingdom for him in Ethiopia . Evidence has suggested that locating Prester John 's kingdom in Ethiopia entered the collective consciousness around 1250 .
Marco Polo had discussed Ethiopia as a magnificent Christian land and Orthodox Christians had a legend that the nation would one day rise up and invade Arabia , but they did not place Prester John there . Then in 1306 , 30 Ethiopian ambassadors from Emperor Wedem Arad came to Europe , and Prester John was mentioned as the patriarch of their church in a record of their visit . Another description of an African Prester John is in the Mirabilia Descripta of Dominican missionary Jordanus , around 1329 . In discussing the " Third India " , Jordanus records a number of fanciful stories about the land and its king , whom he says Europeans call Prester John .
After this point , an African location became increasingly popular . This may have resulted from increasing ties between Europe and Africa as 1428 saw the Kings of Aragon and Ethiopia actively negotiating the possibility of a strategic marriage between the two kingdoms . On 7 May 1487 , two Portuguese envoys , Pêro da Covilhã and Afonso de Paiva , were sent traveling secretly overland to gather information on a possible sea route to India , but also to inquire about Prester John . Covilhã managed to reach Ethiopia . Although well received , he was forbidden to depart . More envoys were sent in 1507 , after Socotra was taken by the Portuguese . As a result of this mission , and facing Muslim expansion , regent queen Eleni of Ethiopia sent ambassador Mateus to king Manuel I of Portugal and to the Pope , in search of a coalition . Mateus reached Portugal via Goa , having returned with a Portuguese embassy , along with priest Francisco Álvares in 1520 . Francisco Álvares ' book , which included the testimony of Covilhã , the Verdadeira Informação das Terras do Preste João das Indias ( " A True Relation of the Lands of Prester John of the Indies " ) was the first direct account of Ethiopia , greatly increasing European knowledge at the time , as it was presented to the pope , published and quoted by Giovanni Battista Ramusio .
By the time the emperor Lebna Dengel and the Portuguese had established diplomatic contact with each other in 1520 , Prester John was the name by which Europeans knew the Emperor of Ethiopia . The Ethiopians , though , had never called their emperor that . When ambassadors from Emperor Zara Yaqob attended the Council of Florence in 1441 , they were confused when council prelates insisted on referring to their monarch as Prester John . They tried to explain that nowhere in Zara Yaqob 's list of regnal names did that title occur . However , their admonitions did little to stop Europeans from calling the King of Ethiopia Prester John . Some writers who used the title did understand it was not an indigenous honorific ; for instance Jordanus seems to use it simply because his readers would have been familiar with it , not because he thought it authentic .
Ethiopia has been claimed for many years as the origin of the Prester John legend , but most modern experts believe that the legend was simply adapted to fit that nation in the same fashion that it had been projected upon Ong Khan and Central Asia during the 13th century . Modern scholars find nothing about the Prester or his country in the early material that would make Ethiopia a more suitable identification than any place else , and furthermore , specialists in Ethiopian history have effectively demonstrated that the story was not widely known there until well after European contact . Czech Franciscan Remedius Prutky asked Emperor Iyasu II about this identification in 1751 , and Prutky states that the man was " astonished , and told me that the kings of Abyssinia had never been accustomed to call themselves by this name . " In a footnote to this passage , Richard Pankhurst states that this is apparently the first recorded statement by an Ethiopian monarch about this tale , and they were likely unaware of the title until Prutky 's inquiry .
17th @-@ century academics like German orientalist Hiob Ludolf demonstrated that there was no actual native connection between Prester John and the Ethiopian monarchs , and the fabled king left the maps for good .
= = Modern reception = =
The legend had affected several hundred years of European and world history , directly and indirectly , by encouraging Europe 's explorers , missionaries , scholars , and treasure hunters .
William Shakespeare 's 1600 play Much Ado About Nothing contains an early modern reference to the legendary king , as does Tirso de Molina 's El Burlador de Sevilla . In 1910 British novelist and politician John Buchan used the legend in his sixth book , Prester John , to supplement a plot about a Zulu uprising in South Africa . This book is an archetypal example of the early 20th @-@ century adventure novel , and proved very popular in its day .
Charles Williams , a member of the 20th @-@ century literary group the Inklings , made Prester John a messianic protector of the Holy Grail in his 1930 novel War in Heaven . The Prester and his kingdom also figure prominently in Umberto Eco 's 2000 novel Baudolino , in which the titular protagonist enlists his friends to write the Letter of Prester John for his adoptive father Frederick Barbarossa , but it is stolen before they can send it out .
Perhaps because of Buchan 's work , Prester John also appeared in 20th @-@ century pulp fiction and comics . For example , Marvel Comics has featured " Prester John " in issues of Fantastic Four and Thor . He was a significant supporting character in several issues of the DC Comics fantasy series Arak : Son of Thunder . His Avatar is the ally of the Pendragon in Mage : The Hero Defined . The 1992 video game Castles II : Siege and Conquest contains a sub @-@ plot involving the search for Prester John 's kingdom . Prester John also features in Tad Williams ' epic trilogy , Memory , Sorrow and Thorn and Season 2 of Netflix 's Marco Polo includes references to Prestor John .
= = = Fiction = = =
Eco , Umberto ( 2000 ) . Baudolino . ISBN 0 @-@ 15 @-@ 602906 @-@ 5 .
Fox , Gardner F. ( December 1953 ) . One Sword for Love . Number 360 . New York : Gold Medal Books .
Valente , Catherynne M. ( 2010 ) . The Habitation of the Blessed . ISBN 1 @-@ 59780 @-@ 199 @-@ 2 .
Hansen , Brooks ( 2003 ) . The Monsters of St. Helena . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 42201 @-@ 6 .
Frankowski , Leo . Conrad Stargard series .
Man , R A Lafferty . The All @-@ at @-@ Once Man .
= To Heart 2 =
To Heart 2 ( トゥハート２ , Tu Hāto 2 ) , stylized as ToHeart2 , is a Japanese romance visual novel
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developed by Leaf and published by Aquaplus . It was first released for the PlayStation 2 on December 28 , 2004 as an all @-@ ages title , and was followed by an adult version playable on Microsoft Windows and subsequent all @-@ ages versions for the PlayStation Portable and PlayStation 3 . This deviated from the release history of the game 's predecessor , To Heart , which was originally released with adult content prior to receiving versions with such content removed . The gameplay in To Heart 2 follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios and courses of interaction based on the player 's decisions . Its story centers on the male protagonist Takaaki Kouno , and focuses on the appeal of the female main characters .
The game was positively received in both sales and popularity . Its original PlayStation 2 release sold more than 82 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release in Japan , and it was voted as the third best bishōjo game by the readers of Dengeki G 's Magazine in 2007 . It has since received several spin @-@ off titles , including a sequel entitled To Heart 2 Another Days , which was released on February 29 , 2008 for Windows , and has also made transitions to other media . There have been six anime adaptations of To Heart 2 : an anime television adaptation produced by OLM 's Team Iguchi , which was first broadcast in Japan between October 3 , 2005 and January 2 , 2006 ; and five original video animation series produced by Aquaplus and Chaos Project . Four manga series , fifteen sets of manga anthologies , three Internet radio shows , two drama CDs , and six novel adaptations based on To Heart 2 have also been produced .
= = Gameplay = =
To Heart 2 is a romance " novel @-@ type adventure game " in which the player assumes the role of Takaaki Kouno , who begins his second year of high school after reuniting with a childhood friend . Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story 's narrative and dialogue . The text in the game is accompanied by character sprites , which represent who Takaaki is talking to , appearing over background artwork . Throughout the game , the player encounters CG artwork at certain points in the story , which take the place of the background art and character sprites . A gallery of the viewed CGs and played background music is available on the game 's title screen . To Heart 2 follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .
The game divides each school day of the storyline into four segments . These segments illustrate the events that occur during Takaaki 's commute to school , during school , after school , and after he returns home at the end of each day . Depending on the time of the day and the player 's actions , he or she may be presented one of three types of events : mandatory events , which occur automatically during certain points in the game 's plot line ; temporary events , which occur during certain periods of time only if specific conditions are met ; or after school events , which occur at the end of each school day .
At the end of each school day , the player will be given the option to navigate to various locations within the game 's setting . Each choosable location is accompanied by an image of a heroine in order to allow the choices to be easier to make . Throughout gameplay , the player is given multiple options to choose from . Text progression pauses at these points , and depending on the choices that the player makes , the affection rate of the heroine associated with the event will either increase , decrease , or remain the same . This mechanism determines which direction of the plot the player will progress into , but influences the story only during Konomi 's and Karin 's plot lines .
In the PlayStation 2 version , there are nine plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story except Sango and Ruri , who share the same plot line . This is expanded to ten plot lines in the Windows and PlayStation Portable versions with the addition of Sasara 's scenario , and further expanded to eleven scenarios in the PlayStation 3 version with the addition of Mio 's scenario . In order to view all of the plot lines , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and make different decisions to progress the plot in alternate directions . In all versions , the game also contains a bad ending in which the player is unable to pursue the other scenarios . This ending serves as the basis of the Another Days scenario in To Heart 2 Another Days , which allows the player to pursue an additional seven heroines .
To Heart 2 X Rated , the Windows version of the visual novel , includes two additional minigames that serve to lengthen the experience the game provides ; these minigames do not affect the main plot in any way . In both minigames , the player controls one of the heroines from To Heart 2 's storyline , who is made available upon the completion of her scenario in the main portion of the game . The first of the two minigames , titled " Super Sweets Scramble " ( スーパースイーツスクランブル , Sūpaa Suiitsu Sukuranburu ) , is a scrolling shooter in which the player 's goal is to progress through a vertically scrolling level , while attacking enemies that resemble confectioneries and dodging their attacks . The second , titled " Dokidoki Panic Library " ( ドキドキぱにっくライブラリー , Dokidoki Panikku Raiburarï ) , is a puzzle game in which the player competes against an opponent for the highest score , by connecting three or more books of the same color and eliminating them from the screen .
= = Plot and characters = =
To Heart 2 's story revolves around the male protagonist Takaaki Kouno , a high school student who has an aversion to most girls around him , and focuses on his interactions with his schoolmates . The story begins on March 1 , 2004 , when Takaaki 's parents leave for an overseas business trip . That morning , Konomi Yuzuhara , Takaaki 's childhood friend , comes to meet Takaaki for their commute to school . Konomi is a cheerful and innocent , but childish girl . She is one year younger than Takaaki , who often views her as a younger sister . The two are also friends with Yuuji Kousaka , who is in the same class as Takaaki . Despite being the son of a wealthy and prestigious family , Yuuji has a frivolous and carefree personality , and often flirts with the girls at school . Takaaki later reunites with Tamaki Kousaka , another childhood friend , who had promised to return before being enrolled into a boarding school . Tamaki has a strong and dominant personality , and tends to act as an elder sister figure to those around her . She later transfers into Takaaki 's high school upon the beginning of the new school year .
Throughout the story , Takaaki meets several other heroines attending his school . The first is Manaka Komaki , a timid , clumsy , but accommodating girl who is the vice class representative of Takaaki 's class . She oftens spends time in the school library 's storage , and helps the library committee with general tasks . Similar to Takaaki , she is inarticulate around the opposite gender . Manaka is also close friends with Yuma Tonami , an aggressive girl who commutes to school by a mountain bike . Yuma sees Takaaki as a rival after she first met him at school , and often challenges him to various duels . She often laments her grandfather 's insistence of having her take over the family business , and attempts to hide her family background from Takaaki . Karin Sasamori is a schoolmate of Takaaki 's and the founder of the school 's mystery club . Karin has a cheerful and energetic personality , and has an odd affection towards the occult and objects such as egg sandwiches . She first meets Takaaki early in the story , and later deceives him into joining the mystery club .
Sango Himeyuri is an underclassman who takes a liking to Takaaki . She is lively and innocent , but also intelligent . She is in particular proficient in computer @-@ related subjects , and designed multiple humanoid maid robots as an engineer for Kurusugawa Electronics . Ruri Himeyuri is another underclassman of Takaaki and Sango 's younger twin sister . In contrast to her older sister , Ruri has a bad @-@ mouthed and hostile personality . She is very protective of Sango , and often regards Takaaki 's interactions with her in bad faith . Lucy Maria Misora is a girl whom Takaaki meets one day on his way home . She has a calm personality , and opens up to very few people except him . Lucy claims to be an alien , and speaks a unique language she calls the " Rū Language " ( るー語 , Rūgo ) . She later attends Takaaki 's school under the name Rūko Kireinasora . Yūki Kusakabe is a gentle and well @-@ mannered girl who often lingers in the school building at night . She was one of Takaaki 's classmates in elementary school , but has since transferred away because of her parents ' divorce .
Two heroines were subsequently added to To Heart 2 's story in later versions of the game . Sasara Kusugawa becomes the student council president of Takaaki 's school during his second year . She inherits her position from the previous president Ma @-@ ryan , as she is the only remaining student council member after the latter 's graduation . Sasara is very diligent , often completing all of the student council 's tasks by herself . She is often feared by students for her strict attitude , but is actually disguising a shy and gentle personality . Mio Hanesaki is Takaaki 's classmate . She remains largely unnoticed by other students , most of whom remain oblivious of her name . She originally ties her hair up and wears eyeglasses , but later wears contact lens and her hair untied as an attempt by Takaaki to change the impression she gives to others .
= = Development = =
To Heart 2 's development originally began as a collaborative effort for the PlayStation 2 between the Osaka and Tokyo studios of Aquaplus . During one of the staff meetings for the partnered project , To Heart 2 was conceived when a staff member jokingly mentioned the possibility of a sequel for the original To Heart . Production began shortly after once the team realized the popularity and success of the forerunner . Naoya Shimokawa , the president of Aquaplus , produced the resulting project , and Tsutomu Washimi served as the game 's director .
The work on the game 's scenario was split between four writers . Shōsuke Miyake drafted the game 's overall storyline as well as the scenarios for Sango , Ruri , and Lucy ; Nagare Makura wrote the scenarios for Manaka and Yuma ; Takeshi Marui for Karin and Yūki ; and Munemitsu for Konomi and Tamaki . Likewise , the game 's character designs were split amongst four artists . Misato Mitsumi provided the character designs and illustrations for Konomi and Yuma ; Hisashi Kawata for Lucy and Karin ; Tatsuki Amazuyu for Tamaki and Manaka ; and Takeshi Nakamura for Sango , Ruri , and Yūki . The game 's music was composed by Shimokawa , Junya Matsuoka , Shinya Ishikawa , Kazue Nakagami , and Michio Kinugasa .
Since the development staff had an equal number of writers as illustrators , it was originally planned to pair each illustrator with a single scenario writer ; Mistumi was also to provide designs for the main heroine . Though this would have simplified the project 's work load by easing communications among the staff , the idea was scrapped once the staff realized that the final product might merely be a collection of four distinct pieces . Ultimately , writing and design responsibilities were divided based on the staff members ' individual preferences . The staff also commented that the development team faced communication difficulties because of the physical distance between the two Aquaplus studios . Early in production , members from both studios gathered in a single location to discuss development , but as production progressed , they began to rely on other methods of communication such as telephone calls and instant messaging . Washimi noted that these methods made it complicated for the writers and illustrators to communicate effectively , and during the development of To Heart 2 X Rated , Miyake took a two @-@ month @-@ long business trip to Osaka to rectify the problem .
Rather than creating a new setting for To Heart 2 , the development team chose to roll over various inherent features from the original . The majority of the game is set within the same school and town , but instead focuses on the northern side of town , rather than the southern side , which is the primary setting of To Heart . The story is set two years after To Heart , and its lack of mobile phones was an attempt to replicate the technological themes of its predecessor . Despite the story 's inclusion of maid robots , the writers stated that the story 's setting was influenced by the 1990s , during which To Heart took place . As the only artist to return from the original 's development team , Kawata was consulted by the other illustrators for character designs . He commented that the other artists attempted to create their designs with respect to the previous work , but he decided otherwise by attempting to " shape a new image " for the designs . The illustrators avoided creating a character with green hair as a heroine , because of the overwhelming impression the character Multi had left them in To Heart . Miyake noted that it was difficult for him to write the scenario for To Heart 2 because the game 's development began during the time he was writing December When There Is No Angel , and Ruri and Sango 's original scenario had to be rewritten because of their overwhelming resemblance to the latter title .
= = = Release history = = =
To Heart 2 was first released as an all @-@ ages title for the PlayStation 2 on December 28 , 2004 in three versions : a limited edition , a deluxe edition , and a regular edition . The limited edition release contains the game itself , an original soundtrack disc , a visual concept collection , a calendar , and a special casing ; the deluxe edition contains the extras included in the limited edition and a version of To Heart playable on the PS2 ; the regular edition does not contain the aforementioned extras . The original PS2 version was followed by an adult version entitled To Heart 2 X Rated ( stylized as ToHeart2 XRATED ) . It was first released on December 9 , 2005 for Microsoft Windows PCs as a limited edition , and was subsequently followed by a regular edition release on December 23 , 2005 . X Rated is the fifth title in the Leaf Visual Novel Series ; it contains additional scenarios and introduces a new heroine named Sasara Kusugawa . Its source code was released by Aquaplus under the GNU General Public License on December 22 , 2005 along with the source code for Arurū to Asobo ! ! , Tears to Tiara , and Kusari . This decision was made due to the inclusion of Xvid derived code ; Xvid being distributed under the same license . The source code for all four games is distributed upon request in CD @-@ R format . A source code mirror is hosted on GitHub .
An all @-@ ages version , titled To Heart 2 Portable , was released for the PlayStation Portable on July 30 , 2009 . Unlike previous releases , the PSP release allowed viewing the game in both the original 4 : 3 and widescreen 16 : 9 aspect ratios . It was released in three versions : " W Pack Limited Edition " , " W Pack " , and a regular edition . W Pack includes a version of To Heart playable on PSP , while the limited edition also includes figurines of characters Sasara and Ma @-@ ryan . A budget @-@ priced version of Portable was released on April 25 , 2013 , while a downloadable version for the PlayStation Store followed on May 30 . An enhanced re @-@ release for the PlayStation 3 , titled To Heart 2 DX Plus , was released on September 22 , 2011 in limited and regular editions . DX Plus is a compilation of To Heart 2 and its spin @-@ off To Heart 2 Another Days . It contains new computer graphic illustrations , additional and rewritten scenarios , including a new heroine named Mio Hanesaki , and Motion Portrait graphics rendering . The limited edition release contains a 300 @-@ page A4 @-@ sized art book named To Heart 2 Perfect Visual Collection ( ToHeart2 パーフェクトビジュアルコレクション , ToHeart2 Paafekuto Bijuaru Korekushon ) , a four @-@ disc soundtrack titled To Heart 2 Complete Soundtrack ( ToHeart2 コンプリートサウンドトラック , ToHeart2 Konpuriito Saundotorakku ) , and the game itself . A budget @-@ priced release and a downloadable version of DX Plus were released on June 26 , 2014 .
= = = Spin @-@ offs = = =
To Heart 2 has received multiple spin @-@ off titles since its initial PlayStation 2 release . The first spin @-@ off release is a desk accessory package titled To Heart 2 Desktop Accessory ( ToHeart2 デスクトップアクセサリー , ToHeart2 Desukutoppu Akusesarii ) and released by Aquaplus on November 25 , 2005 in limited and regular editions . The release is a collection of multiple wallpapers , screensavers , desktop mascots , voice clips , and a typing game titled " Typing in Heart " ( たいぴんぐ in ハート , Taipingu in Haato ) . Its limited edition release contained a binder and a ballpoint pen , both of which are not found in the regular edition release . The second spin @-@ off release is a visual novel titled To Heart 2 Another Days , and it was first released as an adult game on February 29 , 2008 for Microsoft Windows PCs in limited and regular editions . Another Days ' plot takes place in the fall as a continuation of To Heart 2 's story , and its main storyline allows the player to pursue seven heroines consisting of both supporting female characters from To Heart 2 and new characters . In addition , Another Days also contains two additional scenarios that extend storylines from the original game . The first additional scenario is based on Manaka 's scenario , and features Ikuno as the protagonist , while the second scenario extends Konomi 's scenario , and features Tamaki and Konomi as heroines . Another Days ' limited edition release was bundled with a soundtrack disc titled To Heart 2 Secret Sound Track , which contained additional music not found in To Heart 2 's original soundtrack release . The scenarios of Another Days are also included as part of the PlayStation 3 compilation , To Heart 2 DX Plus .
The third spin @-@ off release is entitled Manaka de Ikuno ! ! ( 愛佳でいくの ! ! ) , and it was released in both limited and regular editions on December 18 , 2009 for Microsoft Windows PCs . Manaka de Ikuno ! ! itself is a collection of four games : a role @-@ playing video game titled " Final Dragon Chronicle : Guilty Requiem " featuring the characters of To Heart 2 , an action game titled " Magical Fight ! " ( まじかる Fight ! , Majikaru Faito ! ) , a collectible card game titled " Princess Collection " , and a 3D visual novel titled " Mananatsu : Iinchō to Tokubetsu na Ichinichi " ( まななつ ～ 委員長と特別な一日 ～ ) featuring Manaka as the heroine . Its limited edition release included an illustration book and an original soundtrack disc ; the regular edition did not contain the aforementioned extras . An all @-@ ages version of " Final Dragon Chronicle " for the PlayStation Portable , titled To Heart 2 : Dungeon Travelers ( ToHeart2 ダンジョントラベラーズ , ToHeart2 Danjon Toraberaazu ) , was released on June 30 , 2011 . The visual novel also inspired a pachinko slot machine produced by Sammy . The pachinko slot adaptation , named Pachislot To Heart 2 , was released to Japanese pachinko parlors in February 2012 . A video game recreation of Pachislot for the PS3 was later released by Aquaplus on October 25 , 2012 . The characters Tamaki , Konomi , Manaka and Sasara appear as playable characters in the 2011 fighting game Aquapazza : Aquaplus Dream Match , while Yuma and Ma @-@ ryan appear as supporting partner characters . The game 's characters also appear in their Dungeon Travelers attire as downloadable content playable characters for the PlayStation Vita version of Dungeon Travelers 2 : Ōritsu Toshokan to Mamono no Fūin .
= = Related media = =
= = = Books and publications = = =
A 113 @-@ page guidebook titled To Heart 2 : Master Guide was published by MediaWorks on January 15 , 2005 . The book contains poster artwork , the ' face patterns ' of each character , selected CG scenes and a guide on how to play through each character 's scenarios . Voice actress interviews are also included , as well as a brief guide on how to play through each scenario in To Heart . This was followed by another 192 @-@ page guidebook for the visual novel titled The Essence of To Heart 2 : To Heart 2 Official Guidebook , which was published by Enterbrain on March 4 , 2005 . The book contains detailed character descriptions , a complete walk through to every heroine in the game , computer graphics , and interviews with the game 's development staff . Enterbrain also released a 223 @-@ page guidebook entitled The Essence of To Heart 2 Portable : To Heart 2 Portable Official Guidebook for the PlayStation Portable version of the game on August 18 , 2009 . The guidebook is based on the original Essence for the PlayStation 2 game , but contained new and revised content for the PSP version . A guidebook for the PSP spinoff To Heart 2 : Dungeon Travelers , named To Heart 2 : Dungeon Travelers Official Complete Guide , was released by Enterbrain on August 11 , 2011 .
Multiple novels based on the To Heart 2 franchise have also been published by several publishers . A single @-@ volume short story anthology entitled To Heart 2 Short Stories was published by Square Enix under their Game Novels imprint on June 30 , 2005 . This was followed by three light novels written by Osamu Murata and published by Harvest Novels under their Nagomi Bunko imprint . The first volume , titled To Heart 2 Multiple Choice : Takaaki Kakushigo Bōdō ! ? ( ToHeart2 MultipleChoice ～ 貴明隠し子騒動 ！ ？ ～ , To Heart 2 Multiple Choice : Takaaki 's Illegitimate Child Crisis ! ? ) , was illustrated by Yōichi Ariko and released on October 5 , 2009 . The second , titled To Heart 2 Two Pieces : Manaka and Sasara ( ToHeart2 TwoPieces ～ 愛佳とささら ～ , ToHeart2 TwoPieces : Manaka to Sasara ) , was illustrated by Ariko and Atsuto Shinozuka and released on June 1 , 2010 . The third , titled To Heart 2 Two Pieces : Konomi and Tamaki ( ToHeart2 TwoPieces ～ このみと環 ～ , ToHeart2 TwoPieces : Konomi to Tamaki ) , was illustrated by Tasuku Iizuki and Sana Wakatsuki and released on July 5 , 2010 .
Harvest also released a two @-@ volume short story compilation entitled To Heart 2 Tanpenshū ( ToHeart2 短編集 , To Heart 2 Short Story Collection ) and written by Ikkaku Morino , Yūri Nanami , and Tomoyuki Fujinami . The first volume was released on December 5 , 2010 , while the second was released on June 1 , 2011 . A single @-@ volume light novel based on the " Final Dragon Chronicle " minigame was again published by Harvest . The novel , titled To Heart 2 : Final Dragon Chronicle Sono Go ( ToHeart2 ファイナルドラゴンクロニクル ・ その後 , ToHeart2 : Fainaru Doragon Kuronikuru Sono Go , To Heart 2 : Final Dragon Chronicle Thereafter ) , was written by Takuya Baba , illustrated by Ushio Komone , and released on February 20 , 2011 .
= = = Manga = = =
To Heart 2 has received multiple manga adaptations since its original visual novel release . The first manga series was illustrated by Haruka Ogataya and serialized in the shōnen manga magazine Dengeki Daioh between February 21 , 2005 and January 21 , 2007 . The individual chapters were later compiled into three bound volumes published by MediaWorks between October 22 , 2005 and May 26 , 2007 . The second manga adaptation , titled To Heart 2 : Colorful Note , is a retelling of the entire To Heart 2 story . Colorful Note was illustrated by Tsuna Kitaumi and serialized in the shōnen manga magazine Monthly GFantasy between March 18 , 2005 and March 18 , 2008 . It was later collected into five volumes published by Square Enix between October 27 , 2005 and April 27 , 2009 . Another manga , titled To Heart 2 SD : Seitokai Days , was serialized in the manga magazine Manga 4 @-@ koma Kings Palette Lite between July 2 , 2008 and September 2 , 2010 and was illustrated by Natsuki Miyama . It was released as a single bound volume by Ichijinsha on December 22 , 2009 . A manga adaptation of To Heart 2 Another Days was serialized in ASCII Media Works 's Dengeki G 's Festival ! Comic between July 26 , 2008 and August 26 , 2010 . Another Days was illustrated by Sō , and was collected into two bound volumes released on February 26 , 2010 and April 27 , 2011 .
There are also fifteen sets of manga anthologies produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists . The first anthology series , titled simply To Heart 2 , was published by Square Enix as two volumes on February 18 and May 27 , 2005 . It was followed by a sixteen @-@ volume anthology series titled To Heart 2 Comic Anthology released by Ichijinsha between February 25 , 2005 and June 25 , 2007 . A two @-@ volume anthology series titled To Heart 2 Anthology Comic was released by Fox Publishing between March 10 and June 25 , 2005 . The fourth anthology series , titled To Heart 2 : 4 @-@ koma Manga Gekijō ( ToHeart2 ４コママンガ劇場 ) and published by Square Enix , was released on March 18 and June 30 , 2005 in two volumes . A three @-@ volume anthology named Anthology Comic To Heart 2 was released by Ohzora Publishing between March 24 and August 24 , 2005 in three volumes . A two @-@ volume anthology series , titled Comic Anthology To Heart 2 : Anata ga Koisuru Monogatari ( コミックアンソロジー ToHeart2 ～ あなたが恋する物語 ～ ) , was published by Broccoli and distributed by Jive on April 2 and August 1 , 2005 . A single @-@ volume anthology , again titled To Heart 2 Anthology Comic , was published by Enterbrain under their Magi @-@ Cu Comics imprint on April 25 , 2005 .
A single @-@ volume manga anthology , again titled simply To Heart 2 , was published by Mag Garden under their BC Anthology Collection on May 28 , 2005 . Another manga anthology series , named To Heart 2 4 @-@ koma Kingdom ( To Heart2 4コマKINGDOM ) , was published by Futabasha in two volumes on May 28 and October 29 , 2005 . Hobby Japan released a single @-@ volume manga anthology , again titled To Heart 2 Anthology Comic , on July 25 , 2005 . This was followed by a single @-@ volume anthology named Anthology Comics To Heart 2 Heartful 4 @-@ koma ( アンソロジーコミックスTo Heart2ハートフル4コマ , Ansorojii Komikkusu To Heart 2 Haatofuru 4 @-@ koma ) and published by Ohzora on September 24 , 2005 . The twelfth anthology released was a three @-@ volume series titled To Heart 2 : Special Days Comic Anthology and published by Ichijinsha between May 24 and July 25 , 2008 . A single @-@ volume anthology titled Magi @-@ Cu 4 @-@ koma To Heart 2 ( マジキュー4コマ ToHeart2 , Majikyū 4 @-@ koma ToHeart2 ) was published by Enterbrain on June 25 , 2008 . Another single @-@ volume anthology titled To Heart 2 : After School Diary 4 @-@ koma Maximum and published by Bunendo followed its release on August 11 , 2008 . The last manga anthology series , titled To Heart 2 Anthology Comic : Precious Days , was released by Capcom on December 10 , 2008 and February 20 , 2009 as two volumes .
= = = Anime = = =
An anime television adaptation of To Heart 2 was produced by OLM 's Team Iguchi , directed by Norihiko Sudō , and was scripted by head writer Hiroshi Yamaguchi . Both members had previously served the same positions for the studio 's Comic Party anime adaptation , and Yamaguchi was also the main writer for the To Heart anime . The anime series , containing fourteen episodes , was first broadcast in Japan between October 3 , 2005 and January 2 , 2006 on Television Kanagawa as a UHF anime . Out of the fourteen episodes , thirteen were regular episodes , while a summary episode also aired after the eleventh episode . Inspired by the film Mystery Train , Sudō and the production staff created the series ' story as a nonlinear narrative ; each episode of the anime follows a different heroine 's interactions with the protagonist over the same span of time . The anime series was released in Japan as seven separate DVD volumes between December 22 , 2005 and June 23 , 2006 by Imagica . A DVD box set containing the series was released on September 10 , 2008 .
There have also been five sets of original video animation series produced by Chaos Project and Aquaplus . Of the five OVA series , Yasuhisa Katō directed the first two sets of episodes , while Jun 'ichi Sakata replaced him for the remaining episodes . The first OVA series , containing three episodes , were released by Imagica as three DVD volumes between February 28 and September 28 , 2007 . The second set of two OVA episodes , titled To Heart 2 AD , was released by Frontier Works as two DVD volumes between March 26 and August 8 , 2008 . The third set of two episodes , titled To Heart 2 AD Plus , followed as two DVD volumes between April 24 and October 7 , 2009 . The fourth set of two episodes , titled To Heart 2 AD Next , was released as two volumes in Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD formats on September 23 and December 22 , 2010 . The fifth set of two episodes , titled To Heart 2 : Dungeon Travelers , was released as two volumes in BD and DVD formats on February 22 and July 25 , 2012 . To commemorate the visual novel 's tenth anniversary , a BD box set collecting all eleven episodes on two discs will be released on December 3 , 2014 .
= = = Internet radio shows = = =
There have been three Internet radio talk shows pertaining to To Heart 2 . The first radio show was titled Radio To Heart 2 , and was hosted by Yurika Ochiai and Shizuka Itō , who voiced Konomi and Tamaki respectively in the visual novel . After the show 's initial run on the Japanese Internet radio network Onsen ended on March 30 , 2006 with its twenty @-@ fifth episode , it began its renewed broadcast on Radio Kansai and the Animate.tv website in April 2006 , and continued to broadcast until its 116th episode on January 17 , 2008 . Seven CD compilations , each containing thirteen of the show 's renewed episodes and an extra recording , were released between November 25 , 2006 and December 26 , 2008 . It was followed by a second radio show , titled Sasara , Ma @-@ ryan no Seitokai Kaichō Rajio for To Heart 2 ( ささら ・ まーりゃんの生徒会会長ラジオ for ToHeart2 , Sasara and Ma @-@ ryan 's Student Council President Radio for To Heart 2 ) . The show is hosted by Ryōko Ono and Ema Kogure , who voiced Sasara and Ma @-@ ryan respectively , and began streaming on Onsen on February 15 , 2008 . Eleven CD compilations , each containing thirteen episodes and an extra recording , have been released since December 26 , 2008 , with the latest volume having been released on September 30 , 2011 .
The third Internet radio show , titled Kurusugawa Jūkō Purezentsu Meidorobo 3 Shimai Rajio Hajimemashita ( 来栖川重工プレゼンツ メイドロボ３姉妹 ラジオはじめました , Kurusugawa Industries Presents : Maid Robot Sisters Began A Radio Show ) , was hosted by Emiko Hagiwara , Kotomi Yamakawa , and Harumi Sakurai , who voiced Ilfa , Harumi , and Silfa respectively . The radio show was streamed on Animate.tv between September 7 , 2009 and April 5 , 2010 , and lasted thirty episodes . The episodes were compiled into three CD volumes , each containing ten episodes and an extra recording . The first CD volume was first sold at the Aquaplus Festa 2009 and Comiket 77 events in December 2009 , before receiving a public release on January 29 , 2010 , while the third volume was first sold at Comiket 78 in August 2010 , and later on September 23 , 2009 as a public release .
= = = Music and audio CDs = = =
Three pieces of theme music are used in the original To Heart 2 visual novel . " Heart to Heart " , the opening theme , was performed by Arisa Nakayama and composed by Kazue Nakagami . " Arigatō " ( ありがとう , " Thank You " ) , the ending theme , was performed by Akko and composed by Naoya Shimokawa . Both songs ' lyrics were written by Shōko Sudani . An insert song , " Hoshi no Uta " ( 星の歌 , " Star 's Song " ) , is also used in Yūki 's storyline . The song was performed by Rina Satō , who voiced Yūki in the visual novel , and composed and written by Takeshi Marui . The first music CD published for the game was the original soundtrack album . The soundtrack 's release preceded that of the visual novel 's on December 22 , 2004 , and the two @-@ disc album contains thirty @-@ eight tracks collected from the background music and theme songs used in the game . A separate soundtrack album containing thirty @-@ three tracks was also packaged with the game 's limited and deluxe edition releases . This was then followed by an album titled Heart to Heart by Nakayama on June 22 , 2005 , which contains the opening theme and songs from other Leaf video games .
An image song album , titled To Heart 2 Character Songs , was released on November 23 , 2005 containing nine songs sung by the voice actresses who voiced the heroines found in To Heart 2 . A second soundtrack album containing additional music from To Heart 2 Another Days , titled To Heart 2 Secret Sound Track , was bundled with the limited edition release on February 29 , 2008 . A maxi @-@ single , titled " Cosmos no Yō ni " ( コスモスのように , Kosumosu no Yō ni ) , was then published on March 26 , 2008 featuring the titular ending theme for Another Days by Rena Uehara . It was followed by a second image song album , titled To Heart 2 Character Songs Vol . 2 , on December 25 , 2008 featuring eight songs based on the additional heroines found in the later games . A third soundtrack album , titled To Heart 2 Complete Soundtrack , was bundled with the limited edition of the PlayStation 3 game , To Heart 2 DX Plus , on September 22 , 2011 . The soundtrack consists of four discs of music compiled from the background music and songs used throughout the series .
Several drama CDs based on To Heart 2 have also been produced . The first set , titled Anthology Drama CD To Heart 2 , was released as two volumes between February 24 and March 24 , 2006 . Two drama CD volumes based on To Heart 2 and Another Days were also released as part of the Aquaplus Himekuri CD ( アクアプラス 日めくりCD , Aquaplus Daily CD ) series . The second volume of the Himekuri CD series , based on To Heart 2 , was released on December 5 , 2007 , while the fourth volume , based on Another Days , was released on June 4 , 2008 .
= = Reception = =
According to a weekly sales ranking conducted by Media Create , the original version of To Heart 2 was the fourth best @-@ selling video game for the week ending on January 2 , 2005 , during which the game sold 86 @,@ 485 copies . Another ranking conducted during the same week by Famitsu.com instead placed this number at 82 @,@ 949 copies sold . The game subsequently remained on Media Create 's sales ranking at thirty @-@ fourth , forty @-@ seventh , and fiftieth until the week ending on January 23 , 2005 . In a sales ranking of bishōjo games conducted by PCNews , To Heart 2 X Rated 's limited edition premiered at first place in the rankings . It subsequently ranked third , thirty @-@ sixth , sixteenth , and twice at thirty @-@ second , before making its last appearance on the chart at fiftieth place in late March 2006 . To Heart 2 Portable , the PSP version , was the ninth best @-@ selling video game and sold 32 @,@ 521 copies between July 27 and August 2 , 2009 . To Heart 2 DX Plus , the PS3 compilation , placed eighth in sales and sold 24 @,@ 429 copies in Japan between September 19 and 25 , 2011 .
Sales surveys conducted by PCpress indicate that To Heart 2 Another Days was the most pre @-@ ordered bishōjo game in Japan between mid @-@ October 2007 and mid @-@ January 2008 . It also ranked first as the most widely sold bishōjo game in Japan in February 2008 , and was the fifth most widely sold in March 2008 . Manaka de Ikuno ! ! ranked second in bishōjo game pre @-@ orders in Japan between mid @-@ September and mid @-@ October 2009 , and it ranked third between mid @-@ October and mid @-@ November 2009 . Its limited and regular edition releases placed second and forty @-@ second respectively in the sales rankings in January 2010 , while the two releases collectively ranked thirty @-@ third and fiftieth in the two following months . The PSP spin @-@ off To Heart 2 : Dungeon Travelers was the third best @-@ selling video game and sold 37 @,@ 396 copies in Japan between June 27 and July 3 , 2011 .
In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , poll results for the fifty best bishōjo games were released . Out of 249 titles , To Heart 2 ranked third with seventy @-@ four votes . Getchu.com hosts an annual voting poll called the " Getchu.com Bishōjo Game Ranking " where users vote online for the best games of the previous year in several different categories . For the 2005 ranking , the categories were : overall , scenario , music , visuals , gameplay system , and heroines . Among the rankings conducted in early 2006 , To Heart 2 X Rated placed sixth overall , eighth in scenario , seventh in music , fourth in visuals , and ninth in gameplay system . Two heroines from the game , Sasara and Manaka , ranked as the seventh and ninth most popular heroines respectively .
= The Millionaire Milkman =
The Millionaire Milkman is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focus on Jack Cass , a young millionaire , who has affections for a society girl named Clara Moore . Jack receives a letter of warning about Clara 's real interest , his money . Jack decides to decides to test his suspicions and the character of Clara , by having newspapers announce the ruin of his mind and his fortune . Clara calls Jack to confirm the story and breaks off the engagement . May Dustin , the orphan girl who Clara 's family treats as a servant , expresses sympathy for Jack . Jack becomes infatuated with May and becomes the milkman to see her every day . The two are married and May learns that Jack had never lost his fortune . The cast and production credits are unknown . The film was released on December 16 , 1910 , and met with mixed reviews . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from December 17 , 1910 . It states : " Clara Moore is a society girl who has won the affections of Jack Cass , a young millionaire . He thinks she loves him , but it is really his money that she adores . Prompted by a letter of warning , Jack decides to prove his sweetheart 's love . One reason is that he privately disapproves of the way Clara and her mother have treated a poor relation , an orphan girl , who has been left in their care . Instead of giving her a home , they make a servant of her . Jack 's plot works like a charm . His faithful valet gives the newspapers the story of the failure of Jack 's mind , and that young man 's ruin . Clara reads it and when Jack calls and admits that the reports are correct , she returns his ring and says that all is over between them . In fact the only person in the house that shows any sympathy for Jack is the poor relation , May Dustin , and naturally he compares her with the heartless society girl . Jack wants to see more of May , and invents a unique way of doing so . He buys out the milkman who serves the family , and in that way is able to call on May everyday . Liking soon ripens into love , and May agrees to wed Jack , although thinking he has nothing in the world but a meager salary . After marriage she is told the truth and finds that her husband has money enough to supply her every wish . As for Clara , she has lost her only chance to win a prized millionaire . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters .
This film was an early example of the use of the character names Jack and May , which were repeatedly used by Lonergan in various productions . Film historian Q David Bowers mentions that patrons who watched the film did not know the protagonist 's name , as " it must have become a studio joke to decide who was to play Jack and who was to play May . In actuality , names such as Jack and May were used in printed synopses to keep track of who was who , but such names were usually not mentioned in the film 's subtitles . " The previous and first usage of the two leading character roles was in Dots and Dashes .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on December 16 , 1910 . At least one theater advertised the film as a comedy instead of a drama . The film had a wide national release , theaters showing the film include those in Kansas , Pennsylvania , South Dakota , and Arizona . The film was shown in Singapore in 1913 .
The New York Dramatic Mirror praised the film for its well @-@ execution , but it didn 't miss a chance to balance it by criticizing the actor who played the milkman , " The Laura Jean Libbey style of romance is here presented with more than the usual success . ... The purchase of the milk delivery job was not convincing and the milkman talked too much at the camera ; otherwise the picture is not seriously defective in detail . " The Moving Picture World gave a positive review , concluding that " The life and action which characterize the Thanhouser productions are all present , while the photography is satisfactory and helps to make a good picture . "
An unrelated comedy film with the same title was released by Pathé Frères on December 25 , 1912 .
= Pathways into Darkness =
Pathways into Darkness is a first @-@ person adventure video game developed and published by Bungie Software Products Corporation in 1993 , exclusively for Apple Macintosh personal computers . Players assume the role of a Special Forces soldier who must stop a powerful , godlike being from awakening and destroying the world . Players solve puzzles and defeat enemies to unlock parts of a pyramid where the god sleeps ; the game 's ending changes depending on player actions .
Pathways began as a sequel to Bungie 's Minotaur : The Labyrinths of Crete , before the developers created an original story . Jason Jones programmed the game , while his friend Colin Brent developed the environments and creatures . The game features three @-@ dimensional texture mapped graphics and stereo sound on supported Macintosh models . Pathways was critically acclaimed and won a host of awards ; it was also Bungie 's first major commercial success and enabled the two @-@ man team of Jason Jones and Alex Seropian to move into a Chicago office and begin paying staff .
= = Gameplay = =
Pathways into Darkness is a first @-@ person shooter and adventure game . The game interface consists of four windows . The primary " World View " shows the player character 's first @-@ person perspective . Players move , dodge fire , and use weapons and items using the computer keyboard . The " Inventory " window displays items players have acquired . The " Message " window relates events and the in @-@ game time , and the " Player " window displays health and energy information . The in @-@ game clock runs constantly during gameplay , except when in conversation ; if the time progresses past the point at which the sleeping god wakes , the player loses the game .
In the game , players fight various monsters as they explore the pyramid 's halls and catacombs . Players may pick up weapons and ammunition left behind by others to supplement their arsenal . As additional levels are unlocked , new weapons become available , including machine guns and grenade launchers . Players can absorb a certain amount of damage , but once their health reaches zero , they must resume their progress at the last saved checkpoint . Resting in place replenishes health but saps game time and leaves the player open to attack . Scattered throughout the levels are other items players may use . Potions have different effects : rare blue potions , for example , rid the player character of poison and damage . Otherwise items provide points or cash ; every four points increases the player character 's maximum health by two units . Crystals can be used against enemies to freeze , burn , or otherwise harm them .
Through the use of the yellow crystal , players can converse with Previously Living Sentient Beings or " PLSBs " . Conversations provide players with puzzle information , strategies for defeating monsters , and story background . Rather than relying on a branching tree of conversation options , players type keywords into a dialogue box . When a certain keyword ( typically found in a previous statement by the dead person in question ) is entered , the dead person will give a response . The manual gives a starting point by mentioning that all dead people respond to " name " and " death " , by giving their name and describing how they died , respectively .
= = Plot = =
Pathways casts the player as a member of a US Army Special Forces team sent on a mission to the Yucatán Peninsula . On May 5 , 1994 , a diplomat from the alien Jjaro appeared to the President of the United States and informed him that on May 13 , an ancient godlike being sleeping beneath a pyramid would awaken and destroy the Earth . The only way to prevent this catastrophe is to prevent the god from awakening . The eight @-@ man Special Forces team carries a nuclear weapon , with the goal of entering the ancient pyramid , descending to the bottom level where the god sleeps , and activating the bomb to stun the god and bury it under tons of rock .
Before the game begins , the player character 's parachute fails to open . Awakening hours later , the character finds almost all his equipment inoperable . Reaching the pyramid on foot hours after the rest of the team entered the structure , the player must complete the team 's mission before the god awakens in five days . In the pyramid , the player finds bodies of squad @-@ mates , the remains of Spanish @-@ speaking treasure hunters , and fallen members of a Nazi expedition from the 1930s who were looking for a secret weapon but never returned . Additional plot elements can be revealed by speaking to these dead , enabled by an item attainable early in the game , the yellow crystal .
The game 's ending changes depending on whether the player has a radio beacon to call for extraction , and when the nuclear device is set to explode . Forgetting to set the bomb , or setting it to explode at any time past the awakening of the dreaming god , results in Earth 's destruction . The device 's detonation before the player reaches a minimum safe distance results in a pyrrhic victory . The most favorable endings are achieved by leaving the pyramid with a beacon for evacuation at least twenty game minutes before the device is set to go off ; if the game ends with enough time for the player to escape on foot , the player survives without a beacon .
= = Development = =
Pathways was Bungie 's fourth title ( and third commercial title ) after their previous game , Minotaur : The Labyrinths of Crete , sold around 2 @,@ 500 copies . In the summer of 1992 , Jones was living in dorms at the University of Chicago when he saw Wolfenstein 3D , a shooter game with three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphics . Inspired , Jones created a rough 3D @-@ graphics engine for the Mac that simulated walls with trapezoids and rectangles . Originally , Bungie intended Pathways to be a straightforward 3D version of Minotaur , but they quickly found that the top @-@ down perspective of their previous game did not mesh with the 3D presentation . An additional consideration was that the developers wanted to create a game that did not rely on then @-@ rare networks and modems , an issue in marketing Minotaur . The rest of 1992 was spent tweaking the graphics engine .
Work on the game 's storyline and levels began in January 1993 . Jones recalled that starting from cliché plots they moved towards " very interesting and unique but extremely difficult to understand stories " . One of the more complicated stories cast the player as one of a group of Roman soldiers who discovered a mountain spring that extended their lives . Every seven years one soldier would be picked to descend into the caves and bring back more water . If the leader died , a new one would be selected to undertake the journey to ensure their survival . " It was a very interesting plot since your quest wasn 't necessarily virtuous , it didn 't involve doing good things or saving the world , " Jones said . " It was just you were chosen , more or less against your will , to become the next leader of this freak cult of immortals . " The final plot occupied a middle ground between the simple and complex stories , because the developers did not want to force players to become deeply involved in the story .
While Bungie founder Alex Seropian handled the business aspect of Bungie and produced the game 's box art and promotional material , Jones programmed the game , wrote the story line , and contributed to the game 's manual . Whereas Jones had single @-@ handedly coded Minotaur , the small staff for Pathways was due to lack of money for a large team . To speed implementation , Jones built a level editor for the game that allowed him to add objects , monsters and walls to the levels . The game 's levels and mazes span 40 million scaled square feet . Jones ' friend , Colin Brent , did much of the art and creature design , reducing Jones ' workload and , in the programmer 's opinion , improving the art . Each monster was drawn by hand in different states such as stationary , moving , attacking , and dying . They were then scanned into the computer and added to the game ; if there were problems , they were redrawn . Once the final drawings were complete , the images were colorized in 24 @-@ bit color using Adobe Photoshop . Despite the game 's advanced graphics , Pathways was designed to work on any Macintosh model ; it was one of 30 applications that ran natively on Apple 's PowerMacs on launch day .
By July 1993 the game was behind schedule ; only the above @-@ ground portions of the pyramid were complete . Jones put in eighteen @-@ hour days for the month leading up to the MacWorld Expo where the game was to be sold ; he finished the game in a relatively bug @-@ free state just before the Expo , and Bungie had 500 shrinkwrapped copies of the game available for sale at MacWorld .
= = Reception = =
Pathways was a critical success . Inside Mac Games reviewer Jon Blum wrote in 1993 that Pathways was " one of the best Macintosh games I 've ever played " . Computer Gaming World described Pathways as " a dungeon crawl , pure and simple " . While describing the game before obtaining a gun as " tedious " and criticizing the small number of save points per level , the magazine praised the " simple , elegant and easy to use " user interface and " excellent " graphics and sound . Computer Gaming World concluded that while " somewhat weak on actual game play " , Pathways was " a job worthy of a strong recommendation " . Macworld 's Steven Levy commented that the gameplay and graphics were extremely smooth . He singled out the creatures for specific praise , likening them to " something that might have come from a brain @-@ merge of Tim Burton , Anne Rice and Hieronymus Bosch " instead of simple line drawings . Complaints and criticisms of the game included the difficulty level ; Blum found some segments too difficult and that it was possible to spend hours playing before realizing that the player had made an irreversible mistake . Jones admitted that the game was harder than he intended . The title received several awards , including Inside Mac Games ' " Adventure Game of the Year " , Macworld 's " Best Role @-@ Playing Game " , and was listed on the MacUser 100 .
Pathways sold more copies than expected , making it Bungie 's first commercial success . It was the third bestselling Macintosh title of the first half of 1994 after Myst and Sim City 2000 , with projected seven @-@ figure sales for the year . The game made Bungie enough money that the company was able to move from Seropian 's apartment to a dedicated office in Chicago 's South Side . At their new location , the Bungie team expanded and began work on another first @-@ person shooter , Marathon . Interviewed by Inside Mac Games , Jones said that he did not believe that there would ever be a sequel to Pathways . " There 's a lot of reasons for that , one of them being that I tend to dislike sequels , " he said , " A lot of cool things have happened with the rendering technology since Pathways shipped , and it suggests some different products which don 't really fit into the Pathways world . "
= Vagrant Story =
Vagrant Story ( ベイグラントストーリー , Beiguranto Sutōrī ) is a Japanese @-@ developed action role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) for the PlayStation video game console . The game was released in 2000 , and has been re @-@ released through the PlayStation Network for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable consoles . Vagrant Story was primarily developed by the team responsible for Final Fantasy Tactics , with Yasumi Matsuno serving as producer , writer and director .
The game takes place in the fictional kingdom of Valendia and the ruined city of Leá Monde . The story centers on Ashley Riot , an elite agent known as a Riskbreaker , who must travel to Leá Monde to investigate the link between a cult leader and a senior Valendian Parliament member , Duke Bardorba . In the prologue , Ashley is blamed for murdering the duke , and the game discloses the events that happen one week before the murder .
Vagrant Story is unique as a console action / adventure role @-@ playing game in that it features no shops and no player interaction with other characters ; instead , the game focuses on weapon creation and modification , as well as elements of puzzle @-@ solving and strategy . The game received critical acclaim from gaming magazines and websites .
= = Gameplay = =
Vagrant Story is a solo action role @-@ playing game , in which the player controls Ashley Riot from a third @-@ person perspective while exploring Leá Monde and the catacombs underneath . The player may also switch into first @-@ person perspective to allow for a 360 ° view using the START button or right analog stick on the game controller . Characters and sprites are proportionate with each other , and the player navigates Ashley on a three @-@ dimensional field map . Navigation is in real @-@ time , and areas accessed by the player are stored in an in @-@ game map menu .
Ashley can run , jump , and push crates and cubes to navigate around obstacles , adding puzzle and platforming elements to gameplay . During the game , the player must sometimes solve block puzzles to advance the story . When the player returns to a completed block puzzle room , a time @-@ attack mode called " Evolve , or Die ! ! " begins . Players must reach the end of the room in the shortest time possible , after which they are ranked . This stage is optional and can be turned off from the menu .
In the field map , players may engage the enemy as soon as they enter Battle Mode , which uses a pausable real @-@ time combat system , much like Square 's Parasite Eve ( 1998 ) . In Battle Mode , when the player taps the attack button , a spherical gride appears around Ashley . Individual body parts within this sphere can be targeted . The battle system involves the player chaining different attacks known as Chain Abilities to achieve large combos and deal damage to the enemy . This is done by pressing buttons in timely succession , making combat resemble a rhythm game . In addition to Chain Abilities , Defensive Abilities allow Ashley to reduce or reflect damage or avoid status ailments . Ashley also gains Break Arts , which exchange his hit points ( HP ) for increased damage .
Magic in Vagrant Story is learned later in the game using Grimoires that are dropped by enemies . Once a Grimoire is used , the magic spell associated with the Grimoire will remain in the menu , and players only need to spend magic points ( MP ) to cast a learned spell . Magic spells can be used to attack , heal , create status effects , and manipulate Ashley 's elemental and enemy affinities . Certain magic spells allow the player to affect multiple targets by using a small sphere positioned within the Battle Mode wire frame . Unlike physical attacks however , magic attacks cannot be chained .
Risk is an essential element in the battle system . A Risk bar is placed below the HP and MP bar , representing the Risk Points the player has accumulated . Risk Points affect Ashley 's concentration ; the longer Ashley attacks a target , the more his Risk Point accumulates — lowering his accuracy and defenses . Chain and Defensive Abilities increase Risk faster than regular attacks , while Break Arts do not increase Risk at all . Enemy attacks and spells deal more damage if the player has high Risk . The advantage , however , is the higher chances for the player to score critical hits and restore higher HP .
Vagrant Story 's crafting system allows the player to create and customize weapons and armor in designated " workshop " areas , inputting various ranges , strengths , and statistics . Weapons fall into one of three main damage types : blunt , piercing , and edged . Equipment are influenced by their material and affinity to enemy classes and elements . Affinities influence the effectiveness of weapons and armor ; however , equipment might lose one form of affinity when it gains another type . Weapons and armor can be combined , merging their affinities and sometimes creating a new type of blade or armor in the process . Different weapon types have different ranges , such as a bow and arrow having a longer range than melee weapons such as a mace .
Like several Square titles , the New Game Plus option is made available to the player upon first completing the game . In Vagrant Story , selecting " New Game + " enables the player to replay the story using their end @-@ game weapons , items , and statistics instead of the defaults . This option allows players to access a hidden level , which features more intimidating enemies and more powerful equipment . The story does not change , and original enemy statistics will remain at default .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Vagrant Story is set in the fictitious city of Leá Monde , while the kingdom of Valendia is engulfed in civil war . Leá Monde is an old town with a history spanning more than two millennia . Located on an island surrounded by reefs , the walls have been the " witness of many
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June 24 , while located between Puerto Rico and Venezuela . Despite directly crossing St. Lucia , only light rainfall occurred . In Dominica , rain fell for 15 hours and gusty winds were reported .
= = = Hurricane Bob = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on July 9 . Tracking in a general northward direction , favorable conditions allowed for quick strengthening . Less than a day after formation , the system reached tropical storm intensity , followed by hurricane intensity on July 11 . Shortly after strengthening into a hurricane , Bob reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) . At the same intensity , Bob made landfall west of Grand Isle , Louisiana , and rapidly weakened after moving inland . However , the resulting tropical depression persisted for several days as it paralleled the Mississippi and Ohio rivers . On July 16 , the system emerged into the western Atlantic , where it was subsequently absorbed by a nearby low @-@ pressure area .
Widespread offshore and coastal evacuations took place along the Gulf Coast of the United States in preparation for Hurricane Bob . Effects from the hurricane on the United States were mostly marginal and typical of a minimal hurricane . The cyclone produced a moderate storm surge , damaging some coastal installments and causing coastal inundation . Strong winds were also associated with Bob 's landfall , though no stations observed winds of hurricane force . The winds downed trees and blew out windows , in addition to causing widespread power outages . Heavy rainfall was also reported in some locations , peaking at 7 @.@ 16 in ( 182 mm ) in Louisiana . Further inland , the torrential rains led to flooding in Indiana , resulting in more considerable damage as opposed to the coast . Bob also spawned eight tornadoes , with two causing significant damage . Overall , Bob was responsible for one death and $ 20 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Claudette = = =
A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression east of the Lesser Antilles on July 16 . It gradually strengthened into Tropical Storm Claudette on July 17 and crossed the northern Leeward Islands later that day . As the storm approached Puerto Rico early on July 18 , it weakened back to a tropical depression . Claudette degenerated back into a tropical wave after crossing Puerto Rico . Late on July 18 , the remnants struck Dominican Republic and emerged into the Caribbean Sea on the following day . The system crossed western Cuba on July 21 , shortly before reaching the Gulf of Mexico and regenerated into a tropical cyclone . By July 23 , Claudette regained tropical storm intensity and turned northward . The storm made landfall near the Texas @-@ Louisiana border later that day . It eventually dissipated over West Virginia on July 29 .
In the Lesser Antilles , the storm brought heavy rainfall and gusty winds to several islands . Minor flooding occurred in Saint Croix . Rainfall exceeding 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in some areas of Puerto Rico led to widespread agricultural damage , flooded homes and streets . There was one fatality and approximately $ 750 @,@ 000 in damage . Up to 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) of rain fell in one day in Alvin , Texas , which is the record 24 ‑ hour precipitation amount for any location in the United States . Within the state of Texas alone , hundreds of businesses and an estimated 15 @,@ 000 homes sustained flood damage . Rice crops were also ruined . One drowning death was reported in the state . In Louisiana , extensive coastal flooding occurred , with miles of roads battered or destroyed in Cameron Parish , while several boats along the coast capsized . At Johnson Bayou , fishing camps and homes suffered damage or destruction . Further inland , other states experienced freshwater flooding , especially Indiana and Missouri . Overall , Claudette was responsible for two deaths and $ 750 million in losses .
= = = Hurricane David = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression at 12 : 00 UTC on August 25 , while located about 870 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) southeast of Cape Verde . Moving westward , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm David early the next day . Shortly after attaining hurricane status on August 27 , David rapidly deepened . By 12 : 00 UTC the following day , it was a strong Category 4 hurricane . Thereafter , the storm oscillated in intensity while approaching the Lesser Antilles and struck Dominica late on August 29 @.@ with winds 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . After entering the Caribbean Sea , further deepening occurred and at 18 : 00 UTC on August 30 , David peaked with maximum sustained winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . Late on August 31 , it curved northwestward and struck Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic at the same intensity .
The storm rapidly weakened while crossing Hispaniola and was only a Category 1 hurricane upon emerging into the Windward Passage on September 1 . Moving northwestward , David made landfall in the eastern tip of Cuba that day and briefly weakened to a tropical storm . However , after reaching the Atlantic , it re @-@ strengthened into a Category 1 . David then moved through the Bahamas and crossed Andros Island on September 2 . Thereafter , the storm re @-@ intensified into a Category 2 and made landfall near West Palm Beach , Florida late the next day . The hurricane remained barely inland and re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic at Merritt Island early on September 4 . Thereafter , the cyclone weakened slightly and made landfall in Blackbeard Island , Georgia later that day as a Category 1 hurricane . David headed north @-@ northeastward and weakened to a tropical storm on September 5 . While crossing the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , the storm curved northeastward and accelerated , before becoming extratropical over New York late on September 6 . The remnants of David persisted over New England and Atlantic Canada , before dissipating northeast of Newfoundland on September 8 .
In Dominica , strong winds damaged or destroyed 80 % of homes , leaving 75 % of the island 's population homeless . Agricultural was also severely impacted , with 75 % of crops ruined , including a complete loss of bananas . There were 56 deaths and 180 injuries . Similar destruction occurred on Guadeloupe and Martinique , with hundreds left homeless and extensive damage to crops . Guadeloupe and Martinique also had $ 50 million and $ 100 million in damage , respectively . In Puerto Rico , flooding and high winds combined resulted in $ 70 million in damage and seven fatalities , four from electrocution . Dominican Republic was lashed with very strong winds and torrential rains . Entire villages were destroyed and numerous others were left isolated because of damage or destruction to many roads . Thousands of houses were destroyed , leaving over 200 @,@ 000 homeless in the aftermath of the hurricane . Additionally , nearly 70 % of the country 's crops were ruined . Overall , the storm caused at least 2 @,@ 000 deaths and about $ 1 billion in damage in Dominican Republic . Minimal impact occurred in the Bahamas , Cuba , and Haiti . In Florida , strong winds left moderate damage , including a downed radio tower , snapping a crane , and deroofing buildings . There were also 10 tornadoes . Damage totaled approximately $ 95 million . Other states along the East Coast of the United States experienced flooding and tornadoes . The latter was particularly severe in Virginia , with tornadoes causing one death , damaging 270 homes , and destroying three other homes . Throughout the United States , there were 15 deaths and about $ 320 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Depression Eight = = =
A tropical disturbance formed over the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on August 24 . By the following day , the disturbance developed into a tropical depression , operationally classified as the eight of the season . The depression entered the Bay of Campeche on August 25 and headed northward . Around 06 : 00 UTC the following day , the system peaked with maximum sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . However , on August 28 , a ridge of high pressure forced the system to move west @-@ southwestward , causing it make landfall in a rural area of Tamaulipas later that day . The depression brought heavy rainfall to some areas of Mexico , with 18 @.@ 94 in ( 481 mm ) of precipitation observed in Santa María Xadani , Oaxaca . Rainfall extended northward into Texas , peaking at 4 @.@ 86 in ( 123 mm ) in McAllen .
= = = Hurricane Frederic = = =
Satellite imagery and ship observations indicated that a tropical depression developed at 06 : 00 UTC on August 29 , while located about 270 mi ( 430 km ) south @-@ southwest of the southernmost island of Cape Verde . By 12 : 00 UTC the next day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Frederic . Further intensification occurred , with the storm becoming a hurricane on September 1 . However , outflow from Hurricane David caused Fredric to weaken back to a tropical storm early the following day . While moving across the northern Leeward Islands on September 4 , bringing gusty winds and heavy rainfall to some islands . In Sint Maarten , a fishing boat sank , killing seven people . Strong winds were observed in the United States Virgin Islands . On Saint Thomas , the roofs of three large apartment buildings were blown off , leaving about 50 families homeless . Additionally , flooding destroyed four houses and impacted 50 others . Numerous houses on Saint Croix also suffered water damage .
Around midday on September 4 , Frederic made landfall in Humacao , Puerto Rico with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Flooding on the island forced over 6 @,@ 000 people to flee their homes in search of shelter . Numerous roads were closed due to landslides and inundation . At least nine cities experienced flooding . After crossing Puerto Rico , Frederic briefly re @-@ emerged into the Caribbean Sea , before making landfall near Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) at 00 : 00 UTC on September 6 . Minimal impact was reported in that country , though heavy rainfall , exceeding 24 in ( 610 mm ) in some places , compounded damage inflicted by Hurricane David . Frederic weakened further while crossing Hispaniola . Later on September 6 , the system briefly re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic Ocean , but land interaction with the island weakened it to a tropical depression . The storm crossed the Windward Passage and then made landfall in southeastern Guantánamo Province of Cuba early on September 7 . Due to the weak nature of Frederic , minimal impact was reported . It then moved along , or just offshore the southern coast of Cuba . While situated south of Matanzas Province early on September 9 , the system re @-@ strengthened into a tropical storm . Despite land interaction with Cuba , Frederic continued to intensify .
Shortly before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico on September 10 , Frederic re @-@ intensified into a hurricane . During the next few days , the storm significantly , but not rapidly , strengthened while moving northwestward . At 12 : 00 UTC on September 12 , Frederic attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 943 mbar ( 27 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Early on the next day , the storm made landfall near Dauphin Island and then near the Alabama – Mississippi state line . The storm rapidly weakened and fell to tropical storm intensity by late on September 13 . Frederic then accelerated northeastward and became extratropical over New York around 18 : 00 UTC the next day . The remnants persisted until dissipating over New Brunswick early on September 15 . Frederic brought destruction to the Gulf Coast of the United States . In Alabama , storm surge up to 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) and wind gusts as high as 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) caused the destruction of nearly all buildings within 900 ft ( 270 m ) of the coast . In the Mobile , nearly 90 % of the city lost electricity . Extensive coastal damage was also reported in Mississippi , due to tides ranging from 6 to 12 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) above normal . Hundreds of structures were severely impacted or destroyed . Throughout the United States , the storm caused five deaths and approximately $ 2 @.@ 3 billion in damage . Thus , Frederic was the costliest tropical cyclone in the United States , until being surpassed by Hurricane Hugo in 1989 .
= = = Tropical Storm Elena = = =
On August 27 , a weak tropical wave crossed Florida and entered the Gulf of Mexico . Upon reaching the central Gulf of Mexico , ships , buoys , and satellite observations indicated that a tropical depression developed early on August 30 , while located about halfway between the southeastern tip of Louisiana and the north coast of the Yucatán Peninsula . A reconnaissance aircraft flight confirmed the existence of a tropical depression . Late on August 30 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Elena . Early the next day , Elena peaked with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) .
Around 12 : 00 UTC on September 1 , the storm made landfall near Matagorda , Texas with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Elena rapidly weakened to a tropical depression about six hours later , before dissipating early on September 2 . Due to the weak nature of the storm , impact was generally minor . In Texas , precipitation peaked at 10 @.@ 28 in ( 261 mm ) at Palacios Municipal Airport . Flooding occurred , with the worst impact in Harris County . Hundreds of cars were stalled or submerged in downtown Houston and 45 buses suffered water damage . Basements and the police station were also inundated . Elsewhere in the county , some homes and businesses were flooded . Elena caused five deaths and less than $ 10 million in damage .
= = = Hurricane Gloria = = =
A tropical wave existed the west coast of Africa and developed into a tropical depression by September 4 . Under the influence of a trough in the westerlies , the depression northeastward and bypassed Cape Verde on September 5 . At 12 : 00 UTC on the following day , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Gloria , while moving west @-@ northwestward at about 17 mph ( 27 km / h ) . After curving abruptly north @-@ northwestward , Gloria became a hurricane early on September 7 . A higher latitude frontal system and a high pressure area caused Gloria to decelerate and resulted in a westward motion beginning on September 9 .
Gloria briefly weakened to a tropical storm late on September 10 , but re @-@ strengthened into a hurricane on the following day . Eventually , the hurricane turned northeastward and began to accelerate . At 1800 UTC on September 12 , Gloria attained its peak intensity with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . The storm then began weakening and fell to Category 1 hurricane intensity on September 13 . During that time , Gloria slowly began merging with a low pressure area that was located north of the Azores and lost tropical characteristics by September 15 . Gloria was centered well north of Flores Island in the Azores , at the time .
= = = Hurricane Henri = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression near the Yucatan Peninsula on September 15 . It quickly entered the Gulf of Mexico and turned westward . As the depression was curving southwestward on September 16 , it strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Henri . Thereafter , Henri decelerated and continued to intensify , becoming a hurricane on September 17 . Later that day , as it was turning northwestward , the hurricane peaked with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 983 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) . A nearby low pressure area caused Henri to move erratically . Henri began weakening due to land interaction with Mexico and it was downgraded back to a tropical storm on September 18 .
By September 19 , Henri doubled @-@ back southeastward while weakening to a tropical depression . The depression lost much of its convection and curved northeastward on September 20 , ahead of a cold front . Henri turned east @-@ northeastward on September 23 and was absorbed by a frontal low pressure trough in the east @-@ central Gulf of Mexico on the following day . This was a rare example of a storm entering the Gulf of Mexico and dissipating without making landfall . Henri disrupted cleanup efforts from the Ixtoc I oil spill by damaging a cap designed to stop oil from flowing into the Gulf of Mexico . Although it remained offshore , the storm brought heavy rainfall to Mexico , peaking at 19 @.@ 59 inches ( 498 mm ) , forcing at least 2 @,@ 000 people from their homes in Ciudad del Carmen , Campeche .
= = = Mid @-@ September Tropical Depression = = =
This system formed as a non @-@ tropical low within a pre @-@ existing area of heavy thunderstorms along a stationary front on September 19 off the coast of Brownsville , Texas . The low appeared to the northwest of Tropical Storm Henri in the Gulf of Mexico and to the east of a cold @-@ core low over Arizona and New Mexico . The low became a non @-@ tropical gale center on September 20 , while moving into southeast Texas . The cyclone continued northeastward and dissipating over Tennessee . Sources differ on the status of this storm , with the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) initially considering it a tropical depression , while the National Climatic Data Center considered the system non @-@ tropical and it is not included in the Atlantic hurricane best track .
The depression brought heavy rainfall to Texas , with 10 to 15 in ( 250 to 380 mm ) of precipitation between Corpus Christi and southwestern Louisiana . Severe flooding occurred , especially in Brazoria , Galveston , Harris , Nueces , and San Patricio counties . In Harris County alone , nearly 1 @,@ 950 homes and hundreds of cars were flooded . Two deaths were reported in Texas , both from drowning . Portions of western Louisiana experienced 10 to 17 in ( 250 to 430 mm ) , resulting in severe flooding , with the worst impacted parishes being Allen , Calcasieu , and Rapides . Collectively , 1 @,@ 400 homes , businesses , and schools were flooded in the three parishes , while 40 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 ha ) of crops were inundated . In Mississippi , locally strong winds caused minor damage . Flooding to a lesser extend was also reported in Kentucky , North Carolina , and Virginia . Two additional deaths occurred in Kentucky .
= = = Subtropical Storm One = = =
A frontal wave formed about 200 mi ( 320 km ) south @-@ southwest of Bermuda in response to a short wave in the westerlies on October 23 . After satellite imagery indicated that convection associated with the system was becoming increasingly concentrated , a subtropical depression developed 12 : 00 UTC . The subtropical depression moved rapidly north @-@ northeastward and strengthened into a subtropical storm early on October 24 , based on satellite imagery classification . Accelerating to a forward speed of 29 mph ( 47 km / h ) , the storm intensified further and peaked with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) – equivalent to a minimal Category 1 hurricane – at 18 : 00 UTC on October 24 .
Early on October 25 , the system attained its minimum barometric pressure of 980 mbar ( 29 inHg ) . The storm already began weakening and losing tropical characteristics after tracking away from the Gulf Stream . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone made landfall near Rose Blanche @-@ Harbour le Cou , Newfoundland , with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . By the time it re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic later on October 25 , the system had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Rainfall spread across Atlantic Canada , peaking at 2 @.@ 91 in ( 74 mm ) on northeastern Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia .
= = = Other storms = = =
The first tropical depression of the season developed north of Puerto Rico on June 9 . It headed northward without intensifying and dissipated near Bermuda on the following day . Tropical Depression One existed in June from June 11 to June 16 . Another tropical depression developed north of Hispaniola on July 8 . It headed northward and then curved northeastward , bypass during the process . By July 13 , the depression dissipated while located well south of Newfoundland . A day after the previous tropical depression developed , another depression formed near 10th parallel in the eastern Atlantic on July 9 . It headed due westward and dissipated on July 11 . A tropical depression formed offshore of Georgia July 10 . The system moved north of due east with slight intensification on July 11 . It turned east , passing south of Bermuda early on the morning of July 13 while accelerating eastward , with the depression dissipating that afternoon . A tropical depression formed offshore western Africa on July 20 . The system moved westward through Cape Verde as a weak system on July 22 . The system turned west @-@ northwest and by late on July 25 , the depression began to weaken as it turned more to the north , and the system dissipated well to the east @-@ southeast of Bermuda on July 26 . Tropical Depression Six developed east of the Lesser Antilles on July 28 . The depression moved to the northwest and bypassed Bermuda on August 4 . The depression made landfall on the southeastern tip of Newfoundland on August 5 after passing southeast of Nova Scotia earlier that day . Tropical Depression Six became an extratropical cyclone while southeast of Labrador on August 6 .
Tropical Depression Eight formed in the Bay of Campeche on August 25 . Moving generally northwest , the depression moved into Mexico just south of the international border with the United States late on August 27 . Early on the following day , it dissipated inland . In Brownsville , Texas , rainfall accumulations totaled to 2 @.@ 83 inches ( 72 mm ) on August 27 , which was a record amount of precipitation for that date . The last tropical depression in August developed offshore of the The Carolinas on August 29 . The system quickly moved east @-@ northeast between the East coast North America and Bermuda over the next couple days . The depression became a frontal wave southeast of Newfoundland on September 1 , and dissipated soon afterward . Early in September , a tropical depression formed northeast of Cape Verde on September 1 . The depression moved west @-@ northwest before recurving sharply while located near the 40th meridian west on September 4 . Steadily weakening thereafter over cool waters , the depression dissipated southeast of the Azores on September 6 . A tropical depression formed near Cape Verde on September 16 and initially movied northwestward . Once it passed the 50th meridian west , the system turned northward and passed between Bermuda and the Azores . Turning northeast on September 20 , the system became an extratropical cyclone , passing northwest of the Azores before dissipating on September 21 . A tropical depression formed in the tropical north Atlantic east of the Lesser Antilles on September 21 . The system moved northwest over the next few days , staying well east of the Leeward Islands , before dissipating on September 24 .
Tropical Depression Fourteen formed on October 12 near Honduras and slowly moved to the northeast towards Cuba . The depression remained south of Cuba and turned back towards the Yucatan Peninsula . The depression made landfall in the Yucatan Peninsula on October 20 and dissipated shortly thereafter . Impact from the depression in this region is unknown . Toward the end of October , a tropical depression formed in the eastern tropical Atlantic on October 22 . It moved northwest over the next six days , dissipating on October 28 to the southwest of the Azores . The last tropical depression in October developed near Panama on October 24 . The depression initially moved northward toward Cuba , but eventually veered southwestward . By October 29 , the depression made landfall in Nicaragua and dissipated several hours later . Impact from this system in Central America is unknown . A subtropical depression formed from an old weather front , or baroclinic zone , on November 6 near Puerto Rico . The depression moved northeastward but appeared to have made contact with the westerlies , as it turned off to the east @-@ northeast . Ships that passed through the system recorded winds of 35 @-@ 40 mph ( 55 – 65 km / h ) . Early on November 10 , the system degenerated to a low pressure area , which soon dissipated . The final tropical depression of the season formed northeast of the Greater Antilles along a frontal zone on November 13 . The depression completed a quick recurvature over the next couple days without significant changes in intensity . By November 15 , the depression dissipated as a tropical cyclone .
= = Storm names = =
Since 1953 , the NHC and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) used a naming list that contained only female names . Throughout the years , feminist groups criticized this practice , especially in the aftermath of hurricanes Eloise in 1975 and Belle in 1976 . However , in May 1978 , NOAA administrator Richard A. Frank announced by a list with male and female names would be used in the eastern Pacific Ocean that year and in the Atlantic by 1979 , after submitting a proposal to the World Meteorological Organization . Initially , male names were scheduled to be introduced in the 1981 season . Storms were named Ana , Bob , Claudette , David , Frederic and Henri for the first time in 1979 . The name Elena was previously used in the 1965 season , and the name Gloria was used in 1976 . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 1985 season . The World Meteorological Organization retired two names in the spring of 1980 : David and Frederic . They were replaced in the 1985 season by Danny and Fabian . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = Season effects = =
The following table lists all of the storms that have formed in the 1979 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) ( in parentheses ) , damages , and death totals . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 1979 USD .
= Carl Nielsen =
Carl August Nielsen ( Danish : [ kʰɑːl ˈnelsn ̩ ] ; 9 June 1865 – 3 October 1931 ) was a Danish musician , conductor and violinist , widely recognized as his country 's most prominent composer .
Brought up by poor but musically talented parents on the island of Funen , he demonstrated his musical abilities at an early age . He initially played in a military band before attending the Royal Danish Academy of Music in Copenhagen from 1884 until December 1886 . He premiered his Op. 1 , Suite for Strings , in 1888 , at the age of 23 . The following year , Nielsen began a 16 @-@ year stint as a second violinist in the prestigious Royal Danish Orchestra under the conductor Johan Svendsen , during which he played in Giuseppe Verdi 's Falstaff and Otello at their Danish premieres . In 1916 , he took a post teaching at the Royal Academy and continued to work there until his death .
Although his symphonies , concertos and choral music are now internationally acclaimed , Nielsen 's career and personal life were marked by many difficulties , often reflected in his music . The works he composed between 1897 and 1904 are sometimes ascribed to his " psychological " period , resulting mainly from a turbulent marriage with the sculptor Anne Marie Brodersen . Nielsen is especially noted for his six symphonies , his Wind Quintet and his concertos for violin , flute and clarinet . In Denmark , his opera Maskarade and many of his songs have become an integral part of the national heritage . His early music was inspired by composers such as Brahms and Grieg , but he soon developed his own style , first experimenting with progressive tonality and later diverging even more radically from the standards of composition still common at the time . Nielsen 's sixth and final symphony , Sinfonia semplice , was written in 1924 – 25 . He died from a heart attack six years later , and is buried in Vestre Cemetery , Copenhagen .
Nielsen maintained the reputation of an outsider during his lifetime , both in his own country and internationally . It was only later that his works firmly entered the international repertoire , accelerating in popularity from the 1960s through Leonard Bernstein and others . In Denmark , Nielsen 's reputation was sealed in 2006 when three of his compositions were listed by the Ministry of Culture amongst the twelve greatest pieces of Danish music . For many years , he appeared on the Danish hundred @-@ kroner banknote . The Carl Nielsen Museum in Odense documents his life and that of his wife . Between 1994 and 2009 the Royal Danish Library , sponsored by the Danish government , completed the Carl Nielsen Edition , freely available online , containing background information and sheet music for all Nielsen 's works , many of which had not been previously published .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years = = =
Nielsen was born the seventh of twelve children to a poor peasant family in 1865 at Nørre Lyndelse near Sortelung , south of Odense on the island of Funen . His father , Niels Jørgensen , was a house painter and traditional musician who , with his abilities as a fiddler and cornet player , was in strong demand for local celebrations . Nielsen described his childhood in his autobiography Min Fynske Barndom ( My Childhood on Funen ) . His mother , whom he recalls singing folk songs during his childhood , came from a well @-@ to @-@ do family of sea captains while one of his half @-@ uncles , Hans Andersen ( 1837 – 1881 ) , was a talented musician .
Nielsen gave an account of his introduction to music : " I had heard music before , heard father play the violin and cornet , heard mother singing , and , when in bed with the measles , I had tried myself out on the little violin " . He had received the instrument from his mother when he was six . He learned the violin and piano as a child and wrote his earliest compositions at the age of eight or nine : a lullaby , now lost , and a polka which the composer mentioned in his autobiography . As his parents did not believe he had any future as a musician , they apprenticed him to a shopkeeper from a nearby village when he was fourteen ; the shopkeeper went bankrupt by midsummer and Nielsen had to return home . After learning to play brass instruments , on 1 November 1879 he became a bugler and alto trombonist in the band of the army 's 16th Battalion at nearby Odense .
Nielsen did not give up the violin during his time with the battalion , continuing to play it when he went home to perform at dances with his father . The army paid him three kroner and 45 øre and a loaf of bread every five days for two and a half years , after which his salary was raised slightly , enabling him to buy the civilian clothes he needed to perform at barn dances .
= = = Studies and early career = = =
In 1881 , Nielsen began to take his violin playing more seriously , studying privately under Carl Larsen , the sexton at Odense Cathedral . It is not known how much Nielsen composed during this period , but from his autobiography , it can be deduced that he wrote some trios and quartets for brass instruments , and that he had difficulty in coming to terms with the fact that brass instruments were tuned in different keys . Following an introduction to Niels W. Gade , the director of the Royal Academy in Copenhagen , by whom he was well received , Nielsen obtained his release from the military band at short notice , and studied at the Academy from the beginning of 1884 .
Though not an outstanding student and composing little , Nielsen progressed well in violin under Valdemar Tofte ( 1832 – 1907 ) , and received a solid grounding in music theory from Orla Rosenhoff ( 1844 – 1905 ) , who would remain a valued adviser during his early years as a professional composer . He also studied composition under Gade , whom he liked as a friend but not for his music . Contacts with fellow students and cultured families in Copenhagen , some of whom would become lifelong friends , became equally important . The patchy education resulting from his country background left Nielsen insatiably curious about the arts , philosophy and aesthetics . But , in the opinion of the musicologist David Fanning , it also left him " with a highly personal , common man 's point of view on those subjects " . He left the Academy at the end of 1886 , after graduating with good but not outstanding marks in all subjects . He then went to stay with the retired Odense merchant Jens Georg Nielsen ( 1820 – 1901 ) and his wife at their apartment on Slagelsegade as he was not yet in a position to pay his own way . While there , he fell in love with their 14 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Emilie Demant . The affair was to last for the next three years .
On 17 September 1887 , Nielsen played the violin in the Tivoli Concert Hall when his Andante tranquillo e Scherzo for strings was premiered . Shortly afterwards , on 25 January 1888 , his String Quartet in F major was played at one of the private performances of the Privat Kammermusikforening ( Private Chamber Music Society ) . While Nielsen considered the Quartet in F to be his official debut as a professional composer , a far greater impression was made by his Suite for Strings . Performed at Tivoli Gardens , Copenhagen on 8 September 1888 , it was designated by Nielsen as his Op. 1 .
By September 1889 Nielsen had progressed well enough on the violin to gain a position with the second violins in the prestigious Royal Danish Orchestra which played at Copenhagen 's Royal Theatre , then conducted by Johan Svendsen . In this position he experienced Giuseppe Verdi 's Falstaff and Otello at their Danish premieres . Although this employment sometimes caused Nielsen considerable frustration , he continued to play there until 1905 . After Svendsen 's retirement in 1906 , Nielsen increasingly served as conductor ( being officially appointed assistant conductor in 1910 ) . Between graduation and attaining this position , he made a modest income from private violin lessons while enjoying the continuing support of his patrons , not only Jens Georg Nielsen but also Albert Sachs ( born 1846 ) and Hans Demant ( 1827 – 1897 ) who both ran factories in Odense . After less than a year at the Royal Theatre , Nielsen won a scholarship of 1 @,@ 800 kroner , giving him the means to spend several months travelling in Europe .
= = = Marriage and children = = =
While travelling , Nielsen discovered and then turned against Richard Wagner 's music dramas , heard many of Europe 's leading orchestras and soloists and sharpened his opinions on both music and the visual arts . Although he revered the music of Bach and Mozart , he remained ambivalent about much 19th @-@ century music . In 1891 he met the composer and pianist Ferruccio Busoni in Leipzig ; they were to maintain a correspondence for over thirty years . Shortly after arriving in Paris in early March 1891 Nielsen met the Danish sculptor Anne Marie Brodersen , who was also travelling on a scholarship . They toured Italy together and married in St Mark 's English Church , Florence , on 10 May 1891 before returning to Denmark . According to Fanning , their relationship was not only a " love match " , but also a " meeting of minds " ; Anne Marie was a gifted artist and a " strong @-@ willed and modern @-@ minded woman , determined to forge her own career " . This determination would strain the Nielsens ' marriage , as Anne Marie would spend months away from home during the 1890s and 1900s , leaving Carl , who was susceptible to opportunities with other ladies , to raise their three young children in addition to composing and fulfilling his duties at the Royal Theatre .
Nielsen sublimated his anger and frustration over his marriage in a number of musical works , most notably between 1897 and 1904 , a period which he sometimes called his " psychological " period . Fanning writes , " At this time his interest in the driving forces behind human personality crystallized in the opera Saul and David and the Second Symphony ( The Four Temperaments ) and the cantatas Hymnus amoris and Søvnen " . Carl suggested divorce in March 1905 and had considered moving to Germany for a fresh start , but despite several extended periods of separation the Nielsens remained married for the remainder of the composer 's life .
Nielsen had five children , two of them illegitimate . He had already fathered a son , Carl August Nielsen , in January 1888 , before he met Anne Marie . In 1912 , an illegitimate daughter was born – Rachel Siegmann , about whom Anne Marie never learned . With his wife Nielsen had two daughters and a son . Irmelin , the elder daughter , studied music theory with her father and in December 1919 married Eggert Møller ( 1893 – 1978 ) , a medical doctor who became a professor at the University of Copenhagen and director of the polyclinic at the National Hospital . The younger daughter Anne Marie , who graduated from the Copenhagen Academy of Arts , married the Hungarian violinist Emil Telmányi ( 1892 – 1988 ) in 1918 ; he contributed to the promotion of Nielsen 's music , both as a violinist and a conductor . Nielsen 's son , Hans Børge , was handicapped as a result of meningitis and spent most of his life away from the family . He died near Kolding in 1956 .
= = = Mature composer = = =
At first , Nielsen 's works did not gain sufficient recognition for him to be able to support himself . During the concert which saw the premiere of his First Symphony on 14 March 1894 conducted by Svendsen , Nielsen played in the second violin section . The symphony was a great success when played in Berlin in 1896 , contributing significantly to his reputation . He was increasingly in demand to write incidental music for the theatre as well as cantatas for special occasions , both of which provided a welcome source of additional income . Fanning comments on the relationship which developed between his programmatic and symphonic works : " Sometimes he would find stageworthy ideas in his supposedly pure orchestral music ; sometimes a text or scenario forced him to invent vivid musical imagery which he could later turn to more abstract use . "
Nielsen 's cantata Hymnus amoris for soloists , chorus and orchestra was first performed at Copenhagen 's Musikforeningen ( The Music Society ) on 27 April 1897 . It was inspired by Titian 's painting Miracle of the Jealous Husband which Nielsen had seen on his honeymoon in Italy in 1891 . On one of the copies , he wrote : " To my own Marie ! These tones in praise of love are nothing compared to the real thing . "
Beginning in 1901 , Nielsen received a modest state pension – initially 800 kroner per annum , growing to 7 @,@ 500 kroner by 1927 – to augment his violinist 's salary . This allowed him to stop taking private pupils and left him more time to compose . From 1903 , he also had an annual retainer from his principal publisher , Wilhelm Hansen Edition . Between 1905 and 1914 he served as second conductor at the Royal Theatre . For his son @-@ in @-@ law , Emil Telmányi , Nielsen wrote his Violin Concerto , Op. 33 ( 1911 ) . From 1914 to 1926 , he conducted the Musikforeningen orchestra . In 1916 , he took a post teaching at the Royal Danish Academy of Music in Copenhagen , and continued to work there until his death .
The strain of dual careers and constant separation from his wife led to an extended breach in his marriage . The couple began separation proceedings in 1916 , and separation by mutual consent was granted in 1919 . In the period 1916 – 22 , Nielsen often lived on Funen retreating to the Damgaard and Fuglsang estates , or worked as a conductor in Gothenburg . The period was one of creative crisis for Nielsen which , coinciding with World War I , would strongly influence his Fourth ( 1914 – 16 ) and Fifth symphonies ( 1921 – 22 ) , arguably his greatest works according to Fanning . The composer was particularly upset in the 1920s when his long @-@ standing Danish publisher Wilhelm Hansen was unable to undertake publication of many of his major works , including Aladdin and Pan and Syrinx .
The sixth and final symphony , Sinfonia semplice , was written in 1924 – 25 . After suffering a serious heart attack in 1925 , Nielsen was forced to curtail much of his activity , although he continued to compose until his death . His sixtieth birthday in 1925 brought many congratulations , a decoration from the Swedish government , and a gala concert and reception in Copenhagen . The composer , however , was in a dour mood ; in an article in Politiken on 9 November 1925 he wrote :
If I could live my life again , I would chase any thoughts of Art out of my head and be apprenticed to a merchant or pursue some other useful trade the results of which could be visible in the end ... What use is it to me that the whole world acknowledges me , but hurries away and leaves me alone with my wares until everything breaks down and I discover to my disgrace that I have lived as a foolish dreamer and believed that the more I worked and exerted myself in my art , the better position I would achieve . No , it is no enviable fate to be an artist .
= = = Final years and death = = =
Nielsen 's final large @-@ scale orchestral works were his Flute Concerto ( 1926 ) and the Clarinet Concerto ( 1928 ) , of which Robert Layton writes : " If ever there was music from another planet , this is surely it . Its sonorities are sparse and monochrome , its air rarefied and bracing . " Nielsen 's last musical composition , the organ work Commotio , was premiered posthumously in 1931 .
During his final years , Nielsen produced a short book of essays entitled Living Music ( 1925 ) , followed in 1927 by his memoir Min Fynske Barndom . In 1926 he wrote in his diary " My home soil pulls me more and more like a long sucking kiss . Does it mean that I shall finally return and rest in the earth of Funen ? Then it must be in the place where I was born : Sortelung , Frydenlands parish " .
This was not to be . Nielsen was admitted to Copenhagen 's National Hospital ( Rigshospitalet ) on 1 October 1931 following a series of heart attacks . He died there at ten minutes past midnight on 3 October , surrounded by his family . His last words to them were " You are standing here as if you were waiting for something " .
He was buried in Copenhagen 's Vestre Cemetery ; all the music at his funeral , including the hymns , was the work of the composer . After his death , his wife was commissioned to sculpt a monument to him , to be erected in central Copenhagen . She wrote : " I wanted to take the winged horse , eternal symbol of poetry , and place a musician on its back . He was to sit there between the rushing wings blowing a reed pipe out over Copenhagen . " Dispute about her design and a shortfall in funding meant that erection of the monument was delayed and that Anne Marie herself ended up subsidising it . It was finally unveiled in 1939 .
= = Music = =
Nielsen 's works are sometimes referred to by CNW numbers , based on the Catalogue of Carl Nielsen 's Works ( CNW ) published online by the Danish Royal Library in 2015 . The CNW catalogue is intended to replace the 1965 catalogue compiled by Dan Fog and Torben Schousboe ( FS numbers ) .
= = = Musical style = = =
In his Lives of the Great Composers , the music critic Harold Schonberg emphasizes the breadth of Nielsen 's compositions , his energetic rhythms , generous orchestration and his individuality . In comparing him with Jean Sibelius , he considers he had " just as much sweep , even more power , and a more universal message " . The Oxford University music professor Daniel Grimley qualifies Nielsen as " one of the most playful , life @-@ affirming , and awkward voices in twentieth @-@ century music " thanks to the " melodic richness and harmonic vitality " of his work . Anne @-@ Marie Reynolds , author of Carl Nielsen 's Voice : His Songs in Context , cites Robert Simpson 's view that " all of his music is vocal in origin " , maintaining that song @-@ writing strongly influenced Nielsen 's development as a composer .
The Danish sociologist Benedikte Brincker observes that the perception of Nielsen and his music in his home country is rather different from his international appreciation . His interest and background in folk music had special resonance for Danes , and this was intensified during the nationalistic movements of the 1930s and during World War II , when singing was an important basis for the Danes to distinguish themselves from their German enemies . Nielsen 's songs retain an important place in Danish culture and education . The musicologist Niels Krabbe describes the popular image of Nielsen in Denmark as being like " the ugly duckling syndrome " – a reference to the tale of the Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen – whereby " a poor boy ... passing through adversity and frugality ... marches into Copenhagen and ... comes to conquer the position as the uncrowned King " . Thus while outside Denmark Nielsen is largely thought of as the composer of orchestral music and the opera Maskarade , in his own country he is more of a national symbol . These two sides were officially brought together in Denmark in 2006 when the Ministry of Culture issued a list of the twelve greatest
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double @-@ crossover ( DX ) motif , which contains two parallel double helical domains with individual strands crossing between the domains at two crossover points . Each crossover point is itself topologically a four @-@ arm junction , but is constrained to a single orientation , as opposed to the flexible single four @-@ arm junction , providing a rigidity that makes the DX motif suitable as a structural building block for larger DNA complexes .
Dynamic DNA nanotechnology uses a mechanism called toehold @-@ mediated strand displacement to allow the nucleic acid complexes to reconfigure in response to the addition of a new nucleic acid strand . In this reaction , the incoming strand binds to a single @-@ stranded toehold region of a double @-@ stranded complex , and then displaces one of the strands bound in the original complex through a branch migration process . The overall effect is that one of the strands in the complex is replaced with another one . In addition , reconfigurable structures and devices can be made using functional nucleic acids such as deoxyribozymes and ribozymes , which are capable of performing chemical reactions , and aptamers , which can bind to specific proteins or small molecules .
= = Structural DNA nanotechnology = =
Structural DNA nanotechnology , sometimes abbreviated as SDN , focuses on synthesizing and characterizing nucleic acid complexes and materials where the assembly has a static , equilibrium endpoint . The nucleic acid double helix has a robust , defined three @-@ dimensional geometry that makes it possible to predict and design the structures of more complicated nucleic acid complexes . Many such structures have been created , including two- and three @-@ dimensional structures , and periodic , aperiodic , and discrete structures .
= = = Extended lattices = = =
Small nucleic acid complexes can be equipped with sticky ends and combined into larger two @-@ dimensional periodic lattices containing a specific tessellated pattern of the individual molecular tiles . The earliest example of this used double @-@ crossover ( DX ) complexes as the basic tiles , each containing four sticky ends designed with sequences that caused the DX units to combine into periodic two @-@ dimensional flat sheets that are essentially rigid two @-@ dimensional crystals of DNA . Two @-@ dimensional arrays have been made from other motifs as well , including the Holliday junction rhombus lattice , and various DX @-@ based arrays making use of a double @-@ cohesion scheme . The top two images at right show examples of tile @-@ based periodic lattices .
Two @-@ dimensional arrays can be made to exhibit aperiodic structures whose assembly implements a specific algorithm , exhibiting one form of DNA computing . The DX tiles can have their sticky end sequences chosen so that they act as Wang tiles , allowing them to perform computation . A DX array whose assembly encodes an XOR operation has been demonstrated ; this allows the DNA array to implement a cellular automaton that generates a fractal known as the Sierpinski gasket . The third image at right shows this type of array . Another system has the function of a binary counter , displaying a representation of increasing binary numbers as it grows . These results show that computation can be incorporated into the assembly of DNA arrays .
DX arrays have been made to form hollow nanotubes 4 – 20 nm in diameter , essentially two @-@ dimensional lattices which curve back upon themselves . These DNA nanotubes are somewhat similar in size and shape to carbon nanotubes , and while they lack the electrical conductance of carbon nanotubes , DNA nanotubes are more easily modified and connected to other structures . One of many schemes for constructing DNA nanotubes uses a lattice of curved DX tiles that curls around itself and closes into a tube . In an alternative method that allows the circumference to be specified in a simple , modular fashion using single @-@ stranded tiles , the rigidity of the tube is an emergent property .
The creation of three @-@ dimensional lattices out of DNA was the earliest goal of DNA nanotechnology , but this proved to be one of the most difficult to realize . Success using a motif based on the concept of tensegrity , a balance between tension and compression forces , was finally reported in 2009 .
= = = Discrete structures = = =
Researchers have synthesized a number of three @-@ dimensional DNA complexes that each have the connectivity of a polyhedron , such as a cube or octahedron , meaning that the DNA duplexes trace the edges of a polyhedron with a DNA junction at each vertex . The earliest demonstrations of DNA polyhedra were very work @-@ intensive , requiring multiple ligations and solid @-@ phase synthesis steps to create catenated polyhedra . Subsequent work yielded polyhedra whose synthesis was much easier . These include a DNA octahedron made from a long single strand designed to fold into the correct conformation , and a tetrahedron that can be produced from four DNA strands in a single step , pictured at the top of this article .
Nanostructures of arbitrary , non @-@ regular shapes are usually made using the DNA origami method . These structures consist of a long , natural virus strand as a " scaffold " , which is made to fold into the desired shape by computationally designed short " staple " strands . This method has the advantages of being easy to design , as the base sequence is predetermined by the scaffold strand sequence , and not requiring high strand purity and accurate stoichiometry , as most other DNA nanotechnology methods do . DNA origami was first demonstrated for two @-@ dimensional shapes , such as a smiley face and a coarse map of the Western Hemisphere . Solid three @-@ dimensional structures can be made by using parallel DNA helices arranged in a honeycomb pattern , and structures with two @-@ dimensional faces can be made to fold into a hollow overall three @-@ dimensional shape , akin to a cardboard box . These can be programmed to open and reveal or release a molecular cargo in response to a stimulus , making them potentially useful as programmable molecular cages .
= = = Templated assembly = = =
Nucleic acid structures can be made to incorporate molecules other than nucleic acids , sometimes called heteroelements , including proteins , metallic nanoparticles , quantum dots , and fullerenes . This allows the construction of materials and devices with a range of functionalities much greater than is possible with nucleic acids alone . The goal is to use the self @-@ assembly of the nucleic acid structures to template the assembly of the nanoparticles hosted on them , controlling their position and in some cases orientation . Many of these schemes use a covalent attachment scheme , using oligonucleotides with amide or thiol functional groups as a chemical handle to bind the heteroelements . This covalent binding scheme has been used to arrange gold nanoparticles on a DX @-@ based array , and to arrange streptavidin protein molecules into specific patterns on a DX array . A non @-@ covalent hosting scheme using Dervan polyamides on a DX array was used to arrange streptavidin proteins in a specific pattern on a DX array . Carbon nanotubes have been hosted on DNA arrays in a pattern allowing the assembly to act as a molecular electronic device , a carbon nanotube field @-@ effect transistor . In addition , there are nucleic acid metallization methods , in which the nucleic acid is replaced by a metal which assumes the general shape of the original nucleic acid structure , and schemes for using nucleic acid nanostructures as lithography masks , transferring their pattern into a solid surface .
= = Dynamic DNA nanotechnology = =
Dynamic DNA nanotechnology focuses on creating nucleic acid systems with designed dynamic functionalities related to their overall structures , such as computation and mechanical motion . There is some overlap between structural and dynamic DNA nanotechnology , as structures can be formed through annealing and then reconfigured dynamically , or can be made to form dynamically in the first place .
= = = Nanomechanical devices = = =
DNA complexes have been made that change their conformation upon some stimulus , making them one form of nanorobotics . These structures are initially formed in the same way as the static structures made in structural DNA nanotechnology , but are designed so that dynamic reconfiguration is possible after the initial assembly . The earliest such device made use of the transition between the B @-@ DNA and Z @-@ DNA forms to respond to a change in buffer conditions by undergoing a twisting motion . This reliance on buffer conditions , however , caused all devices to change state at the same time . Subsequent systems could change states based upon the presence of control strands , allowing multiple devices to be independently operated in solution . Some examples of such systems are a " molecular tweezers " design that has an open and a closed state , a device that could switch from a paranemic @-@ crossover ( PX ) conformation to a double @-@ junction ( JX2 ) conformation , undergoing rotational motion in the process , and a two @-@ dimensional array that could dynamically expand and contract in response to control strands . Structures have also been made that dynamically open or close , potentially acting as a molecular cage to release or reveal a functional cargo upon opening .
DNA walkers are a class of nucleic acid nanomachines that exhibit directional motion along a linear track . A large number of schemes have been demonstrated . One strategy is to control the motion of the walker along the track using control strands that need to be manually added in sequence . Another approach is to make use of restriction enzymes or deoxyribozymes to cleave the strands and cause the walker to move forward , which has the advantage of running autonomously . A later system could walk upon a two @-@ dimensional surface rather than a linear track , and demonstrated the ability to selectively pick up and move molecular cargo . Additionally , a linear walker has been demonstrated that performs DNA @-@ templated synthesis as the walker advances along the track , allowing autonomous multistep chemical synthesis directed by the walker . The synthetic DNA walkers ' function is similar to that of the proteins dynein and kinesin .
= = = Strand displacement cascades = = =
Cascades of strand displacement reactions can be used for either computational or structural purposes . An individual strand displacement reaction involves revealing a new sequence in response to the presence of some initiator strand . Many such reactions can be linked into a cascade where the newly revealed output sequence of one reaction can initiate another strand displacement reaction elsewhere . This in turn allows for the construction of chemical reaction networks with many components , exhibiting complex computational and information processing abilities . These cascades are made energetically favorable through the formation of new base pairs , and the entropy gain from disassembly reactions . Strand displacement cascades allow for isothermal operation of the assembly or computational process , as opposed to traditional nucleic acid assembly 's requirement for a thermal annealing step , where the temperature is raised and then slowly lowered to ensure proper formation of the desired structure . They can also support catalytic functionality of the initiator species , where less than one equivalent of the initiator can cause the reaction to go to completion .
Strand displacement complexes can be used to make molecular logic gates capable of complex computation . Unlike traditional electronic computers , which use electric current as inputs and outputs , molecular computers use the concentrations of specific chemical species as signals . In the case of nucleic acid strand displacement circuits , the signal is the presence of nucleic acid strands that are released or consumed by binding and unbinding events to other strands in displacement complexes . This approach has been used to make logic gates such as AND , OR , and NOT gates . More recently , a four @-@ bit circuit was demonstrated that can compute the square root of the integers 0 – 15 , using a system of gates containing 130 DNA strands .
Another use of strand displacement cascades is to make dynamically assembled structures . These use a hairpin structure for the reactants , so that when the input strand binds , the newly revealed sequence is on the same molecule rather than disassembling . This allows new opened hairpins to be added to a growing complex . This approach has been used to make simple structures such as three- and four @-@ arm junctions and dendrimers .
= = Applications = =
DNA nanotechnology provides one of the few ways to form designed , complex structures with precise control over nanoscale features . The field is beginning to see application to solve basic science problems in structural biology and biophysics . The earliest such application envisaged for the field , and one still in development , is in crystallography , where molecules that are difficult to crystallize in isolation could be arranged within a three @-@ dimensional nucleic acid lattice , allowing determination of their structure . Another application is the use of DNA origami rods to replace liquid crystals in residual dipolar coupling experiments in protein NMR spectroscopy ; using DNA origami is advantageous because , unlike liquid crystals , they are tolerant of the detergents needed to suspend membrane proteins in solution . DNA walkers have been used as nanoscale assembly lines to move nanoparticles and direct chemical synthesis . Furthermore , DNA origami structures have aided in the biophysical studies of enzyme function and protein folding .
DNA nanotechnology is moving towards potential real @-@ world applications . The ability of nucleic acid arrays to arrange other molecules indicates its potential applications in molecular scale electronics . The assembly of a nucleic acid structure could be used to template the assembly of a molecular electronic elements such as molecular wires , providing a method for nanometer @-@ scale control of the placement and overall architecture of the device analogous to a molecular breadboard . DNA nanotechnology has been compared to the concept of programmable matter because of the coupling of computation to its material properties .
In a study conducted by a group of scientists from iNANO center and CDNA Center in Aarhus university ( Aarhus ) , researchers were able to construct a small multi @-@ switchable 3D DNA Box Origami . The proposed nanoparticle was characterized by AFM , TEM and FRET . The constructed box was shown to have a unique reclosing mechanism , which enabled it to repeatedly open and close in response to a unique set of DNA or RNA keys . The authors proposed that this " DNA device can potentially be used for a broad range of applications such as controlling the function of single molecules , controlled drug delivery , and molecular computing . " .
There are potential applications for DNA nanotechnology in nanomedicine , making use of its ability to perform computation in a biocompatible format to make " smart drugs " for targeted drug delivery . One such system being investigated uses a hollow DNA box containing proteins that induce apoptosis , or cell death , that will only open when in proximity to a cancer cell . There has additionally been interest in expressing these artificial structures in engineered living bacterial cells , most likely using the transcribed RNA for the assembly , although it is unknown whether these complex structures are able to efficiently fold or assemble in the cell 's cytoplasm . If successful , this could enable directed evolution of nucleic acid nanostructures . Scientists at Oxford University reported the self @-@ assembly of four short strands of synthetic DNA into a cage which is capable of entering cells and surviving for at least 48 hours . The fluorescently labeled DNA tetrahedra were found to remain intact in the laboratory cultured human kidney cells despite the attack by cellular enzymes after two days . This experiment showed the potential of drug delivery inside the living cells using the DNA ‘ cage ’ . A DNA tetrahedron was used to deliver RNA Interference ( RNAi ) in a mouse model , reported a team of researchers in MIT . Delivery of the interfering RNA for treatment has showed some success using polymer or lipid , but there are limitations of safety and imprecise targeting , in addition to short shelf life in the blood stream . The DNA nanostructure created by the team consists of six strands of DNA to form a tetrahedron , with a single strand of RNA affixed to each of the six edges . The tetrahedron is further equipped with targeting protein , three folate molecules , which lead the DNA nanoparticles to the abundant folate receptors found on some tumors . The result showed that the gene expression targeted by the RNAi , luciferase , dropped by more than half . This study shows promise in using DNA nanotechnology as an effective tool to deliver treatment using the emerging RNA Interference technology .
= = Design = =
DNA nanostructures must be rationally designed so that the individual nucleic acid strands will assemble into the desired structures . This process usually begins with the specification of a desired target structure or functionality . Then , the overall secondary structure of the target complex is determined , specifying the arrangement of nucleic acid strands within the structure , and which portions of those strands should be bound to each other . The last step is the primary structure design , which is the specification of the actual base sequences of each nucleic acid strand .
= = = Structural design = = =
The first step in designing a nucleic acid nanostructure is to decide how a given structure should be represented by a specific arrangement of nucleic acid strands . This design step determines the secondary structure , or the positions of the base pairs that hold the individual strands together in the desired shape . Several approaches have been demonstrated :
Tile @-@ based structures . This approach breaks the target structure into smaller units with strong binding between the strands contained in each unit , and weaker interactions between the units . It is often used to make periodic lattices , but can also be used to implement algorithmic self @-@ assembly , making them a platform for DNA computing . This was the dominant design strategy used from the mid @-@ 1990s until the mid @-@ 2000s , when the DNA origami methodology was developed .
Folding structures . An alternative to the tile @-@ based approach , folding approaches make the nanostructure from a single long strand . This long strand can either have a designed sequence that folds due to its interactions with itself , or it can be folded into the desired shape by using shorter , " staple " strands . This latter method is called DNA origami , which allows the creation of nanoscale two- and three @-@ dimensional shapes ( see Discrete structures above ) .
Dynamic assembly . This approach directly controls the kinetics of DNA self @-@ assembly , specifying all of the intermediate steps in the reaction mechanism in addition to the final product . This is done using starting materials which adopt a hairpin structure ; these then assemble into the final conformation in a cascade reaction , in a specific order ( see Strand displacement cascades below ) . This approach has the advantage of proceeding isothermally , at a constant temperature . This is in contrast to the thermodynamic approaches , which require a thermal annealing step where a temperature change is required to trigger the assembly and favor proper formation of the desired structure .
= = = Sequence design = = =
After any of the above approaches are used to design the secondary structure of a target complex , an actual sequence of nucleotides that will form into the desired structure must be devised . Nucleic acid design is the process of assigning a specific nucleic acid base sequence to each of a structure 's constituent strands so that they will associate into a desired conformation . Most methods have the goal of designing sequences so that the target structure has the lowest energy , and is thus the most thermodynamically favorable , while incorrectly assembled structures have higher energies and are thus disfavored . This is done either through simple , faster heuristic methods such as sequence symmetry minimization , or by using a full nearest @-@ neighbor thermodynamic model , which is more accurate but slower and more computationally intensive . Geometric models are used to examine tertiary structure of the nanostructures and to ensure that the complexes are not overly strained .
Nucleic acid design has similar goals to protein design . In both , the sequence of monomers is designed to favor the desired target structure and to disfavor other structures . Nucleic acid design has the advantage of being much computationally easier than protein design , because the simple base pairing rules are sufficient to predict a structure 's energetic favorability , and detailed information about the overall three @-@ dimensional folding of the structure is not required . This allows the use of simple heuristic methods that yield experimentally robust designs . However , nucleic acid structures are less versatile than proteins in their functionality because of proteins ' increased ability to fold into complex structures , as well as the limited chemical diversity of the four nucleotides as compared to the twenty proteinogenic amino acids .
= = Materials and methods = =
The sequences of the DNA strands making up a target structure are designed computationally , using molecular modeling and thermodynamic modeling software . The nucleic acids themselves are then synthesized using standard oligonucleotide synthesis methods , usually automated in an oligonucleotide synthesizer , and strands of custom sequences are commercially available . Strands can be purified by denaturing gel electrophoresis if needed , and precise concentrations determined via any of several nucleic acid quantitation methods using ultraviolet absorbance spectroscopy .
The fully formed target structures can be verified using native gel electrophoresis , which gives size and shape information for the nucleic acid complexes . An electrophoretic mobility shift assay can assess whether a structure incorporates all desired strands . Fluorescent labeling and Förster resonance energy transfer ( FRET ) are sometimes used to characterize the structure of the complexes .
Nucleic acid structures can be directly imaged by atomic force microscopy , which is well suited to extended two @-@ dimensional structures , but less useful for discrete three @-@ dimensional structures because of the microscope tip 's interaction with the fragile nucleic acid structure ; transmission electron microscopy and cryo @-@ electron microscopy are often used in this case . Extended three @-@ dimensional lattices are analyzed by X @-@ ray crystallography .
= = History = =
The conceptual foundation for DNA nanotechnology was first laid out by Nadrian Seeman in the early 1980s . Seeman 's original motivation was to create a three @-@ dimensional DNA lattice for orienting other large molecules , which would simplify their crystallographic study by eliminating the difficult process of obtaining pure crystals . This idea had reportedly come to him in late 1980 , after realizing the similarity between the woodcut Depth by M. C. Escher and an array of DNA six @-@ arm junctions . A number of natural branched DNA structures were known at the time , including the DNA replication fork and the mobile Holliday junction , but Seeman 's insight was that immobile nucleic acid junctions could be created by properly designing the strand sequences to remove symmetry in the assembled molecule , and that these immobile junctions could in principle be combined into rigid crystalline lattices . The first theoretical paper proposing this scheme was published in 1982 , and the first experimental demonstration of an immobile DNA junction was published the following year .
In 1991 , Seeman 's laboratory published a report on the synthesis of a cube made of DNA , the first synthetic three @-@ dimensional nucleic acid nanostructure , for which he received the 1995 Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology . This was followed by a DNA truncated octahedron . However , it soon became clear that these structures , polygonal shapes with flexible junctions as their vertices , were not rigid enough to form extended three @-@ dimensional lattices . Seeman developed the more rigid double @-@ crossover ( DX ) motif , and in 1998 , in collaboration with Erik Winfree , published the creation of two @-@ dimensional lattices of DX tiles . These tile @-@ based structures had the advantage that they provided the capability to implement DNA computing , which was demonstrated by Winfree and Paul Rothemund in their 2004 paper on the algorithmic self @-@ assembly of a Sierpinski gasket structure , and for which they shared the 2006 Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology . Winfree 's key insight was that the DX tiles could be used as Wang tiles , meaning that their assembly was capable of performing computation . The synthesis of a three @-@ dimensional lattice was finally published by Seeman in 2009 , nearly thirty years after he had set out to achieve it .
New capabilities continued to be discovered for designed DNA structures throughout the 2000s . The first DNA nanomachine — a motif that changes its structure in response to an input — was demonstrated in 1999 by Seeman . An improved system , which was the first nucleic acid device to make use of toehold @-@ mediated strand displacement , was demonstrated by Bernard Yurke the following year . The next advance was to translate this into mechanical motion , and in 2004 and 2005 , a number of DNA walker systems were demonstrated by the groups of Seeman , Niles Pierce , Andrew Turberfield , and Chengde Mao . The idea of using DNA arrays to template the assembly of other molecules such as nanoparticles and proteins , first suggested by Bruche Robinson and Seeman in 1987 , was demonstrated in 2002 by Seeman , Kiehl et al. and subsequently by numerous other groups .
In 2006 , Rothemund first demonstrated the DNA origami technique for easily and robustly creating folded DNA structures of arbitrary shape . Rothemund had conceived of this method as being conceptually intermediate between Seeman 's DX lattices , which used many short strands , and William Shih 's DNA octahedron , which consisted mostly of one very long strand . Rothemund 's DNA origami contains a long strand whose folding is assisted by a number of short strands . This method allowed the creation of much larger structures than were previously possible , and which are less technically demanding to design and synthesize . DNA origami was the cover story of Nature on March 15 , 2006 . Rothemund 's research demonstrating two @-@ dimensional DNA origami structures was followed by the demonstration of solid three @-@ dimensional DNA origami by Douglas et al. in 2009 , while the labs of Jørgen Kjems and Yan demonstrated hollow three @-@ dimensional structures made out of two @-@ dimensional faces .
DNA nanotechnology was initially met with some skepticism due to the unusual non @-@ biological use of nucleic acids as materials for building structures and doing computation , and the preponderance of proof of principle experiments that extended the capabilities of the field but were far from actual applications . Seeman 's 1991 paper on the synthesis of the DNA cube was rejected by the journal Science after one reviewer praised its originality while another criticized it for its lack of biological relevance . By the early 2010s , however , the field was considered to have increased its capabilities to the point that applications for basic science research were beginning to be realized , and practical applications in medicine and other fields were beginning to be considered feasible . The field had grown from very few active laboratories in 2001 to at least 60 in 2010 , which increased the talent pool and thus the number of scientific advances in the field during that decade .
= Protein C =
Protein C , also known as autoprothrombin IIA and blood coagulation factor XIV , is a zymogen , the activated form of which plays an important role in regulating anticoagulation , inflammation , cell death , and maintaining the permeability of blood vessel walls in humans and other animals . Activated protein C ( APC ) performs these operations primarily by proteolytically inactivating proteins Factor Va and Factor VIIIa . APC is classified as a serine protease as it contains a residue of serine in its active site . In humans , protein C is encoded by the PROC gene , which is found on chromosome 2 .
The zymogenic form of protein C is a vitamin K @-@ dependent glycoprotein that circulates in blood plasma . Its structure is that of a two @-@ chain polypeptide consisting of a light chain and a heavy chain connected by a disulfide bond . The protein C zymogen is activated when it binds to thrombin , another protein heavily involved in coagulation , and protein C 's activation is greatly promoted by the presence of thrombomodulin and endothelial protein C receptors ( EPCRs ) . Because of EPCR 's role , activated protein C is found primarily near endothelial cells ( i.e. , those that make up the walls of blood vessels ) , and it is these cells and leukocytes ( white blood cells ) that APC affects . Because of the crucial role that protein C plays as an anticoagulant , those with deficiencies in protein C , or some kind of resistance to APC , suffer from a significantly increased risk of forming dangerous blood clots ( thrombosis ) .
Research into the clinical use of activated protein C also known as drotrecogin alfa @-@ activated ( branded Xigris ) has been surrounded by controversy . The manufacturer Eli Lilly and Company ran an aggressive marketing campaign to promote its use in people with severe sepsis and septic shock including the sponsoring of the 2004 Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines . A 2011 Cochrane review however found that its use cannot be recommended as it does not improve survival ( and increases bleeding risk ) .
= = History = =
Protein C 's anticoagulant role in the human body was first noted by Seegers et al. in 1960 , who gave protein C its original name , autoprothrombin II @-@ a . Protein C was first isolated by Johan Stenflo from bovine plasma in 1976 , and Stenflo determined it to be a vitamin K @-@ dependent protein . He named it protein C because it was the third protein ( " peak C " ) that eluted from a DEAE @-@ Sepharose ion @-@ exchange chromotograph . Seegers was , at the time , searching for vitamin K @-@ dependent coagulation factors undetected by clotting assays , which measure global clotting function . Soon after this , Seegers recognised Stenflo 's discovery was identical with his own . Activated protein C was discovered later that year , and in 1977 it was first recognised that APC inactivates Factor Va . In 1980 , Vehar and Davie discovered that APC also inactivates Factor VIIIa , and soon after , Protein S was recognised as a cofactor by Walker . In 1982 , a family study by Griffin et al. first associated protein C deficiency with symptoms of venous thrombosis . Homozygous protein C deficiency and the consequent serious health effects were described in 1984 by several scientists. cDNA cloning of protein C was first performed in 1984 by Beckmann et al. which produced a map of the gene responsible for producing protein C in the liver . In 1987 a seminal experiment was performed ( Taylor et al . ) whereby it was demonstrated that activated protein C prevented coagulopathy and death in baboons infused with lethal concentrations of E. coli .
In 1993 , a heritable resistance to APC was detected by Dahlbäck et al. and associated with familial thrombophilia . In 1994 , the relatively common genetic mutation that produces Factor VLeiden was noted ( Bertina et al . ) . Two years later , Gla @-@ domainless APC was imaged at a resolution of 2 @.@ 8 Ångströms . Beginning with the PROWESS clinical trial of 2001 , it was recognised that many of the symptoms of sepsis may be ameliorated by infusion of APC , and mortality rates of septic patients may be significantly decreased . Near the end of that year , Drotrecogin alfa ( activated ) , a recombinant human activated protein C , became the first drug approved by the U.S. FDA for treating severe sepsis . In 2002 , Science published an article that first showed protein C activates protease @-@ activated receptor @-@ 1 ( PAR @-@ 1 ) and this process accounts for the protein 's modulation of the immune system .
= = Genetics = =
The biologic instructions for synthesising protein C in humans are encoded in the gene officially named " protein C ( inactivator of coagulation factors Va and VIIIa ) " . The gene 's symbol approved by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee is " PROC " from " protein C " . It is located on the second chromosome ( 2q13 @-@ q14 ) and comprises nine exons . The nucleotide sequence that codes for human protein C is approximately 11 @,@ 000 bases long .
= = Structure = =
Human protein C is a vitamin K @-@ dependent glycoprotein structurally similar to other vitamin K @-@ dependent proteins affecting blood clotting , such as prothrombin , Factor VII , Factor IX and Factor X. Protein C synthesis occurs in the liver and begins with a single @-@ chain precursor molecule : a 32 amino acid N @-@ terminus signal peptide preceding a propeptide . Protein C is formed when a dipeptide of Lys198 and Arg199 is removed ; this causes the transformation into a heterodimer with N @-@ linked carbohydrates on each chain . The protein has one light chain ( 21 kDa ) and one heavy chain ( 41 kDa ) connected by a disulfide bond between Cys183 and Cys319 .
Inactive protein C comprises 419 amino acids in multiple domains : one Gla domain ( residues 43 – 88 ) ; a helical aromatic segment ( 89 – 96 ) ; two epidermal growth factor ( EGF ) -like domains ( 97 – 132 and 136 – 176 ) ; an activation peptide ( 200 – 211 ) ; and a trypsin @-@ like serine protease domain ( 212 – 450 ) . The light chain contains the Gla- and EGF @-@ like domains and the aromatic segment . The heavy chain contains the protease domain and the activation petide . It is in this form that 85 – 90 % of protein C circulates in the plasma as a zymogen , waiting to be activated . The remaining protein C zymogen comprises slightly modified forms of the protein . Activation of the enzyme occurs when a thrombin molecule cleaves away the activation peptide from the N @-@ terminus of the heavy chain . The active site contains a catalytic triad typical of serine proteases ( His253 , Asp299 and Ser402 ) .
The Gla domain is particularly useful for binding to negatively charged phospholipids for anticoagulation and to EPCR for cytoprotection . One particular exosite augments protein C 's ability to inactivate Factor Va efficiently . Another is necessary for interacting with thrombomodulin .
= = Physiology = =
The activation of protein C is strongly promoted by thrombomodulin and endothelial protein C receptor ( EPCR ) , the latter of which is found primarily on endothelial cells ( cells on the inside of blood vessels ) . The presence of thrombomodulin accelerates activation by several orders of magnitude , and EPCR speeds up activation by a factor of 20 . If either of these two proteins is absent in murine specimens , the mouse dies from excessive blood @-@ clotting while still in an embryonic state . On the endothelium , APC performs a major role in regulating blood clotting , inflammation , and cell death ( apoptosis ) . Because of the accelerating effect of thrombomodulin on the activation of protein C , the protein may be said to be activated not by thrombin but the thrombin @-@ thrombomodulin ( or even thrombin @-@ thrombomodulin @-@ EPCR ) complex . Once in active form , APC may or may not remain bound to EPCR , to which it has approximately the same affinity as the protein zymogen .
Protein C in zymogen form is present in normal adult human blood plasma at concentrations between 65 – 135 IU / dL . Activated protein C is found at levels approximately 2000 times lower than this . Mild protein C deficiency corresponds to plasma levels above 20 IU / dL , but below the normal range . Moderately severe deficiencies describe blood concentrations between 1 and 20 IU / dL ; severe deficiencies yield levels of protein C that are below 1 IU / dL or are undetectable . Protein C levels in a healthy term infant average 40 IU / dL . The concentration of protein C increases until six months , when the mean level is 60 IU / dL ; the level stays low through childhood until it reaches adult levels after adolescence . The half @-@ life of activated protein C is around 15 minutes .
= = Pathways = =
The protein C pathways are the specific chemical reactions that control the level of expression of APC and its activity in the body . Protein C is pleiotropic , with two main classes of functions : anticoagulation and cytoprotection ( its direct effect on cells ) . Which function protein C performs depends on whether or not APC remains bound to EPCR after it is activated ; the anticoagulative effects of APC occur when it does not . In this case , protein C functions as an anticoagulant by irreversibly proteolytically inactivating Factor Va and Factor VIIIa , turning them into Factor Vi and Factor VIIIi respectively . When still bound to EPCR , activated protein C performs its cytoprotective effects , acting on the effector substrate PAR @-@ 1 , protease @-@ activated receptor @-@ 1 . To a degree , APC 's anticoagulant properties are independent of its cytoprotective ones , in that expression of one pathway is not affected by the existence of the other .
The activity of protein C may be down @-@ regulated by reducing the amount either of available thrombomodulin or of EPCR . This may be done by inflammatory cytokines , such as interleukin @-@ 1β ( IL @-@ 1β ) and tumor necrosis factor @-@ α ( TNF @-@ α ) . Activated leukocytes release these inflammatory mediators during inflammation , inhibiting the creation of both thrombomodulin and EPCR , and inducing their shedding from the endothelial surface . Both of these actions down @-@ regulate protein C activation . Thrombin itself may also have an effect on the levels of EPCR . In addition , proteins released from cells can impede protein C activation , for example eosinophil , which may explain thrombosis in hypereosinophilic heart disease . Protein C may be up @-@ regulated by platelet factor 4 . This cytokine is conjectured to improve activation of protein C by forming an electrostatic bridge from protein C 's Gla domain to the glycosaminoglycan ( GAG ) domain of thrombomodulin , reducing the Michaelis constant ( KM ) for their reaction . In addition , Protein C is inhibited by protein C inhibitor .
= = = Anticoagulative effects = = =
Protein C is a major component in anticoagulation in the human body . It acts as a serine protease zymogen : APC proteolyses peptide bonds in activated Factor V and Factor VIII ( Factor Va and Factor VIIIa ) , and one of the amino acids in the bond is serine . These proteins that APC inactivates , Factor Va and Factor VIIIa , are highly procoagulant cofactors in the generation of thrombin , which is a crucial element in blood clotting ; together they are part of the prothrombinase complex . Cofactors in the inactivation of Factor Va and Factor VIIIa include protein S , Factor V , high @-@ density lipoprotein , anionic phospholipids and glycosphingolipids .
Factor Va binds to prothrombin and Factor Xa , increasing the rate at which thrombin is produced by four orders of magnitude ( 10,000x ) . Inactivation of Factor Va thus practically halts the production of thrombin . Factor VIII , on the other hand , is a cofactor in production of activated Factor X , which in turn converts prothrombin into thrombin . Factor VIIIa augments Factor X activation by a factor of around 200 @,@ 000 . Because of its importance in clotting , Factor VIII is also known as anti @-@ haemophilic factor , and deficiencies of Factor VIII cause haemophilia A.
APC inactivates Factor Va by making three cleavages ( Arg306 , Arg506 , Arg679 ) . The cleavages at both Arg306 and Arg506 diminish the molecule 's attraction to Factor Xa , and though the first of these sites is slow to be cleaved , it is entirely necessary to the functioning of Factor V. Protein S aids this process by catalysing the proteolysis at Arg306 , in which the A2 domain of Factor V is dissociated from the rest of the protein . Protein S also binds to Factor Xa , inhibiting the latter from diminishing APC 's inactivation of Factor Va .
The inactivation of Factor VIIIa is not as well understood . The half @-@ life of Factor VIIIa is only around two minutes unless Factor IXa is present to stabilise it . Some have questioned the significance of APC 's inactivation of Factor VIIIa , and it is unknown to what degree Factor V and protein S are cofactors in its proteolysis . It is known that APC works on Factor VIIIa by cleaving at two sites , Arg336 and Arg562 , either of which is sufficient to disable Factor VIIIa and convert it to Factor VIIIi .
= = = Cytoprotective effects = = =
When APC is bound to EPCR , it performs a number of important cytoprotective ( i.e. cell @-@ protecting ) functions , most of which are known to require EPCR and PAR @-@ 1 . These include regulating gene expression , anti @-@ inflammatory effects , antiapoptotic effects and protecting endothelial barrier function .
Treatment of cells with APC demonstrates that its gene expression modulation effectively controls major pathways for inflammatory and apoptotic behaviour . There are about 20 genes that are up @-@ regulated by protein C , and 20 genes that are down @-@ regulated : the former are generally anti @-@ inflammatory and antiapoptotic pathways , while the latter tend to be proinflammatory and proapoptotic . APC 's mechanisms for altering gene expression profiles are not well @-@ understood , but it is believed that they at least partly involve an inhibitory effect on transcription factor activity . Important proteins that APC up @-@ regulates include Bcl @-@ 2 , eNOS and IAP . APC effects significant down @-@ regulation of p53 and Bax .
APC has anti @-@ inflammatory effects on endothelial cells and leukocytes . APC affects endothelial cells by inhibiting inflammatory mediator release and down @-@ regulating vascular adhesion molecules . This reduces leukocyte adhesion and infiltration into tissues , while also limiting damage to underlying tissue . APC supports endothelial barrier function and reduces chemotaxis . APC inhibits the release of inflammatory @-@ response mediators in leukocytes as well as endothelial cells , by reducing cytokine response , and maybe diminishing systemic inflammatory response , such as is seen in sepsis . Studies on both rats and humans have demonstrated that APC reduces endotoxin @-@ induced pulmonary injury and inflammation .
Scientists recognise activated protein C 's antiapoptotic effects , but are unclear as to the exact mechanisms by which apoptosis is inhibited . It is known that APC is neuroprotective . APC 's antiapoptotic effects are part of the reason that APC is effective in treating sepsis , as reduced levels of apoptosis are correlated with higher survival rates in septic patients . Antiapoptosis is achieved with diminished activation of caspase 3 and caspase 8 , improved Bax / Bcl @-@ 2 ratio and down @-@ regulation of p53 .
Activated protein C also provides much protection of endothelial barrier function . Endothelial barrier breakdown , and the corresponding increase in endothelial permeability , are associated with swelling , hypotension and inflammation , all problems of sepsis . APC protects endothelial barrier function by inducing PAR @-@ 1 dependent sphingosine kinase @-@ 1 activation and up @-@ regulating sphingosine @-@ 1 @-@ phosphate with sphingosine kinase .
= = Role in disease = =
A genetic protein C deficiency , in its mild form associated with simple heterozygosity , causes a significantly increased risk of venous thrombosis in adults . If a fetus is homozygous or compound heterozygous for the deficiency , there may be a presentation of purpura fulminans , severe disseminated intravascular coagulation and simultaneous venous thromboembolism in the womb ; this is very severe and usually fatal . Deletion of the protein C gene in mice causes fetal death around the time of birth . Fetal mice with no protein C develop normally at first , but experience severe bleeding , coagulopathy , deposition of fibrin and necrosis of the liver .
The frequency of protein C deficiency among asymptomatic individuals is between 1 in 200 and 1 in 500 . In contrast , significant symptoms of the deficiency are detectable in 1 in 20 @,@ 000 individuals . No racial nor ethnic biases have been detected .
Activated protein C resistance occurs when APC is unable to perform its functions . This disease has similar symptoms to protein C deficiency . The most common mutation leading to activated protein C resistance among Caucasians is at the cleavage site in Factor V for APC . There , Arg506 is replaced with Gln , producing Factor V Leiden . This mutation is also called a R506Q . The mutation leading to the loss of this cleavage site actually stops APC from effectively inactivating both Factor Va and Factor VIIIa . Thus , the person 's blood clots too readily , and he is perpetually at an increased risk for thrombosis . Individuals heterozygous for the Factor VLeiden mutation carry a risk of venous thrombosis 5 – 7 times higher than in the general population . Homozygous subjects have a risk 80 times higher . This mutation is also the most common hereditary risk for venous thrombosis among Caucasians .
Around 5 % of APC resistance are not associated with the above mutation and Factor VLeiden . Other genetic mutations cause APC resistance , but none to the extent that Factor VLeiden does . These mutations include various other versions of Factor V , spontaneous generation of autoantibodies targeting Factor V , and dysfunction of any of APC 's cofactors . Also , some acquired conditions may reduce the efficacy of APC in performing its anticoagulative functions . Studies suggest that between 20 % and 60 % of thrombophilic patients suffer from some form of APC resistance .
Warfarin necrosis is an acquired protein C deficiency due to treatment with warfarin , which is a vitamin K antagonist and an anticoagulant itself . However , warfarin treatment may produce paradoxical skin lesions similar to those seen in purpura fulminans . A variant of this response presents as venous limb gangrene when warfarin is used to treat deep vein thrombosis associated with cancer . In these situations , warfarin may be restarted at a low dosage to ensure that the protein C deficiency does not present before the vitamin K coagulation factors II , IX and X are suppressed .
Activated protein C cleaves Plasmodium falciparum histones which are released during infection : cleavage of these histones eliminates their pro inflammatory effects .
= = Role in medicine = =
rhAPC has been the subject of significant controversy since its approval for clinical use in 2001 . A 2011 Cochrane review concluded that it does not decrease mortality in severe sepsis or septic shock . It has been noted that rates of severe hemorrhages , drug infusion @-@ related fatal events and termination of infusion due to adverse reactions are all higher in clinical use and open @-@ label trials than in controlled trials . There is a dispute as to whether or not studies after PROWESS confirm its results , and if so , for what subgroups .
Protein C levels have long been noted to predict mortality in patients with sepsis . Because of this , and its pleiotropic anticoagulative and cytoprotective effects , protein C has long been suggested , along with many other drugs , for use in treating patients with severe sepsis . In November of that year , the Food and Drug Administration approved drotrecogin alfa @-@ activated ( DrotAA ) in the clinical treatment of adults suffering from severe sepsis and with a high risk of death . Drotrecogin alfa @-@ activated is a recombinant form of human activated protein C ( rhAPC ) , i.e. it is a protein produced by recombinant DNA . It is marketed as Xigris by Eli Lilly and Company , but recently recalled and taken off the market .
APC has been studied as way of treating lung injury , after studies showed that in patients with lung injury , reduced APC levels in specific parts of the lungs correlated with worse outcomes . APC also has been considered for use in improving patient outcome in cases of ischemic stroke , a medical emergency in which arterial blockage deprives a region of brain of oxygen , causing tissue death . Promising studies suggest that APC could be coupled with the only currently approved treatment , tissue plasminogen activator ( tPA ) , to protect the brain from tPA 's very harmful side effects , in addition to preventing cell death from lack of oxygen ( hypoxia ) . Clinical use of APC has also been proposed for improving the outcome of pancreatic islet transplantation in treating type I diabetes .
= Mysteries of Isis =
The mysteries of Isis were religious initiation rites performed in the cult of the goddess Isis in the Greco @-@ Roman world . They were modeled on other mystery rites , particularly the Eleusinian Mysteries in honor of the Greek goddess Demeter , and originated sometime between the third century BCE and the second century CE . Despite their mainly Hellenistic origins , the mysteries did allude to beliefs from ancient Egyptian religion , in which the worship of Isis arose . By undergoing the mystery rites , initiates signaled their dedication to Isis , although they were not required to worship her exclusively . The rites were seen as a symbolic death and rebirth , and they may have been thought to guarantee that the initiate 's soul , with the goddess 's help , would continue after death in a blissful afterlife .
Many texts from the Roman Empire refer to the mysteries of Isis , but the only source to describe them is a work of fiction , the novel Metamorphoses , written in the second century CE by Apuleius . In it , the initiate undergoes elaborate ritual purification before descending into the innermost part of Isis 's temple , where he has an intense religious experience , seeing the gods in person .
Some aspects of the mysteries of Isis and of other mystery cults , particularly their connection with the afterlife , resemble important elements of Christianity . The question of whether the mysteries influenced Christianity is controversial and the evidence is unclear ; some scholars today attribute the similarities to a shared cultural background rather than direct influence . In contrast , Apuleius 's account has had direct effects in modern times . Through his description of them , the mysteries of Isis have influenced many works of fiction and modern fraternal organizations , as well as a widespread , though false , belief that the ancient Egyptians themselves had an elaborate system of mystery initiations .
= = Origins = =
Greco @-@ Roman mysteries were , in the words of the classicist Walter Burkert , " initiation rituals of a voluntary , personal , and secret character that aimed at a change of mind through experience of the sacred . " These rituals were dedicated to a particular deity or group of deities , and they used a variety of intense experiences , such as nocturnal darkness interrupted by bright light and loud music and noise , that induced a state of disorientation and an intense religious experience . Some of them involved cryptic symbolism . Initiates were not supposed to discuss some of the details of what they experienced in the mysteries , and modern understanding of these rites is limited by this secrecy
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who has been magically transformed into a donkey . In the eleventh and last book of the novel , Lucius , after falling asleep on the beach at Cenchreae in Greece , wakes to see the full moon . He prays to the moon , using the names of several moon goddesses known in the Greco @-@ Roman world , asking her to restore him to human form . Isis appears in a vision before Lucius and declares herself the greatest of all goddesses . She tells him that a festival in her honor , the Navigium Isidis , is taking place nearby , and that the festival procession carries with it garlands of roses that will restore his human form if he eats them . After Lucius becomes human again , the high priest at the festival declares that he has been saved from his misfortunes by the goddess , and that he will now be free of the inquisitiveness and self @-@ indulgence that drew him into many of his earlier misadventures . Lucius joins the local temple of Isis , becomes her devoted follower , and eventually undergoes initiation .
Lucius 's apparently solemn devotion to the Isis cult in this chapter contrasts strongly with the comic misadventures that make up the rest of the novel . Scholars debate whether the account is intended to seriously represent Lucius 's devotion to the goddess , or whether it is ironic , perhaps a satire of the Isis cult . Those who believe it is satirical point to the way Lucius is pushed to undergo several initiations , each requiring a fee , despite having little money . Although many of the scholars who have tried to analyze the mysteries based on the book have assumed it is serious , the book may be broadly accurate even if it is satirical . Apuleius 's description of the Isis cult and its mysteries generally fits with much of the outside evidence about them . S.J. Harrison says it shows " detailed knowledge of Egyptian cult , whether or not Apuleius himself was in fact an initiate of Isiac religion . " In another of his works , the Apologia , Apuleius claims to have undergone several initiations , though he does not mention the mysteries of Isis specifically . In writing Metamorphoses , he may have drawn on personal experience of the Isiac initiation or of other initiations that he underwent . Even so , the detailed description given in Metamorphoses may be idealized rather than strictly accurate , and the Isis cults may have included many varieties of mystery rite . The novel actually mentions three distinct initiation rites in two cities , although only the first is described in any detail .
= = = Rites = = =
According to Metamorphoses , the initiation " was performed in the manner of voluntary death and salvation obtained by favor . " Only Isis herself could determine who should be initiated and when ; thus , Lucius only begins preparing for the mysteries after Isis appears to him in a dream . The implication that Isis was thought to command her followers directly is supported by the Greek writer Pausanias , writing in the same era as Apuleius , who said no one was allowed to participate in Isis ' festivals in her shrine at Tithorea without her inviting them in a dream , and by inscriptions in which priests of Isis write that she called them to become her servants . In Apuleius 's description , the goddess also determines how much the initiate must pay to the temple in order to undergo the rites .
The priests in Lucius 's initiation read the procedure for the rite from a ritual book kept in the temple that is covered in " undecipherable letters " , some of which are " forms of all kinds of animals " while others are ornate and abstract . The use of a book for ritual purposes was much more common in Egyptian religion than in Greek or Roman tradition , and the characters in them are often thought to be hieroglyphs or hieratic , which in the eyes of Greek and Roman worshippers would emphasize the Egyptian background of the rite and add to its solemnity . However , David Frankfurter suggests that they are akin to the deliberately unintelligible magical symbols that were commonly used in Greco @-@ Roman magic .
Before the initiation proper , Lucius must undergo a series of ritual purifications . The priest bathes him , asks the gods for forgiveness on his behalf , and sprinkles him with water . This confession of and repentance for past sins fits with an emphasis on chastity and other forms of self @-@ denial found in many other sources about the Isis cult . Lucius next has to wait ten days , while abstaining from meat and wine , before the initiation begins . Purifying baths were common in many rituals across the Greco @-@ Roman world . The plea for forgiveness , however , may derive from the oaths that Egyptian priests were required to take , in which they declared themselves to be free of wrongdoing . The sprinkling with water and the refraining from certain foods probably come from the purification rituals that those priests had to undergo before entering a temple . On the evening of the final day , Lucius receives a variety of gifts from fellow devotees of Isis before donning a clean linen robe and entering the deepest part of the temple .
The description of what happens next is deliberately cryptic . Lucius reminds the reader that the uninitiated are not allowed to know the details of the mystery rites , before describing his experience in vague terms .
I came to the boundary of death and , having trodden on the threshold of Proserpina , I travelled through all the elements and returned . In the middle of the night I saw the sun flashing with bright light , I came face to face with the gods below and the gods above and paid reverence to them from close at hand .
In a series of paradoxes , then , Lucius travels to the underworld and to the heavens , sees the sun amid darkness , and approaches the gods . Many people have speculated about how the ritual simulated these impossible experiences . The first sentence indicates that the initiate is supposed to be passing through the Greek underworld , but the surviving remains of Roman temples to Isis have no subterranean passages that might have simulated the underworld . The bright " sun " Lucius mentions may have been a fire in the darkness , similar to the one at the climax of the Eleusinian Mysteries . The gods he saw face to face may have been statues or frescoes of deities . Some scholars believe that the initiation also entailed some kind of reenactment of or reference to the death of Osiris , but if it did , Apuleius 's text does not mention it .
Lucius emerges from this experience in the morning , and the priests dress him in an elaborately embroidered cloak . He then stands on a dais carrying a torch and wearing a crown of palm leaves — " adorned like the sun and set up in the manner of a divine statue " , as Apuleius describes it . The priests draw back curtains to reveal Lucius to a crowd of his fellow devotees . During the next three days , Lucius enjoys a series of banquets and sacred meals with his fellow worshippers , completing the initiation process .
After this initiation , Lucius moves to Rome and joins its main temple to the goddess , the Iseum Campense . Urged by more visions sent by the gods , he undergoes two more initiations , incurring more expenses — such as having to buy a replacement for the cloak he left behind at Cenchreae — each time . These initiations are not described in as much detail as the first . The second is dedicated to Osiris and is said to be different from the one dedicated to Isis . Apuleius calls it " the nocturnal ecstasies of the supreme god " but gives no other details . The third initiation may be dedicated to both Isis and Osiris . Before this initiation , Lucius has a vision where Osiris himself speaks to him , suggesting that he is the dominant figure in the rite . At the novel 's end Lucius has been admitted to a high position in the cult by Osiris himself , and he is confident that the god will ensure his future success in his work as a lawyer .
= = Significance = =
= = = Religious symbolism and contact with the gods = = =
Most mystery rites were connected with myths about the deities they focused on — the Osiris myth , in the case of Isis — and they claimed to convey to initiates details about the myths that were not generally known . In addition , various Greco @-@ Roman writers produced theological and philosophical interpretations of the mysteries . Spurred by the fragmentary evidence , modern scholars have often tried to discern what the mysteries may have meant to their initiates . But Hugh Bowden argues that there may have been no single , authoritative interpretation of mystery rites and that " the desire to identify a lost secret — something that , once it is correctly identified , will explain what a mystery cult was all about — is bound to fail . " He regards the effort to meet the gods directly , exemplified by the climax of Lucius 's initiation in Metamorphoses , as the most important feature of the rites . The notion of meeting the gods face to face contrasted with classical Greek and Roman beliefs , in which seeing the gods , though it might be an awe @-@ inspiring experience , could be dangerous and even deadly . In Greek mythology , for example , the sight of Zeus 's true form incinerated the mortal woman Semele . Yet Lucius 's meeting with the gods fits with a trend , found in various religious groups in Roman times , toward a closer connection between the worshipper and the gods .
Ancient Egyptian beliefs are one possible source for understanding the symbolism in the mysteries of Isis . J. Gwyn Griffiths , an Egyptologist and classical scholar , extensively studied Book 11 of Metamorphoses and its possible Egyptian background . He pointed out similarities between the first initiation in Metamorphoses and Egyptian afterlife beliefs , saying that the initiate took on the role of Osiris by undergoing symbolic death . In his view , the imagery of the initiation refers to the Egyptian underworld , the Duat . Griffiths argued that the sun in the middle of the night , in Lucius ' account of the initiation , might have been influenced by the contrasts of light and dark in other mystery rites , but it derived mainly from the depictions of the underworld in ancient Egyptian funerary texts . According to these texts , the sun god Ra passes through the underworld each night and unites with Osiris to emerge renewed , just as deceased souls do .
The " elements " that Lucius passes through in the first initiation may refer to the classical elements of earth , air , water , and fire that were believed to make up the world , or to regions of the cosmos . In either case , it indicates that Lucius 's vision transports him beyond the human world . Panayotis Pachis believes the word refers specifically to the planets in Hellenistic astrology . Astrological themes appeared in many other cults in the Roman Empire , including another mystery cult , dedicated to Mithras . In the Isis cult , astrological symbolism may have alluded to the belief that Isis governed the movements of the stars and thus the passage of time and the order of the cosmos , beliefs that Lucius refers to when praying to the goddess .
However , in the course of the book , as Valentino Gasparini puts it , " Osiris explicitly snatches out of Isis 's hands the role of Supreme Being " and replaces her as the focus of Lucius 's devotion . Osiris ' prominence in the Metamorphoses is in keeping with other evidence about the Isis cult in Rome , which suggests that it adopted more themes and imagery from Egyptian funerary religion and the worship of Osiris in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries CE . Gasparini argues that the shift in focus reflects a belief that Osiris was the supreme being and Isis was an intermediary between him and humanity . This interpretation is found in the book On Isis and Osiris by the first @-@ century CE Greek author Plutarch , which analyzes the Osiris myth based on Plutarch 's own Middle Platonist philosophy . However , S.J. Harrison suggests that the sudden switch of focus from Isis to Osiris is simply a satire of grandiose claims of religious devotion .
= = = Commitment to the cult = = =
Because not all local cults of Isis held mystery rites , not all her devotees would have undergone initiation . Nevertheless , both Apuleius 's story and Plutarch 's On Isis and Osiris suggest that initiation was considered part of the larger process of joining the cult and dedicating oneself to the goddess .
The Isis cult , like most in the Greco @-@ Roman world , was not exclusive ; worshippers of Isis could continue to revere other gods as well . Devotees of Isis were among the very few religious groups in the Greco @-@ Roman world to have a distinctive name for themselves , loosely equivalent to " Jew " or " Christian " , that might indicate they defined themselves by their exclusive devotion to the goddess . However , the word — Isiacus or " Isiac " — was rarely used . Many priests of Isis officiated in other cults as well . Several people in late Roman times , like Vettius Agorius Praetextatus , joined multiple priesthoods and underwent several initiations dedicated to different gods . Mystery initiations thus did not require devotees to abandon whatever religious identity they originally had , and they would not qualify as religious conversions under a narrow definition of the term . However , some of these initiations did involve smaller changes in religious identity , such as joining a new community of worshippers or strengthening devotees ' commitment to a cult they were already part of , that would qualify as conversions in a broader sense . Many ancient sources , both written by Isiacs and by outside observers , suggest that many of Isis 's devotees considered her the focus of their lives and that the cult emphasized moral purity , self @-@ denial , and public declarations of devotion to the goddess . Joining Isis 's cult was therefore a sharper change in identity than in many other mystery cults . Isiac initiation , by giving the devotee a dramatic , mystical experience of the goddess , added emotional intensity to the process .
It is unclear how initiation may have affected a devotee 's rank within the cult . After going through his third initiation , Lucius becomes a pastophoros , a member of a particular class of priests . If the third initiation was a requirement for becoming a pastophoros , it is possible that members moved up in the cult hierarchy by going through the series of initiations . Nevertheless , Apuleius refers to initiates and to priests as if they are separate groups within the cult . Initiation may have been a prerequisite for a devotee to become a priest but not have automatically made him or her into one .
= = = Connection with the afterlife = = =
Many pieces of evidence suggest that the mysteries of Isis were connected in some way to salvation and the guarantee of an afterlife . The Greek conception of the afterlife included the paradisiacal Elysian Fields , and philosophers developed various ideas about the immortality of the soul , but Greeks and Romans expressed uncertainty about what would happen to them after death . In both Greek and Roman traditional religion , no god was thought to guarantee a pleasant afterlife to his or her worshippers . The gods of some mystery cults may have been exceptions , but evidence about those cults ' afterlife beliefs is vague . Apuleius 's account , if it is accurate , provides stronger evidence for Isiac afterlife beliefs than is available for the other cults . The book says Isis 's power over fate , which her Greek and Roman devotees frequently mentioned , gives her control over life and death . According to the priest who initiates Lucius , devotees of Isis " who had finished their life 's span and were already standing on the threshold of light ’ s end , if only they could safely be trusted with the great unspoken mysteries of the cult , were frequently drawn forth by the goddess ' power and in a manner reborn through her providence and set once more on the course of renewed life . " In another passage , Isis herself says that when Lucius dies he will be able to see her shining in the darkness of the underworld and worship her there .
Some scholars are skeptical the afterlife was a major focus of the cult . Ramsay MacMullen says that when characters in Metamorphoses call Lucius " reborn " , they refers to his new life as a devotee and never call him renatus in aeternam [ eternally reborn ] , which would refer to the afterlife . Mary Beard , John North , and Simon Price say Metamorphoses shows that " the cult of Isis had implications for life and death , but even so more emphasis is placed on extending the span of life than on the after @-@ life — which is pictured in fairly undifferentiated terms . "
A funerary inscription from Bithynia , left by a devotee of Isis , provides evidence of Isiac afterlife beliefs outside Apuleius 's work . It explicitly says that because the devotee was initiated into the mysteries of the goddess , he did not " walk the dark road of the Acheron " but " ran to the havens of the blessed . "
Afterlife beliefs in the Isis cult were probably connected with Osiris . The ancient Egyptians believed that Osiris lived on in the Duat after death , thanks in part to Isis 's help , and that after their deaths they could be revived like him with the assistance of other deities , including Isis . These beliefs may well have carried over into the Greco @-@ Roman Isis cult . The symbolism found in Lucius 's first initiation , with its references to death and to the sun in the Egyptian underworld , suggests that it involved Osirian afterlife beliefs , even though Osiris is not mentioned in the description of the rite . As Robert Turcan puts it , when Lucius is revealed to the crowd after his initiation he is " honoured almost like a new Osiris , saved and regenerated through the ineffable powers of Isis . The palms radiating from his head were the signs of the Sun triumphing over death . "
= = Influence on other traditions = =
= = = Possible influence on Christianity = = =
The mysteries of Isis , like those of other gods , continued to be performed into the late fourth century CE . Toward the end of the century , however , Christian emperors increasingly restricted the practice of non @-@ Christian religions , which they condemned as " pagan " . Mystery cults thus died out near the start of the fifth century . They existed alongside Christianity for centuries before their extinction , and some elements of their initiations resembled Christian beliefs and practices . As a result , the possibility has often been raised that Christianity was directly influenced by the mystery cults . Evidence about interactions between Christianity and the mystery cults is poor , making the question difficult to resolve .
Most religious traditions in the Greco @-@ Roman world centered on a particular city or ethnic group and did not require personal devotion , only public ritual . In contrast , the cult of Isis , like Christianity and some other mystery cults , was made up of people who joined voluntarily , out of their personal commitment to a deity that many of them regarded as superior to all others . Christianity has its own initiation ritual , baptism , and beginning in the fourth century , Christians began to refer to their sacraments , like baptism , with the word mysterion , the Greek term that was also used for a mystery rite . In this case , the word meant that Christians did not discuss their most important rites with non @-@ Christians who might misunderstand or disrespect them . Their rites thus acquired some of the aura of secrecy that surrounded the mystery cults . Furthermore , if Isiac initiates were thought to benefit in the afterlife from Osiris 's death and resurrection , this belief would parallel the Christian belief that the death and resurrection of Jesus make salvation available to those who become Christians .
Even in ancient times these similarities were controversial . Non @-@ Christians in the Roman Empire in the early centuries CE thought Christianity and the mystery cults resembled each other . Reacting to these claims by outsiders , early Christian apologists denied that these cults had influenced their religion . The 17th @-@ century Protestant scholar Isaac Casaubon brought up the question again by accusing the Catholic Church of deriving its sacraments from the rituals of the mystery cults . Charles @-@ François Dupuis , in the late 18th century , went further by claiming that all Christianity originated in the mystery cults . Intensified by religious disputes between Protestants , Catholics , and non @-@ Christians , the controversy has continued to the present day .
Some scholars have specifically compared baptism with the Isiac initiation described by Apuleius . Before the early fourth century CE , baptism was the culmination of a long process , in which the convert to Christianity fasted for the forty days of Lent before being immersed at Easter in a cistern or natural body of water . Like the mysteries of Isis , then , early Christian baptism involved a days @-@ long fast and a washing ritual . Both fasting and washing were common types of ritual purification found in the religions of the Mediterranean , and Christian baptism was specifically derived from the baptism of Jesus and Jewish immersion rituals . Therefore , according to Hugh Bowden , these similarities come from the shared religious background of Christianity and the Isis cult , not from the influence of one tradition upon the other .
Similarly , the sacred meals shared by the initiates of many mystery cults have been compared with the Christian rite of communion . For instance , the classicist R. E. Witt called the banquet that concluded the Isiac initiation " the pagan Eucharist of Isis and Sarapis " . However , feasts in which worshippers ate the food that had been sacrificed to a deity were a nearly universal practice in Mediterranean religions and do not prove a direct link between Christianity and the mystery cults . The most distinctive trait of Christian communion — the belief that the god himself was the victim of the sacrifice — was not present in the mystery cults .
Bowden doubts that afterlife beliefs were a very important aspect of mystery cults and therefore thinks their resemblance to Christianity was small . Jaime Alvar , in contrast , argues that the mysteries of Isis , along with those of Mithras and Cybele , did involve beliefs about salvation and the afterlife that resembled those in Christianity . But , he says , they did not become similar by borrowing directly from each other , only by adapting in similar ways to the Greco @-@ Roman religious environment . He says : " Each cult found the materials it required in the common trough of current ideas . Each took what it needed and adapted these elements according to its overall drift and design . "
= = = Influence in modern times = = =
Motifs from Apuleius ' description of the Isiac initiation have been repeated and reworked in fiction and in esoteric belief systems in modern times , and they thus form an important part of the Western perception of ancient Egyptian religion . People reusing these motifs often assume that mystery rites were practiced in Egypt long before Hellenistic times .
An influential example is the 1731 novel Sethos by Jean Terrasson . Terrasson claimed he had translated this book from an ancient Greek work of fiction that was based on real events . The book was actually his own invention , inspired by ancient Greek sources that assumed Greek philosophy had derived from Egypt . In the novel , Egypt 's priests run an elaborate education system like a European university . To join their ranks , the protagonist , Sethos , undergoes an initiation presided over by Isis , taking place in hidden chambers beneath the Great Pyramid of Giza . Based on Lucius ' statement in Metamorphoses that he was " borne through all the elements " during his initiation , Terrasson describes the initiation as an elaborate series of ordeals , each based on one of the classical elements : running over hot metal bars for fire , swimming a canal for water , and swinging through the air over a pit .
William Warburton 's treatise The Divine Legation of Moses , published from 1738 to 1741 , included an analysis of ancient mystery rites that drew upon Sethos for much of its evidence . Assuming that all mystery rites derived from Egypt , Warburton argued that the public face of Egyptian religion was polytheistic , but the Egyptian mysteries were designed to reveal a deeper , monotheistic truth to elite initiates . One of them , Moses , learned this truth during his Egyptian upbringing and developed Judaism to reveal it to the entire Israelite nation .
Freemasons , members of a European fraternal organization that attained its modern form in the early eighteenth century , developed many pseudohistorical origin myths that traced Freemasonry back to ancient times . Egypt was among the civilizations that Masons claimed had influenced their traditions . After Sethos was published , several Masonic lodges developed rites based on those in the novel . Late in the century , Masonic writers , still assuming that Sethos was an ancient story , used the obvious resemblance between their rites and the initiation of Sethos as evidence of Freemasonry 's supposedly ancient origin . Many works of fiction from the 1790s to the 1820s reused and modified the signature traits of Terrasson 's Egyptian initiation : trials by three or four elements , often taking place under the pyramids . The best @-@ known of these works is Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 's 1791 opera The Magic Flute , in which the main character , Tamino , undergoes a series of trials overseen by priests who invoke Isis and Osiris .
The Freemason Karl Leonhard Reinhold , in the 1780s , drew upon and modified Warburton 's claims in an effort to reconcile Freemasonry 's traditional origin story , which traces Freemasonry back to ancient Israel , with its enthusiasm for Egyptian imagery . He claimed that the sentence " I am that I am " , spoken by the Jewish God in the Book of Exodus , had a pantheistic meaning . He compared it with an Egyptian inscription on a veiled statue of Isis recorded by the Roman @-@ era authors Plutarch and Proclus , which said " I am all that is , was , and shall be , " which led him to believe that Isis was a pantheistic personification of Nature . According to Reinhold , it was this pantheistic belief system that Moses imparted to the Israelites , so that Isis and the Jewish and Christian conception of God shared a common origin .
In contrast , some people in the wake of the dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution used the imagery of a pantheistic Isis to represent their opposition to the clergy and to Christianity in general . For instance , an esoteric fraternal organization in Napoleonic France , the Sophisian Order , regarded Isis as their tutelary deity . To them , she symbolized both modern scientific knowledge — which hoped to uncover Nature 's secrets — and the mystical wisdom of the ancient mystery rites . The vague set of esoteric beliefs that surrounded the goddess offered an alternative to traditional Christianity . It was during this anticlerical era that Dupuis claimed that Christianity was a distorted offshoot of ancient mystery cults .
Various esoteric organizations that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , such as the Theosophical Society and the Ancient and Mystical Order Rosae Crucis , repeated the beliefs that had originated with Sethos : that Egyptians underwent initiation within the pyramids and that Greek philosophers were initiates who learned Egypt 's secret wisdom . Esoteric writers influenced by Theosophy , such as Reuben Swinburne Clymer in his 1909 book The Mystery of Osiris and Manly Palmer Hall in Freemasonry of the Ancient Egyptians in 1937 , also wrote of an age @-@ old Egyptian mystery tradition . An elaborate example of these beliefs is the 1954 book Stolen Legacy by George James , which claims that Greek philosophy was built on knowledge stolen from the Egyptian school of initiates . James imagined this mystery school as a grandiose organization with branches on many continents , so that the purported system of Egyptian mysteries shaped cultures all over the world .
= Aspmyra Stadion =
Aspmyra Stadion is a football stadium in Bodø , Norway . Home of Bodø / Glimt and Grand Bodø , it holds a capacity for 7 @,@ 354 spectators . The venue has three stands : a modern all @-@ seater with roof , 100 club seats and 15 luxury boxes to the south , an unroofed all @-@ seater to the east and an older grandstand with mixed sitting and standing to the north . The venue has floodlights and artificial turf with under @-@ soil heating . Immediately south of the venue lies Aspmyra kunstgressbane , a training pitch with artificial turf . Aspmyra Stadion has hosted one Norway national football team match , against Iceland in 2002 .
The venue opened in 1966 as a municipal multi @-@ purpose stadium which included a running track . Glimt reached the top @-@ flight in 1977 , and played Cup Winners ' Cup matches in the late 1970s at Aspmyra . The venue had a slight upgrade in 1980 , which also saw the laying of all @-@ weather running track and the construction of the training pitch . In 1992 , the pitch was resowed , forcing Glimt to play a season in Nordlandshallen , which since has been used twice for Norwegian Premier League matches . Aspmyra Stadion was sold to Glimt in 1997 , followed by the construction of the south and east stands . This involved removing the running track and building commercial and residential properties around the venue . Artificial turf was laid in 2006 . After the club received illegal public subsidies in 2008 had to upgrade the venue , it was in 2011 sold back to the municipality .
= = History = =
After the establishment of Bodø / Glimts in 1916 and Grand Bodø the following year , the clubs played at various locations throughout the town . The primary venue for the clubs ' elite teams was Bodø Station . By 1962 , plans had surfaced for a central stadium for the prime sports clubs . The interest spurred a large protest meeting organized by the various sports clubs in town in support of the municipality building a new venue . Two locations were considered : at Plassmyra , now the location of the Norwegian Aviation Museum , and at Aspmyra . The latter was chosen and the plans were passed by the municipal council in 1963 .
Construction started in 1965 , with the completion of a grass pitch , a 400 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) running track and a grandstand consisting of wooden benches for 2 @,@ 500 spectators . Steel terraces were built on the outer parts of the grandstand site and the other long side . To the south of the stadium , Glimt built an air @-@ supported training hall , which they named Glimtbobla ( ' The Glimt Bubble ' ) . The inaugural match at Aspmyra was played in 1966 between the boys ' teams of Glimt and Grand in 1966 . In 1980 , an all @-@ weather running track was installed and a training pitch with artificial turf , named Aspmyra kunstgressbane , was built south of the stadium .
In 1989 , a project was started to bring Bodø / Glimt back to the top league . Among the most important issues was to secure better training facilities , particularly during the Arctic winter . The club proposed upgrading the artificial turf field at Aspmyra with a new field with under @-@ soil heating , in addition to constructing both a new gravel pitch and an indoor training hall with a full @-@ size pitch . The Municipal Committee for Sport and Culture stated that they wanted to prioritize the artificial turf field over a gravel pitch . They therefore proposed that NOK 3 @.@ 5 million be allocated to lay under @-@ soil heating on the artificial turf pitch and remove the turf . New artificial turf would be laid at a later date , when funding could be allocated . This was agreed upon , construction started on 24 October 1989 and was scheduled for completion ahead of the winter training . However , the Football Association of Norway ( NFF ) stated that the club would not be allowed to play their matches on a gravel pitch , and the grass at Aspmyra was in so bad condition that it would not be permitted for play in the top league , should the team be promoted . The municipal council therefore gave grants to finance a new artificial turf on the training pitch , which was taken into use in 1990 .
Construction of Nordlandshallen — an indoor football venue for winter training — started in 1990 and was completed on 21 September 1991 . In 1991 , the debate regarding laying a new pitch at the stadium resurfaced . NFF granted permission for Glimt to use Nordlandshallen for the 1992 season , on condition that Aspmyra was ready for use for the 1993 season . The municipality lacked funds for a new pitch , so the parties agreed that the club would borrow NOK 3 @.@ 5 million to pay for the renovation . The club would pay the interest on the loan until it was taken over by the municipality , but until then , Bodø / Glimt would not pay rent on the stadium . If the municipality was to finance the renovation in a regular manner , funds could not be allocated until the following year , which would cause two seasons to be lost . The new pitch included under @-@ soil heating .
In 1994 , Bodø / Glimt started making plans to expand Aspmyra to allow it to host UEFA matches . The company Aspmyra Eiendomsutvikling was established to finance the project and own the stands . Details were presented in 1996 , which consisted of the company being given the Aspmyra lot , worth NOK 15 million , from the municipality . The initial plans called for seated stands for 10 @,@ 000 spectators — a quarter of the town 's population — 48 apartments and 15 @,@ 000 square meters ( 160 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of commercial property . Funding was proposed to come from selling the residential and commercial properties and grants from NFF and the Ministry of Culture . The project also included new floodlights and a new club house . The municipal chief of administration , Svein Blix , stated that the project would also have to pay for the operation of the new venue and the construction of a new athletics venue , as the plans called to remove the running tracks at Aspmyra .
The municipality gave the necessary permissions for construction in December 1997 , but required that the club finance the upgrades , which the club could not afford . Kjell Ove Johansen , CEO of Bodø / Glimt 's operating company , quit his job in November 1998 in protest against the mayor 's and councilors ' negative attitude and lack of trust towards Bodø / Glimt regarding the venue plans . On 27 January 1999 , the municipal council passed a resolution allowing the venue to be sold to the club for NOK 7 @.@ 9 million , with the official take @-@ over date being 1 May . In addition , the company would pay NOK 5 @.@ 5 million to the municipality at a later date , after the venue had become profitable .
Construction started in October 1999 , costing NOK 140 million . A new south stand was built with a roof , offices and change rooms , while a smaller stand without a roof was built to the east . The project cost NOK 40 million less than the original plans , in part because no stands were built on the west end . The two new stands had 4 @,@ 350 seats and the venue was approved for UEFA matches . However , the venue was not allowed to use the old grandstand seating or the terraces for UEFA matches . The two new stands gave the stadium seating for 6 @,@ 100 and standing room for 2 @,@ 000 spectators . The first match at the upgraded venue was played on 22 April 2001 .
The project also included 6 @,@ 900 square meters ( 74 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of commercial property , which was rented out to 13 companies . The commercial part of the stadium was owned by Aspmyra Næringsbygg , which was again owned by several local investors . The stadium received new floodlights , which were bought used from Ullevaal Stadion in Oslo for NOK 5 million . However , there were some initial complaints from Bodø Airport as the lights were a distraction for pilots . The club also considered installing artificial turf , and applied to be UEFA 's partner to receive a grant to install a pilot turf , but this was instead awarded to Eyravallen in Sweden . On 2 December 2002 , Nordlandsbanken bought a third of the shares in Aspmyra Eiendomsutvikling from the club , for NOK 10 million , to avoid that the club went bankrupt . In 2003 , Bodø / Glimt 's spent NOK 650 @,@ 000 on rent and NOK 700 @,@ 000 in operating costs for the venue .
As compensation for removing the track and field sections , the stadium company had to pay for a new municipal athletics venue at Mørkvedlia . The sales stadium 's contract also required Aspmyra Eiendomsutvikling to build new change room facilities for the training pitch so the uses from teams had the same quality as the main pitch . The company was criticized by the municipality in 2002 for not prioritizing this obligation . The NOK 170 @,@ 000 it cost to move Grand 's club house and build a change room for the artificial field was covered jointly by the municipality , Grand , Aspmyra Eiendomsutvikling and one of Glimt 's sponsors , Nordland Entreprenør .
In 2003 , Aspmyra Næringseiendom converted its debt , then NOK 20 @.@ 5 million , to Swiss francs . Because of the transaction , within a year the company 's debt had increased by 10 percent . In 2004 , the stadium ownership company changed its name to Aspmyra Stadion AS . The municipality eliminated the stadium company 's debt of NOK 5 @.@ 5 million to the municipality in November 2005 . This allowed the club 's operating company to have a positive share capital and the club was thus allowed to keep its license . In May 2006 , the grass pitch was replaced with artificial pitch , costing NOK 3 @.@ 1 million . The training pitch received new turf in 2007 .
Following Glimt 's promotion to the top league in 2008 , the club stated that Aspmyra was " out of date " and that investments for NOK 200 million was necessary if the club was to remain in the top tier . Chair Benn Eidissen stated that while Aspmyra was among the country 's most modern venues in 2001 , it would within a few years no longer be in the top @-@ 25 . He identified funding from regionally differentiated payroll tax ( DA @-@ funds ) , public grants and funding for sponsors as the main sources of financing . Imminent upgrades to the venue for NOK 10 million were done ahead of the 2008 season — financed using DA @-@ funds . It consisted of two specific grants , a NOK 2 @.@ 2 million subsidy and a ten @-@ year NOK 8 @.@ 3 million interest and installment @-@ free loan , both to the club . In 2009 , the bank deleted NOK 5 million of the stadium debt , reducing it to NOK 14 @.@ 2 million .
In 2009 , Innovation Norway criticized Nordland County Municipality , who administrated the DA @-@ funds , stating that both the grant and load to Glimt were illegal . Therefore , both were converted to an interest @-@ bearing loan and were issued to Aspmyra Stadion instead of the club . The club is required to have positive equity to keep its license to play in the top two tiers . Because it was the majority shareholder of the stadium company , it filed consolidated accounts which also include the equity of Aspmyra Stadion AS . Thus , the consequence of Innovation Norway 's proceedings was that the club risked ending up with a negative equity and could be relegated to the third tier . To secure it retained a positive equity , Glimt proposed selling the venue to the municipality .
The municipal council voted on 17 February 2011 to purchase the stadium . The strongest proponents were the Labour Party and the Conservative Party , while three parties , the Progress Party , the Liberal Party and Red Party , voted against . The proponents argued that municipality was purchasing the venue with a much higher value than what they had sold , while the opponents argued that it was not the municipality 's responsibility to give financial first @-@ aid to a professional sports club . The cost was NOK 16 million , paid for by taking over debt . After taking over the stadium company , the municipality merged it with Bodø Spektrum , which runs an indoor sports complex , including Nordlandshallen . This allows the debt to be taken over by the municipality without interfering with the municipal accounts .
= = Facilities = =
The venue is located in the southern part of the town center of Bodø , on Hålogalandsgata , close to Bodø Airport . The venue has a capacity for 7 @,@ 354 spectators . The South Stand has 15 luxury boxes , each with seating for 12 people , and club seating for an additional 100 people in Aspmyra Sportsbar ; this is only available for corporate sponsors . Both the sports bar and the boxes have access to dinners before the match . The stand is combined with a commercial and residential building , which is owned by Aspmyra Næringsbygg , which is again controlled by Gunvald Johansen . Bodø / Glimt 's offices are located in this section , which along with the public access is rented by Glimt . Of sponsorship reasons , the South Stand is named for Diadora .
The North Stand is the oldest part of the venue and is owned by Aspmyra AS . For sponsorship reasons , it is named after Nordlandsbanken . The area behind the East Stand was bought by Bodø Boligbyggelag , who built housing there and is named after Toyota , again for sponsorship reasons . In 2010 , the operating costs of the venue were NOK 2 million .
= = Events = =
Bodø / Glimt are the main tenant at Aspmyra . The record attendance dates from 1975 , when 12 @,@ 189 people attended a Norwegian Football Cup match against Viking . From the 1977 season , Bodø / Glimt played in the First Division , then the top tier of the pyramid . The club remained in to the top flight until it was relegated after the 1980 season . Glimt had a poor spell during the 1980s , playing several seasons in the Third Division . On 5 October 1986 , Aspmyra hosted the final of the Junior Football Cup between Bodø / Glimt and Lillestrøm . At the end of 1991 , Glimt was promoted to the First Division , then the second tier of the pyramid . However , in the 1992 season , the club played at Nordlandshallen . From the 1993 season , Bodø / Glimt again played in the top flight . Twice , in 1993 and 1997 , the final match of the season had to be played in Nordlandshallen because of the poor condition of the turf . Following the installation of floodlights in 2001 , the attendance increased by 70 percent at floodlighted evening games , resulting in an increase in the use of evening matches during the spring and fall . Glimt remained in the Premier League until the end of the 2005 season , when they were relegated . They returned again for the 2008 season , but were relegated after the 2009 seasons .
Aspmyra was used for UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup matches in the late 1970s . Bodø / Glimt played Napoli in 1976 – 77 , and Union Luxembourg and Internazionale in 1978 – 79 . During the 1990s , Bodø / Glimt was allowed to play qualification matches for UEFA tournaments at Aspmyra , but the venue was not suitable for games in the ordinary rounds because of lack of floodlights . In the 1994 – 95 Cup Winners ' Cup , Glimt played Olimpija Rīga at Aspmyra , but had to play against Sampdoria at Ullevaal Stadion . The team 's 1996 – 97 UEFA Cup match against Trabzonspor was played at Ullevaal , although the qualification match against Beitar Jerusalem had been played at Aspmyra . Similarly , in the 1999 – 2000 UEFA Cup , the qualification against Vaduz was played at Aspmyra , while the first round match against Werder Bremen was played at Lerkendal Stadion in Trondheim . With an upgraded venue , Bodø / Glimt was again allowed to play all their home matches in UEFA tournaments at Aspmyra . In the 2004 – 05 UEFA Cup , Bodø / Glimt was visited by Levadia Tallinn and Beşiktaş .
In addition to Bodø / Glimt , Grand Bodø also plays matches at Aspmyra . This includes their women 's team , which has previously played in the Women 's Premier League . They most recently played in the top league in 2007 , when they drew an average 222 spectators . During the 1980s , Grand 's men 's club became the town 's best , playing in the Second Division , the tier above Glimt .
The venue hosted the Norwegian Athletics Championships in 1980 . The following year , it held the women 's semi @-@ final in the 1981 European Cup in Athletics . Aspmyra has hosted one Norway national football team match , which resulted in 1 – 1 against Iceland and filling the venue with 8 @,@ 126 spectators on 22 May 2002 . This still stands as the venue 's record attendance after the rebuilding . In August 2007 , the Norwegian women 's U @-@ 23 team played Sweden at Aspmyra . Concerts held at the venue include Bryan Adams in 2008 . In September 2012 , the venue hosted the final of the Norwegian rugby league championship between Bodø Barbarians and Oslo Capitals , which the Capitals winning 34 – 24 .
= = Future = =
In 2008 , the club stated that they would either have to renovate Aspmyra for NOK 200 million or build a new stadium elsewhere to remain competitive at a premiership level . Funding was proposed to be a mix of public and sponsor grants , including DA @-@ funds . As part of the planning of a joint Norwegian and Swedish bid for the Euro 2016 , Bodø Municipality and Bodø / Glimt proposed that Bodø could build a stadium at Rønvikjordene , in the northern part of the town . The plans were presented in late July 2008 ; the venue was planned to have a capacity for 30 @,@ 000 to 35 @,@ 000 spectators , but would be rebuilt after the tournament to seat 10 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 . It was estimated that Bodø / Glimt would need a capacity for 10 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 spectators . In comparison , the population of Bodø was 46 @,@ 049 in 2008 . The new venue was estimated to cost NOK 500 to 700 million and was largely proposed financed with DA @-@ funds . Minister of Culture , Trond Giske , stated that at least one of the venues would have to be in Northern Norway to receive government support for an application . Aspmyra was planned used as a training pitch . Bodø was discarded for the Scandinavian bid , which ultimately was never sent to UEFA . For Aspmyra , the municipality has stated that they have the long @-@ term option to purchase the real estate north of the pitch and can build a new stand there . Alternatively , an estimated NOK 3 million can be used to demolish the stand and redevelop it as a commercial property .
= Afroyim v. Rusk =
Afroyim v. Rusk , 387 U.S. 253 ( 1967 ) , is a major United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that citizens of the United States may not be deprived of their citizenship involuntarily . The U.S. government had attempted to revoke the citizenship of Beys Afroyim , a man born in Poland , because he had cast a vote in an Israeli election after becoming a naturalized U.S. citizen . The Supreme Court decided that Afroyim 's right to retain his citizenship was guaranteed by the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution . In so doing , the Court overruled one of its own precedents , Perez v. Brownell ( 1958 ) , in which it had upheld loss of citizenship under similar circumstances less than a decade earlier .
The Afroyim decision opened the way for a wider acceptance of dual ( or multiple ) citizenship in United States law . The Bancroft Treaties — a series of agreements between the United States and other nations which had sought to limit dual citizenship following naturalization — were eventually abandoned after the Carter administration concluded that Afroyim and other Supreme Court decisions had rendered them unenforceable .
The impact of Afroyim v. Rusk was narrowed by a later case , Rogers v. Bellei ( 1971 ) , in which the Court determined that the Fourteenth Amendment safeguarded citizenship only when a person was born or naturalized in the United States , and that Congress retained authority to regulate the citizenship status of a person who was born outside the United States to an American parent . However , the specific law at issue in Rogers v. Bellei — a requirement for a minimum period of U.S. residence that Bellei had failed to satisfy — was repealed by Congress in 1978 . As a consequence of revised policies adopted in 1990 by the United States Department of State , it is now ( in the words of one expert ) " virtually impossible to lose American citizenship without formally and expressly renouncing it . "
= = Background = =
= = = Early history of United States citizenship law = = =
Citizenship in the United States has historically been acquired in one of three ways : by birth in the United States ( jus soli , " right of the soil " ) ; by birth outside the United States to an American parent ( jus sanguinis , " right of the blood " ) ; or by immigration to the United States followed by naturalization .
In 1857 , the Supreme Court held in Dred Scott v. Sandford that African slaves , former slaves , and their descendants were not eligible to be citizens . After the Civil War ( 1861 – 65 ) and the resulting abolition of slavery in the United States , steps were taken to grant citizenship to the freed slaves . Congress first enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1866 , which included a clause declaring " all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power " to be citizens . Even as the Civil Rights Act was being debated in Congress , its opponents argued that the citizenship provision was unconstitutional . In light of this concern , as well as to protect the new grant of citizenship for former slaves from being repealed by a later Congress , the drafters of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution included a Citizenship Clause , which would entrench in the Constitution ( and thereby set beyond the future reach of Congress or the courts ) a guarantee of citizenship stating that " All persons born or naturalized in the United States , and subject to the jurisdiction thereof , are citizens of the United States " . The Fourteenth Amendment — including the Citizenship Clause — was ratified by state legislatures and became a part of the Constitution in 1868 .
= = = Loss of United States citizenship = = =
The Constitution does not specifically deal with loss of citizenship . An amendment proposed by Congress in 1810 — the Titles of Nobility Amendment — would , if ratified , have provided that any citizen who accepted any " present , pension , office or emolument " from a foreign country , without the consent of Congress , would " cease to be a citizen of the United States " ; however , this amendment was never ratified by a sufficient number of state legislatures and , as a result , never became a part of the Constitution .
Ever since the affirmation by Congress , in the Expatriation Act of 1868 , that individuals had an inherent right to expatriation ( giving up of citizenship ) , it has historically been accepted that certain actions could result in loss of citizenship . This possibility was noted by the Supreme Court in United States v. Wong Kim Ark , an 1898 case involving a man born in the United States to Chinese parents who were legally domiciled in the country . After ruling in this case that Wong was born a U.S. citizen despite his Chinese ancestry , the Court went on to state that his birthright citizenship " [ had ] not been lost or taken away by anything happening since his birth . "
The Nationality Act of 1940 provided for loss of citizenship based on foreign military or government service , when coupled with citizenship in that foreign country . This statute also mandated loss of citizenship for desertion from the U.S. armed forces , remaining outside the United States in order to evade military service during wartime , or voting in a foreign election . The provision calling for loss of citizenship for foreign military service was held by the Supreme Court not to be enforceable without proof that said service had been voluntary , in a 1958 case ( Nishikawa v. Dulles ) , and revocation of citizenship as a punishment for desertion was struck down that same year in another case ( Trop v. Dulles ) .
However , in yet another 1958 case ( Perez v. Brownell ) , the Supreme Court affirmed the provision revoking the citizenship of any American who had voted in an election in a foreign country , as a legitimate exercise ( under the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause ) of Congress ' authority to regulate foreign affairs and avoid potentially embarrassing diplomatic situations . Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter , the author of the opinion of the Court ( supported by a 5 – 4 majority ) , wrote that :
... the activities of the citizens of one nation when in another country can easily cause serious embarrassments to the government of their own country as well as to their fellow citizens . We cannot deny to Congress the reasonable belief that these difficulties might well become acute , to the point of jeopardizing the successful conduct of international relations , when a citizen of one country chooses to participate in the political or governmental affairs of another country . The citizen may by his action unwittingly promote or encourage a course of conduct contrary to the interests of his own government ; moreover , the people or government of the foreign country may regard his action to be the action of his government , or at least as a reflection if not an expression of its policy .... It follows that such activity is regulable by Congress under its power to deal with foreign affairs .
In a dissenting opinion , Chief Justice Earl Warren argued that " Citizenship is man 's basic right , for it is nothing less than the right to have rights " and that " a government of the people cannot take away their citizenship simply because one branch of that government can be said to have a conceivably rational basis for wanting to do so . " While Warren was willing to allow for loss of citizenship as a result of foreign naturalization or other actions " by which [ an American ] manifests allegiance to a foreign state [ which ] may be so inconsistent with the retention of [ U.S. ] citizenship as to result in loss of that status " , he wrote that " In specifying that any act of voting in a foreign political election results in loss of citizenship , Congress has employed a classification so broad that it encompasses conduct that fails to show a voluntary abandonment of American citizenship . "
Two Supreme Court decisions after Perez called into question the principle that loss of citizenship could occur even without the affected individual 's intent . In Kennedy v. Mendoza @-@ Martinez ( 1963 ) , the Court struck down a law revoking citizenship for remaining outside the United States in order to avoid conscription into the armed forces . Associate Justice William J. Brennan ( who had been in the majority in Perez ) wrote a separate opinion concurring with the majority in Mendoza @-@ Martinez and expressing reservations about Perez . In Schneider v. Rusk ( 1964 ) , where the Court invalidated a provision revoking the citizenship of naturalized citizens who returned to live permanently in their countries of origin , Brennan recused himself and did not participate in the decision of the case .
= = = Beys Afroyim = = =
Beys Afroyim ( born Ephraim Bernstein , 1893 ? – 1984 ) was an artist and active communist . Various sources state that he was born in either 1893 or 1898 , and either in Poland generally , specifically in the Polish town of Ryki , or in Riga , Latvia ( then part of the Russian Empire ) . In 1912 , Afroyim immigrated to the United States , and on June 14 , 1926 , he was naturalized as a U.S. citizen . He studied at the Art Institute of Chicago , as well as the National Academy of Design in New York City , and he was commissioned to paint portraits of George Bernard Shaw , Theodore Dreiser , and Arnold Schoenberg . In 1949 , Afroyim left the United States and settled in Israel , together with his wife and former student Soshana ( an Austrian artist ) .
In 1960 , following the breakdown of his marriage , Afroyim decided to return to the United States , but the State Department refused to renew his U.S. passport , ruling that because Afroyim had voted in the 1951 Israeli legislative election , he had lost his citizenship under the provisions of the Nationality Act of 1940 . A letter certifying Afroyim 's loss of citizenship was issued by the Immigration and Naturalization Service ( INS ) on January 13 , 1961 .
Afroyim challenged the revocation of his citizenship . Initially , he claimed that he had not in fact voted in Israel 's 1951 election , but had entered the polling place solely in order to draw sketches of voters casting their ballots . Afroyim 's initial challenge was rejected in administrative proceedings in 1965 . He then sued in federal district court , with his lawyer agreeing to a stipulation that Afroyim had in fact voted in Israel , but arguing that the statute under which this action had resulted in his losing his citizenship was unconstitutional . A federal judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York rejected Afroyim 's claim on February 25 , 1966 , concluding that " in the opinion of Congress voting in a foreign political election could import ' allegiance to another country ' in some measure ' inconsistent with American citizenship ' " and that the question of this law 's validity had been settled by the Supreme Court 's 1958 Perez decision .
Afroyim appealed the district court 's ruling against him to the Second Circuit Court of Appeals , which upheld the lower court 's reasoning and decision on May 24 , 1966 . Two of the three judges who heard Afroyim 's appeal found the district court 's analysis and affirmation of Perez to be " exhaustive and most penetrating " . The third judge expressed serious reservations regarding the viability of Perez and suggested that Afroyim might have obtained a different result if he had framed his case differently , but decided to concur ( albeit reluctantly ) in the majority 's ruling .
= = = Arguments before the Supreme Court = = =
After losing his appeal to the Second Circuit , Afroyim asked the Supreme Court to overrule the precedent it had established in Perez , strike down the foreign voting provision of the Nationality Act as unconstitutional , and decide that he was still a United States citizen . Afroyim 's counsel argued that since " neither the Fourteenth Amendment nor any other provision of the Constitution expressly grants Congress the power to take away [ U.S. ] citizenship once it has been acquired ... the only way [ Afroyim ] could lose his citizenship was by his own voluntary renunciation of it . " The Supreme Court agreed to consider Afroyim 's case on October 24 , 1966 and held oral arguments on February 20 , 1967 .
The official respondent ( defendant ) in Afroyim 's case on behalf of the U.S. government was Dean Rusk , the Secretary of State during the Kennedy and Johnson administrations ( 1961 – 1969 ) . The legal brief laying out Afroyim 's arguments was written by Nanette Dembitz , general counsel of the New York Civil Liberties Union ; the government 's brief was written by United States Solicitor General ( and future Supreme Court Associate Justice ) Thurgood Marshall . The oral arguments in the case were presented by attorneys Edward Ennis — chairman of the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) — for Afroyim , and Charles Gordon — general counsel for the INS — for the government . Afroyim was in New York City at this time , having been granted a visitor 's visa in 1965 while his case went through the courts .
Before heading the ACLU , Ennis had served as general counsel for the INS . In his oral argument supporting Afroyim , Ennis asserted that Congress lacked the power to prescribe forfeiture of citizenship , and he sharply criticized the foreign @-@ relations argument under which the Perez court had upheld loss of citizenship for voting in a foreign election — pointing out , for example , that when a referendum was held in 1935 on the status of the Saar ( a region of Germany occupied after World War I by the United Kingdom and France ) , Americans had participated in the voting without raising any concerns within the State Department at the time .
Gordon did not make a good showing in the Afroyim oral arguments despite his skill and experience in the field of immigration law , according to a 2005 article on the Afroyim case by law professor Peter J. Spiro . Gordon mentioned Israeli elections in 1955 and 1959 in which Afroyim had voted — facts which had not previously been presented to the Supreme Court in the attorneys ' briefs or the written record of the case — and much of the remaining questioning from the justices involved criticism of Gordon for confusing matters through the last @-@ minute introduction of this new material .
Afroyim 's earlier stipulation that he had voted in the 1951 Israeli election — together with an accompanying concession by the government that this was the sole ground upon which it had acted to revoke Afroyim 's citizenship — allowed the potential issue of diluted allegiance through dual citizenship to be sidestepped . Indeed , in 1951 there was no Israeli nationality law ; eligibility to vote in the election that year had been based on residence rather than any concept of citizenship . Although Afroyim had later acquired Israeli citizenship and voted in at least two other elections in his new country , his lawyers were able to avoid discussing this matter and instead focus entirely on whether foreign voting was a sufficient cause for loss of one 's U.S. citizenship .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
The Supreme Court ruled in Afroyim 's favor in a 5 – 4 decision issued on May 29 , 1967 . The opinion of the Court — written by Associate Justice Hugo Black , and joined by Chief Justice Warren and Associate Justices William O. Douglas and Abe Fortas — as well as Associate Justice Brennan , who had been part of the majority in Perez — was grounded in the reasoning Warren had used nine years earlier in his Perez dissent . The court 's majority now held that " Congress has no power under the Constitution to divest a person of his United States citizenship absent his voluntary renunciation thereof . " Specifically repudiating Perez , the majority of the justices rejected the claim that Congress had any power to revoke citizenship and said that " no such power can be sustained as an implied attribute of sovereignty " . Instead , quoting from the Citizenship Clause , Black wrote :
" All persons born or naturalized in the United States ... are citizens of the United States .... " There is no indication in these words of a fleeting citizenship , good at the moment it is acquired but subject to destruction by the Government at any time . Rather the Amendment can most reasonably be read as defining a citizenship which a citizen keeps unless he voluntarily relinquishes it . Once acquired , this Fourteenth Amendment citizenship was not to be shifted , canceled , or diluted at the will of the Federal Government , the States , or any other governmental unit .
The Court found support for its position in the history of the unratified Titles of Nobility Amendment . The fact that this 1810 proposal had been framed as a constitutional amendment , rather than an ordinary act of Congress , was seen by the majority as showing that , even before the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment , Congress did not believe that it had the power to revoke anyone 's citizenship . The Court further noted that a proposed 1818 act of Congress would have provided a way for citizens to voluntarily relinquish their citizenship , but opponents had argued that Congress had no authority to provide for expatriation .
Afroyim 's counsel had addressed only the foreign voting question and had carefully avoided any direct challenge to the idea that foreign naturalization might legitimately lead to loss of citizenship ( a concept which Warren had been willing to accept in his Perez dissent ) . Nevertheless , the Court 's Afroyim ruling went beyond even Warren 's earlier position — holding instead that " The very nature of our government makes it completely incongruous to have a rule of law under which a group of citizens temporarily in office can deprive another group of citizens of their citizenship . "
= = = Dissent = = =
The minority — in a dissent written by Associate Justice John Marshall Harlan II and joined by Associate Justices Tom C. Clark , Potter Stewart , and Byron White — argued that Perez had been correctly decided , that nothing in the Constitution deprived Congress of the power to revoke a person 's citizenship for good cause , and that Congress was within its rights to decide that allowing Americans to vote in foreign elections ran contrary to the foreign policy interests of the nation and ought to result in loss of citizenship . Harlan wrote :
First , the Court fails almost entirely to dispute the reasoning in Perez ; it is essentially content with the conclusory and quite unsubstantiated assertion that Congress is without " any general power , express or implied , " to expatriate a citizen " without his assent . " Next , the Court embarks upon a lengthy , albeit incomplete , survey of the historical background of the congressional power at stake here , and yet , at the end , concedes that the history is susceptible of " conflicting inferences . " ... Finally , the Court declares that its result is bottomed upon the " language and the purpose " of the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment ; in explanation , the Court offers only the terms of the clause itself , the contention that any other result would be " completely incongruous , " and the essentially arcane observation that the " citizenry is the country and the country is its citizenry . " I can find nothing in this extraordinary series of circumventions which permits , still less compels , the imposition of this constitutional constraint upon the authority of Congress .
Responding to the assertion that Congress did not have power to revoke a person 's citizenship without his or her assent , Harlan predicted that " Until the Court indicates with greater precision what it means by ' assent ' , today 's opinion will surely cause still greater confusion in this area of the law . "
= = Subsequent developments = =
The Afroyim decision stated that no one with United States citizenship could be involuntarily deprived of that citizenship . Nevertheless , the Court distinguished a 1971 case , Rogers v. Bellei , holding in this newer case that individuals who had acquired citizenship via jus sanguinis , through birth outside the United States to an American parent or parents , could still risk loss of citizenship in various ways , since their citizenship ( unlike Afroyim 's citizenship ) was the result of federal statutes rather than the Citizenship Clause . The statutory provision whereby Bellei lost his citizenship — a U.S. residency requirement which he had failed to satisfy in his youth — was repealed by Congress in 1978 ; the foreign voting provision , already without effect since Afroyim , was repealed at the same time .
Although Afroyim appeared to rule out any involuntary revocation of a person 's citizenship , the government continued for the most part to pursue loss @-@ of @-@ citizenship cases when an American had acted in a way believed to imply an intent to give up citizenship — especially when an American had become a naturalized citizen of another country . In a 1980 case , however — Vance v. Terrazas — the Supreme Court ruled that intent to relinquish citizenship needed to be proved by itself , and not simply inferred from an individual 's having voluntarily performed an action designated by Congress as being incompatible with an intent to keep one 's citizenship .
The concept of dual citizenship , which previously had been strongly opposed by the U.S. government , has become more accepted in the years since Afroyim . In 1980 , the administration of President Jimmy Carter concluded that the Bancroft Treaties — a series of bilateral agreements , formulated between 1868 and 1937 , which provided for automatic loss of citizenship upon foreign naturalization of a U.S. citizen — were no longer enforceable , due in part to Afroyim , and gave notice terminating these treaties . In 1990 , the State Department adopted new guidelines for evaluating potential loss @-@ of @-@ citizenship cases , under which the government now assumes in almost all situations that Americans do not in fact intend to give up their citizenship unless they explicitly indicate to U.S. officials that this is their intention . As explained by Peter J. Spiro , " In the long run , Afroyim 's vision of an absolute right to retain citizenship has been largely , if quietly , vindicated . As a matter of practice , it is now virtually impossible to lose American citizenship without formally and expressly renouncing it . "
While acknowledging that " American citizenship enjoys strong protection against loss under Afroyim and Terrazas " , retired journalist Henry S. Matteo suggested , " It would have been more equitable ... had the Supreme Court relied on the Eighth Amendment , which adds a moral tone as well as a firmer constitutional basis , than the Fourteenth . " Matteo also said , " Under Afroyim there is a lack of balance between rights and protections on one hand , and obligations and responsibilities on the other , all four elements of which have been an integral part of the concept of citizenship , as history shows . " Political scientist P. Allan Dionisopoulos wrote that " it is doubtful that any [ Supreme Court decision ] created a more complex problem for the United States than Afroyim v. Rusk " , a decision which he believed had " since become a source of embarrassment for the United States in its relationships with the Arab world " because of the way it facilitated dual U.S. – Israeli citizenship and participation by Americans in Israel 's armed forces .
After his Supreme Court victory , Afroyim divided his time between West Brighton ( Staten Island , New York ) and the Israeli city of Safed until his death on May 19 , 1984 , in West Brighton .
= Macaroni p
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, Subantarctic fur seal ( A. tropicalis ) , and killer whale ( Orcinus orca ) sometimes hunt adult macaroni penguins in the water . Colonies suffer low rates of predation if undisturbed ; predators generally only take eggs and young that have been left unattended or deserted . Skua species , the snowy sheathbill ( Chionis alba ) , and kelp gull ( Larus dominicanus ) prey on eggs , and skuas and giant petrels also sometimes take chicks .
= = = Courtship and breeding = = =
Female macaroni penguins can begin breeding at around five years of age , while the males do not normally breed until at least six years old . Females breed at a younger age because the male population is larger . The surplus of male penguins allows the female penguins to select more experienced male partners as soon as the females are physically able to breed . Commencing a few days after females arrive at the colony , sexual displays are used by males to attract partners and advertise their territory , and by pairs once together at the nest site and at changeover of incubation shifts . In the ' ecstatic display ' , a penguin bows forward , making loud throbbing sounds , and then extends its head and neck up until its neck and beak are vertical . The bird then waves its head from side to side , braying loudly . Birds also engage in mutual bowing , trumpeting , and preening . Monitoring of pair fidelity at South Georgia has shown around three @-@ quarters of pairs will breed together again the following year .
Adult macaroni penguins typically begin to breed late in October , and lay their eggs in early November . The nest itself is a shallow scrape in the ground which may be lined with some pebbles , stones , or grass , or nestled in a clump of tussock grass ( on South Georgia Island ) . Nests are densely packed , ranging from around 66 cm apart in the middle of a colony to 86 cm at the edges . A fertile macaroni penguin will lay two eggs each breeding season . The first egg to be laid weighs 90 – 94 g ( 3 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 3 oz ) , 61 – 64 % the size of the 145 – 155 g ( 5 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 5 oz ) second , and is extremely unlikely to survive . The two eggs together weigh 4 @.@ 8 % of the mother 's body weight ; the composition of an egg is 20 % yolk , 66 % albumen , and 14 % shell . Like those of other penguin species , the shell is relatively thick to minimise risk of breakage , and the yolk is large , which is associated with chicks born in an advanced stage of development . Some of the yolk remains at hatching and is consumed by the chick in its first few days .
The fate of the first egg is mostly unknown , but studies on the related royal penguin and erect @-@ crested penguin show the female tips the egg out when the larger second egg is laid . The task of incubating the egg is divided into three roughly equal sessions of around 12 days each over a five @-@ week period . The first session is shared by both parents , followed by the male returning to sea , leaving the female alone to tend the egg . Upon the male 's return , the female goes off to sea and does not return until the chick has hatched . Both sexes fast for a considerable period during breeding ; the male fasts for 37 days after arrival until he returns to sea for around 10 days before fasting while incubating eggs and young for another 36 days , and the female fasts for 42 days from her arrival after the male until late in the incubation period . Both adults lose 36 – 40 % of their body weight during this period . The second egg hatches around 34 days after it is laid . Macaroni penguins typically leave their breeding colony by April or May to disperse into the ocean .
From the moment the egg is hatched , the male macaroni penguin cares for the newly hatched chick . For about 23 to 25 days , the male protects its offspring and helps to keep it warm , since only a few of its feathers have grown in by this time . The female brings food to the chick every one to two days . When they are not being protected by the adult male penguins , the chicks form crèches to keep warm and stay protected . Once their adult feathers have grown in at about 60 to 70 days , they are ready to go out to sea on their own .
= Corona Borealis =
Corona Borealis is a small constellation in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere . It is one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd @-@ century astronomer Ptolemy , and remains one of the 88 modern constellations . Its brightest stars form a semicircular arc . Its Latin name , inspired by its shape , means " northern crown " . In classical mythology Corona Borealis generally represented the crown given by the god Dionysus to the Cretan princess Ariadne and set by him in the heavens . Other cultures likened the pattern to a circle of elders , an eagle 's nest , a bear 's den , or even a smokehole . Ptolemy also listed a southern counterpart , Corona Australis , with a similar pattern .
The brightest star is the magnitude 2 @.@ 2 Alpha Coronae Borealis . The yellow supergiant R Coronae Borealis is the prototype of a rare class of giant stars — the R Coronae Borealis variables — that are extremely hydrogen deficient , and thought to result from the merger of two white dwarfs . T Coronae Borealis , also known as the Blaze Star , is another unusual type of variable star known as a recurrent nova . Normally of magnitude 10 , it last flared up to magnitude 2 in 1946 . ADS 9731 and Sigma Coronae Borealis are multiple star systems with six and five components respectively . Five star systems have been found to have Jupiter @-@ sized exoplanets . Abell 2065 is a highly concentrated galaxy cluster one billion light @-@ years from the Solar System containing more than 400 members , and is itself part of the larger Corona Borealis Supercluster .
= = Characteristics = =
Covering 179 square degrees and hence 0 @.@ 433 % of the sky , Corona Borealis ranks 73rd of the 88 modern constellations by area . Its position in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers north of 50 ° S. It is bordered by Boötes to the north and west , Serpens Caput to the south , and Hercules to the east . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' CrB ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of eight segments ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 15h 16.0m and 16h 25.1m , while the declination coordinates are between 39 @.@ 71 ° and 25 @.@ 54 ° . It has a counterpart — Corona Australis — in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
The seven stars that make up the constellation 's distinctive crown @-@ shaped pattern are all 4th @-@ magnitude stars except for the brightest of them , Alpha Coronae Borealis . The other six stars are Theta , Beta , Gamma , Delta , Epsilon and Iota Coronae Borealis . The German cartographer Johann Bayer gave twenty stars in Corona Borealis Bayer designations from Alpha to Upsilon in his 1603 star atlas Uranometria . Zeta Coronae Borealis was noted to be a double star by later astronomers and its components designated Zeta1 and Zeta2 . John Flamsteed did likewise with Nu Coronae Borealis ; classed by Bayer as a single star , it was noted to be two close stars by Flamsteed . He named them 20 and 21 Coronae Borealis in his catalogue , alongside the designations Nu1 and Nu2 respectively . Chinese astronomers deemed nine stars to make up the asterism , adding Pi and Rho Coronae Borealis . Within the constellation 's borders , there are 37 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 5 .
Also called Alphekka or Gemma , Alpha Coronae Borealis appears as a blue @-@ white star of magnitude 2 @.@ 2 . In fact , it is an Algol @-@ type eclipsing binary that varies by 0 @.@ 1 magnitude with a period of 17 @.@ 4 days . The primary is a white main @-@ sequence star of spectral type A0V that is 2 @.@ 91 times the mass of the Sun ( M ☉ ) and 57 times as luminous ( L ☉ ) , and is surrounded by a debris disk out to a radius of around 60 astronomical units ( AU ) . The secondary companion is a yellow main @-@ sequence star of spectral type G5V that is a little smaller ( 0 @.@ 9 times ) the diameter of the Sun . Lying 75 ± 0 @.@ 5 light @-@ years from Earth , Alphekka is believed to be a member of the Ursa Major Moving Group of stars that have a common motion through space .
Located 112 ± 3 light @-@ years away , Beta Coronae Borealis or Nusakan is a spectroscopic binary system whose two components are separated by 10 AU and orbit each other every 10 @.@ 5 years . The brighter component is a rapidly oscillating Ap star , pulsating with a period of 16 @.@ 2 minutes . Of spectral type A5V with a surface temperature of around 7980 K , it has around 2 @.@ 1 M ☉ , 2 @.@ 6 solar radii ( R ☉ ) , and 25 @.@ 3 L ☉ . The smaller star is of spectral type F2V with a surface temperature of around 6750 K , and has around 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ , 1 @.@ 56 R ☉ , and between 4 and 5 L ☉ . Near Nusakan is Theta Coronae Borealis , a binary system that shines with a combined magnitude of 4 @.@ 13 located 380 ± 20 light @-@ years distant . The brighter component , Theta Coronae Borealis A , is a blue @-@ white star that spins extremely rapidly — at a rate of around 393 km per second . A Be star , it is surrounded by a debris disk .
Flanking Alpha to the east is Gamma Coronae Borealis , yet another binary star system , whose components orbit each other every 92 @.@ 94 years and are roughly as far apart from each other as the Sun and Neptune . The brighter component has been classed as a Delta Scuti variable star , though this view is not universal . The components are main sequence stars of spectral types B9V and A3V . Located 170 ± 2 light @-@ years away , 4 @.@ 06 @-@ magnitude Delta Coronae Borealis is a yellow giant star of spectral type G3.5III that is around 2 @.@ 4 M ☉ and has swollen to 7 @.@ 4 R ☉ . It has a surface temperature of 5180 K. For most of its existence , Delta Coronae Borealis was a blue @-@ white main @-@ sequence star of spectral type B before it ran out of hydrogen fuel in its core . Its luminosity and spectrum suggest it has just crossed the Hertzsprung gap , having finished burning core hydrogen and just begun burning hydrogen in a shell that surrounds the core .
Zeta Coronae Borealis is a double star with two blue @-@ white components 6 @.@ 3 arcseconds apart that can be readily separated at 100x magnification . The primary is of magnitude 5 @.@ 1 and the secondary is of magnitude 6 @.@ 0 . Nu Coronae Borealis is an optical double , whose components are a similar distance from Earth but have different radial velocities , hence are assumed to be unrelated . The primary , Nu1 Coronae Borealis , is a red giant of spectral type M2III and magnitude 5 @.@ 2 , lying 640 ± 30 light @-@ years distant , and the secondary , Nu2 Coronae Borealis , is an orange @-@ hued giant star of spectral type K5III and magnitude 5 @.@ 4 , estimated to be 590 ± 30 light @-@ years away . Sigma Coronae Borealis , on the other hand , is a true multiple star system divisible by small amateur telescopes . It is actually a complex system composed of two stars around as massive as the Sun that orbit each other every 1 @.@ 14 days , orbited by a third Sun @-@ like star every 726 years . The fourth and fifth components are a binary red dwarf system that is 14 @,@ 000 AU distant from the other three stars . ADS 9731 is an even rarer multiple system in the constellation , composed of six stars , two of which are spectroscopic binaries .
Corona Borealis is home to two remarkable variable stars . T Coronae Borealis is a cataclysmic variable star also known as the Blaze Star . Normally placid around magnitude 10 — it has a minimum of 10 @.@ 2 and maximum of 9 @.@ 9 — it brightens to magnitude 2 in a period of hours , caused by a nuclear chain reaction and the subsequent explosion . T Coronae Borealis is one of a handful of stars called recurrent novae , which include T Pyxidis and U Scorpii . An outburst of T Coronae Borealis was first recorded in 1866 ; its second recorded outburst was in February 1946 . T Coronae Borealis is a binary star with a red @-@ hued giant primary and a white dwarf secondary , the two stars orbiting each other over a period of approximately 8 months . R Coronae Borealis is a yellow @-@ hued variable supergiant star , over 7000 light @-@ years from Earth , and prototype of a class of stars known as R Coronae Borealis variables . Normally of magnitude 6 , its brightness periodically drops as low as magnitude 15 and then slowly increases over the next several months . These declines in magnitude come about as dust that has been ejected from the star obscures it . Direct imaging with the Hubble Space Telescope shows extensive dust clouds out to a radius of around 2000 AU from the star , corresponding with a stream of fine dust ( composed of grains 5 nm in diameter ) associated with the star 's stellar wind and coarser dust ( composed of grains with a diameter of around 0 @.@ 14 µm ) ejected periodically .
There are several other variables of reasonable brightness for amateur astronomer to observe , including three Mira @-@ type long period variables : S Coronae Borealis ranges between magnitudes 5 @.@ 8 and 14 @.@ 1 over a period of 360 days . Located around 1946 light @-@ years distant , it shines with a luminosity 16 @,@ 643 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 3033 K. One of the reddest stars in the sky , V Coronae Borealis is a cool star with a surface temperature of 2877 K that shines with a luminosity 102 @,@ 831 times that of the Sun and is a remote 8810 light @-@ years distant from Earth . Varying between magnitudes 6 @.@ 9 and 12 @.@ 6 over a period of 357 days , it is located near the junction of the border of Corona Borealis with Hercules and Bootes . Located 1 @.@ 5 ° northeast of Tau Coronae Borealis , W Coronae Borealis ranges between magnitudes 7 @.@ 8 and 14 @.@ 3 over a period of 238 days . Another red giant , RR Coronae Borealis is a M3 @-@ type semiregular variable star that varies between magnitudes 7 @.@ 3 and 8 @.@ 2 over 60 @.@ 8 days . RS Coronae Borealis is yet another semiregular variable red giant , which ranges between magnitudes 8 @.@ 7 to 11 @.@ 6 over 332 days . It is unusual in that it is a red star with a high proper motion ( greater than 50 milliarcseconds a year ) . Meanwhile , U Coronae Borealis is an Algol @-@ type eclipsing binary star system whose magnitude varies between 7 @.@ 66 and 8 @.@ 79 over a period of 3 @.@ 45 days
TY Coronae Borealis is a pulsating white dwarf ( of ZZ Ceti ) type , which is around 70 % as massive as the Sun , yet has only 1 @.@ 1 % of its diameter . Discovered in 1990 , UW Coronae Borealis is a low @-@ mass X @-@ ray binary system composed of a star less massive than the Sun and a neutron star surrounded by an accretion disk that draws material from the companion star . It varies in brightness in an unusually complex manner : the two stars orbit each other every 111 minutes , yet there is another cycle of 112 @.@ 6 minutes , which corresponds to the orbit of the disk around the degenerate star . The beat period of 5 @.@ 5 days indicates the time the accretion disk — which is asymmetrical — takes to precess around the star .
= = = Extrasolar planetary systems = = =
Extrasolar planets have been confirmed in five star systems , four of which were found by the radial velocity method . The spectrum of Epsilon Coronae Borealis was analysed for seven years from 2005 to 2012 , revealing a planet around 6 @.@ 7 times as massive as Jupiter ( MJ ) orbiting every 418 days at an average distance of around 1 @.@ 3 AU . Epsilon itself is a 1 @.@ 7 M ☉ orange giant of spectral type K2III that has swollen to 21 R ☉ and 151 L ☉ . Kappa Coronae Borealis is a spectral type K1IV orange subgiant nearly twice as massive as the Sun ; around it lie a dust debris disk , and one planet with a period of 3 @.@ 4 years . This planet 's mass is estimated at 2 @.@ 5 MJ . The dimensions of the debris disk indicate it is likely there is a second substellar companion . Omicron Coronae Borealis is a K @-@ type clump giant with one confirmed planet with a mass of 0 @.@ 83 MJ that orbits every 187 days — one of the two least massive planets known around clump giants . HD 145457 is an orange giant of spectral type K0III found to have one planet of 2 @.@ 9 MJ . Discovered by the Doppler method in 2010 , it takes 176 days to complete an orbit . XO @-@ 1 is a magnitude 11 yellow main @-@ sequence star located approximately 560 light @-@ years away , of spectral type G1V with a mass and radius similar to the Sun . In 2006 the hot Jupiter exoplanet XO @-@ 1b was discovered orbiting XO @-@ 1 by the transit method using the XO Telescope . Roughly the size of Jupiter , it completes an orbit around its star every three days .
The discovery of a Jupiter @-@ sized planetary companion was announced in 1997 via analysis of the radial velocity of Rho Coronae Borealis , a yellow main sequence star and Solar twin of spectral type G0V , around 57 light @-@ years distant from Earth . More accurate measurement of data from the Hipparcos satellite subsequently showed it instead to be a low @-@ mass star somewhere between 100 and 200 times the mass of Jupiter . Possible stable planetary orbits in the habitable zone were calculated for the binary star Eta Coronae Borealis , which is composed of two stars — yellow main sequence stars of spectral type G1V and G3V respectively — similar in mass and spectrum to the Sun . No planet has been found , but a brown dwarf companion about 63 times as massive as Jupiter with a spectral type of L8 was discovered at a distance of 3640 AU from the pair in 2001 .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Corona Borealis contains few galaxies observable with amateur telescopes . NGC 6085 and 6086 are a faint spiral and elliptical galaxy respectively close enough to each other to be seen in the same visual field through a telescope . Abell 2142 is a huge ( six million light @-@ year diameter ) , X @-@ ray luminous galaxy cluster that is the result of an ongoing merger between two galaxy clusters . It has a redshift of 0 @.@ 0909 ( meaning it is moving away from us at 27 @,@ 250 km / s ) and a visual magnitude of 16 @.@ 0 . It is about 1 @.@ 2 billion light @-@ years away . Another galaxy cluster in the constellation , RX J1532.9 + 3021 , is approximately 3 @.@ 9 billion light @-@ years from Earth . At the cluster 's center is a large elliptical galaxy containing one of the most massive and most powerful supermassive black holes yet discovered . Abell 2065 is a highly concentrated galaxy cluster containing more than 400 members , the brightest of which are 16th magnitude ; the cluster is more than one billion light @-@ years from Earth . On a larger scale still , Abell 2065 , along with Abell 2061 , Abell 2067 , Abell 2079 , Abell 2089 , and Abell 2092 , make up the Corona Borealis Supercluster . Another galaxy cluster , Abell 2162 , is a member of the Hercules Superclusters .
= = Mythology = =
In Greek mythology , Corona Borealis was linked to the legend of Theseus and the minotaur . It was generally considered to represent a crown given by Dionysus to Ariadne , the daughter of Minos of Crete , after she had been abandoned by the Athenian prince Theseus . When she wore the crown at her marriage to Dionysus , he placed it in the heavens to commemorate their wedding . An alternate version has the besotted Dionysus give the crown to Ariadne , who in turn gives it to Theseus after he arrives in Crete to kill the minotaur that the Cretans have demanded tribute from Athens to feed . The hero uses the crown 's light to escape the labyrinth after disposing of the creature , and Dionysus later sets it in the heavens . The Latin author Hyginus linked it to a crown or wreath worn by Bacchus ( Dionysus ) to disguise his appearance when first approaching Mount Olympus and revealing himself to the gods , having been previously hidden as yet another child of Jupiter 's trysts with a mortal , in this case Semele . In Welsh mythology , it was called Caer Arianrhod , " the Castle of the Silver Circle " , and was the heavenly abode of the Lady Arianrhod . Corona Borealis was one of the 48 constellations mentioned in the Almagest of classical astronomer Ptolemy .
The Arabs called the constellation Alphecca ( a name later given to Alpha Coronae Borealis ) , which means " separated " or " broken up " ( الفكة al @-@ Fakkah ) , a reference to the resemblance of the stars of Corona Borealis to a loose string of jewels . This was also interpreted as a broken dish . Among the Bedouins , the constellation was known as qaṣʿat al @-@ masākīn ( قصعة المساكين ) , or " the dish / bowl of the poor people " .
The Skidi people of Native Americans saw the stars of Corona Borealis representing a council of stars whose chief was Polaris . The constellation also symbolised the smokehole over a fireplace , which conveyed their messages to the gods , as well as how chiefs should come together to consider matters of importance . The Shawnee people saw the stars as the Heavenly Sisters , who descended from the sky every night to dance on earth . Alphecca signifies the youngest and most comely sister , who was seized by a hunter who transformed into a field mouse to get close to her . They married though she later returned to the sky , with her heartbroken husband and son following later . The Mi 'kmaq of eastern Canada saw Corona Borealis as Mskegwǒm , the den of the celestial bear ( Alpha , Beta , Gamma and Delta Ursae Majoris ) .
Polynesian peoples often recognized Corona Borealis ; the people of the Tuamotus named it Na Kaua @-@ ki @-@ tokerau and probably Te Hetu . The constellation was likely called Kaua @-@ mea in Hawaii , Rangawhenua in New Zealand , and Te Wale @-@ o @-@ Awitu in the Cook Islands atoll of Pukapuka . Its name in Tonga was uncertain ; it was either called Ao @-@ o @-@ Uvea or Kau @-@ kupenga .
In Australian Aboriginal astronomy , the constellation is called womera ( " the boomerang " ) due to the shape of the stars . The Wailwun people of northwestern New South Wales saw Corona Borealis as mullion wollai " eagle 's nest " , with Altair and Vega — each called mullion — the pair of eagles accompanying it . The Wardaman people of northern Australia held the constellation to be a gathering point for Men 's Law , Women 's Law and Law of both sexes come together and consider matters of existence .
= = = Later references = = =
Corona Borealis was renamed Corona Firmiana in honour of the Archbishop of Salzburg in the 1730 Atlas Mercurii Philosophicii Firmamentum Firminianum Descriptionem by Corbinianus Thomas , but this was not taken up by subsequent cartographers . The constellation was featured as a main plot ingredient in the short story " Hypnos " by H. P. Lovecraft , published in 1923 ; it is the object of fear of one of the protagonists in the novella . Finnish band Cadacross released an album titled Corona Borealis in 2002 .
= SMS Oldenburg ( 1884 ) =
SMS Oldenburg was an armored warship of the German Imperial Navy . Laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1883 , the ship was launched in December 1884 and commissioned into the Navy in April 1886 . Oldenburg was intended to have been a fifth member of the Sachsen class of sortie corvettes , but budgetary limitations and dissatisfaction with the Sachsen class prompted a redesign that bore little resemblance to the earlier vessels . Oldenburg mounted her main battery of eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns amidships , six in a central casemate on the main deck and two directly above them on the broadside . She was the first German capital ship constructed entirely from German @-@ made steel .
Oldenburg did not see significant service with the German Navy . She participated in fleet training maneuvers in the late @-@ 1880s and early 1890s , but she spent the majority of the 1890s in reserve . Her only major deployment came in 1897 – 1898 when she joined an international naval demonstration to protest the Greek annexation of Crete . In 1900 , she was withdrawn from active duty and used as a harbor defense ship . From 1912 to 1919 , she was used by the High Seas Fleet as a target ship ; she was sold for scrapping in 1919 and broken up that year .
= = Design = =
Oldenburg was intended to be a fifth member of the Sachsen class of sortie corvettes . The design for the ship was radically altered , between 1879 and 1881 , for a variety of reasons . The German Navy was largely dissatisfied with the Sachsen class ships , and a number of design faults required correction . Budgetary constraints also limited the design of the ship , forcing the design staff to work within a displacement some 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ; 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) lower than that of the Sachsens .
Assessment of the design is mixed ; naval historian Erich Gröner states that Oldenburg was an " experimental design , of no real value in combat . " Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships concurs , stating that Oldenburg was " considered to be of little fighting value by the time she was completed . " The 1889 edition of the Brassey 's Naval Annual reported a contradictory opinion , however , stating that " The majority of German naval critics are dissatisfied to a greater or less extent with all of these vessels , the König Wilhelm , Kaiser , Deutschland , and Oldenburg excepted . "
= = = General characteristics = = =
Oldenburg was 78 @.@ 40 m ( 257 @.@ 2 ft ) long at the waterline and 79 @.@ 80 m ( 261 @.@ 8 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 18 m ( 59 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 28 m ( 20 @.@ 6 ft ) forward and 6 @.@ 30 m ( 20 @.@ 7 ft ) aft . At the designed displacement , the vessel displaced 5 @,@ 249 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 166 long tons ; 5 @,@ 786 short tons ) . When the ship was fully loaded , she displaced 5 @,@ 743 t ( 5 @,@ 652 long tons ; 6 @,@ 331 short tons ) . Her hull was built with transverse and longitudinal steel frames ; iron was used for the stem and stern . The ship had twelve watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 60 percent of the length of the hull . Oldenburg was the first German capital ship built entirely from German @-@ made steel .
The German navy regarded Oldenburg as an adequate sea boat , though she suffered from significant pitching . As a result of her tendency to pitch severely , a 60 t ( 59 long tons ; 66 short tons ) ballast was permanently installed in the bow . She also lost a great deal of speed in heavy seas ; at conditions above Beaufort sea state 6 , this could be up to a 25 percent loss of speed . The ship could not operate under severe weather conditions . Her transverse metacentric height was .63 m ( 2 ft 1 in ) . Her standard complement consisted of 34 officers and 355 enlisted men , though her crew was later reorganized to 32 officers and 40 enlisted sailors . She carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one launch , two pinnaces , two cutters , two yawls , and one dinghy .
= = = Machinery = = =
Oldenburg was powered by two horizontal 4 @-@ cylinder double expansion steam engines in separate engine roomes ; the two engines each drove a three @-@ bladed screw 4 @.@ 50 m ( 14 @.@ 8 ft ) in diameter . Steam was provided to the engines by eight transverse cylinder boilers , divided into two boiler rooms . Each boiler was equipped with three fireboxes , for a total of 24 , which operated at up to 5 standard atmospheres ( 510 kPa ) forced . The engines were designed to operate at 3 @,@ 900 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 900 kW ) for a top speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . On speed trials , her engines slightly exceeded the designed horsepower , at 3 @,@ 942 ihp ( 2 @,@ 940 kW ) , though Oldenburg made only 13 @.@ 8 knots ( 25 @.@ 6 km / h ; 15 @.@ 9 mph ) .
The ship was designed to store 348 t ( 343 long tons ; 384 short tons ) of coal , though she could accommodate up to 450 t ( 440 long tons ; 500 short tons ) . An additional 120 t ( 120 long tons ; 130 short tons ) of coal could be stored on her deck . At a cruising speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) , Oldenburg could steam for 1 @,@ 770 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 280 km ; 2 @,@ 040 mi ) . Increasing her speed by one knot reduced her range to 1 @,@ 370 nmi ( 2 @,@ 540 km ; 1 @,@ 580 mi ) , and at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , she could cruise for only 980 nmi ( 1 @,@ 810 km ; 1 @,@ 130 mi ) . Steering was controlled by a single rudder . She was equipped with three electrical generators with a total output of 29 kilowatts at 65 volts .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Oldenburg carried eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) L / 30 hooped guns in an unusual configuration : six guns on the main deck , one on each broadside , four in embrasures at each corner of the central battery to give a measure of end @-@ on fire , and two on the upper deck firing broadside . These guns were supplied with 494 rounds of ammunition , and could depress to − 5 ° and elevate to 8 ° . This enabled a maximum range of 5 @,@ 700 to 8 @,@ 800 m ( 6 @,@ 200 to 9 @,@ 600 yd ) . She was also equipped with four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 22 guns and two 8 @.@ 7 cm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) L / 24 guns . Four 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes rounded out her armament . One was mounted in the bow , submerged , two were placed on the broadside above water , and the fourth was located in the stern , also above water . She carried ten torpedoes .
Oldenburg 's armor consisted of compound steel backed with teak ; the steel was fabricated by the Dillinger Works . The main armored belt was composed of two strakes ; the steel upper strake was 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick amidships , where it protected the ship 's vitals . The belt was reduced on either end of the central portion to 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) . The lower strake was 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick in the central section and 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) on either end . The entire belt was backed with 250 mm of teak amidships and 300 mm of teak on either end . The sides of the armored casemates for the main battery were 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The ship 's deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . Her forward conning tower had 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick sides and a 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick roof . The rear conning tower was given only splinter protection , with 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick sides and a 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) thick roof .
= = Service history = =
Oldenburg was laid down in 1883 at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin , under construction number 132 . She was launched on 20 December 1884 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was completed by April 1886 and commissioned into the German Navy on 8 April . She immediately joined the I Division of the fleet , alongside Sachsen , Bayern , and Württemberg , for the annual fleet maneuvers . Bayern and Württemberg suffered from engine troubles throughout the exercises , but Oldenburg performed satisfactorily .
In June 1887 , Germany dedicated the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal ; Oldenburg was among the ships present during the celebrations . Oldenburg was assigned to the training squadron for the maneuvers in August – September 1887 , along with König Wilhelm and Kaiser . The majority of the exercises were focused in the Baltic , but the fleet did conduct maneuvers in the North Sea for eight days in September . Oldenburg also participated in the visit to Great Britain in August 1889 , where Wilhelm II took part in the Cowes Regatta . The ship was assigned to the I Division with Sachsen , Baden , and the new cruiser Irene . Oldenburg and the rest of the fleet joined the Royal Navy in a fleet review for Queen Victoria .
Oldenburg participated in the ceremonial transfer of the island of Helgoland from British to German control in the summer of 1890 . She was present during the fleet maneuvers in September , where the entire eight @-@ ship armored squadron simulated a Russian fleet blockading Kiel . She remained with the I Division in 1891 ; the year 's maneuvers simulated a two @-@ front war against Russia and either France or Denmark . In 1892 , however , Württemberg replaced Oldenburg in the I Division , and the latter went into reserve . The ship remained out of service for the next five years . She returned to active duty in 1897 to join an international naval demonstration off the island of Crete , which had been annexed by Greece . The ship remained in the demonstration until March 1898 , when Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary withdrew their naval contingents in a show of dissatisfaction over the compromise solution , which left Crete under Ottoman control , but with a Greek prince .
In 1900 , Oldenburg was reduced to serve as a harbor guard ship . She was later used as a depot ship before being stricken from the naval register on 13 January 1912 . The vessel was then used as a target ship by the High Seas Fleet until after the German defeat in World War I. Oldenburg was sold to Hattinger Company , a ship @-@ breaking firm , on 5 May 1919 . The ship was dismantled for scrap in Wilhelmshaven that year .
= Stephen Colbert =
Stephen Tyrone Colbert ( / koʊlˈbɛər / , né : / ˈkoʊlbərt / ; born May 13 , 1964 ) is an American comedian , writer , producer , actor , media critic , and television host . He currently hosts the late @-@ night television talk show The Late Show with Stephen Colbert on CBS .
Colbert had originally studied to be an actor , but became interested in improvisational theatre when he met Second City director Del Close while attending Northwestern University . He first performed professionally as an understudy for Steve Carell at Second City Chicago ; among his troupe mates were comedians Paul Dinello and Amy Sedaris , with whom he developed the sketch comedy series Exit 57 . Colbert also wrote and performed on the short @-@ lived Dana Carvey Show before collaborating with Sedaris and Dinello again on the cult television series Strangers with Candy . He gained considerable attention for his role on the latter as closeted gay history teacher Chuck Noblet . His work as a correspondent on Comedy Central 's news @-@ parody series The Daily Show first introduced him to a wide audience .
In 2005 , he left The Daily Show to host a spin @-@ off series , The Colbert Report . Following The Daily Show 's news @-@ parody concept , The Colbert Report was a parody of personality @-@ driven political opinion shows such as The O 'Reilly Factor , in which Colbert portrayed a caricatured version of conservative political pundits . The series established itself as one of Comedy Central 's highest @-@ rated series , earning Colbert an invitation to perform as featured entertainer at the White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner in 2006 . Colbert has won nine Primetime Emmy Awards , two Grammy Awards , and two Peabody Awards . Colbert succeeded David Letterman as the host of The Late Show on CBS , beginning his tenure on September 8 , 2015 .
Colbert was named one of Time 's 100 most influential people in 2006 and 2012 . His book , I Am America ( And So Can You ! ) , was number one on The New York Times Best Seller list .
= = Early life = =
Colbert was born in Washington , D.C. , the youngest of 11 children in a Catholic family . He grew up on James Island in Charleston , South Carolina . Colbert and his siblings , in order from oldest to youngest , are James , Edward , Mary , William , Margo , Thomas , Jay , Elizabeth , Paul , Peter , and Stephen . His father , James William Colbert , Jr . , was a doctor and medical school dean at Yale University , Saint Louis University , and finally at the Medical University of South Carolina where he served as vice president for academic affairs . Stephen 's mother , Lorna Elizabeth Colbert ( née Tuck ) , was a homemaker .
In interviews , Colbert has described his parents as devout people who also strongly valued intellectualism and taught their children that it was possible to question the church and still be Catholic . The emphasis his family placed on intelligence and his observation of negative stereotypes of Southerners led Colbert to train himself to suppress his Southern accent while he was still quite young . As a child , he observed that Southerners were often depicted as being less intelligent than other characters on scripted television ; to avoid that stereotype , he taught himself to imitate the speech of American news anchors .
While Colbert sometimes comedically claims his surname is French , he is of 15 / 16ths Irish ancestry ( one of his paternal great @-@ great @-@ grandmothers was of German and English descent ) . Many of his ancestors emigrated from Ireland to North America in the 19th century before and during the Great Famine . Originally , his surname was pronounced / ˈkoʊlbərt / ( KOHL @-@ bərt ) in English ; Stephen Colbert 's father , James , wanted to pronounce the name / koʊlˈbɛər / ( kohl @-@ BAIR ) , but maintained the / ˈkoʊlbərt / pronunciation out of respect for his own father . He offered his children the option to pronounce the name whichever way they preferred . Stephen started using / koʊlˈbɛər / later in life when he transferred to Northwestern University , taking advantage of the opportunity to reinvent himself in a new place where no one knew him . Stephen 's brother , Ed , an intellectual property attorney , retained / ˈkoʊlbərt / ; this was shown in a February 12 , 2009 , appearance on The Colbert Report , when his youngest brother asked him , " / ˈkoʊlbərt / or / koʊlˈbɛər / ? " Ed responded " / ˈkoʊlbərt / " , to which Stephen jokingly replied , " See you in Hell " .
On September 11 , 1974 , when Colbert was ten years old , his father and two of his brothers , Peter and Paul , were killed in the crash of Eastern Air Lines Flight 212 while it was attempting to land in Charlotte , North Carolina . They were en route to enroll the two boys at Canterbury School in New Milford , Connecticut . Lorna Colbert relocated the family downtown to the more urban environment of East Bay Street in Charleston . Colbert found the transition difficult and did not easily make new friends in his new neighborhood . Colbert later described himself during this time as detached , lacking a sense of importance regarding the things with which other children concerned themselves . He developed a love of science fiction and fantasy novels , especially the works of J. R. R. Tolkien , of which he remains an avid fan . During his adolescence , he also developed an intense interest in fantasy role @-@ playing games , especially Dungeons & Dragons , a pastime which he later characterized as an early experience in acting and improvisation .
Colbert attended Charleston 's Episcopal Porter @-@ Gaud School , where he participated in several school plays and contributed to the school newspaper but was not highly motivated academically . During his adolescence , he briefly fronted a Rolling Stones cover band called A Shot in the Dark . When he was younger , he had hoped to study marine biology , but surgery intended to repair a severely perforated eardrum caused him inner ear damage . The damage was severe enough that he was unable to pursue a career that would involve scuba diving . The damage also left him deaf in his right ear . For a while , he was uncertain whether he would attend college , but ultimately he applied and was accepted to Hampden – Sydney College in Virginia , where a friend had also enrolled . There he continued to participate in plays while studying mainly philosophy . He found the curriculum rigorous , but was more focused than he had been in high school and was able to apply himself to his studies . Despite the lack of a significant theater community at Hampden – Sydney , Colbert 's interest in acting escalated during this time . After two years , he transferred to Northwestern University as a theater major to study performance , emboldened by the realization that he loved performing , even when no one was coming to shows . He graduated from Northwestern 's School of Communication in 1986 .
= = Early career in comedy = =
While at Northwestern , Colbert studied with the intent of becoming a dramatic actor ; mostly he performed in experimental plays and was uninterested in comedy . He began performing improvisation while in college , both in the campus improv team No Fun Mud Piranhas and at the Annoyance Theatre in Chicago as a part of Del Close 's ImprovOlympic at a time when the project was focused on competitive , long @-@ form improvisation , rather than improvisational comedy . " I wasn 't gonna do Second City " , Colbert later recalled , " because those Annoyance people looked down on Second City because they thought it wasn 't pure improv – there was a slightly snobby , mystical quality to the Annoyance people " . After Colbert graduated in 1986 , however , he was in need of a job . A friend who was employed at Second City 's box office offered him work answering phones and selling souvenirs . Colbert accepted and discovered that Second City employees were entitled to take classes at their training center for free . Despite his earlier aversion to the comedy group , he signed up for improvisation classes and enjoyed the experience greatly .
Shortly thereafter , he was hired to perform with Second City 's touring company , initially as an understudy for Steve Carell . It was there he met Amy Sedaris and Paul Dinello , with whom he often collaborated later in his career . By their retelling , the three comedians did not get along at first – Dinello thought Colbert was uptight , pretentious and cold , while Colbert thought of Dinello as " an illiterate thug " – but the trio became close friends while touring together , discovering that they shared a similar comic sensibility .
When Sedaris and Dinello were offered the opportunity to create a television series for HBO Downtown Productions , Colbert left The Second City and relocated to New York to work with them on the sketch comedy show Exit 57 . The series debuted on Comedy Central in 1995 and aired through 1996 . Although it lasted for only 12 episodes , the show received favorable reviews and was nominated for five CableACE Awards in 1995 , in categories including best writing , performance , and comedy series .
Following the cancellation of Exit 57 , Colbert worked for six months as a cast member and writer on The Dana Carvey Show , alongside former Second City castmate Steve Carell , and also Robert Smigel , Charlie Kaufman , Louis C.K. , and Dino Stamatopoulos , among others . The series , described by one reviewer as " kamikaze satire " in " borderline @-@ questionable taste " , had sponsors pull out after its first episode aired and was cancelled after seven episodes . Colbert then worked briefly as a freelance writer for Saturday Night Live with Robert Smigel . Smigel brought his animated sketch , The Ambiguously Gay Duo , to SNL from The Dana Carvey Show ; Colbert provided the voice of Ace on both series , opposite Steve Carell as Gary . Needing money , he also worked as a script consultant for VH1 and MTV , before taking a job filming humorous correspondent segments for Good Morning America . Only two of the segments he proposed were ever produced and only one aired , but the job led his agent to refer him to The Daily Show 's then @-@ producer , Madeline Smithberg , who hired Colbert on a trial basis in 1997 .
= = Television career = =
= = = Strangers with Candy = = =
During the same period , Colbert worked again with Sedaris and Dinello to develop a new comedy series for Comedy Central , Strangers with Candy . Comedy Central picked up the series in 1998 after Colbert had already begun working on The Daily Show . As a result , he accepted a reduced role , filming only around 20 Daily Show segments a year while he worked on the new series .
Strangers with Candy was conceived of as a parody of after school specials , following the life of Jerri Blank , a 46 @-@ year @-@ old dropout who returns to finish high school after 32 years of life on the street . Most noted by critics for its use of offensive humor , it concluded each episode by delivering to the audience a skewed , politically incorrect moral lesson . Colbert served as a main writer alongside Sedaris and Dinello , and portrayed Jerri 's strict but uninformed history teacher , Chuck Noblet , seen throughout the series dispensing inaccurate information to his classes . Colbert has likened this to the character he played on The Daily Show and later The Colbert Report , claiming that he has a very specific niche in portraying " poorly informed , high @-@ status idiot " characters . Another running joke throughout the series was that Noblet , a closeted homosexual , was having a " secret " affair with fellow teacher Geoffrey Jellineck despite the fact that their relationship was apparent to everyone around them . This obliviousness also appears in Colbert 's Daily Show and Colbert Report character .
Thirty episodes of Strangers with Candy were made , which aired on Comedy Central in 1999 and 2000 . Though its ratings were not remarkable during its initial run , it has been characterized as a cult show with a small but dedicated audience . Colbert reprised his role for a film adaptation , which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 2005 and had a limited release in 2006 . The film received mixed reviews . Colbert also co @-@ wrote the screenplay with Sedaris and Dinello .
= = = The Daily Show = = =
Colbert joined the cast of Comedy Central 's parody @-@ news series The Daily Show in 1997 , when the show was in its second season . Originally one of four correspondents who filmed segments from remote locations in the style of network news field reporters , Colbert was referred to as " the new guy " on @-@ air for his first two years on the show , during which time Craig Kilborn served as host . When Kilborn left the show prior to the 1999 season , Jon Stewart took over hosting duties , also serving as a writer and co @-@ executive producer . From this point , the series gradually began to take on a more political tone and increase in popularity , particularly in the latter part of the 2000 U.S. presidential election season . The roles of the show 's correspondents were expanded to include more in @-@ studio segments and international reports , which were almost always done in the studio with the aid of a greenscreen .
Unlike Stewart , who essentially hosted The Daily Show as himself , Colbert developed a correspondent character for his pieces on the series . Colbert has described his correspondent character as " a fool who has spent a lot of his life playing not the fool – one who is able to cover it at least well enough to deal with the subjects that he deals with " . Colbert was frequently pitted against knowledgeable interview subjects , or against Stewart in scripted exchanges , with the resultant dialogue demonstrating the character 's lack of knowledge of whatever subject he is discussing . Colbert also made generous use of humorous fallacies of logic in explaining his point of view on any topic . Other Daily Show correspondents have adopted a similar style ; former correspondent Rob Corddry recalls that when he and Ed Helms first joined the show 's cast in 2002 , they " just imitated Stephen Colbert for a year or two " . Correspondent Aasif Mandvi has stated " I just decided I was going to do my best Stephen Colbert impression " .
Colbert appeared in several recurring segments for The Daily Show , including " Even Stevphen " with Steve Carell , in which both characters were expected to debate a selected topic but instead would unleash their anger at one another . Colbert commonly hosted " This Week in God " , a report on topics in the news pertaining to religion , presented with the help of the " God Machine " . Colbert filed reports from the floor of the Democratic National Convention and the Republican National Convention as a part of The Daily Show 's award @-@ winning coverage of the 2000 and 2004 U.S. Presidential elections ; many from the latter were included as part of their The Daily Show : Indecision 2004 DVD release . Other pieces that have been named as his signature segments include " Grouse Hunting in Shropshire " , in which he reported on the " gayness " of British aristocracy , his mock lionization of a smoking @-@ rights activist and apparent chain @-@ smoker , and his cameo appearances during his faux campaign for President . In several episodes of The Daily Show , Colbert filled in as anchor in the absence of Jon Stewart , including the full week of March 3 , 2002 , when Stewart was scheduled to host Saturday Night Live . After Colbert left the show , Rob Corddry took over " This Week in God " segments , although a recorded sample of Colbert 's voice is still used as the sound effect for the God Machine . Later episodes of The Daily Show have reused older Colbert segments under the label " Klassic Kolbert " . Colbert won three Emmys as a writer of The Daily Show in 2004 , 2005 , and 2006 .
= = = The Colbert Report = = =
Colbert hosted his own television show , The Colbert Report , from October 17 , 2005 through December 18 , 2014 . The Colbert Report was a Daily Show spin @-@ off that parodied the conventions of television news broadcasting , particularly cable @-@ personality political talk shows like The O 'Reilly Factor and Glenn Beck . Colbert hosted the show in @-@ character as a blustery right @-@ wing pundit , generally considered to be an extension of his character on The Daily Show . Conceived by co @-@ creators Stewart , Colbert , and Ben Karlin in part as an opportunity to explore " the character @-@ driven news " , the series focused less on the day @-@ to @-@ day news style of the Daily Show , instead frequently concentrating on the foibles of the host @-@ character himself .
The concept for The Report was first seen in a series of Daily Show segments which advertised the then @-@ fictional series as a joke . It was later developed by Stewart 's Busboy Productions and pitched to Comedy Central , which greenlighted the program ; Comedy Central had already been searching for a way to extend the successful Daily Show franchise beyond a half @-@ hour . The series opened to strong ratings , averaging 1 @.@ 2 million viewers nightly during its first week on the air . Comedy Central signed a long @-@ term contract for The Colbert Report within its first month on the air , when it immediately established itself among the network 's highest @-@ rated shows .
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aries ( 1769 ) , correcting Blackstone 's interpretation of the law , his grammar ( a highly politicised subject at the time ) , and history . Blackstone , chastened , altered subsequent editions of his Commentaries : he rephrased the offending passages and removed the sections claiming that Dissenters could not be loyal subjects , but he retained his description of Dissent as a crime .
= = = Natural philosopher : electricity , Optics , and soda water = = =
Although Priestley claimed that natural philosophy was only a hobby , he took it seriously . In his History of Electricity , he described the scientist as promoting the " security and happiness of mankind " . Priestley 's science was eminently practical and he rarely concerned himself with theoretical questions ; his model was Benjamin Franklin . When he moved to Leeds , Priestley continued his electrical and chemical experiments ( the latter aided by a steady supply of carbon dioxide from a neighbouring brewery ) . Between 1767 and 1770 , he presented five papers to the Royal Society from these initial experiments ; the first four papers explored coronal discharges and other phenomena related to electrical discharge , while the fifth reported on the conductivity of charcoals from different sources . His subsequent experimental work focused on chemistry and pneumatics .
Priestley published the first volume of his projected history of experimental philosophy , The History and Present State of Discoveries Relating to Vision , Light and Colours ( referred to as his Optics ) , in 1772 . He paid careful attention to the history of optics and presented excellent explanations of early optics experiments , but his mathematical deficiencies caused him to dismiss several important contemporary theories . Furthermore , he did not include any of the practical sections that had made his History of Electricity so useful to practising natural philosophers . Unlike his History of Electricity , it was not popular and had only one edition , although it was the only English book on the topic for 150 years . The hastily written text sold poorly ; the cost of researching , writing , and publishing the Optics convinced Priestley to abandon his history of experimental philosophy .
Priestley was considered for the position of astronomer on James Cook 's second voyage to the South Seas , but was not chosen . Still , he contributed in a small way to the voyage : he provided the crew with a method for making soda water , which he erroneously speculated might be a cure for scurvy . He then published a pamphlet with Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air ( 1772 ) . Priestley did not exploit the commercial potential of soda water , but others such as J. J. Schweppe made fortunes from it . In 1773 , the Royal Society recognised Priestley 's achievements in natural philosophy by awarding him the Copley Medal .
Priestley 's friends wanted to find him a more financially secure position . In 1772 , prompted by Richard Price and Benjamin Franklin , Lord Shelburne wrote to Priestley asking him to direct the education of his children and to act as his general assistant . Although Priestley was reluctant to sacrifice his ministry , he accepted the position , resigning from Mill Hill Chapel on 20 December 1772 , and preaching his last sermon on 16 May 1773 .
= = Calne ( 1773 – 80 ) = =
In 1773 , the Priestleys moved to Calne in Wiltshire , and a year later Lord Shelburne and Priestley took a tour of Europe . According to Priestley 's close friend Theophilus Lindsey , Priestley was " much improved by this view of mankind at large " . Upon their return , Priestley easily fulfilled his duties as librarian and tutor . The workload was intentionally light , allowing him time to pursue his scientific investigations and theological interests . Priestley also became a political adviser to Shelburne , gathering information on parliamentary issues and serving as a liaison between Shelburne and the Dissenting and American interests . When the Priestleys ' third son was born on 24 May 1777 , they named him Henry at the lord 's request .
= = = Materialist philosopher = = =
Priestley wrote his most important philosophical works during his years with Lord Shelburne . In a series of major metaphysical texts published between 1774 and 1780 — An Examination of Dr. Reid 's Inquiry into the Human Mind ( 1774 ) , Hartley 's Theory of the Human Mind on the Principle of the Association of Ideas ( 1775 ) , Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit ( 1777 ) , The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Illustrated ( 1777 ) , and Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever ( 1780 ) — he argues for a philosophy that incorporates four concepts : determinism , materialism , causation , and necessitarianism . By studying the natural world , he argued , people would learn how to become more compassionate , happy , and prosperous .
Priestley strongly suggested that there is no mind @-@ body duality , and put forth a materialist philosophy in these works ; that is , one founded on the principle that everything in the universe is made of matter that we can perceive . He also contended that discussing the soul is impossible because it is made of a divine substance , and humanity cannot perceive the divine . Despite his separation of the divine from the mortal , this position shocked and angered many of his readers , who believed that such a duality was necessary for the soul to exist .
Responding to Baron d 'Holbach 's Système de la Nature ( 1770 ) and David Hume 's Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion ( 1779 ) as well as the works of the French philosophers , Priestley maintained that materialism and determinism could be reconciled with a belief in God . He criticised those whose faith was shaped by books and fashion , drawing an analogy between the scepticism of educated men and the credulity of the masses .
Maintaining that humans had no free will , Priestley argued that what he called " philosophical necessity " ( akin to absolute determinism ) is consonant with Christianity , a position based on his understanding of the natural world . Like the rest of nature , man 's mind is subject to the laws of causation , Priestley contended , but because a benevolent God created these laws , the world and the people in it will eventually be perfected . Evil is therefore only an imperfect understanding of the world .
Although Priestley 's philosophical work has been characterised as " audacious and original " , it partakes of older philosophical traditions on the problems of free will , determinism , and materialism . For example , the 17th @-@ century philosopher Baruch Spinoza argued for absolute determinism and absolute materialism . Like Spinoza and Priestley , Leibniz argued that human will was completely determined by natural laws ; however , unlike them , Leibniz argued for a " parallel universe " of immaterial objects ( such as human souls ) so arranged by God that its outcomes agree exactly with those of the material universe . Leibniz and Priestley share an optimism that God has chosen the chain of events benevolently ; however , Priestley believed that the events were leading to a glorious Millennial conclusion , whereas for Leibniz the entire chain of events was optimal in and of itself , as compared with other conceivable chains of events .
= = = Founder of Unitarianism = = =
When Priestley 's friend Theophilus Lindsey decided to found a new Christian denomination that would not restrict its members ' beliefs , Priestley and others hurried to his aid . On 17 April 1774 , Lindsey held the first Unitarian service in Britain , at the newly formed Essex Street Chapel in London ; he had even designed his own liturgy , of which many were critical . Priestley defended his friend in the pamphlet Letter to a Layman , on the Subject of the Rev. Mr. Lindsey 's Proposal for a Reformed English Church ( 1774 ) , claiming that only the form of worship had been altered , not its substance , and attacking those who followed religion as a fashion . Priestley attended Lindsey 's church regularly in the 1770s and occasionally preached there . He continued to support institutionalised Unitarianism for the rest of his life , writing several Defenses of Unitarianism and encouraging the foundation of new Unitarian chapels throughout Britain and the United States .
= = = Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air = = =
Priestley 's years in Calne were the only ones in his life dominated by scientific investigations ; they were also the most scientifically fruitful . His experiments were almost entirely confined to " airs " , and out of this work emerged his most important scientific texts : the six volumes of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air ( 1774 – 86 ) . These experiments helped repudiate the last vestiges of the theory of four elements , which Priestley attempted to replace with his own variation of phlogiston theory . According to that 18th @-@ century theory , the combustion or oxidation of a substance corresponded to the release of a material substance , phlogiston .
Priestley 's work on " airs " is not easily classified . As historian of science Simon Schaffer writes , it " has been seen as a branch of physics , or chemistry , or natural philosophy , or some highly idiosyncratic version of Priestley 's own invention " . Furthermore , the volumes were both a scientific and a political enterprise for Priestley , in which he argues that science could destroy " undue and usurped authority " and that government has " reason to tremble even at an air pump or an electrical machine " .
Volume I of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air outlined several discoveries : " nitrous air " ( nitric oxide , NO ) ; " vapor of spirit of salt " , later called " acid air " or " marine acid air " ( anhydrous hydrochloric acid , HCl ) ; " alkaline air " ( ammonia , NH3 ) ; " diminished " or " dephlogisticated nitrous air " ( nitrous oxide , N2O ) ; and , most famously , " dephlogisticated air " ( oxygen , O2 ) as well as experimental findings that showed plants revitalised enclosed volumes of air , a discovery that would eventually lead to the discovery of photosynthesis . Priestley also developed a " nitrous air test " to determine the " goodness of air " . Using a pneumatic trough , he would mix nitrous air with a test sample , over water or mercury , and measure the decrease in volume — the principle of eudiometry . After a small history of the study of airs , he explained his own experiments in an open and sincere style . As an early biographer writes , " whatever he knows or thinks he tells : doubts , perplexities , blunders are set down with the most refreshing candour . " Priestley also described his cheap and easy @-@ to @-@ assemble experimental apparatus ; his colleagues therefore believed that they could easily reproduce his experiments . Faced with inconsistent experimental results , Priestley employed phlogiston theory . This , however , led him to conclude that there were only three types of " air " : " fixed " , " alkaline " , and " acid " . Priestley dismissed the burgeoning chemistry of his day . Instead , he focused on gases and " changes in their sensible properties " , as had natural philosophers before him . He isolated carbon monoxide ( CO ) , but apparently did not realise that it was a separate " air " .
= = = = Discovery of oxygen = = = =
In August 1774 he isolated an " air " that appeared to be completely new , but he did not have an opportunity to pursue the matter because he was about to tour Europe with Shelburne . While in Paris , however , Priestley managed to replicate the experiment for others , including French chemist Antoine Lavoisier . After returning to Britain in January 1775 , he continued his experiments and discovered " vitriolic acid air " ( sulphur dioxide , SO2 ) .
In March he wrote to several people regarding the new " air " that he had discovered in August . One of these letters was read aloud to the Royal Society , and a paper outlining the discovery , titled " An Account of further Discoveries in Air " , was published in the Society 's journal Philosophical Transactions . Priestley called the new substance " dephlogisticated air " , which he made in the famous experiment by focusing the sun ’ s rays on a sample of mercuric oxide . He first tested it on mice , who surprised him by surviving quite a while entrapped with the air , and then on himself , writing that it was " five or six times better than common air for the purpose of respiration , inflammation , and , I believe , every other use of common atmospherical air " . He had discovered oxygen gas ( O2 ) .
Priestley assembled his oxygen paper and several others into a second volume of Experiments and Observations on Air , published in 1776 . He did not emphasise his discovery of " dephlogisticated air " ( leaving it to Part III of the volume ) but instead argued in the preface how important such discoveries were to rational religion . His paper narrated the discovery chronologically , relating the long delays between experiments and his initial puzzlements ; thus , it is difficult to determine when exactly Priestley " discovered " oxygen . Such dating is significant as both Lavoisier and Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele have strong claims to the discovery of oxygen as well , Scheele having been the first to isolate the gas ( although he published after Priestley ) and Lavoisier having been the first to describe it as purified " air itself entire without alteration " ( that is , the first to explain oxygen without phlogiston theory ) .
In his paper " Observations on Respiration and the Use of the Blood " , Priestley was the first to suggest a connection between blood and air , although he did so using phlogiston theory . In typical Priestley fashion , he prefaced the paper with a history of the study of respiration . A year later , clearly influenced by Priestley , Lavoisier was also discussing respiration at the Académie des sciences . Lavoisier 's work began the long train of discovery that produced papers on oxygen respiration and culminated in the overthrow of phlogiston theory and the establishment of modern chemistry .
Around 1779 Priestley and Shelburne had a rupture , the precise reasons for which remain unclear . Shelburne blamed Priestley 's health , while Priestley claimed Shelburne had no further use for him . Some contemporaries speculated that Priestley 's outspokenness had hurt Shelburne 's political career . Schofield argues that the most likely reason was Shelburne 's recent marriage to Louisa Fitzpatrick — apparently , she did not like the Priestleys . Although Priestley considered moving to America , he eventually accepted Birmingham New Meeting 's offer to be their minister .
Both Priestley and Shelburne 's families upheld their Unitarian faith for generations . In December 2013 , it was reported that Sir Christopher Bullock - the direct descendant of Shelburne 's brother , Thomas Fitzmaurice ( MP ) , had married his wife , Lady Bullock , née Barbara May Lupton , at London 's Unitarian Essex Church in 1917 . Barbara Lupton was the second cousin of Olive Middleton , née Lupton - the great grandmother of Catherine , Duchess of Cambridge . In 1914 , Olive and Noel Middleton had married at Leeds ' Mill Hill Chapel , which Priestly , as its minister , had once guided towards Unitarianism .
= = Birmingham ( 1780 – 91 ) = =
In 1780 the Priestleys moved to Birmingham and spent a happy decade surrounded by old friends , until they were forced to flee in 1791 by religiously motivated mob violence in what became known as the Priestley Riots . Priestley accepted the ministerial position at New Meeting on the condition that he be required to preach and teach only on Sundays , so that he would have time for his writing and scientific experiments . As in Leeds , Priestley established classes for the youth of his parish and by 1781 , he was teaching 150 students . Because Priestley 's New Meeting salary was only 100 guineas , friends and patrons donated money and goods to help continue his investigations . He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1782 .
= = = Chemical Revolution = = =
Many of the friends that Priestley made in Birmingham were members of the Lunar Society , a group of manufacturers , inventors , and natural philosophers who assembled monthly to discuss their work . The core of the group included men such as the manufacturer Matthew Boulton , the chemist and geologist James Keir , the inventor and engineer James Watt , and the botanist , chemist , and geologist William Withering . Priestley was asked to join this unique society and contributed much to the work of its members . As a result of this stimulating intellectual environment , he published several important scientific papers , including " Experiments relating to Phlogiston , and the seeming Conversion of Water into Air " ( 1783 ) . The first part attempts to refute Lavoisier 's challenges to his work on oxygen ; the second part describes how steam is " converted " into air . After several variations of the experiment , with different substances as fuel and several different collecting apparatuses ( which produced different results ) , he concluded that air could travel through more substances than previously surmised , a conclusion " contrary to all the known principles of hydrostatics " . This discovery , along with his earlier work on what would later be recognised as gaseous diffusion , would eventually lead John Dalton and Thomas Graham to formulate the kinetic theory of gases .
In 1777 , Antoine Lavoisier had written Mémoire sur la combustion en général , the first of what proved to be a series of attacks on phlogiston theory ; it was against these attacks that Priestley responded in 1783 . While Priestley accepted parts of Lavoisier 's theory , he was unprepared to assent to the major revolutions Lavoisier proposed : the overthrow of phlogiston , a chemistry based conceptually on elements and compounds , and a new chemical nomenclature . Priestley 's original experiments on " dephlogisticated air " ( oxygen ) , combustion , and water provided Lavoisier with the data he needed to construct much of his system ; yet Priestley never accepted Lavoisier 's new theories and continued to defend phlogiston theory for the rest of his life . Lavoisier 's system was based largely on the quantitative concept that mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions ( i.e. , the conservation of mass ) . By contrast , Priestley preferred to observe qualitative changes in heat , color , and particularly volume . His experiments tested " airs " for " their solubility in water , their power of supporting or extinguishing flame , whether they were respirable , how they behaved with acid and alkaline air , and with nitric oxide and inflammable air , and lastly how they were affected by the electric spark . "
By 1789 , when Lavoisier published his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie and founded the Annales de Chimie , the new chemistry had come into its own . Priestley published several more scientific papers in Birmingham , the majority attempting to refute Lavoisier . Priestley and other Lunar Society members argued that the new French system was too expensive , too difficult to test , and unnecessarily complex . Priestley in particular rejected its " establishment " aura . In the end , Lavoisier 's view prevailed : his new chemistry introduced many of the principles on which modern chemistry is founded .
Priestley 's refusal to accept Lavoisier 's " new chemistry " — such as the conservation of mass — and his determination to adhere to a less satisfactory theory has perplexed many scholars . Schofield explains it thus : " Priestley was never a chemist ; in a modern , and even a Lavoisierian , sense , he was never a scientist . He was a natural philosopher , concerned with the economy of nature and obsessed with an idea of unity , in theology and in nature . " Historian of science John McEvoy largely agrees , writing that Priestley 's view of nature as coextensive with God and thus infinite , which encouraged him to focus on facts over hypotheses and theories , prompted him to reject Lavoisier 's system . McEvoy argues that " Priestley 's isolated and lonely opposition to the oxygen theory was a measure of his passionate concern for the principles of intellectual freedom , epistemic equality and critical inquiry . " Priestley himself claimed in the last volume of Experiments and Observations that his most valuable works were his theological ones because they were " superior [ in ] dignity and importance " .
= = = Defender of English Dissenters and French revolutionaries = = =
Further information : Joseph Priestley and Dissent ; see also : Commons : Joseph Priestley Cartoons
Although Priestley was busy defending phlogiston theory from the " new chemists " , most of what he published in Birmingham was theological . In 1782 he published the fourth volume of his Institutes , An History of the Corruptions of Christianity , describing how he thought the teachings of the early Christian church had been " corrupted " or distorted . Schofield describes the work as " derivative , disorganized , wordy , and repetitive , detailed , exhaustive , and devastatingly argued " . The text addresses issues ranging from the divinity of Christ to the proper form for the Lord 's Supper . Priestley followed up in 1786 with the provocatively titled book , An History of Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ , compiled from Original Writers , proving that the Christian Church was at first Unitarian . Thomas Jefferson would later write of the profound effect that these two books had on him : " I have read his Corruptions of Christianity , and Early Opinions of Jesus , over and over again ; and I rest on them ... as the basis of my own faith . These writings have never been answered . " Although a few readers such as Jefferson and other Rational Dissenters approved of the work , it was harshly reviewed because of its extreme theological positions , particularly its rejection of the Trinity .
In 1785 , while Priestley was engaged in a pamphlet war over Corruptions , he also published The Importance and Extent of Free Enquiry , claiming that the Reformation had not really reformed the church . In words that would boil over into a national debate , he challenged his readers to enact change :
Let us not , therefore , be discouraged , though , for the present , we should see no great number of churches professedly unitarian .... We are , as it were , laying gunpowder , grain by grain , under the old building of error and superstition , which a single spark may hereafter inflame , so as to produce an instantaneous explosion ; in consequence of which that edifice , the erection of which has been the work of ages , may be overturned in a moment , and so effectually as that the same foundation can never be built upon again ....
Although discouraged by friends from using such inflammatory language , Priestley refused to back down from his opinions in print and he included it , forever branding himself as " Gunpowder Joe " . After the publication of this seeming call for revolution in the midst of the French Revolution , pamphleteers stepped up their attacks on Priestley and he and his church were even threatened with legal action .
In 1787 , 1789 , and 1790 , Dissenters again tried to repeal the Test and Corporation Acts . Although initially it looked as if they might succeed , by 1790 , with the fears of revolution looming in Parliament , few were swayed by appeals to equal rights . Political cartoons , one of the most effective and popular media of the time , skewered the Dissenters and Priestley . In Parliament , William Pitt and Edmund Burke argued against the repeal , a betrayal that angered Priestley and his friends , who had expected the two men 's support . Priestley wrote a series of Letters to William Pitt and Letters to Burke in an attempt to persuade them otherwise , but these publications only further inflamed the populace against him .
Dissenters such as Priestley who supported the French Revolution came under increasing suspicion as scepticism regarding the revolution grew . In its propaganda against " radicals " , Pitt 's administration used the " gunpowder " statement to argue that Priestley and other Dissenters wanted to overthrow the government . Burke , in his famous Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) , tied natural philosophers , and specifically Priestley , to the French Revolution , writing that radicals who supported science in Britain " considered man in their experiments no more than they do mice in an air pump " . Burke also associated republican principles with alchemy and insubstantial air , mocking the scientific work done by both Priestley and French chemists . He made much in his later writings of the connections between " Gunpowder Joe " , science , and Lavoisier — who was improving gunpowder for the French in their war against Britain . Paradoxically , a secular statesman , Burke , argued against science and maintained that religion should be the basis of civil society , whereas a Dissenting minister , Priestley , argued that religion could not provide the basis for civil society and should be restricted to one 's private life .
= = = Birmingham riots of 1791 = = =
The animus that had been building against Dissenters and supporters of the American and French Revolutions exploded in July 1791 . Priestley and several other Dissenters had arranged to have a celebratory dinner on the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille , a provocative action in a country where many disapproved of the French Revolution and feared that it might spread to Britain . Amid fears of violence , Priestley was convinced by his friends not to attend . Rioters gathered outside the hotel during the banquet and attacked the attendees as they left . The rioters moved on to the New Meeting and Old Meeting churches — and burned both to the ground . Priestley and his wife fled from their home ; although their son William and others stayed behind to protect their property , the mob overcame them and torched Priestley 's house " Fairhill " at Sparkbrook , destroying his valuable laboratory and all of the family 's belongings . Twenty @-@ six other Dissenters ’ homes and three more churches were burned in the three @-@ day riot . Priestley spent several days hiding with friends until he was able to travel safely to London . The carefully executed attacks of the " mob " and the farcical trials of only a handful of the " leaders " convinced many at the time — and modern historians later — that the attacks were planned and condoned by local Birmingham magistrates . When George III was eventually forced to send troops to the area , he said : " I cannot but feel better pleased that Priestley is the sufferer for the doctrines he and his party have instilled , and that the people see them in their true light . "
= = Hackney ( 1791 – 94 ) = =
Unable to return to Birmingham , the Priestleys eventually settled in Lower Clapton , a district in Hackney , Middlesex where he gave a series of lectures on history and natural philosophy at the Dissenting academy , the New College at Hackney . Friends helped the couple rebuild their lives , contributing money , books , and laboratory equipment . Priestley tried to obtain restitution from the government for the destruction of his Birmingham property , but he was never fully reimbursed . He also published An Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the Riots in Birmingham ( 1791 ) , which indicted the people of Birmingham for allowing the riots to occur and for " violating the principles of English government " .
The couple 's friends urged them to leave Britain and emigrate to either France or the new United States , even though Priestley had received an appointment to preach for the Gravel Pit Meeting congregation . Priestley was minister between 1793 and 1794 and the sermons he preached there , particularly the two Fast Sermons , reflect his growing millenarianism , his belief that the end of the world was fast approaching . After comparing Biblical prophecies to recent history , Priestley concluded that the French Revolution was a harbinger of the Second Coming of Christ . Priestley 's works had always had a millennial cast , but after the beginning of the French Revolution , this strain increased . He wrote to a younger friend that while he himself would not see the Second Coming , his friend " may probably live to see it ... It cannot , I think be more than twenty years [ away ] . "
Daily life became more difficult for the family : Priestley was burned in effigy along with Thomas Paine ; vicious political cartoons continued to be published about him ; letters were sent to him from across the country , comparing him to the devil and Guy Fawkes ; tradespeople feared the family 's business ; and Priestley 's Royal Academy friends distanced themselves . As the penalties became harsher for those who spoke out against the government , Priestley examined options for removing himself and his family from England .
Joseph Priestley 's son William was presented to the French Assembly and granted letters of naturalization on 8 June 1792 . Priestley learned about it from the Morning Chronicle . A decree of 26 August 1792 by the French National Assembly conferred French citizenship on Joseph Priestley and others who had " served the cause of liberty " by their writings . Priestley accepted French citizenship , considering it " the greatest of honours " . In the French National Convention election on 5 September 1792 , Joseph Priestley was elected to the French National Convention by at least two departments , ( Orne and Rhône @-@ et @-@ Loire ) . However , he declined the honor , on the grounds that he was not fluent in French .
As relations between England and France worsened , however , a removal to France became impracticable . Following the declaration of war of February 1793 , and the Aliens Bill of March 1793 , which forbade correspondence or travel between England and France , William Priestley left France for America . Joseph Priestley 's sons Harry and Joseph chose to leave England for America in August 1793 . Finally Priestley himself followed with his wife , boarding the Sansom at Gravesend on 7 April 1793 . Five weeks after Priestley left , William Pitt 's administration began arresting radicals for seditious libel , resulting in the famous 1794 Treason Trials .
= = Pennsylvania ( 1794 – 1804 ) = =
The Priestleys arrived in New York City in 1794 , where they were fêted by various political factions vying for Priestley 's endorsement . Priestley declined their entreaties , hoping to avoid political discord in his new country . Before travelling to a new home in the backwoods of Northumberland County , Pennsylvania , at Point township ( now Northumberland borough ) , Dr and Mrs Priestley lodged in Philadelphia , where Priestley gave a series of sermons which led to the founding of the First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia . Priestley turned down an opportunity to teach chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania .
Priestley 's son Joseph Priestley Jr. was a leading member of a consortium that had purchased 300 @,@ 000 acres of virgin woodland between the forks of Loyalsock Creek , which they intended to lease or sell in 400 @-@ acre plots , with payment deferred to seven annual instalments , with interest . His brothers , William and Henry , bought a 284 @-@ acre plot of woodland which they attempted to transform into a farm , later called " Fairhill " , felling and uprooting trees , and making lime to sweeten the soil by building their own lime kilns . Henry Priestley died 11 December 1795 , possibly of malaria which he may have contracted after landing at New York . Mary Priestley 's health , already poor , deteriorated further ; although William 's wife , Margaret Foulke @-@ Priestley , moved in with the couple to nurse Mary twenty @-@ four hours a day , Mary Priestley died 17 September 1796 . Dr Priestley now moved in with his elder son , Joseph Jr . , and wife Elizabeth Ryland @-@ Priestley . Thomas Cooper , whose son , Thomas Jr . , was living with the Priestleys , was a frequent visitor .
Since his arrival in America , Priestley had continued to defend his Christian Unitarian beliefs ; now , falling increasingly under the influence of Thomas Cooper and Elizabeth Ryland @-@ Priestley , he was unable to avoid becoming embroiled in political controversy . In 1798 , when , in response to the Pinckney affair , a belligerent President Adams sought to enlarge the navy and mobilise the militia into what Priestley and Cooper saw as a ' standing army ' , Priestley published an anonymous newspaper article : Maxims of political arithmetic , which attacked Adams , defended free trade , and advocated a form of Jeffersonian isolationism . In the same year , a small package , addressed vaguely : " Dr Priestley in America , " was seized by the Royal Navy on board a neutral Danish boat . It was found to contain three letters , one of which was signed by the radical printer John Hurford Stone . These intercepted letters were published in London , and copied in numerous papers in America . One of the letters was addressed to " MBP " , with a note : " I inclose a note for our friend MBP — but , as ignorant of the name he bears at present among you , I must beg you to seal and address it . " This gave the intercepted letters a tinge of intrigue . Fearful lest they be taken as evidence of him being a ' spy in the interest of France ' , Priestley sent a clumsy letter to numerous newspaper editors , in which he naively named " MBP " ( Member of the British Parliament ) as Mr. Benjamin Vaughan , who " like me , thought it necessary to leave England , and for some time is said to have assumed a feigned name . " William Cobbett , in his Porcupine 's Gazette , 20 August 1798 , added that Priestley " has told us who Mr MBP is , and has confirmed me in the opinion of their both being spies in the interest of France . "
Joseph Priestley Jr. left on a visit to England at Christmas 1798 , not returning until August 1800 . In his absence , his wife Elizabeth Ryland @-@ Priestley and Thomas Cooper became increasing close , collaborating in numerous political essays . Priestley allowed himself to fall too heavily under Elizabeth and Cooper 's influences , even helping hawk a seditious handbill Cooper had printed , around Point township , and across the Susquehanna at Sunbury . In September 1799 , William Cobbett printed extracts from this handbill , asserting that : " Dr Priestley has taken great pains to circulate this address , has travelled through the country for the purpose , and is in fact the patron of it . " He challenged Priestley to " clear himself of the accusation " or face prosecution . " Barely a month later , in November and December 1799 , Priestley stepped forward in his own defence , with his Letters to the inhabitants of Northumberland .
Priestley ’ s son , William , now living in Philadelphia , was increasingly embarrassed by his father 's actions . He confronted his father , expressing John and Benjamin Vaughan ’ s unease , his own wife 's concerns about Elizabeth Ryland @-@ Priestley 's dietary care , and his own concerns at the closeness of Elizabeth Ryland @-@ Priestley and Thomas Cooper 's relationship , and their adverse influence on Dr Priestley ; but this only led to a further estrangement between William and his sister @-@ in @-@ law . When , a while later , Priestley 's household suffered a bout of food poisoning , perhaps from puking sickness or a bacterial infection , Elizabeth Ryland @-@ Priestley , falsely accused William of having poisoned the family 's flour . Although this allegation has attracted the attention of some modern historians , it is believed to be without foundation .
Priestley continued the educational projects that had always been important to him , helping to establish the " Northumberland Academy " and donating his library to the fledgling institution . He exchanged letters regarding the proper structure of a university with Thomas Jefferson , who used this advice when founding the University of Virginia . Jefferson and Priestley became close , and when he had completed his General History of the Christian Church , he dedicated it to President Jefferson , writing that " it is now only that I can say I see nothing to fear from the hand of power , the government under which I live being for the first time truly favourable to me . "
Priestley tried to continue his scientific investigations in America with the support of the American Philosophical Association . He was hampered by lack of news from Europe ; unaware of the latest scientific developments , Priestley was no longer on the forefront of discovery . Although the majority of his publications focused on defending phlogiston theory , he also did some original work on spontaneous generation and dreams . Despite Priestley 's reduced scientific output , his presence stimulated American interest in chemistry .
By 1801 , Priestley had become so ill that he could no longer write or experiment . He died on the morning of 6 February 1804 , aged seventy and was buried at Riverview Cemetery in Northumberland , Pennsylvania .
Priestley 's epitaph reads :
Return unto thy rest , O my soul , for the
Lord hath dealt bountifully with thee .
I will lay me down in peace and sleep till
I awake in the morning of the resurrection .
= = Legacy = =
By the time he died in 1804 , Priestley had been made a member of every major scientific society in the Western world and he had discovered numerous substances . The 19th @-@ century French naturalist George Cuvier , in his eulogy of Priestley , praised his discoveries while at the same time lamenting his refusal to abandon phlogiston theory , calling him " the father of modern chemistry [ who ] never acknowledged his daughter " . Priestley published more than 150 works on topics ranging from political philosophy to education to theology to natural philosophy . He led and inspired British radicals during the 1790s , paved the way for utilitarianism , and helped found Unitarianism . A wide variety of philosophers , scientists , and poets became associationists as a result of his redaction of David Hartley 's Observations on Man , including Erasmus Darwin , Coleridge , William Wordsworth , John Stuart Mill , Alexander Bain , and Herbert Spencer . Immanuel Kant praised Priestley in his Critique of Pure Reason ( 1781 ) , writing that he " knew how to combine his paradoxical teaching with the interests of religion " . Indeed , it was Priestley 's aim to " put the most ' advanced ' Enlightenment ideas into the service of a rationalized though heterodox Christianity , under the guidance of the basic principles of scientific method " .
Considering the extent of Priestley 's influence , relatively little scholarship has been devoted to him . In the early 20th century , Priestley was most often described as a conservative and dogmatic scientist who was nevertheless a political and religious reformer . In a historiographic review essay , historian of science Simon Schaffer describes the two dominant portraits of Priestley : the first depicts him as " a playful innocent " who stumbled across his discoveries ; the second portrays him as innocent as well as " warped " for not understanding their implications better . Assessing Priestley 's works as a whole has been difficult for scholars because of his wide @-@ ranging interests . His scientific discoveries have usually been divorced from his theological and metaphysical publications to make an analysis of his life and writings easier , but this approach has been challenged recently by scholars such as John McEvoy and Robert Schofield . Although early Priestley scholarship claimed that his theological and metaphysical works were " distractions " and " obstacles " to his scientific work , scholarship published in the 1960s , 1970s , and 1980s maintained that Priestley 's works constituted a unified theory . However , as Schaffer explains , no convincing synthesis of his work has yet been expounded . More recently , in 2001 , historian of science Dan Eshet has argued that efforts to create a " synoptic view " have resulted only in a rationalisation of the contradictions in Priestley 's thought , because they have been " organized around philosophical categories " and have " separate [ d ] the producers of scientific ideas from any social conflict " .
Priestley has been remembered by the towns in which he served as a reforming educator and minister and by the scientific organisations he influenced . Two educational institutions have been named in his honour — Priestley College in Warrington and Joseph Priestley College in Leeds ( now part of Leeds City College ) — and an asteroid , 5577 Priestley , discovered in 1986 by Duncan Waldron . In Birstall , the Leeds City Square , and in Birmingham , he is memorialised through statues , and plaques commemorating him have been posted in Birmingham , Calne and Warrington . Also , since 1952 Dickinson College , Pennsylvania , has presented the Priestley Award to a scientist who makes " discoveries which contribute to the welfare of mankind " . The main undergraduate chemistry laboratories at the University of Leeds were refurbished as part of a £ 4m refurbishment plan in 2006 and renamed as the Priestley Laboratories in his honour as a prominent chemist from Leeds .
Additional recognition for Priestley 's work is marked by a National Historic Chemical Landmark designation for his discovery of oxygen , made on 1 August 1994 , at the Priestley House in Northumberland , Penn . , by the American Chemical Society . Similar international recognition was made on 7 August 2000 , at Bowood House in Wiltshire , UK .
= = Selected works = =
The Rudiments of English Grammar ( 1761 )
A Chart of Biography ( 1765 )
Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life ( 1765 )
The History and Present State of Electricity ( 1767 )
Essay on the First Principles of Government ( 1768 )
A New Chart of History ( 1769 )
Institutes of Natural and Revealed Religion ( 1772 – 74 )
Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air ( 1774 – 77 )
Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit ( 1777 )
The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Illustrated ( 1777 )
Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever ( 1780 )
An History of the Corruptions of Christianity ( 1782 )
Lectures on History and General Policy ( 1788 )
Theological Repository ( 1770 – 73 , 1784 – 88 )
= = = Primary materials = = =
= = = Biographies = = =
= = = Secondary materials = = =
= 2006 Kolkata leather factory fire =
The 2006 Kolkata leather factory fire was a deadly industrial fire that occurred in West Bengal , India , on 22 November 2006 . The fire broke out in a leather bag factory located in the Tannix International , Topsia , in the South 24 Parganas district in Greater Kolkata area , and generated a wave of criticism of the poor safety standards in place among the country 's sweatshops .
The industrial fire claimed the lives of at least ten people , who were unable to escape because the doors were locked shut illegally . Authorities , in response to local residents ' angry criticism , admitted that the emergency response to the accident was substandard . Two separate investigations were launched . One inquiry focused on the fire itself , while the other sought to ascertain criminal responsibility for the disaster as well as the operation of the illegal factory . The results of both are either pending or have yet to be released to the general public .
= = Background = =
Investigators confirmed that the site of the fire had been used as an illegal factory to manufacture leather bags . The factory was located on the third floor of a four @-@ story building , which also featured residential units . Investigators determined that the first and second floors of the structure housed additional illegal factories . The factory destroyed in the fire was found to be owned and operated by Tenex Exports , and all of the people who were killed or injured in the fire slept in the factory at night , a situation that is not considered unusual in India . There was had just one emergency exit , and 40 workers were housed in the structure at the time of the fire , and the owner had locked the factory at night to prevent workers from running away with leather goods . The building was located in the Tannix International , Topsia , in the South 24 Parganas district of Greater Kolkata region .
= = Event and emergency response = =
The fire broke out in the factory at around 2 : 30 IST , as workers slept . Once they became aware of the blaze , the employees found they were unable to break through the factory 's locked doors . Five fire tenders were sent to the scene , but by the time they arrived , local residents had broken down two locked gates and already rescued the surviving workers . These impromptu Rescue efforts were delayed however , when an individual carrying keys to open the door nervously dropped them while attempting to open the gate . At least 10 people were dead by the time rescuers reached the factory 's interior , with a further eighteen injured . The survivors , many suffering from burns over 70 percent of their bodies , were taken to the National Medical College and Hospital , where victims had to be left on the floor due to a shortage of beds . The hospital did not have a burns unit , and the only treatments available at the hospital were ointments and saline drips . The patients were eventually moved to other hospitals . Local MLA Javed Khan later said that the death toll is actually at least twelve , but there has been no official confirmation of this . The Rapid Action Force was also deployed to maintain calm .
= = = Criticisms of the emergency response = = =
People living in the vicinity of the illegal factory said that the number of deaths might have been reduced had the fire service responded promptly . They claimed that the fire brigade failed to send personnel or equipment to the scene until more than an hour after the brigade first received word of the fire . Residents also claimed that it was only after the police arrived and requested fire service backup that any help was sent . In addition , some on the scene reported an inadequate number of ambulances . The city 's mayor admitted to this lapse the following morning . Local people also complained that the victims should never have been taken to the Calcutta National Medical College , but that they should have been transported directly to hospitals with burns units .
= = Investigations = =
= = = Accident investigation = = =
An investigation has been launched to determine the cause of the fire as well as the reason the building had been locked from the outside . To this end , the building was inspected by the KMC , and was subsequently scheduled to be demolished on Thursday , November 23 . However , the structure is standing as of 2007 . Although no actual cause of the fire has been established , it has been noted that large quantities of inflammable materials , such as adhesives , were stored inside the building . It was also revealed that the factory experienced a similar fire two years previously , but on that occasion there were no fatalities .
= = = Criminal investigation = = =
A separate criminal investigation focused on the illegal factory itself . Almost all factories and homes in the area were illegal and unauthorised , and do not follow building codes and sanctions . Mayor Bikash Ranjan Bhattacharya said action would be taken against the owners of the factory and house , and Superintendent of Police of South 24 Parganas S. N. Gupta said that the owners of the building would be arrested . Investigation has shown that the Kolkata Municipal Corporation ( KMC ) issued notices to the building on three separate occasions , in 1988 , 1989 , and 1992 , yet took no further action . It has been shown , however , that the KMC also approved trade licences for two businesses to operate from the building . The owner of the building , Khurshid Alam , has had a police complaint filed against him by the fire department for illegal construction charges . Mohammed Sagir Ahmed and Mohammed Asif , the owners of Tenex Exports , also face related charges . Both investigations are ongoing .
= = Aftermath = =
The day after this tragedy , workers in the unorganized leather industry of Topsia area held protest rallies demanding compensation for the relatives of the deceased workers , better working conditions and a probe into the fire mishap . The mayor of Kolkata convened an all @-@ party meeting to discuss the incident and also promised to initiate a drive demolish illegal constructions in the area . The labour inspectors inspected the building and declared the factory as illegal . Even though the building was declared illegal and unsafe , a month later , the police raided the house and found that another leather factory was operating behind closed doors in the ground floor of the building . The civic officials issued a notice to stop any work in the building . Though local residents alleged that clandestine work started in the building with the help of local MLA , Javen Khan , Khan himself blamed it rather on the police .
In 2008 , two more fire mishaps occurred in the leather industries in the area , one in the month of March and the other in June : a total of nine people got injured in these two incidents . Even though fire safety licenses and insurances for the workers of the leather factories were made mandatory after the fire incident of 2006 , none of the authorities — the municipal corporation , the services department of the state government , and the police — ensured that these were actually followed by the factories . The local residents claimed that the owner of the factory that was impacted in the fire incident of 2006 , now operates from another address of the same area . According to fire brigade officials , the Topsia area along with nearby Tiljala and Tangra forms the most fire @-@ prone area of the city , and that around three to four fires break out every week , though they do not get reported in the media as there is no loss of life .
= Embassy of the United States , Mogadishu =
The Embassy of the United States of America to Somalia was a diplomatic mission of the United States in Mogadishu , Somalia from 1960 to 1991 . In 1957 , the US opened a Consulate @-@ General in Mogadishu — the capital of the Trust Territory of Somalia , a UN trusteeship under Italian administration . The consulate was upgraded to embassy status in July 1960 , when the US recognized Somalia 's independence and appointed an ambassador . The embassy served to counter Soviet influence during the Cold War and also served as a base for the United States Agency for International Development , which had a large presence in the country . In 1989 , the embassy moved from a dilapidated building in central Mogadishu to a new compound on the outskirts of the city .
Violence quickly enveloped the city in late December 1990 , during the Somali Civil War , and on 1 January 1991 , the ambassador contacted the State Department to request the closure and evacuation of the embassy . Approval was given the following day , but violence and the collapse of the central government prevented the US , and several other countries , from airlifting their diplomats and civilians through Mogadishu International Airport . The USS Guam and USS Trenton , which were stationed off the coast of Oman , were dispatched to airlift staff from the embassy ; American civilians and many foreign diplomats also gathered at the embassy , seeking evacuation . The embassy closed on January 5 , 1991 and 281 American and foreign diplomats and civilians were airlifted by helicopter from the embassy compound to Guam and Trenton .
In December 1992 , the embassy compound was reoccupied and repaired to serve as a headquarters for US personnel within the Unified Task Force and , following the transition to UN control , a base for UNOSOM . The US worked with various parties in Somalia to establish peace and formally recognized the newly established Federal Government of Somalia in January 2013 . In May 2015 , US Secretary of State John Kerry visited Somalia and stated that the US plans to reopen its embassy soon ; the Somali government presented him with the real estate deed for land reserved for the new US embassy compound in Mogadishu . The move came three months after President Obama nominated Katherine Dhanani to the post of US ambassador to Somalia , who would have been the first US ambassador to Somalia since 1991 , but she withdrew three months later .
= = History = =
The State Department sent two consuls to Mogadishu in 1956 to establish a diplomatic post and on July 1 , 1957 , the United States Consulate @-@ General in Mogadishu opened . The consulate was an offshoot of the US embassy to Italy . At the time , Mogadishu was the capital of the Trust Territory of Somalia , a United Nations Trust Territory under Italian administration that was scheduled to become independent in 1960 . In addition to establishing a presence , the consulate staff were also charged with political research and developing relations with future Somali leaders .
On July 1 , 1960 , the Trust Territory of Somalia ( the former Italian Somaliland ) became independent and united , as planned , with the briefly extant State of Somaliland ( the former British Somaliland ) to form the Somali Republic ( Somalia ) . The United States recognized and established diplomatic relations with the Somali Republic the same day . The Consulate @-@ General was elevated to embassy status and its Chargé d 'affaires , Andrew G. Lynch , was appointed ambassador on July 5 . He presented his credentials on 11 July , at which point he officially became the first US ambassador to Somalia .
Like most US diplomatic posts in Africa during the Cold War , a primary purpose of the embassy was to counter Soviet influence in the region and contain the spread of communism . For a time after the Sino @-@ Soviet split , China was also actively competing for influence in the developing world , including activities in Somalia . Beginning in the 1960s , the US engaged in development projects in Somalia to counter the influence of communism . Staff from the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) , which carried out most of these projects , comprised a substantial number of the embassy 's staff during the next three decades . Educational programs were also given emphasis by the embassy in the years after independence , and there was a sizable Peace Corps presence .
The US became the protecting power for the United Kingdom in Somalia after Somalia severed diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom in 1963 , due to a dispute over the administration of the ethnic @-@ Somali Northern Frontier District . Besides providing consular assistance for Britons , the embassy was also tasked with the protection of the British embassy compound and its properties . The US opened a consulate in Hargeisa the following year to assist Peace Corps activities and represent British interests in the northwestern region of Somalia , which had been under British administration from 1884 @-@ 1960 . In 1967 , the embassy went into a lock down during the Six @-@ Day War between Israel and neighboring Arab countries , which Somalia supported . The US was viewed as Israel 's protector by Somalis and the embassy was subjected to some minor demonstrations .
During the 1969 coup d 'état which brought Siad Barre to power , the embassy was blockaded by soldiers , who prevented the movement of persons into or out of the compound for over 24 hours . Only the ambassador managed to briefly visit the embassy en route to the Foreign Ministry , where he made a formal complaint against the embassy 's blockade . In the wake of the coup , the Somalian government became patrons of the Soviet Union and China . Three days after the coup , the Peace Corps was ordered to leave within three days . This soon extended to one week , and many of the volunteers were housed in the homes of embassy staff before being evacuated by a US Air Force plane . The Foreign Assistance Act prohibited foreign assistance to nations whose ships engaged in trade with Vietnam . After Somali @-@ flagged vessels were observed at port in Hanoi , US development assistance to Somalia was terminated . The Barre government responded by expelling the US military attaché , prohibiting local residents from visiting the embassy , and restricting travel by embassy staff to within 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) of Mogadishu . The consulate in Hargeisa was closed and the USAID program , which had more staff than the rest of the embassy , ended . However , in the late 1970s , the Soviets became patrons of Ethiopia and in the wake of the Ogaden War between Somalia and Ethiopia , Somalia turned to the West for support . The US sought access to airports and ports in Somalia in exchange for military equipment and economic aid .
In July 1989 , the embassy moved to a new , 80 @-@ acre ( 32 ha ) compound on the outskirts of Mogadishu — the largest US embassy in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . The site had been acquired by the US in the mid @-@ 1960s and later turned into a golf course that was frequented by embassy staff .
= = = Prelude to closure = = =
In the late 1980s , there was increasing rebellion against the rule of President Siad Barre and by 1990 , the country began to descend into civil war . Criminal violence was also increasing .
In 1990 , seasoned diplomat James K. Bishop was appointed US Ambassador to Somalia . In 1967 , Bishop was at the US Embassy in Beirut , Lebanon when the Six @-@ Day War erupted , which prompted the evacuation of about 3 @,@ 600 Americans in 33 hours ; Bishop was one of 26 diplomats and Marines that remained in the city during the conflict . Ambassador Bishop also gained valuable experience organizing evacuations of several embassies in the 1980s while serving as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Africa . In his previous post , as US ambassador to Liberia , Bishop was overseeing the voluntary evacuation of embassy staff and civilians as a civil war in Liberia spread , when he left in March 1990 . Ambassador Bishop returned to Washington to prepare for his new appointment to Somalia , but he was soon appointed to a taskforce to deal with the crisis in Liberia , which included a gradual evacuation of American civilians and a rapid closure of the embassy in August .
Aware of the violence going on in the Somali countryside , Ambassador Bishop felt " the odds were better than even that we would have to leave Mogadishu under less than favorable circumstances . " On August 1 , Ambassador Bishop visited United States Central Command — the military command for the Middle East and Northeast Africa — where he worked with military experts to review the embassy 's Emergencies and Evacuation ( E & E ) plan until he was " satisfied ... that [ Central Command ] realized that it might have to conduct an evacuation from Mogadishu and was prepared to do that . " A few hours after his visit , Iraq invaded Kuwait . The US was mobilizing assets for a response when Ambassador Bishop arrived in Mogadishu on September 6 . The primary interest of the Ambassador was to maintain the US military 's permission and access to airfields and ports in Mogadishu and Berbera , which the US had negotiated in 1979 . This was especially important given the mobilization for intervention in Kuwait , Somalia 's strategic location near the Arabian Peninsula and the mouth of the Red Sea , and because Saudi Arabia would not allow US troops on their soil . The embassy was also home to a large number of USAID staff , although the spread of unrest into the countryside was making their work increasingly difficult .
The Somali Civil War spread through the country during 1990 and late in the year there was an increasing level of criminal violence in Mogadishu . By December , the security situation began to deteriorate significantly and on December 5 , Ambassador Bishop told an audience at a standing @-@ room only meeting that he was recommending the voluntary evacuation of all dependents ( i.e. children and spouses of diplomatic staff ) and non @-@ essential personnel . By December 19 , the number of official US personnel in the city was reduced from 147 to 37 and of the 90 private Americans in the city , half were estimated to have left . Small @-@ arms fire became a daily occurrence and stray bullets and shells were landing in the embassy complex .
On December 30 , violence escalated significantly as rebel groups entered the city , although the ambassador claimed the nature and extent of the violence was not immediately clear . On December 30 – 31 , diplomats , including many stationed in offices elsewhere in the city , were collected and housed in the ambassador 's residence , the marine house , and the K @-@ 7 compound located across Afgoy Road . On the morning of December 31 , the defense attaché was nearly killed when his vehicle was sprayed with bullets and that evening , a soldier at a roadblock shot the tires of a vehicle carrying another defense official . Attempts by the US and other nations ' diplomats , in particular the Italian embassy , to negotiate a ceasefire for foreigners to leave were unsuccessful . Afgoy Road became a " shooting gallery , " preventing those in safe @-@ havens outside the embassy to reach it . On New Year 's Day , the first American civilians began to seek refuge at the embassy .
= = = Closure and evacuation = = =
Ambassador Bishop requested an evacuation of the American community on January 1 , 1991 , indicating that the evacuation could be with the planned Italian , French , or German evacuation efforts , but that he preferred an evacuation by the US military . The State Department authorized the evacuation on 2 January and Ambassador Bishop specifically requested an evacuation by the US military , thereby initiating Operation Eastern Exit . Ambassador Bishop had spent a considerable amount of time discussing contingency plans for evacuation with other diplomatic posts . Ultimately , ten heads of missions — eight ambassadors and two chargés d 'affaires — along with their staff sought refuge in the US embassy compound and were evacuated .
Initial plans called for the United States Air Force to dispatch two transport aircraft to Mogadishu International Airport , but diplomats were unable to contact anyone in the Somali government to obtain clearance for the aircraft to land at the airport and it also became clear that it was too dangerous to travel from the embassy to the airport . Meanwhile , the USS Guam and USS Trenton began transit from the coast of Oman towards Mogadishu with forces from the 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade .
On January 4 , several incidents , including several exchanges of gunfire , suggested that the embassy 's security detail was insufficient to hold off armed Somalis until the USS Guam and USS Trenton arrived with their helicopters and soldiers , at that time scheduled to arrive on January 7 . The embassy had just six Marine guards , whose job was limited to protecting the chancery . Ambassador Bishop made an urgent request to Washington for two platoons of soldiers to parachute into the embassy to defend it until the ships arrived . The request was denied , but the Ambassador was told that an advance element of Marines from the vessels would reach the embassy the following morning .
Two helicopters carrying a 60 @-@ man security detail — 51 Marines and 9 US Navy SEALs — reached the embassy compound on the morning of January 5 and left with 61 evacuees . Throughout the day US and foreign nationals seeking evacuation arrived at the embassy compound , including the Soviet ambassador and 38 of his staff from the Soviet Union 's embassy . Meanwhile , the embassy compound was prepared for the main evacuation , which occurred in the early morning hours of January 6 . The first of four waves of helicopters — three for civilians and the fourth for the security detail and ambassador — left the ships at midnight ( UTC + 4 ) . The final wave reached the ships at 03 : 43 . A total of 281 evacuees were taken from the embassy , including eight ambassadors ( and two other heads of missions ) and 61 Americans .
Armed looters were observed entering the embassy compound as the final wave departed . The doors of the chancery — the main building of the embassy — were reportedly blown open by rocket @-@ propelled grenades within two hours of the embassy 's evacuation . Somali employees of the embassy — known as foreign service nationals ( FSNs ) — could not be evacuated . Local banks had been closed for some time and the embassy was unable to pay the FSNs . The Ambassador left the FSNs with keys to the commissary and warehouse on the embassy compound and they were permitted to take anything they needed .
= = Embassy compound = =
The first US consuls in Mogadishu set up their initial office in a small room in the city 's Public Works Department building . Shortly thereafter , an Italian contractor built the first US chancery in downtown Mogadishu . According to John Blane , the vice consul in Mogadishu from 1956 to 1957 , the first chancery was a " a rather miserable effort . " He " felt that if it stood up for five years , we would be extremely lucky , " but the building remained the US chancery for three decades . By the time it closed , the old chancery was one of the most dilapidated buildings the State Department had , according to Ambassador Bishop .
In July 1989 , the embassy was relocated to a new , 80 @-@ acre ( 32 ha ) compound along Afgoy Road in the local K @-@ 7 district . The grounds consisted of the Chancery , the Joint Administrative Office ( JAO ) , Marine House ( for the Marine Security Guards ) , the ambassador 's residence , a building for the United States Information Service , an American school , a recreational complex for the local expatriate community , a 102 @-@ foot ( 31 m ) water tower , and various storage and maintenance buildings . The recreational complex , which comprised about half of the compound , included a pool , tennis courts , and a golf course . Outside the walled embassy , the US maintained the K @-@ 7 complex , an apartment complex for embassy staff located across Afgoy Road , as well as the Office for Military Cooperation . Both were situated one and a half blocks from the embassy proper . The ambassador 's residence was largely constructed in glass , had no protective barriers , and its top story overlooked the embassy 's walls . Ambassador Bishop therefore ordered that some bars be installed across the glass as an additional security protective measure .
= = = After closure = = =
After the failure of UNOSOM in 1991 @-@ 2 , the US led a multinational mission — UNITAF — which included military forces to ensure aid was distributed to Somalis . The US military entered Mogadishu on December 9 , 1992 and moved to quickly secure the abandoned embassy , along with the airport and port . The following day , key military staff moved into the embassy to establish headquarters for the UNITAF mission , with the main headquarters located within the chancery . The embassy complex itself was in disrepair ; buildings had been stripped bare , a foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) of debris and trash covered the floors of the chancery , and bodies were found in some areas on the premises . Personnel promptly set out cleaning the compound 's living spaces and work areas to make room for the arrival and assembly area . Old warehouses were razed , and new barracks , heads and galleys were erected in their place . US Navy support elements that arrived later also imported extra materials .
US President George H. W. Bush visited the headquarters at the former embassy during his three @-@ day visit to Somalia from December 31 to January 2 . A Somali @-@ language radio station — Radio Rajo — broadcast from the former embassy compound . On May 4 , 1993 , the mission transitioned from US to UN control and the name changed from UNITAF ( Operation Restore Hope ) to UNOSOM II ( Operation Provide Comfort ) . Accordingly , the embassy premises were occupied by UN personnel to serve as headquarters for UNOSOM II . The US military withdrew from the mission in March 1994 and all UN and US personnel were withdrawn in March 1995 .
= = United States ' diplomatic mission to Somalia = =
The US has not had a diplomatic mission in Somalia since the closure of the embassy in 1991 . Nonetheless , the US never officially severed diplomatic relations with Somalia . The US embassy in Nairobi , Kenya serves as a base for the US diplomatic mission to Somalia , which is currently led by the US Special Representative on Somalia James McAnulty .
The US worked with various parties throughout Somalia to establish peace and a centralized government . On 17 January 2013 , the US formally recognized the Federal Government of Somalia , which was established in August 2012 . In June 2014 , the State Department announced that the United States would reopen its diplomatic mission , without specifying a timeline but only that it would be " soon " . In February 2015 , U.S. President Barack Obama nominated Foreign Service veteran Katherine Dhanani to become the new Ambassador of the United States to Somalia , but her nomination was withdrawn the following May .
US Secretary of State John Kerry visited Mogadishu in May 2015 and announced that the US planned to reopen an embassy in Mogadishu . He indicated that , although there was no set timetable for the premises ' relaunch , the US government has begun upgrading its diplomatic representation in the country . President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud and Prime Minister Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke presented to Kerry the real estate deed for land reserved for the new US embassy compound .
= 1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident =
The 1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident , sometimes referred to as the Black Hawk Incident , was a friendly fire incident over northern Iraq that occurred on 14 April 1994 during Operation Provide Comfort ( OPC ) . The pilots of two United States Air Force ( USAF ) F @-@ 15 fighter aircraft , operating under the control of a USAF airborne warning and control system ( AWACS ) aircraft , misidentified two United States Army UH @-@ 60 Black Hawk helicopters as Iraqi Mil Mi @-@ 24 " Hind " helicopters . The F @-@ 15 pilots fired on and destroyed both helicopters , killing all 26 military and civilians aboard , including personnel from the United States , United Kingdom , France , Turkey , and the Kurdish community .
A subsequent USAF investigation blamed the accident on several factors . The F @-@ 15 pilots were faulted for misidentifying the helicopters as hostile . Also , the crew members of the AWACS aircraft were blamed for their inaction in failing to exercise appropriate control and for not intervening in the situation . In addition , the identification friend or foe ( IFF ) systems had not functioned to identify the helicopters to the F @-@ 15 pilots . Furthermore , USAF leaders had failed to adequately integrate U.S. Army helicopter operations into overall OPC air operations . As a result of the investigation several USAF officers received administrative discipline but only one , Jim Wang , an AWACS crew member , was tried by military court @-@ martial , in which he was acquitted .
As a result of complaints by family members of the victims and others that the military was failing to hold its personnel accountable , the U.S. Senate and U.S. House conducted their own investigations into the shootdown and the U.S. military 's response to it . Also , Ronald R. Fogleman , the USAF 's new Chief of Staff , conducted his own review of the actions taken by the USAF against the officers involved in the incident .
Fogleman 's investigation led to several of the officers involved in the incident receiving further administrative discipline . The U.S. Department of Defense ( DoD ) subsequently refused U.S. Senate subpoenas for four USAF officers to be interviewed for the Senate investigation , which was never publicly released . The U.S. House investigation , conducted in part by the Government Accountability Office ( GAO ) , found that the military investigative and judicial systems had operated mostly as designed , but also noted that the DoD
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a fleet of 200 Phoenician ships , and is generally considered the most reliable source . Plutarch gives numbers of 350 from Ephorus and 600 from Phanodemus .
Cimon , sailing from Phaselis , made to attack the Persians before the reinforcements arrived , whereupon the Persian fleet , eager to avoid fighting , retreated into the river itself . However , when Cimon continued to bear down on the Persians , they accepted battle . Regardless of their numbers , the Persian battle line was quickly breached , and the Persian ships then turned about , and made for the river bank . Grounding their ships , the crews sought sanctuary with the army waiting nearby . Despite the weariness of his troops after this first battle , Cimon landed the marines and proceeded to attack the Persian army . Initially the Persian line held the Athenian assault , but eventually , as at Battle of Mycale , the heavily armoured hoplites proved superior , and routed the Persian army . Thucydides says that 200 Phoenician ships were captured and destroyed . It is highly unlikely that this occurred during the apparently brief naval battle , so these were probably grounded ships captured after the battle and destroyed with fire , as has been the case at Mycale . According to Plutarch , Cimon then sailed with the Greek fleet as quickly as possible , to intercept the fleet of 80 Phoenician ships which the Persians had been expecting . Taking them by surprise , he captured or destroyed the entire fleet . However , Thucydides does not mention this subsidiary action , and some have cast doubt on whether it actually happened .
According to Plutarch , one tradition had it that the Persian king ( who at the time would still have been Xerxes ) had agreed a humiliating peace treaty in the aftermath of the Eurymedon ( see below ) . However , as Plutarch admits , other authors denied that such a peace was made at this time , and the more logical date for any peace treaty would have been after the Cyprus campaign . The alternative suggested by Plutarch is that the Persian king acted as if he had made a humiliating peace with the Greeks , because he was so fearful of engaging in battle with them again . It is generally considered unlikely by modern historians that a peace treaty was made in the aftermath of Eurymedon . The Eurymedon was a highly significant victory for the Delian League , which probably ended once and for all the threat of another Persian invasion of Greece . It also seems to have prevented any Persian attempt to reconquer the Asiatic Greeks until at least 451 BC . The accession of further cities of Asia Minor to the Delian league , particularly from Caria , probably followed Cimon 's campaign there . The Greeks do not appear to have pressed their advantage home in a meaningful way . If the later date of 466 BC for the Eurymedon campaign is accepted , this might be because the revolt in Thasos meant that resources were diverted away from Asia Minor to prevent the Thasians seceding from the League . The Persian fleet was effectively absent from the Aegean until 451 BC , and Greek ships were able to ply the coasts of Asia Minor with impunity .
= = = Egypt = = =
The Egyptian campaign , as discussed above , is generally thought to have begun in 460 BC . Even this date is subject to some debate however , since at this time Athens was already at war with Sparta in the First Peloponnesian War . It has been questioned whether Athens would really commit to an Egyptian campaign under these circumstances , and therefore suggested that this campaign began before the war with Sparta , in 462 BC . However , this date is generally rejected , and it seems that the Egyptian campaign was , on the part of Athens , simply a piece of political opportunism .
The Egyptian satrapy of the Persian Empire was particularly prone to revolts , one of which had occurred as recently as 486 BC . In 461 or 460 BC , a new rebellion began under the command of Inaros , a Libyan king living on the border of Egypt . This rebellion quickly swept the country , which was soon largely in the hands of Inaros . Inaros now appealed to the Delian League for assistance in their fight against the Persians . There was a League fleet of 200 ships already campaigning in Cyprus at this time , which the Athenians then diverted Egypt to support the revolt . Indeed , it is possible that the fleet had been dispatched to Cyprus in the first place because , with Persian attention focused on the Egyptian revolt , it seemed a favourable time to campaign in Cyprus . This would go some way towards explaining the apparently reckless decision of the Athenians to fight wars on two fronts . Thucydides seems to imply that the whole fleet was diverted to Egypt , although it has also been suggested that such a large fleet was unnecessary , and some proportion of it remained of the coast of Asia Minor during this period . Ctesias suggests that the Athenians sent 40 ships , whereas Diodorus says 200 , in apparent agreement with Thucydides . Fine suggests a number of reasons that the Athenians may have been willing to engage themselves in Egypt , despite the ongoing war elsewhere ; the opportunity to weaken Persia , the desire for a naval base in Egypt , the access to the Nile 's huge grain supply , and from the viewpoint of the Ionian allies , the chance to restore profitable trading links with Egypt .
At any rate , the Athenians arrived in Egypt , and sailed up the Nile to join up with Inaros 's forces . The Persian king Artaxerxes I had in the meantime assembled a relief force to crush the revolt , under his uncle Achaemenes . Diodorus and Ctesias give numbers for this force of 300 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 respectively , but these numbers are presumably over @-@ inflated .
= = = = Battle of Pampremis ( 460 BC ) = = = =
According to Diodorus , the only detailed source for this campaign , the Persian relief force had pitched camp near the Nile . Although Herodotus does not cover this period in his history , he mentions as an aside that he " saw too the skulls of those Persians at Papremis who were killed with Darius ' son Achaemenes by Inaros the Libyan " . This provides some confirmation that this battle was factual , and provides a name for it , which Diodorus does not . Pampremis ( or Papremis ) seems to have been a city on the Nile delta , and a cult centre for the Egyptian equivalent of Ares / Mars . Diodorus tells us that once the Athenians had arrived , they and the Egyptians accepted battle from the Persians . At first the Persians ' superior numbers gave them the advantage , but eventually the Athenians broke through the Persian line , whereupon the Persian army routed and fled . Some proportion of the Persian army found refuge in the citadel of Memphis ( called the ' White Castle ' ) , however , and could not be dislodged . Thucydides 's rather compressed version of these events is : " and making themselves masters of the river and two @-@ thirds of Memphis , addressed themselves to the attack of the remaining third , which is called White Castle " .
= = = = Siege of Memphis ( 459 @-@ 455 BC ) = = = =
The Athenians and Egyptians thus settled down to besiege the White Castle . The siege evidently did not progress well , and probably lasted for at least four years , since Thucydides says that their whole expedition lasted 6 years , and of this time the final 18 months was occupied with the Siege of Prosoptis .
According to Thucydides , at first Artaxerxes sent Megabazus to try and bribe the Spartans into invading Attica , to draw off the Athenian forces from Egypt . When this failed , he instead assembled a large army under ( confusingly ) Megabyzus , and dispatched it to Egypt . Diodorus has more or less the same story , with more detail ; after the attempt at bribery failed , Artaxerxes put Megabyzus and Artabazus in charge of 300 @,@ 000 men , with instructions to quell the revolt . They went first from Persia to Cilicia and gathered a fleet of 300 triremes from the Cilicians , Phoenicians and Cypriots , and spent a year training their men . Then they finally headed to Egypt . Thucydides does not mention Artabazus , who is reported by Herodotus to have taken part in the second Persian invasion ; Diodorus may be mistaken about his presence in this campaign . It is clearly possible that the Persian forces did spend some prolonged time in training , since it took four years for them to respond to the Egyptian victory at Pampremis . Although neither author gives many details , it is clear that when Megabyzus finally arrived in Egypt , he was able to quickly lift the Siege of Memphis , defeating the Egyptians in battle , and driving the Athenians from Memphis .
= = = = Siege of Prosopitis ( 455 BC ) = = = =
The Athenians now fell back to the island of Prosopitis in the Nile delta , where their ships were moored . There , Megabyzus laid siege to them for 18 months , until finally he was able to drain the river from around the island by digging canals , thus " joining the island to the mainland " . In Thucydides 's account the Persians then crossed over to the former island , and captured it . Only a few of the Athenian force , marching through Libya to Cyrene survived to return to Athens . In Diodorus 's version , however , the draining of the river prompted the Egyptians ( whom Thucydides does not mention ) to defect and surrender to the Persians . The Persians , not wanting to sustain heavy casualties in attacking the Athenians , instead allowed them to depart freely to Cyrene , whence they returned to Athens . Since the defeat of the Egyptian expedition caused a genuine panic in Athens , including the relocation of the Delian treasury to Athens , Thucydides 's version is probably more likely to be correct .
= = = = Battle of Mendesium = = = =
As a final disastrous coda to the expedition , Thucydides mentions the fate of a squadron of fifty triremes sent to relieve the Siege of Prosopitis . Unaware that the Athenians had finally succumbed , the fleet put in at the Mendesian mouth of the Nile , where it was promptly attacked from the land , and from the sea by the Phoenician navy . Most of the ships were destroyed , with only a handful managing to escape and return to Athens .
= = = Cyprus = = =
In 478 BC the Allies had , according to Thucydides , sailed to Cyprus and " subdued most of the island " . Exactly what Thucydides means by this is unclear . Sealey suggests that this was essentially a raid to gather as much booty as possible from the Persian garrisons on Cyprus . There is no indication that the Allies made any attempt to actually take possession of the island , and shortly after they sailed to Byzantium . Certainly , the fact that the Delian League repeatedly campaigned in Cyprus suggests that the island was not garrisoned by the Allies in 478 BC , or that the garrisons were quickly expelled .
The next time Cyprus is mentioned is in relation to c . 460 BC , when a League fleet was campaigning there , before being instructed to head to Egypt to support Inaros 's rebellion , with the fateful consequences discussed above . The Egyptian disaster would eventually lead the Athenians to sign a five @-@ year truce with Sparta in 451 BC . Thereby freed from fighting in Greece , the League was again able to dispatch a fleet to campaign in Cyprus in 451 BC , under the recently recalled Cimon .
= = = = Siege of Kition = = = =
Cimon sailed for Cyprus with a fleet of 200 ships provided by the Athenians and their allies . However , 60 of these ships were sent to Egypt at the request of Amyrtaeus , the so @-@ called " King of the Marshes " ( who still remained independent of , and opposed to Persian rule ) . The rest of the force besieged Kition in Cyprus , but during the siege , Cimon died either of sickness or a wound . The Athenians lacked provisions , and apparently under the death @-@ bed instructions of Cimon , the Athenians retreated towards Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus .
= = = = Battles of Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus = = = =
Cimon 's death was kept a secret from the Athenian army . 30 days after leaving Kition , the Athenians and their allies were attacked by a Persian force composed of Cilicians , Phoenicians , and Cyprians , whilst sailing off Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus . Under the ' command ' of the deceased Cimon , they defeated this force at sea , and also in a land battle . Having thus successfully extricated themselves , the Athenians sailed back to Greece , joined by the detachment which had been sent to Egypt .
These battles formed the end of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
= = Peace with Persia = =
After the Battles of Salamis @-@ in @-@ Cyprus , Thucydides makes no further mention of conflict with the Persians , simply saying that the Greeks returned home . Diodorus , on the other hand , claims that in the aftermath of Salamis , a full @-@ blown peace treaty ( the " Peace of Callias " ) was agreed with the Persians . Diodorus was probably following the history of Ephorus at this point , who in turn was presumably influenced by his teacher Isocrates — from whom we have the earliest reference to the supposed peace , in 380 BC . Even during the 4th century BC the idea of the treaty was controversial , and two authors from that period , Callisthenes and Theopompus appear to reject its existence .
It is possible that the Athenians had attempted to negotiate with the Persians previously . Plutarch suggests that in the aftermath of the victory at the Eurymedon , Artaxerxes had agreed a peace treaty with the Greeks , even naming Callias as the Athenian ambassador involved . However , as Plutarch admits , Callisthenes denied that such a peace was made at this point ( c . 466 BC ) . Herodotus also mentions , in passing , an Athenian embassy headed by Callias , which was sent to Susa to negotiate with Artaxerxes . This embassy included some Argive representatives and can probably be therefore dated to c . 461 BC ( after forging of the alliance between Athens and Argos ) . This embassy may have been an attempt to reach some kind of peace agreement , and it has even been suggested that the failure of these hypothetical negotiations led to the Athenian decision to support the Egyptian revolt . The ancient sources therefore disagree as to whether there was an official peace or not , and if there was , when it was agreed .
Opinion amongst modern historians is also split ; for instance , Fine accepts the concept of the Peace of Callias , whereas Sealey effectively rejects it . Holland accepts that some kind of accommodation was made between Athens and Persia , but no actual treaty . Fine argues that Callisthenes 's denial that a treaty was made after the Eurymedon does not preclude a peace being made at another point . Further , he suggests that Theopompus was actually referring to a treaty that had allegedly been negotiated with Persia in 423 BC . If these views are correct , it would remove one major obstacle to the acceptance of the treaty 's existence . A further argument for the existence of the treaty is the sudden withdrawal of the Athenians from Cyprus in 450 BC , which makes most sense in the light of some kind of peace agreement . On the other hand , if there was indeed some kind of accommodation , Thucydides 's failure to mention it is odd . In his digression on the pentekontaetia his aim is to explain the growth of Athenian power , and such a treaty , and the fact that the Delian allies were not released from their obligations after it , would have marked a major step in the Athenian ascendancy . Conversely , it has been suggested that certain passages elsewhere in Thucydides 's history are best interpreted as referring to a peace agreement . There is thus no clear consensus amongst modern historians as to the treaty 's existence .
The ancient sources which give details of the treaty are reasonably consistent in their description of the terms :
All Greek cities of Asia were to ' live by their own laws ' or ' be autonomous ' ( depending on translation ) .
Persian satraps ( and presumably their armies ) were not to travel west of the Halys ( Isocrates ) or closer than a day 's journey on horseback to the Aegean Sea ( Callisthenes ) or closer than three days ' journey on foot to the Aegean Sea ( Ephorus and Diodorus ) .
No Persian warship was to sail west of Phaselis ( on the southern coast of Asia Minor ) , nor west of the Cyanaean rocks ( probably at the eastern end of the Bosporus , on the north coast ) .
If the terms were observed by the king and his generals , then the Athenians were not to send troops to lands ruled by Persia .
= = Aftermath = =
As already noted , towards the end of the conflict with Persia , the process by which the Delian League became the Athenian Empire reached its conclusion . The allies of Athens were not released from their obligations to provide either money or ships , despite the cessation of hostilities . In Greece , the First Peloponnesian War between the power @-@ blocs of Athens and Sparta , which had continued on @-@ off since 460 BC , finally ended in 445 BC , with the agreement of a thirty @-@ year truce . However , the growing enmity between Sparta and Athens would lead , just 14 years later , into the outbreak of the Second Peloponnesian War . This disastrous conflict , which dragged on for 27 years , would eventually result in the utter destruction of Athenian power , the dismemberment of the Athenian empire , and the establishment of a Spartan hegemony over Greece . However , not just Athens suffered — the conflict would significantly weaken the whole of Greece .
Repeatedly defeated in battle by the Greeks , and plagued by internal rebellions which hindered their ability to fight the Greeks , after 450 BC Artaxerxes and his successors instead adopted a policy of divide @-@ and @-@ rule . Avoiding fighting the Greeks themselves , the Persians instead attempted to set Athens against Sparta , regularly bribing politicians to achieve their aims . In this way , they ensured that the Greeks remained distracted by internal conflicts , and were unable to turn their attentions to Persia . There was no open conflict between the Greeks and Persia until 396 BC , when the Spartan king Agesilaus briefly invaded Asia Minor ; as Plutarch points out , the Greeks were far too busy overseeing the destruction of their own power to fight against the " barbarians " .
If the wars of the Delian League shifted the balance of power between Greece and Persia in favour of the Greeks , then the subsequent half @-@ century of internecine conflict in Greece did much to restore the balance of power to Persia . In 387 BC , Sparta , confronted by an alliance of Corinth , Thebes and Athens during the Corinthian War , sought the aid of Persia to shore up her position . Under the so @-@ called " King 's Peace " which brought the war to an end , Artaxerxes II demanded and received the return of the cities of Asia Minor from the Spartans , in return for which the Persians threatened to make war on any Greek state which did not make peace . This humiliating treaty , which undid all the Greek gains of the previous century , sacrificed the Greeks of Asia Minor so that the Spartans could maintain their hegemony over Greece . It is in the aftermath of this treaty that Greek orators began to refer to the Peace of Callias ( whether fictional or not ) , as a counterpoint to the shame of the King 's Peace , and a glorious example of the " good old days " when the Greeks of the Aegean had been freed from Persian rule by the Delian League .
= Michael Chabon =
Michael Chabon ( / ˈʃeɪbɒn / SHAY @-@ bon ; born May 24 , 1963 ) is an American novelist and short story writer .
Chabon 's first novel , The Mysteries of Pittsburgh ( 1988 ) , was published when he was 25 . He followed it with a second novel , Wonder Boys ( 1995 ) , and two short @-@ story collections . In 2000 , Chabon published The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay , a novel that John Leonard , in a 2007 review of a later novel , called Chabon 's magnum opus . It received the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 2001 ( see : 2001 in literature ) .
His novel The Yiddish Policemen 's Union , an alternate history mystery novel , was published in 2007 and won the Hugo , Sidewise , Nebula and Ignotus awards ; his serialized novel Gentlemen of the Road appeared in book form in the fall of that same year . Chabon 's most recent novel , Telegraph Avenue , published in 2012 and billed as " a twenty @-@ first century Middlemarch , " concerns the tangled lives of two families in the Bay Area of San Francisco in the year 2004 .
His work is characterized by complex language , the frequent use of metaphor along with recurring themes , including nostalgia , divorce , abandonment , fatherhood , and most notably issues of Jewish identity . He often includes gay , bisexual , and Jewish characters in his work . Since the late 1990s , Chabon has written in an increasingly diverse series of styles for varied outlets ; he is a notable defender of the merits of genre fiction and plot @-@ driven fiction , and , along with novels , he has published screenplays , children 's books , comics , and newspaper serials .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Michael Chabon ( pronounced , in his words , " Shea as in Shea Stadium , Bon as in Bon Jovi " , i.e. , / ˈʃeɪbɒn / ) was born in Washington , DC to Robert Chabon , a physician and lawyer , and Sharon Chabon , a lawyer . Chabon said he knew he wanted to be a writer when , at the age of ten , he wrote his first short story for a class assignment . When the story received an A , Chabon recalls , " I thought to myself , ' That 's it . That 's what I want to do . I can do this . ' And I never had any second thoughts or doubts . " Referring to popular culture , he wrote of being raised " on a hearty diet of crap " . His parents divorced when Chabon was 11 , and he grew up in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , and Columbia , Maryland . Columbia , where Chabon lived nine months of the year with his mother , was " a progressive planned living community in which racial , economic , and religious diversity were actively fostered . " He has written of his mother 's marijuana use , recalling her " sometime around 1977 or so , sitting in the front seat of her friend Kathy 's car , passing a little metal pipe back and forth before we went in to see a movie . " . He grew up hearing Yiddish spoken by his mother 's parents and siblings .
Chabon attended Carnegie Mellon University for a year before transferring to the University of Pittsburgh , where he studied under Chuck Kinder and received a Bachelor of Arts in 1984 . He then went to graduate school at the University of California , Irvine , where he received a Master of Fine Arts in creative writing .
= = = The Mysteries of Pittsburgh and initial literary success = = =
Chabon 's first novel , The Mysteries of Pittsburgh , was written as his UC Irvine master 's thesis . Without telling Chabon , his professor , Donald Heiney ( better known by his pen name , MacDonald Harris ) , sent it to a literary agent , who got the author an impressive $ 155 @,@ 000 advance on the novel ( most first @-@ time novelists receive advances ranging from $ 5 @,@ 000 to $ 7 @,@ 500 . ) The Mysteries of Pittsburgh appeared in 1988 and became a bestseller , instantly catapulting Chabon to the status of literary celebrity . Among Chabon 's major literary influences in this period were Donald Barthelme , Jorge Luis Borges , Gabriel García Márquez , Raymond Chandler , John Updike , Philip Roth and F. Scott Fitzgerald . As Chabon remarked in 2010 , " I just copied the writers whose voices I was responding to , and I think that 's probably the best way to learn . "
Chabon was ambivalent about his new @-@ found fame . He turned down offers to appear in a Gap ad and to be featured as one of People 's " 50 Most Beautiful People . " He later said , of the People offer , " I don 't give a shit [ about it ] ... I only take pride in things I 've actually done myself . To be praised for something like that is just weird . It just felt like somebody calling and saying , ' We want to put you in a magazine because the weather 's so nice where you live . ' "
In 2001 , Chabon reflected on the success of his first novel by saying that while " the upside was that I was published and I got a readership , ... [ the ] downside ... was that , emotionally , this stuff started happening and I was still like , ' Wait a minute , is my thesis done yet ? ' It took me a few years to catch up . " In 1991 , Chabon published A Model World , a collection of short stories , many of which had been published previously in The New Yorker .
= = = Fountain City and Wonder Boys = = =
After the success of The Mysteries of Pittsburgh , Chabon spent five years working on a second novel . Called Fountain City , the novel was a " highly ambitious opus ... about an architect building a perfect baseball park in Florida , " and it eventually ballooned to 1 @,@ 500 pages , with no end in sight . The process was frustrating for Chabon , who , in his words , " never felt like I was conceptually on steady ground . "
At one point , Chabon submitted a 672 @-@ page draft to his agent and editor , who disliked the work . Chabon had problems dropping the novel , though . " It was really scary , " he said later . " I 'd already signed a contract and been paid all this money . And then I 'd gotten a divorce and half the money was already with my ex @-@ wife . My instincts were telling me , This book is fucked . Just drop it . But I didn 't , because I thought , What if I have to give the money back ? " " I used to go down to my office and fantasize about all the books I could write instead . "
When he finally decided to abandon Fountain City , Chabon recalls staring at his blank computer for hours , before suddenly picturing " a ' straitlaced , troubled young man with a tendency toward melodrama ' trying to end it all . " He began writing , and within a couple of days , had written 50 pages of what would become his second novel , Wonder Boys . Chabon drew on his experiences with Fountain City for the character of Grady Tripp , a frustrated novelist who has spent years working on an immense fourth novel . The author wrote Wonder Boys in a dizzy seven @-@ month streak , without telling his agent or publisher he 'd abandoned Fountain City . The book , published in 1995 , was a commercial and critical success .
In late 2010 , " An annotated , four @-@ chapter fragment " from the unfinished 1 @,@ 500 page manuscript Fountain City " complete with cautionary introduction and postscript " written by Chabon was included in McSweeney 's 36 .
= = = The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay = = =
Among the supporters of Wonder Boys was The Washington Post critic Jonathan Yardley ; however , despite declaring Chabon " the young star of American letters , " Yardley argued that , in his works to that point , Chabon had been preoccupied " with fictional explorations of his own ... It is time for him to move on , to break away from the first person and explore larger worlds . " Chabon later said that he took Yardley 's criticism to heart , explaining , " It chimed with my own thoughts . I had bigger ambitions . " In 1999 he published his second collection of short stories , Werewolves in their Youth , which included his first published foray into genre fiction , the grim horror story " In the Black Mill . "
Shortly after completing Wonder Boys , Chabon discovered a box of comic books from his childhood ; a reawakened interest in comics , coupled with memories of the " lore " his Brooklyn @-@ born father had told him about " the middle years of the twentieth century in America . ... the radio shows , politicians , movies , music , and athletes , and so forth , of that era , " inspired him to begin work on a new novel . In 2000 , he published The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay , an epic historical novel that charts 16 years in the lives of Sammy Clay and Joe Kavalier , two Jewish cousins who create a wildly popular series of comic books in the early 1940s , the years leading up to the entry of the U.S. into World War II . The novel received " nearly unanimous praise " and became a New York Times Best Seller , eventually winning the 2001 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction . Chabon reflected that , in writing Kavalier & Clay , " I discovered strengths I had hoped that I possessed — the ability to pull off multiple points of view , historical settings , the passage of years — but which had never been tested before . "
= = = Summerland , The Final Solution , Gentlemen of the Road , and The Yiddish Policemen 's Union = = =
In 2002 , Chabon published Summerland , a fantasy novel written for younger readers that received mixed reviews but sold extremely well , and won the 2003 Mythopoeic Fantasy Award . Two years later , he published The Final Solution , a novella about an investigation led by an unknown old man , whom the reader can guess to be Sherlock Holmes , during the final years of World War II . His Dark Horse Comics project The Amazing Adventures of the Escapist , a quarterly anthology series that was published from 2004 to 2006 , purported to cull stories from an involved , fictitious 60 @-@ year history of the Escapist character created by the protagonists of The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay . It was awarded the 2005 Eisner Award for Best Anthology and a pair of Harvey Awards for Best Anthology and Best New Series .
In late 2006 , Chabon completed work on Gentlemen of the Road , a 15 @-@ part serialized novel that ran in The New York Times Magazine from January 28 to May 6 , 2007 . The serial ( which at one point had the working title " Jews with Swords " ) was described by Chabon as " a swashbuckling adventure story set around the year 1000 . " Just before Gentlemen of the Road completed its run , the author published his latest novel , The Yiddish Policemen 's Union , which he had worked on since February 2002 . A hard @-@ boiled detective story that imagines an alternate history in which Israel collapsed in 1948 and European Jews settled in Alaska , the novel was launched on May 1 , 2007 to enthusiastic reviews , and spent six weeks on the New York Times Best Seller list . The novel also won the 2008 Hugo Award .
= = = Manhood for Amateurs and Telegraph Avenue = = =
In May 2007 , Chabon said that he was working on a young @-@ adult novel with " some fantastic content . " A month later , the author said he had put plans for the young @-@ adult book on hold , and instead had signed a two @-@ book deal with HarperCollins .
The first a book @-@ length work of non @-@ fiction called Manhood for Amateurs : The Pleasures and Regrets of a Husband , Father , and Son published in spring 2009 ( 2010 in Europe ) ; the work discusses " being a man in all its complexity — a son , a father , a husband . " The collection was nominated for a 2010 Northern California Book Award in the Creative Nonfiction category . This was Chabon 's second published collection of essays and non @-@ fiction . McSweeney 's published Maps and Legends , a collection of Chabon 's literary essays , on May 1 , 2008 . Proceeds from the book benefited 826 National . Also in 2008 , Chabon received the Peggy V. Helmerich Distinguished Author Award , presented annually by the Tulsa ( Oklahoma ) Library Trust .
During a 2007 interview with the Washington Post , Chabon discussed his second book under the contract , saying , " I would like it to be set in the present day and feel right now the urge to do something more mainstream than my recent work has been . " During a Q & A session in January 2009 , Chabon added that he was writing a " naturalistic " novel about two families in Berkeley . In a March 2010 interview with the Guardian newspaper , Chabon added that " So far there 's no overtly genre content : it 's set in the present day and has no alternate reality or anything like that . "
Telegraph Avenue , adapted from an idea for a TV series pilot that Chabon was asked to write in 1999 , is a social novel set on the borders between Oakland and Berkeley in the summer of 2004 that sees a " large cast of characters grapple with infidelity , fatherhood , crooked politicians , racism , nostalgia and buried secrets . " Chabon said upon publication in an interview with the San Francisco Chronicle that the novel concerns " the possibility and impossibility of creating shared community spaces that attempt to transcend the limits imposed on us by our backgrounds , heritage and history . " Five years in gestation , Telegraph Avenue had a difficult birth , Chabon telling the Guardian newspaper , " I got two years into the novel and got completely stymied and felt like it was an utter flop .... I had to start all over again , keeping the characters but reinventing the story completely and leaving behind almost every element . " After starting out with literary realism with his first two novels and moving into genre @-@ fiction experiments from The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay onward , Chabon feels that Telegraph Avenue is a significant " unification " of his earlier and later styles , declaring in an interview , " I could do whatever I wanted to do in this book and it would be OK even if it verged on crime fiction , even if it verged on magic realism , even if it verged on martial arts fiction .... I was open to all of that and yet I didn 't have to repudiate or steer away from the naturalistic story about two families living their everyday lives and coping with pregnancy and birth and adultery and business failure and all the issues that might go into making a novel written in the genre of mainstream quote @-@ unquote realistic fiction , that that was another genre for me now and I felt free to mix them all in a sense . " The novel has been optioned by film producer Scott Rudin ( who previously optioned and produced Wonder Boys ) , and Cameron Crowe is adapting the novel into a screenplay , according to Chabon .
In a public lecture and reading of the novel in Oakland , California , Chabon listed creative influences as broad as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , Robert Altman , and William Faulkner .
Chabon 's next novel , Moonglow , concerns friendship , faith , and creation , and is due for publication in June 2016 .
Despite his success , Chabon continues to perceive himself as a " failure , " noting that " anyone who has ever received a bad review knows how it outlasts , by decades , the memory of a favorable word . "
In June 2010 he wrote an op @-@ ed piece for the New York Times in which he noted the role of exceptionalism in Jewish identity , in relation to the " blockheadedness " of Israel 's botched Gaza flotilla raid and the explanations that followed .
= = = Amazon vs. Hachette controversy = = =
In 2014 , Amazon.com , a leading book distributor , was in a dispute with Hachette , a publisher . Hundreds of authors , Chabon included , condemned Amazon in an open letter because Amazon stopped taking pre @-@ orders for books published by Hachette .
= = = Personal life = = =
In 1987 , Chabon married the poet Lollie Groth . After the publication of The Mysteries of Pittsburgh , he was mistakenly featured in a Newsweek article on up @-@ and @-@ coming gay writers ( Pittsburgh 's protagonist has liaisons with people of both sexes ) . The New York Times later reported that " in some ways , [ Chabon ] was happy " for the magazine 's error , and quoted him as saying , " I feel very lucky about all of that . It really opened up a new readership to me , and a very loyal one . " In a 2002 interview , Chabon added , " If Mysteries of Pittsburgh is about anything in terms of human sexuality and identity , it 's that people can 't be put into categories all that easily . " In " On The Mysteries of Pittsburgh , " an essay he wrote for the New York Review of Books in 2005 , Chabon remarked on the autobiographical events that helped inspire his first novel : " I had slept with one man whom I loved , and learned to love another man so much that it would never have occurred to me to want to sleep with him . "
According to Chabon , the popularity of The Mysteries of Pittsburgh had adverse effects ; he later explained , " I was married at the time to someone else who was also a struggling writer , and the success created a gross imbalance in our careers , which was problematic . " He and Groth divorced in 1991 , and he married the writer Ayelet Waldman in 1993 . They currently live together in Berkeley , California with their four children , Sophie Waldman Chabon ( born 1994 ) , Ezekiel " Zeke " Napoleon Waldman Chabon ( born 1997 ) , Ida @-@ Rose Waldman Chabon ( born June 1 , 2001 ) , and Abraham Wolf Waldman Chabon ( born March 31 , 2003 ) . Chabon has said that the " creative free @-@ flow " he has with Waldman inspired the relationship between Sammy Clay and Rosa Saks toward the end of The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay , and in 2007 , Entertainment Weekly declared the couple " a famous — and famously in love — writing pair , like Nick and Nora Charles with word processors and not so much booze . "
In a 2012 interview with Guy Raz of Weekend All Things Considered , Chabon said that he writes from 10 p.m. to 3 a.m. each day , Sunday through Thursday . He tries to write 1 @,@ 000 words a day . Commenting on the rigidity of his routine , Chabon said , " There have been plenty of self @-@ destructive rebel @-@ angel novelists over the years , but writing is about getting your work done and getting your work done every day . If you want to write novels , they take a long time , and they 're big , and they have a lot of words in them .... The best environment , at least for me , is a very stable , structured kind of life . "
= = Interest in genre fiction = =
In a 2002 essay , Chabon decried the state of modern short fiction ( including his own ) , saying that , with rare exceptions , it consisted solely of " the contemporary , quotidian , plotless , moment @-@ of @-@ truth revelatory story . " In an apparent reaction against these " plotless [ stories ] sparkling with epiphanic dew , " Chabon 's post @-@ 2000 work has been marked by an increased interest in genre fiction and plot . While The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay was , like The Mysteries of Pittsburgh and Wonder Boys , an essentially realistic , contemporary novel ( whose plot happened to revolve around comic @-@ book superheroes ) , Chabon 's subsequent works — such as The Final Solution , his dabbling with comic @-@ book writing , and the " swashbuckling adventure " of Gentlemen of the Road — have been almost exclusively devoted to mixing aspects of genre and literary fiction . Perhaps the most notable example of this is The Yiddish Policemen 's Union , which won five genre awards , including the Hugo award and Nebula award . Chabon seeks to " annihilate " not the genres themselves , but the bias against certain genres of fiction such as fantasy , science fiction and romance .
Chabon 's forays into genre fiction have met with mixed critical reaction . One science fiction short story by Chabon , " The Martian Agent , " was described by a reviewer as " enough to send readers back into the cold but reliable arms of The New Yorker . " Another critic wrote of the same story that it was " richly plotted , action @-@ packed , " and that " Chabon skilfully elaborates his world and draws not just on the steampunk worlds of William Gibson , Bruce Sterling and Michael Moorcock , but on alternate histories by brilliant SF mavericks such as Avram Davidson and Howard Waldrop . The imperial politics are craftily resonant and the story keeps us hanging on . " While The Village Voice called The Final Solution " an ingenious , fully imagined work , an expert piece of literary ventriloquism , and a mash note to the beloved boys ' tales of Chabon 's youth , " The Boston Globe wrote , " [ T ] he genre of the comic book is an anemic vein for novelists to mine , lest they squander their brilliance . " The New York Times states that the detective story , " a genre that is by its nature so constrained , so untransgressive , seems unlikely to appeal to the real writer , " but adds that " ... Chabon makes good on his claim : a successful detective story need not be lacking in literary merit . "
In 2005 , Chabon argued against the idea that genre fiction and entertaining fiction should not appeal to " the real writer , " saying that the common perception is that " Entertainment ... means junk .... [ But ] maybe the reason for the junkiness of so much of what pretends to entertain us is that we have accepted — indeed , we have helped to articulate — such a narrow , debased concept of entertainment .... I 'd like to believe that , because I read for entertainment , and I write to entertain . Period . "
One of the more positive responses to Chabon 's brand of " trickster literature " appeared in Time magazine , whose Lev Grossman wrote that " This is literature in mid @-@ transformation .... [ T ] he highbrow and the lowbrow , once kept chastely separate , are now hooking up , [ and ] you can almost see the future of literature coming . " Grossman classed Chabon with a movement of authors similarly eager to blend literary and popular writing , including Jonathan Lethem ( with whom Chabon is friends ) , Margaret Atwood , and Susanna Clarke .
On the other hand , in Slate in 2007 , Ruth Franklin said , " Michael Chabon has spent considerable energy trying to drag the decaying corpse of genre fiction out of the shallow grave where writers of serious literature abandoned it . "
= = = The Van Zorn persona = = =
For some of his own genre work , Chabon has forged an unusual horror / fantasy fiction persona under the name of August Van Zorn . More elaborately developed than a pseudonym , August Van Zorn is purported to be a pen name for one Albert Vetch ( 1899 – 1963 ) . In Chabon 's 1995 novel Wonder Boys , narrator Grady Tripp writes that he grew up in the same hotel as Vetch , who worked as an English professor at the ( nonexistent ) Coxley College and wrote hundreds of pulp stories that were " in the gothic mode , after the manner of Lovecraft ... but written in a dry , ironic , at times almost whimsical idiom . " A horror @-@ themed short story titled " In the Black Mill " was published in Playboy in June 1997 and reprinted in Chabon 's 1999 story collection Werewolves in Their Youth , and was attributed to Van Zorn .
Chabon has created a comprehensive bibliography for Van Zorn , along with an equally fictional literary scholar devoted to his oeuvre named Leon Chaim Bach . Bach 's now @-@ defunct website ( which existed under the auspices of Chabon 's ) declared Van Zorn to be , " without question , the greatest unknown horror writer of the twentieth century , " and mentioned that Bach had once edited a collection of short stories by Van Zorn titled The Abominations of Plunkettsburg . ( The name " Leon Chaim Bach " is an anagram of " Michael Chabon , " as is " Malachi B. Cohen , " the name of a fictional comics expert who wrote occasional essays about the Escapist for the character 's Dark Horse Comic series . ) In 2004 , Chabon established the August Van Zorn Prize , " awarded to the short story that most faithfully and disturbingly embodies the tradition of the weird short story as practiced by Edgar Allan Poe and his literary descendants , among them August Van Zorn . " The first recipient of the prize was Jason Roberts , whose winning story , " 7C , " was then included in McSweeney 's Enchanted Chamber of Astonishing Stories , edited by Chabon .
A scene in the film adaptation of Chabon 's novel The Mysteries of Pittsburgh shows two characters in a bookstore stocking August Van Zorn books .
= = The Chabon universe = =
Chabon has provided several subtle hints throughout his work that the stories he tells take place in a shared fictional universe . One recurring character , who is mentioned in three of Chabon 's books but never actually appears , is Eli Drinkwater , a fictional catcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates who died abruptly after crashing his car on Mt . Nebo Road . The most detailed exposition of Drinkwater 's life appears in Chabon 's 1990 short story " Smoke , " which is set at Drinkwater 's funeral , and refers to him as " a scholarly catcher , a redoubtable batsman , and a kind , affectionate person . " Drinkwater was again referred to ( though not by name ) in Chabon 's 1995 novel Wonder Boys , in which narrator Grady Tripp explains that his sportswriter friend Happy Blackmore was hired " to ghost the autobiography of a catcher , a rising star who played for Pittsburgh and hit the sort of home runs that linger in the memory for years . "
Tripp explains that Blackmore turned in an inadequate draft , his book contract was cancelled , and the catcher died shortly afterwards , " leaving nothing in Happy 's notorious ' files ' but the fragments and scribblings of a ghost . " In Chabon 's children 's book Summerland ( 2002 ) , it is suggested that Blackmore was eventually able to find a publisher for the biography ; the character Jennifer T. mentions that she has read a book called Eli Drinkwater : A Life in Baseball , written by Happy Blackmore . Drinkwater 's name may have been selected in homage to contemporary author John Crowley , whom Chabon is on the record as admiring . Crowley 's novel Little , Big featured a main character named Alice Drinkwater .
There are also instances in which character surnames reappear from story to story . Cleveland Arning , a character in Chabon 's 1988 debut novel , The Mysteries of Pittsburgh , is described as having come from a wealthy family , one that might be expected to be able to endow a building . Near the end of Wonder Boys ( 1995 ) , it is mentioned that , on the unnamed college campus at which Grady Tripp teaches , there is a building called Arning Hall " where the English faculty kept office hours . " Similarly , in Chabon 's 1989 short story " A Model World , " a character named Levine discovers , or rather plagiarizes , a formula for " nephokinesis " ( or cloud control ) that wins him respect and prominence in the meteorological field . In The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay ( 2000 ) , a passing reference is made to the " massive Levine School of Applied Meteorology , " ostensibly a building owned by New York University .
= = Experiences with Hollywood = =
Although Michael Chabon has described his attitude toward Hollywood as " pre @-@ emptive cynicism , " for years the author has nevertheless engaged in sustained , and often fruitless , efforts to bring both adapted and original projects to the screen . In 1994 , Chabon pitched a screenplay entitled The Gentleman Host to producer Scott Rudin , a romantic comedy " about old Jewish folks on a third @-@ rate cruise ship out of Miami . " Rudin bought the project and developed it with Chabon , but it was never filmed , partly due to the release of the similarly themed film Out to Sea in 1997 . In the nineties , Chabon also pitched story ideas for both the X @-@ Men and the Fantastic Four movies , but was rejected .
When Scott Rudin was adapting Wonder Boys for the screen , the author declined an offer to write the screenplay , saying he was too busy writing The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay . Directed by Curtis Hanson and starring Michael Douglas , Wonder Boys was released in 2000 to critical acclaim and financial failure . Having bought the film rights to The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay , Rudin then asked Chabon to work on that film 's screenplay . Although Chabon spent 16 months in 2001 and 2002 working on the novel 's film adaptation , the project has been mired in pre @-@ production for years .
Chabon 's work , however , remains popular in Hollywood , with Rudin purchasing the film rights to The Yiddish Policemen 's Union , then titled Hatzeplatz , in 2002 , five years before the book would be published . The same year , Miramax bought the rights to Summerland and Tales of Mystery and Imagination ( a planned collection of eight genre short stories that Chabon has not yet written ) , each of which was optioned for a sum in the mid @-@ six figures . Chabon also wrote a draft for 2004 's Spider @-@ Man 2 , about a third of which was used in the final film . Soon after Spider @-@ Man 2 was released , director Sam Raimi mentioned that he hoped to hire Chabon to work on the film 's sequel , " if I can get him , " but Chabon never worked on Spider @-@ Man 3 .
In October 2004 , it was announced that Chabon was at work writing Disney 's Snow and the Seven , a live @-@ action martial arts retelling of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs to be directed by master Hong Kong fight choreographer and director Yuen Wo Ping . In August 2006 , Chabon said that he had been replaced on Snow , sarcastically explaining that the producers wanted to go in " more of a fun direction . "
Although Chabon was uninvolved with the project , director Rawson Marshall Thurber shot a film adaptation of The Mysteries of Pittsburgh in fall 2006 . The film , which stars Sienna Miller and Peter Sarsgaard , was released in April 2008 . In February 2008 , Scott Rudin reported that a film adaptation of The Yiddish Policemen 's Union was in pre @-@ production , to be written and directed by the Coen brothers .
In April 2009 , Chabon confirmed he had been hired to do revisions to the script for Disney 's John Carter . In 2014 , Chabon was also involved in writing lyrics for Mark Ronson 's album Uptown Special .
= = Honors = =
1997 IMPAC Literary Award longlist ( for Wonder Boys )
1999 O.Henry Award Third Prize ( for " Son of the Wolfman " )
2000 National Book Critics Circle Award finalist ( Fiction ) for ( for The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay )
2001 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction ( for The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay )
2000 California Book Award ( Fiction ) ( for The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay )
2001 PEN / Faulkner Award finalist ( for The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay )
2002 IMPAC Literary Award longlist ( for The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay )
2007 Sidewise Award for Alternate History ( for The Yiddish Policemen 's Union )
2007 Salon Book Award ( for The Yiddish Policemen 's Union )
2007 California Book Award ( Fiction ) ( for The Yiddish Policemen 's Union )
2008 Hugo Award for Best Novel ( for The Yiddish Policemen 's Union )
2008 Nebula Award for Best Novel ( for The Yiddish Policemen 's Union )
2009 Premio Ignotus Award for Best Foreign Novel ( for The Yiddish Policemen 's Union )
2009 IMPAC Literary Award longlist ( for The Yiddish Policemen 's Union )
2009 Entertainment Weekly " End @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Decade " Best of list ( for The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay )
2010 Northern California Book Award ( General Nonfiction ) nomination ( for Manhood for Amateurs
2010 Elected Chairman of the Board , the MacDowell Colony
2012 Inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters
2012 Telegraph Best Books of 2012 list ( for Telegraph Avenue )
2012 London Evening Standard Books of the Year 2012 list ( for Telegraph Avenue )
2012 Kansas City Star Top 100 Books of 2012 List ( fiction ) ( for Telegraph Avenue )
2012 Hollywood.com Best Books of 2012 List ( for Telegraph Avenue )
2012 New York Times 100 Notable Books of 2012 List ( Fiction & Poetry ) ( for Telegraph Avenue )
2012 Good Reads Choice Awards 2012 finalist , Best Fiction ( for Telegraph Avenue )
2013 Los Angeles Times Book Prize 2012 ( fiction ) finalist ( for Telegraph Avenue )
2013 California Book Award ( Fiction ) finalist ( for Telegraph Avenue )
2013 Fernanda Pivano Award for American Literature
2014 IMPAC Literary Award longlist ( for Telegraph Avenue )
= = Criticism and interpretation = =
Costello , Brannon ( ed . ) . Conversations with Michael Chabon . University Press of Mississippi , 2015 . [ Collection of interviews with Chabon between 1995 and 2012 ]
Dewey , Joseph . Understanding Michael Chabon . University of South Carolina Press , 2014 .
Gibbs , Alan . Contemporary American Trauma Narratives . Edinburgh University Press , 2014 . [ contains a chapter discussing trauma in relation to contemporary counterfactual history novels , discussing The Yiddish Policemen 's Union alongside Philip Roth 's The Plot Against America and Paul Auster 's Man in the Dark ]
Huber , Irmtraud . Literature After Postmodernism : Reconstructive Fantasies . Palgrave Macmillan , 2014 . [ contains a chapter on history as escape in relation to The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay ]
Kavadlo , Jesse and Batchelor , Bob ( eds . ) . Michael Chabon 's America : Magical Words , Secret Worlds , and Sacred Spaces . Rowman & Littlefield , 2014 . [ collection of essays considering various aspects of Chabon 's body of work up to Telegraph Avenue ]
Levine , Daniel B. " Josef Kavalier 's Odyssey : Homeric Echoes in Michael Chabon 's The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay " . International Journal of the Classical Tradition , vol . 17 , no . 4 ( December 2010 ) , pp. 526 – 555 .
Scanlan , Margaret . " Strange Times to Be a Jew : Alternate History after 9 / 11 " in Duvall , John and Markzec , Robert ( eds . ) . Narrating 9 / 11 : Fantasies of State , Security , and Terrorism . Johns Hopkins University Press , 2015 . [ contains discussion of The Yiddish Policemen 's Union ]
= Krista Branch =
Krista Branch is an American singer whose 2010 song " I Am America " has been called the anthem of the Tea Party movement . Branch produced " I Am America " with her husband , who wrote the song , to protest the treatment of the Tea Party by Democrats . After being uploaded to YouTube , the song was aired on Glenn Beck 's radio show and it quickly grew in popularity . It was subsequently performed on Fox News and at events across the country . A former American Idol contestant , Branch was eliminated early in the process .
Branch was born in Mount Pleasant , Texas and later lived in Bixby , Oklahoma . She married Michael Branch in 2000 , and together they have three children . Early in the marriage her family faced serious financial difficulties , and later , while they were living in Colorado , faced the near death of their youngest daughter .
The Branches became supporters of 2012 presidential candidate Herman Cain after performing at several events where he was a keynote speaker , and " I Am America " was made the official theme song of the campaign . Another song released by Branch , " Remember Who We Are " , was made the official campaign anthem of Rick Santorum 's presidential campaign .
Branch 's music regularly expresses religious and political themes emphasizing American exceptionalism . Her music has been well received among conservative commentators and members of the Tea Party movement for its political message . The use of Branch 's music in the campaigns of Cain and Santorum has been seen as an indication of its appeal among outsider candidates . She has released nine singles and an EP , and is working on her debut album for release in 2013 .
= = Personal life = =
Branch was born in Mount Pleasant in East Texas , and began singing in her youth at church along with her four siblings . She also lived in Oklahoma for part of her childhood . Branch moved out of Texas with her family at the age of 14 , but remained proud of her Texas heritage . In order to focus on her music career , Branch and her family moved to Nashville , Tennessee in 2010 .
She married Michael Branch in 2000 , and they have since had three children together . Early in their marriage they had a low income , and Branch 's husband took on several odd jobs , in addition to his work as a youth pastor , in order to make a living . He describes living with Branch in a " shabby place " in Tulsa , Oklahoma where they struggled to pay $ 480 a month in rent . Later they bought a house in Tulsa , and rented it out while they were living in Colorado ; they got into financial difficulties when the tenants stopped paying the rent , and they accepted the bank 's decision to foreclose the mortgage , as that cleared their debt . They appeared on the Christian news magazine program , the 700 Club , talking about an incident in which their baby daughter was revived after drowning in their bathtub , and they attributed their child 's survival to the power of prayer , having been inspired after seeing The Passion of the Christ a few days earlier .
= = Career = =
While living in Bixby , Oklahoma ,
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moral opponent , but are unable to detect or identify them outside of close physical proximity . They can , however , easily detect and locate an Avatar of like kind over great distances with great accuracy . These abilities contribute to the convergence of the two storylines in Carnivàle .
= = = Terms and order of succession = = =
Daniel Knauf overlaid the Avatars of the fictional universe with an elaborate order of succession by blood , similar to the ascent of royal families . The descriptors Royals , King and Prince are replaced in the series with Vectori , Prophet and Prince . Female royals like Queens and Princesses do not have a fictional counterpart and are instead replaced with the concepts of the Alpha , the Omega and the Usher . These Wild Card Avatars have special rules in addition to , or replacing , the normal ones . Reviewers rarely focused on the significance of the mentioned Avataric terms and their implied characteristics in the story , despite detailed explanations by Knauf and the later public availability of Carnivàle 's Pitch Document , setting out the complex mythological structure .
The first Prophet in the mythology of Carnivàle is the Alpha . This creature is never mentioned in the series , but Knauf described her as a female who lived before the Flood and whose story was lost with the destruction of the Royal Library of Alexandria . The Alpha spawned the first pair of Avatara , manifestations of some higher power or House ; one is Light and the other Dark . A Creature of Light and a Creature of Darkness have been born to each generation since , and unlike the Alpha , they have always been male .
The Avataric Blood travels within families forming a dynasty . The first @-@ born son of an Avatar receives a so @-@ called mantle at birth that manifests him as an Avatar of a new generation ; whether the new Avatar is Light or Dark is chance . Therefore , there is one Avatar to each House per generation . Giving birth to a new Avatar leaves the mother barren and insane . Before that time , she can give birth to an unlimited number of females from an Avatar . These children as well as their respective offspring are called Vectori , beings with Avataric Blood who are not themselves Avatara , and who thus become generationally further removed from an Avatar in the bloodline . While Vectori cannot become Avatara , as that mantle is only conveyed upon birth , they can still exhibit some minor powers and often show signs of insanity .
The eldest generational Avatar within a House is dominant and called the Prophet . He possesses blue blood , also called Vitae Divina . The next in line is the Ascendant Prince . Any additional Avatara within the House are Princes ranked by generation . Although Avatara form blood dynasties from father to son , House affiliations can be mixed within a dynasty . If the youngest Prince in a dynasty dies , the dynasty is ended . Most dynasties only last on average three generations , since typical Avatara can be killed by any means . When a dynasty ends , the first male child born elsewhere in the world with the most Avataric blood will be a new Prince starting a new dynasty .
When a Prophet dies while an Ascendant Prince also lives , one of two things happens . If the Prophet is killed by his Ascendant Prince , the Prince will gain the mantle of the Prophet with a boon ( full measure of power ) . For the boon to be passed , the Prophet must be of sound mind , and either willingly pass on the boon , or be taken by surprise so that he cannot put up a psychic defense . If however the Prophet is impaired , the Ascendant Prince may be driven insane . If a Prophet dies in any other way , the Ascendant Prince will be automatically raised to Prophet in his stead , without chance of a boon .
Two unique Avatars join the Alpha as an exception to the Avataric rule . Carnivàle 's Avataric mythology prophesied the Usher of Destruction throughout the ages as a harbinger of the End Times to usher in the Armageddon . He is known by a thousand names in a thousand books , but can only manifest once . He appears as the Tattooed Man in visions , and he can only be killed with a weapon infused with the Vitae Divina that is thrust into the bough of his tree tattoo where his dark heart dwells . Injuries from such anointed weapons are said to never fully heal . Also prophesied is the Omega ( known in the Pitch Document as Omega The Destroyer and the Antichrist ) , whom Carnivàle 's occult characters had assumed for a long time to be one and the same with the Usher . The Omega is , like the Alpha , a female and the only other known exception to the male restriction in Avatar succession , and because of the allusion to " the Beginning and the End " in naming , the Omega is commonly accepted as the last Avatar .
= = = Manifestation in the series = = =
Certain characters have seemingly supernatural abilities from the beginning of the series . Ben Hawkins and Brother Justin Crowe not only have common visions of two soldiers ( one of them also appearing in a tuxedo ) and a man with a tattooed tree on his chest , but also of each other . Ben can heal and resurrect beings at the cost of others ' life , while Brother Justin can read and manipulate people 's minds . Ben and Lodz , a blind mentalist of the carnival , experience visions of the medieval Knights Templar . Carnival fortuneteller Sofie can communicate telepathically with her catatonic mother , whom she once sees being raped by the Tattooed Man . The progressing story increases the importance of the two mysterious soldiers , who are revealed as Henry Scudder and Management . Strange words of unknown meaning appear throughout the series . Variations of the phrase " Every Prophet in his House " are repeated , seemingly without context . Ben finds the repeating letter string TARAVATARAVA in a mineshaft , which he is later able to interpret as Avatar . Season 2 introduces the word Usher in particular relation to Brother Justin . Management repeats this term to Ben in two instances . After Management 's death , Ben has sudden knowledge about Princes , Prophets and the Usher , even knowing to whom these terms apply , respectively . The sentence " Sofie is the Omega " is seen once , written across a mirror without further explanation . Sofie demonstrates powers and attributes similar to those of Ben and Brother Justin in the last Carnivàle episode .
The context for some of these events is provided by the ( fictionally used ) Gospel of Matthias , a book in Season 2 that connects the Templars to Ben 's father . Written in archaic English , reminiscent of the King James Bible translation , it contains parts of Samson 's Season 1 prologue , mentions the Avatara , and alludes to an apocalyptic passage in the Book of Revelation . It also contains etchings of a gnarled and bent tree , which in one image is attacked by a Knight Templar holding a knife . Wilfred Talbot Smith interprets this book to Brother Justin , quoting , " By the hand of the Prince , the Prophet dies . Upon his death , the Prince shall rise , " and " [ Beware the Usher . A dark heart dwells where branches meet . ] Anointed dagger plunge thee deep . " Management and Ben repeat these verses independently of Smith .
= = = = What is an Avatar ? = = = =
As confirmed by Daniel Knauf and the Pitch Document , the Avatars of the current generation ( at the end of Season 2 ) are Ben as the Creature of Light and Brother Justin as the Creature of Darkness . Justin is also the Usher , spiritually represented by the Tattooed Man . Their respective fathers were Avatars of the previous generation : Henry Scudder was the Creature of Darkness , and Lucius Belyakov ( Management ) was the Creature of Light . At each time , an Avatar 's blood color mirrored his status . Ben 's and Brother Justin 's blood were red when they were Princes , and upon becoming Prophets , their blood turned into Vitae Divina ( blue blood ) . Scudder 's father Hilton was an Avatar of undisclosed nature . The mentalist of the carnival , Lodz , was merely a mortal who had once received Avataric skills from Scudder in exchange for his sense of sight .
Several women in Carnivàle are tied to Avatars , but only two have Avataric blood : Belyakov 's daughter Iris is a Vectorus by definition , and Justin 's daughter Sofie is the Omega . Although Sofie is two years older than Ben , her father 's Avataric generation places her in the next Avataric generation . The other affected women are human mothers who began to suffer from mental illness or strange behavior after giving birth to an Avatar . Ben 's mother Flora was a religious fanatic who would not touch her son . Scudder 's mother Emma cut her eyes out and killed several of her family members the night Scudder was born . Sofie 's mother Apollonia became catatonic after Sofie 's birth . Justin 's and his older sister Iris 's mother receives no special mention in the series , but the Pitch Document mentions her chronic paranoid schizophrenia after Justin 's birth . As far as known , none of these mothers became pregnant after giving birth to an Avatar .
Knauf hinted at more Avatars in a February 2005 chat : " What do Jesus , Caligula , Alexander the Great , Caesar , Buddha , Vlad the Impaler , Brother Justin , Ben Hawkins , Luscius [ sic ] Belyakov , Hilton Scudder , and Henry Scudder have in common ? " The Pitch Document stated , " If an Avatar was dedicated to developing and mastering his power , he could direct it with the precision of a scalpel . Such was the case with many of the Prophets , with Buddha , Jesus and Mohammed , with Caligula and Vlad Dracul . " In this early plot summary , Rasputin and the Borgias were Avatars as well . But like other Avatars in Carnivàle , none of these historical figures were explicitly revealed as such on the show .
= = = = The Tattooed Man and the tree = = = =
A man with a tattooed tree on his chest and back is introduced in the opening minutes of Carnivàle 's pilot episode , and appears in many other Avataric visions and dreams : in Ben 's and Brother Justin 's common recurring dreams chasing Henry Scudder in a cornfield , in Ben 's microsleep @-@ like visions , in Sofie 's visions of the rape of her mother , and in an extended vision of Brother Justin foreshadowing his dark future . Ben encounters a little boy with a similar tree painted to his chest and back late in Season 1 . Brother Justin finds this tree grown on a hill early in Season 2 , which prompts him to get his chest and back tattooed accordingly . The tree is also depicted in the show 's Gospel of Matthias book , in a painting at the Templar Hall in Loving , New Mexico , and on many images in the room of Templar chaplain Kerrigan . Management and Wilfred Talbot Smith imply the tree 's significance for the resolution of Carnivàle .
Show creator Daniel Knauf stated that the tree in Carnivàle is the iconic Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil in the Garden of Eden . Its implied meaning and power prompted him to place it on the Tattooed Man 's chest because " this is where you will build your empire . This is what it all boils down , [ ... ] and it just had a certain power . " Played by Don Swayze , the Tattooed Man is often depicted without a focus on his face , although a few frames in the pilot episode show him played by Clancy Brown ( Brother Justin ) . Knauf confirmed the Tattooed Man as the spiritual representation of the Usher of Destruction .
= = Historical and cultural allusions = =
= = = Dust Bowl = = =
The story of Carnivàle takes place in the mid @-@ 1930s during the worst of the Great Depression , a time of massive social and political upheaval . Unemployment rates were high , and European fascism was on the rise , in the years leading up to the Second World War . People in the Great Plains suffered from the effects of the Dust Bowl . Farmers often not only ran into debt and lost their properties but also risked their health ; dust pneumonia was a common cause of death .
Carnivàle is a retrospective interpretation of these times . Okie Ben loses his mother and his farm to the dust when a carnival picks him up . While the carnival travels throughout the Southwestern United States , California preacher Brother Justin tends to the needs of Dust Bowl refugees , who slowly become his biggest supporters . Although Carnivàle replaces the real sociological @-@ scientific reasons for the drought conditions with fantasy elements and the presence of the Devil , it still addresses the Dust Bowl situation repeatedly . Samson 's catch phrases are variations of " Let 's shake some dust ! " The episode " Black Blizzard " focuses on Ben and the carnival coping with a major dust storm . Rain only occurs twice in the show . The first occurrence is when Ben and Sofie copulate ; the writers wanted to highlight that Avataric sex " affects the heavens " . The second is when Brother Justin forcibly takes the Boon from Henry Scudder in the episode " Cheyenne , WY " .
= = = Religion = = =
A major part of Carnivàle 's story is religion . Samson 's prologue in the pilot episode is based on a few introduction paragraphs on the Pitch Document 's cover sheet that were initially not planned to be performed . But whereas Samson 's prologue only shortly mentions the Genesis creation narrative before introducing the fictional mythology , the original segment put more emphasis on the battle between God and Satan :
" Before the Beginning , after the great celestial war that rocked the very foundation of Heaven and Hell , God and Satan established an uneasy truce . Never again would they face each other in direct confrontation . So God created the Earth , inhabiting it with the crafty ape he called Man . And henceforth , to each generation was born a creature of Light and a creature of Darkness , and they would gather to them men of ilk nature and thus , by proxy , carry on the war between Good and Evil . "
Show creator Daniel Knauf believed Carnivàle 's religious aspects stemmed from the epic of good and evil as a major fabric of the 1930s , while executive producer Ronald D. Moore regarded religion as a way to express the struggle of good versus evil , faith , and the nature of humanity . Neither the audience nor the actors were given advice on how to interpret the show 's biblical imagery . Clancy Brown , the actor who portrayed Brother Justin , did not know whether his character was the Creature of Light or Darkness during the first season . He however thought that the visions made Brother Justin believe to be on a righteous mission of God until late in the first season . Compared to Brother Justin , Brown stated he practiced religion in moderate ways .
Daniel Knauf felt that Brother Justin shares patterns with certain religious leaders who were often persecuted for their delusional visions . Historical figures like Father Coughlin , Aimee Semple McPherson and Brigham Young served as inspiration , although the writers refrained from re @-@ telling their particular stories . Daniel Knauf originally thought of making Brother Justin a Protestant minister , but when the producers needed to decide on a specific religious affiliation , Knauf contested their plans to make him a Catholic priest . Knauf , a Catholic himself , settled on the Methodist denomination , which he perceived as significantly less clichéd , suspicious or controversial . When asked whether God had influenced him to write the story , Knauf replied no .
Carnivàle relies on other religious symbols and parallels for its mythology . The National Shrine of the Little Flower , funded by Father Coughlin in the 1930s , was an inspiration for the temple in Brother Justin 's vision in the episode " Los Moscos " . This vision foreshadows the world that Justin will potentially build as he comes to power as a radio preacher . The producers planned to use radio towers instead of regular steeples for the temple ; the design also incorporated Eastern European domes and Western European cathedrals . In the same vision , the Tattooed Man appears near a tree that resembles the iconic Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil , and implies that Justin is the Usher . According to Knauf , the Usher represents a " timeless character who shows up in all different cultures " , and who is " there to usher in the Armageddon " as " the harbinger of End times " .
= = = Knights Templar = = =
Carnivàle introduces the Knights Templar , a medieval Christian military order , in the late Season 1 episode " Lonnigan , TX " , where Ben meets the freak finder Boffo Phineas . When Ben comes in contact with Boffo 's ring , he experiences a powerful series of visions of the Knights Templar practicing rituals , putting heads on spikes , and being burned at the stake . The ring bears a red @-@ crossed symbol , and when Samson passes a trinket with the same symbol to Lodz , the mentalist has the same visions as Ben and falls to the floor chanting " in hoc signo vinces " ( " in this sign you will conquer " ) . The Knights Templar remain a recurring subplot until Ben discovers the symbol 's significance in early Season 2 . The Lodge of the Benevolent Order of Templar has its last appearance in the mid @-@ Season @-@ 2 episode " Old Cherry Blossom Road " , where the escaped convict Varlyn Stroud uses it to track Ben . When Wilfred Talbot Smith asks for the location of the Saunière manuscript late in Season 2 , Scudder answers that it is hidden in Rennes @-@ le @-@ Château .
Despite being of only tangential importance to the series ' two seasons , the Knights Templar have an elaborate backstory that was left untold due to the cancellation . The Pitch Document described the fictional Order , then simply called the " Order Templar " , as a fraternity of fellow travelers that was once charged by the Roman Catholic Church with locating and aiding the Avatars . Knauf said both Henry Scudder and his father Hilton were members of the Templars ; Scudder was so because he wanted access to their knowledge and library . The Saunière manuscript would have been " mildly relevant " for the future storyline .
= = = Trinity = = =
The Season 2 episode " Los Moscos " has Management urge Ben to seek Scudder ; Ben needs to learn the name of the preacher of his dreams ( Brother Justin ) to prevent a future catastrophe . An induced vision transports Ben into a desert where he suddenly hears an alarm @-@ like noise . A massive explosion occurs , followed by a rising mushroom cloud . When Ben opens his eyes from the blast of dust , Justin kneels in front of him and asks " Ye offspring of serpents , who warned you to flee from the wrath to come ? " Ben drives past this location one episode later in " Alamogordo , NM " . In a shared vision in the episode " Creed , OK " , Ben and Sofie kiss in a desert , surrounded by bright light and swirling dust . Season 2 takes place in 1935 .
Reviews interpreted these visions as Ben 's challenge to find and defeat Brother Justin ; Ben has to ultimately stop the creation of the atomic bomb as " the world 's march towards doomsday . " The Season 1 prologue already suggested this interpretation , mentioning " a false sun explod [ ing ] over Trinity , " at which point " man forever traded away wonder for reason . " The Trinity test near Alamogordo , New Mexico was humankind 's first test of a nuclear weapon in 1945 , and Daniel Knauf would have finished Carnivàle 's six @-@ year run with the explosion of an atomic bomb as the beginning of the " Age of Reason " . Still , Knauf 's story is " not about the deployment of the bomb , it 's more about the invention of the bomb , " with the focus " around Alamogordo and the Trinity test site rather than Hiroshima and Nagasaki . " Much research was put into the visual effects of the explosion . Stock footage of the first beats of nuclear explosions and a self @-@ created explosion of 300 gallons of gasoline were used for reference . The ground effects and blowing dust were created with combinations of volumetric computer graphics smoke , and the fireball of the nuclear explosion was built from Hubble images of the Sun . Knauf left the interpretation of the kiss vision open to both the characters and the audience .
= = = Tarot divination = = =
The tarot readings of fortunetellers Sofie and her mother Apollonia advance the plot significantly . Sofie 's readings in the pilot episode induce visions in Ben that give insight into his healing powers of his childhood . Season 2 shows Sofie 's attempts to leave her former job , which is repeatedly interrupted by tarot cards reappearing . Another of her readings sets Ben on a journey to Scudder , the man he has been looking for since the beginning of the series .
When incorporating tarot symbolism into the show , show creator Daniel Knauf started with the Rider @-@ Waite tarot deck and then took liberties in interpretation . The same deck was used in the series and in several web games , as tarot divination played a significant part in Carnivàle 's online marketing . The producers had wished to provide a " personalized , interactive tarot @-@ card reading experience similar to what is depicted in the series " . The official HBO website collaborated with RealNetworks to offer Fate : The Carnivàle Game , a downloadable game based on tarot symbolism available for trial and purchase .
Carnivàle 's opening title sequence features tarot cards that are panned in and out of in camera perspective ; these cards were digitally designed based on paintings and are not available for purchase . As the creative team behind the opening titles stated , it was their goal " to create a title sequence that grounded viewers in the mid @-@ 1930s , but that also allowed people to feel a larger presence of good and evil over all of time . " The creators offered a detailed interpretation of the tarot cards in the opening titles , and covered topics like good and bad , heaven and hell , wars , and the age of science as the antireligion in the 1930s . The following list specifies the tarot cards featured in the opening sequence , the provided keywords and the used artwork .
" The World " — Completion . Perfection . Eternal life . – The Last Judgment by Michelangelo .
" Ace of Swords " — Ardent love . Ardent hate . A vanquisher is born . – Destruction of Leviathan by Gustave Doré .
" Death " — Transition . Change . Death . – The Last Day of Pompeii by Karl Brullov .
" King of Swords " — A powerful commander . A wise counselor . A judge . – St. Michael Victorious by Raphael .
" Temperance " — Moderation . Balance . Harmony . – The Peasant Dance by Pieter Bruegel the Elder .
" The Magician " — Originality . Confidence . Skill . – Crucifixion by Josse Lieferinxe .
" The Tower " — Sudden change . Disruption . Downfall . – The Battle between the Romans and the Carthaginians by Jean Fouquet .
" Judgement " — Renewal . Rebirth .
" The Moon " — Deception . Disillusionment .
" The Sun " — Success . Joy . – Creation of the Sun and Moon by Michelangelo .
= = Reception , interpretation and legacy = =
Executive producer Ronald D. Moore was confident that Carnivàle was one of the most complicated shows on television , while show creator Daniel Knauf admitted that " you may not understand everything that goes on but it does make a certain sense . " In stating that Carnivàle was meant to be a demanding show with a lot of subtext , Knauf refrained from giving explicit clues . He did not wish his intent as an author to supersede the viewer 's interpretation .
= = = Interpretations during the run of Carnivàle = = =
Reviewers of the first three episodes interpreted Carnivàle 's story as being full of myth and allegory . The show was seen as more than just a human @-@ scaled metaphor of good and evil , with the power of spirits as one of the show 's strongest elements . Some reviewers were deeply confused and described almost everything as " mysterious " – the characters and their powers and abilities , characters and scenarios within visions , the whole carnival – wondering how it all fit together . The visions of the two main characters were shortly addressed , distinguishing between violent and benign visions , but parallels between the visions and the beings of good and evil were not necessarily drawn . The characters ' stories were described as unfolding in " zig @-@ zagging starts , moving back and forth in time and space , dropping oblique clues along the way . "
Carnivàle 's central premise was considered " cloudy " , " unconventional " , and filled with " convoluted symbolic interpretations of historical events " after Daniel Knauf had told TV critics that he regarded the 1930s as " the last great age of magic " being ended by an atomic bomb to herald the Age of Reason . Many reviews quoted and commented on Samson 's prologue to explain both the apocalyptic premise and the mythology of the show . Some reviews asserted that the good and evil creatures described in the prologue were Ben and Justin , preparing for a final battle . Still , many reviews were reluctant to state who of the main characters was good and who was evil , aware that it might take some time until this question was answered for sure . Ben and his healing powers led most reviewers to believe that he was the good creature , and that Justin was a demon or at least a dangerous zealot who received instructions from either God or Satan . Some reviews described the question of Ben 's parentage as one of the big puzzles and the show 's driving mystery , but refrained from defining further details of the series . The lack of revelation of the characters ' roles was apparent by the end of the first season , although critics expected Sofie to gain significance later in the story .
DVD reviews for Season 1 and previews for the Season 2 premiere had the advantage of retrospective on the first season , and some reviewers continued to consider the show 's mythology convoluted , circuitous , " peek @-@ a @-@ boo " and silly . The significance of the prologue was emphasized again , while previous reviewers ' character descriptions , the good @-@ versus @-@ evil theme and the assumed story merge were generally repeated . The good nature of Ben and evil nature of Brother Justin seemed clearer to most reviewers , with " many bizarre coincidences that seem to imply a deeper and more sinister connection " between the two main characters . Visions were summarized as disturbing and grotesque , dreams as cryptic and mysterious , and abilities as unexplainable . Henry Scudder was noted to be " connected to everything and everyone " , and it was considered Ben 's job to piece together the mystery of his own past . The events of early Season 2 were said to mark a shift in the story from mystery to journey , with Ben accepting and exploring his powers , while Brother Justin was seen completely embracing his evil nature . Reviewers regarded Sofie 's turn in the final episode as an unexpected new threat in the story .
= = = Reception and analysis of themes = = =
Carnivàle was often compared to David Lynch 's 1990s mystery TV series Twin Peaks and John Steinbeck 's 1939 novel The Grapes of Wrath . Matt Roush of TV Guide called Carnivàle " the perfect show for those who thought Twin Peaks was too accessible " , whereas the show reminded Salon.com 's Heather Havrilesky of the " disappointment you feel as a kid when you come to the last few pages of The Grapes of Wrath . " She argued that a " surreal Twin Peaks @-@ style shockfest [ ... ] hardly bears repeating , " especially if it " avoid [ s ] the ' hugging and learning ' of mainstream television [ by serving up ] such a steady diet of anguish and dashed hopes that viewers refuse to take the risk of making an emotional connection . " Carnivàle , as The Australian stated , " seems to have been conceived in essentially literary terms " which " can sometimes work on the page but is deadly on the large screen , let alone a small one . It 's almost like a biblical injunction against pretension on television . " A reviewer admitted his temptation to dismiss the first season of Carnivàle as " too artsy and esoteric " because his lack of involvement prevented him from understanding " what the heck was going on , [ which ] can be a problem for a dramatic television series . " TV Zone however considered Carnivàle " a series like no other and [ ... ] the fact that it is so open to interpretation surprisingly proves to be one of its greatest strengths . " Carnivàle was lauded for bringing " the hopelessness of the Great Depression to life " and for being among the first TV shows to show " unmitigated pain and disappointment " , but reviewers were not confident that viewers would find the " slowly unfolding sadness " appealing over long or would have the patience or endurance to find out the meaning of the show .
= = = Fate and legacy of the mythological storytelling of Carnivàle = = =
Viewership did drop significantly in Season 2 , and Carnivàle was cancelled in 2005 after two of six planned seasons . In a post @-@ cancellation interview , Daniel Knauf was positive that someone would let him finish his story someday , if not as a television series , then possibly as a series of features or graphic novels . Knauf approached Marvel Comics to continue the future Carnivàle storyline that he had kept to himself . They seemed interested , but HBO , who own the show and the characters , would not confer their rights . During the 2007 Writers Guild of America strike , Knauf stated that " an idiosyncratic show like Carnivàle would never be greenlit today , " and claimed that present @-@ day television included a high percentage of " talking heads " with " the vast majority of television writers [ not being ] visual storytellers . " Enjoying his creative freedom as graphic storyteller , he has considered directing his efforts away from television series creation . Meanwhile , the mythology of Carnivàle remains in the public conscience . In 2008 , Alessandra Stanley of the Australian newspaper The Age remembered Carnivàle as a " smart , ambitious series that move [ s ] unusual characters around an unfamiliar setting imaginatively , " while A.V. Club called the show " a fantastically rich series with a frustratingly dense mythology " .
= Ministry of Finance ( Soviet Union ) =
The Ministry of Finance of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) ( Russian : Министерство финансов СССР ) , formed on 15 March 1946 , was one of the most important government offices in the Soviet Union . Until 1946 it was known as the People 's Commissariat for Finance ( Russian : Народный комиссариат финансов – Narodnyi komissariat finansov , or " Narkomfin " ) . Narkomfin , at the all @-@ Union level , was established on 6 July 1923 after the signing of the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR , and was based upon the People 's Commissariat for Finance of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) formed in 1917 . The Ministry was led by the Minister of Finance , prior to 1946 a Commissar , who was nominated by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers and then confirmed by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet . The minister was a member of the Council of Ministers .
During the Russian Civil War , and immediately afterwards , the Commissariat usually confiscated property to support government operations . Following a short period of stability after the civil war the Commissariat introduced several governmental taxes on the population . The commissariat 's structure differed little from its Tsarist predecessor , the only notable difference was that the Soviet ministry was very centralised while the Tsarist 's finance ministry was a very decentralised one . The Commissariat , and later the Ministry , prepared the state budget in a joint process with its republican and local branches . The Ministry 's structure went through few changes due to the Soviet government 's conservative approaches to change . Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced several reforms during his rule which had the unintended consequence of considerably hurting the ministry 's prestige .
= = Founding and early history = =
The Ministry 's predecessor , the People 's Commissariat for Finance of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) , was established by a decree of the second convocation of the All @-@ Russian Congress of Soviets on 8 November [ O.S. 26 October ] 1917 and was part of the Sovnarkom . The first Commissar was Ivan Skvortsov @-@ Stepanov appointed in 1917 . However , following the introduction of the New Economic Policy , Narkomfin was made responsible for Gosbank , the State Bank of the RSFSR and then the State Bank of the Soviet Union . On 26 November 1921 Lenin issued a note calling for the appointment of Grigory Sokolnikov to the newly established post of People 's Commissar for Finance . Sokolnikov took control of the organisation in 1922 , although his formal position was not ratified until November 1922 . In 1946 the Council of People 's Commissars was renamed the Council of Ministers and the People 's Commissariat for Finance was renamed as the Ministry of Finance .
In 1928 the Soviet government launched a building program headed by the OSA group . The OSA group oversaw the construction of a building which should have housed the employees of the People 's Commissariat for Finance . Due to its close connections with the Commissariat for Finance the building was often referred to as " the Narkomfin building " . The building was designed by Moisei Ginzburg and Ignati Milinis and has a reputation for being one of the best examples of still @-@ standing Soviet constructivist architecture . The architects tried to give the building a collective feel to it but , when the building was finished in 1932 , it was denounced as a remnant of " leftist utopianism " by Joseph Stalin 's regime . Unlike many other Soviet constructivist buildings there is an ongoing campaign to save it .
When Alexei Kosygin , the Chairman of the Council of Ministers , initiated the 1965 economic reform the Ministry of Finance sabotaged the reform by not fully implementing it which , along with many other reasons , helped the reform to fail .
= = Duties and responsibilities = =
During the formation of the Soviet state , in the late 1910s and early 1920s , the People 's Commissariat for Finance of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) was created . The commissariat did not differ greatly from that of Imperial Russia 's Ministry of Finance and its system . The Soviet finance ministry was a heavily centralised structure , while its predecessor was not . During its humble beginnings , the main task of the People 's Commissariat of Finance were : confiscation of property , robbery and requisition ; printing and creating money ; and taxation .
In the immediate aftermath of the October Revolution , and during the Russian Civil War , the Soviet government forcibly confiscated property to support their government . After the inflation of the 1920s printing of money nearly ceased and confiscation of goods became harder ; after years of confiscating there was simply not enough property left to fund government operations anymore . After the civil war the confiscation of property ceased and several government taxes were introduced . The ministry 's tasks were summed up in the 1971 charter : " The USSR Ministry of Finance prepares the draft of the USSR State Budget and bears responsibility for the fulfilment of the USSR State Budget , both for receipts and for expenditures [ ... ] " . Under the rule of Mikhail Gorbachev the Ministry lost much of its power . An example being that before 1990 all foreign trade investments had to be approved by the Ministry of Finance but in 1990 the ministries of finance of the Union republics approved foreign investment . The ministry was of vital importance and in the 1971 charter the Soviet government gave the ministry broad legislative power . As nearly all organisations had some sort of financial aspects the Ministry of Finance set standards and rules for accounting and bookkeeping . It also had the power to issue regulations for the detailed application of the tax legislation . This is also a common feature in the United States Department of Treasury , although the Soviet 's regulations differ in being of a highly centralised manner that the US one does not . The Ministry of Finance usually exercised its powers jointly with other government agencies . The 1971 charter states that the Ministry of Finance had the right to participate with the State Committee on Prices for price @-@ setting in the USSR , but it also participated in the setting of salaries and the fulfillment of the five @-@ year plans with the State Planning Committee and the State Bank of the USSR ( Gosbank ) .
The finance ministry started the budget preparation process by preparing instructions , forms and schedules for the upcoming state budget and prepared a preliminary balance of revenues and expenditures using data estimated by the State Planning Committee ( Gosplan ) . This preliminary budget was then sent , together with instructions , to the all @-@ Union ministries and ministries of finance of the Union 's republics . The Union branches of the Ministry of Finance then prepared a budget estimate with information received from the lower Union ministries and information given to them by the all @-@ Union Ministry of Finance . The state budget was conceived after the Union Ministry negotiated a compromise with its republican and local branches and each Soviet republic was given its own state budget . The Economic Committees of the Supreme Soviet voted on the state budget which , if it received enough support , would become policy .
= = Organisation = =
Positions
The leading office of the ministry was the Minister of Finance ( titled " Commissars " until 1946 ) , the head of the ministry . The offices of First Deputy Minister of Finance were seen as the ministry 's second @-@ in @-@ command .
There were several Deputy Ministers of Finance , each of them focusing their responsibility in one specific area , for example the financial regulation of the Soviet automobile industry .
Departments
There were two departments in the Ministry of Finance , both of which were highly centralised but were sometimes subjected to direct control by the local CPSU Party Control Committees . The two departments had their own distinctive budget . The Head of the Department of Revisory Control was recommended by the Minister of Finance and approved by the Council of Ministers , the Head of the Department of Revisory Control for the Union republics was recommended by the republic 's Minister of Finance and the Council of Ministers .
The Department of Revisory Control of the Ministry of Finance enforced financial discipline by the following means : observance of laws , supervising financial discipline , controlling the implementation of the state budget , controlling the activities of financial organs , controlling the national insurance of the workers , examining the activities of the State Bank , controlling the audit functions of the internal financial control and controlling the activities of the chief and his senior accountants .
The Department of Revisory Control of the Ministries of Finance of the Union Republics : Controlled the implementation of the national budget of the republican Ministries of Finance and their local counterparts . The department also exercised control over enterprises and institutions directly subordinate to the Soviet government . The Department of Budget was a department which took part in drafting the budget of the Soviet Republics .
= = Disintegration = =
After the failed August Coup of 1991 Boris Yeltsin and the Ministry of Finance of the RSFSR claimed authority over the Ministry of Finance of the USSR , the state bank and the Bank of Foreign Economic Activity . This meant that the institutions could not carry out any orders without the consent of the RSFSR government . The Ministry of Finance continued functioning until the RSFSR government issued a decree completing its takeover of the Soviet financial system . It was succeeded by the Ministry of Economics and Finance of the Russian Federation ( 1991 ) and the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation ( 1992 ) . The last Soviet Minister of Finance was Vladimir Yefimovich Orlov , and Vladimir Rayevsky was acting Minister during the period of transition .
= = Commissars and ministers = =
The following persons headed the Commissariat / Ministry as commissars ( narkoms ) , ministers , and deputy ministers :
= Hurricane Gustav ( 1990 ) =
Hurricane Gustav was the only major hurricane to form during the 1990 Atlantic hurricane season . Developing out of a tropical wave on August 24 , Gustav tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean , steadily intensifying . The storm reached hurricane @-@ status on August 26 and reached its initial peak intensity as a strong Category 2 hurricane the following day . After turning towards the north and weakening due to increased wind shear , the storm encountered more favorable conditions and re @-@ intensified , attaining peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) around 0600 UTC on August 31 . Gradual weakening took place in the following days. on September 2 , the former hurricane underwent an extratropical transition and dissipated shortly after completing it . At that time , the system was located roughly 230 miles ( 370 km ) south of Iceland .
Hurricane Gustav initially posed a significant threat to the Lesser Antilles which had already suffered severe damages from Hurricane Hugo in 1989 . Several watches and warnings were issued for the islands between August 26 and 27 ; however , due to the northward turn , Gustav did not directly impact the region . Only light rain and large swells were reported . Offshore , a ship encountered the storm and sustained hull damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Gustav originated out of a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 18 . Shortly after , the system became embedded within the Intertropical Convergence Zone and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean . By August 23 , the system began to intensify while convective activity become consolidated around the center of circulation . By 0600 UTC on August 24 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) estimated that the wave spawned Tropical Depression Eight roughly 965 miles ( 1 @,@ 555 km ) east of Barbados . A weak ridge of high pressure to the north of the depression led to a general westward movement of the system . Gradually strengthening , the depression was upgraded to a tropical storm early on August 25 , at which time it was given the name Gustav .
A cold @-@ core low pressure system near Gustav was forecast to have an effect on the development of the system ; however , the tropical storm continued to intensify , attaining hurricane status around 1200 UTC on August 26 . Not long after attaining hurricane @-@ status , the ridge steering Gustav to the west began to break down , causing the hurricane to slowly turn towards the north . By 0600 UTC on August 27 , the storm attained Category 2 intensity , with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . Later that day , the storm made its closest approach to the Lesser Antilles , passing 205 miles ( 330 km ) to the east . By this time , hurricane and tropical storm @-@ force winds extended 35 miles ( 55 km ) and 175 miles ( 280 km ) from the center respectively .
Tracking towards the north , Hurricane Gustav slightly weakened due to increasing wind shear , with winds decreasing to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) early on August 29 . A trough located near Bermuda and the ridge located to the east of the hurricane kept Gustav on a northward track . The following day , the hurricane re @-@ intensified and again reached Category 2 status . Early on August 31 , Gustav further developed into a major hurricane , a storm with winds of 111 mph ( 178 km / h ) or higher . Around this time , Gustav began to interact with the nearby Tropical Storm Hortense , located roughly 460 miles ( 740 km ) from Gustav . This initiated a Fujiwhara interaction between the two storms , causing Hortense to track counterclockwise around the more intense Gustav . Around 0600 UTC on August 31 , Hurricane Gustav reached its peak intensity with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 956 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 23 inHg ) , making it the strongest storm of the season . At this time , the storm was located about 450 miles ( 725 km ) east of Bermuda .
Throughout September 1 , the storm weakened and the following day , it began to track towards the north @-@ northeast as the ridge located to the east of it strengthened . Additionally , nearby ship reports of sustained winds indicated that tropical storm @-@ force winds extended 230 miles ( 370 km ) northwest of the center of circulation . The trough located west of Gustav began accelerating late on September 2 , causing the hurricane to track towards the northeast , away from Newfoundland . Around 1800 UTC , Gustav weakened to a tropical storm , as winds decreased to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . By this time , Gustav had entered the Canadian Hurricane Centres area of responsibility , leading to them initiating advisories on the weakening storm . Early the next day , the former hurricane underwent and completed an extratropical transition . The last notice on the remnants of Gustav were while the system was located roughly 230 miles ( 370 km ) south of Iceland .
= = Preparations and impact = =
At around 1600 UTC on August 26 , the National Hurricane Center issued hurricane watches for Dominica , Martinique , St. Martin , Anguilla , Guadeloupe , Antigua , Barbuda , Montserrat , and St. Kitts and Nevis . Six hours later , the watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning for Guadeloupe , Antigua , Barbuda , Montserrat , and St. Kitts and Nevis . Local meteorological agencies on the islands also declared small craft advisories . The local government in Montserrat mobilized the 100 member police force and 50 off @-@ duty volunteer army members . Supermarkets , hardware stores , banks , and pharmacies were specially opened for residents to purchase plywood , canned food , bottled water , and other hurricane kit items . Around 1300 UTC on August 27 , the hurricane watch for Dominica and Martinique was discontinued as Gustav no longer posed a direct threat to the islands . Three hours later , all watches and warnings were discontinued except for Antigua and Barbuda where a tropical storm warning and St. Martin where a tropical storm watch were in place . By 1900 UTC , once Hurricane Gustav turned towards the north away from the Lesser Antilles , all watches and warnings were discontinued .
Gustav had only effects on the Lesser Antilles . Large swells , light rain , and gusty winds were reported along the outer fringes of the hurricane . On August 30 , the Egyptian motorship Raseltin encountered rough seas in relation to Gustav , and the hull of the ship was damaged . The remnants of Gustav severely impacted a seismic research operation off the coast of the United Kingdom which took place between August 25 and September 12 . The purpose of the operation was to collect seismic reflection profiles of the Rockfall Plateau . On September 3 , the members of the team had to quickly retrieve all buoys that were deployed to avoid damage to the sensors . However , some of the research tools were damaged before they were recovered . In all , the storm delayed the project by two days .
= Delaware Route 2 =
Delaware Route 2 ( DE 2 ) is a 10 @.@ 94 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 17 @.@ 61 km ) east – west highway located in northern New Castle County , Delaware . It runs from DE 72 and DE 273 east of Newark east to DE 52 in Wilmington . DE 2 is known variously as Capitol Trail , Kirkwood Highway , Wilmington Avenue , and Lincoln and Union Streets along its route . Between Newark and Wilmington , the route is a four- to six @-@ lane divided highway that passes through suburban areas . In Wilmington , DE 2 is routed along a one @-@ way pair of city streets .
What would become DE 2 was paved by 1924 and became a state highway in 1927 , receiving the DE 2 designation by 1936 . At this time , the western terminus of the road was at the Maryland border southwest of Newark , where it continued into that state as Maryland Route 279 ( MD 279 ) . The road was progressively widened into a divided highway from Wilmington to Newark between 1940 and 1964 , bypassing some portions of the road which are now known as Old Capitol Trail . DE 2 was routed to bypass Newark by 1990 , with DE 2 Business ( DE 2 Bus . ) designated on the former route through Newark . In 2013 , the western terminus of DE 2 was truncated to its current location and DE 2 Bus. was decommissioned . The westernmost portion of the route was designated as DE 279 .
= = Route description = =
DE 2 begins at an intersection with DE 72 and DE 273 in the eastern part of Newark . From here , DE 2 heads north concurrent with DE 72 on Capitol Trail , a four @-@ lane divided highway . The road turns northeast and passes under CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line before it leaves Newark and continues northeast through residential areas , briefly becoming undivided as it crosses White Clay Creek .
DE 72 splits from DE 2 by heading northwest on Possum Park Road , with DE 2 continuing northeast through suburban areas consisting of homes and businesses as a four @-@ lane divided highway , with the name changing to Kirkwood Highway . The road passes to the south of Pike Creek and intersects several roads including Polly Drummond Hill Road / Red Mill Road , North Harmony Road , Upper Pike Creek Road , Pike Creek Road , and Milltown Road . In Marshallton , the route widens to six lanes and comes to an intersection with DE 7 .
Past this intersection , DE 2 continues past businesses , intersecting Duncan Road . The road comes to a bridge over Red Clay Creek and the Wilmington and Western Railroad before entering Prices Corner and reaching an intersection with Newport Gap Pike , which heads northwest as DE 41 and southeast as DE 62 . At this point , DE 2 passes to the north of Prices Corner Shopping Center . The road comes to a bridge over Centerville Road before reaching a partial cloverleaf interchange with the DE 141 freeway .
Following this interchange , DE 2 narrows to four lanes and continues east through a mix of homes and businesses , crossing Little Mill Creek and passing to the south of a V.A. Hospital . At this point , the route enters Elsmere and briefly turns southeast before curving back to the east and reaching an intersection with DE 100 . Past this intersection , the road comes to a bridge over a junction between CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision and an East Penn Railroad line before running past homes as Union Street .
DE 2 crosses into Wilmington to the north of Canby Park and splits into the one @-@ way pair of South Lincoln Street eastbound and South Union Street westbound , heading northeast . The one @-@ way pair , which carries two lanes in each direction , passes urban homes and businesses and reaches an intersection with DE 48 ( Lancaster Avenue ) in the Union Park Gardens neighborhood . At this point , DE 2 becomes North Lincoln Street eastbound and North Union Street westbound , with the westbound direction forming a concurrency with westbound DE 48 between West 2nd Street and Lancaster Avenue . The highway enters the Little Italy neighborhood , where it intersects the northern terminus of DE 9 . The route continues north to its eastern terminus at DE 52 .
DE 2 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 49 @,@ 378 vehicles at the DE 141 interchange to a low of 20 @,@ 486 vehicles between DE 48 and DE 52 . The entire length of DE 2 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What would become DE 2 was originally an unimproved county road between Newark and Wilmington by 1920 . By 1924 , the road was paved . In 1925 , suggestions were made for the state to take over maintenance of the highway connecting the Maryland border to Newark and Wilmington , which was known as the Lincoln Highway , the Wilmington @-@ Newark highway , or the Capitol Trail . The same year , recommendations were made to remove a grade crossing with a junction between the Reading Railroad ( now the East Penn Railroad ) and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ( now CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision ) in Elsmere . In 1927 , the state took over maintenance of the highway between the Maryland border and Wilmington via Newark . In November 1931 , the Marshallton Cutoff was opened , bypassing the narrow and winding route through the community of Marshallton . This section included a through plate girder bridge over the Red Clay Creek .
By 1936 , DE 2 was designated to run from the Maryland border southwest of Newark , where it connected to MD 279 , to DE 52 in Wilmington , following Elkton Road , Main Street , Capitol Trail , New Road , and Union Street . In 1938 , construction began on widening DE 2 into a divided highway between Prices Corner and Elsmere , with plans to extend the divided highway westward to bypass the two @-@ lane section through Marshallton to the north along a new alignment . In 1939 , the divided highway alignment of DE 2 was completed between DE 7 and Elsmere , with the exception of the bridge over the Red Clay Creek in Cranston Heights . This bridge was finished in 1940 , completing the improvement of DE 2 into a divided highway between DE 7 and Elsmere .
In 1940 , plans were made to eliminate the grade crossing with the railroad junction in Elsmere by replacing it with a bridge over the tracks along with a new alignment for DE 2 between the end of the divided highway in Elsmere and Union and Lincoln streets in Wilmington . Due to World War II and steel shortages , construction of the bridge would be delayed until after the war . In December 1949 , the bridge carrying the route over the Reading Railroad and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in Elsmere was opened to traffic , with final work on the bridge finished in 1950 .
In 1956 , DE 2 and DE 273 were routed onto the one @-@ way pair of Delaware Avenue eastbound and Main Street westbound in downtown Newark following an eastward extension of Delaware Avenue to the intersection between DE 2 and DE 273 east of the city . In 1957 , work began to widen DE 2 into a four @-@ lane divided highway between the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ( now CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision ) bridge in Newark and DE 7 . The divided highway was extended west to Red Mill Road by 1959 . Also by this time , the route was split into a one @-@ way pair in Wilmington on Union Street and Lincoln Street . The road between Newark and Red Mill Road became a divided highway by 1964 . The portion of DE 2 along Elkton Road between the Maryland border and Newark was widened into a divided highway in 1972 .
The Christiana Parkway around the southern edge of Newark was completed in September 1983 . By 1990 , DE 2 was realigned to bypass Newark along Christiana Parkway , which carried portions of DE 4 and DE 896 , Chestnut Hill Road , which also carried DE 4 , and South Chapel Street and Library Avenue , which was also DE 72 . With this realignment , the former route through Newark became DE 2 Bus . In 2013 , DelDOT proposed the renumbering of routes in and around Newark . The plan called for DE 2 to start at DE 273 ( Main Street ) east of Newark instead of at the Maryland state line as well as the removal of the DE 2 Bus. designation through Newark . In addition , the portion of Elkton Road between the Maryland border and the Christiana Parkway would be designated as DE 279 . The goal of the project was to " simplify the route designations in Newark , reduce sign clutter , and reduce sign maintenance costs . " The changes were completed in summer 2013 . In 2015 , the concurrency with DE 41 in Prices Corner was removed .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= = Bannered routes = =
Delaware Route 2 Business ( DE 2 Bus . ) was a 2 @.@ 91 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 68 km ) long business route of DE 2 that ran through Newark . DE 2 Bus. continued northeast from an intersection with DE 2 / DE 4 / DE 896 southwest of downtown Newark along four @-@ lane divided Elkton Road , concurrent with DE 896 . From this point , DE 2 Bus . / DE 896 headed into residential areas . The road changed names to South Main Street and became undivided as it passed businesses before reaching downtown Newark . Here , DE 2 Bus . / DE 896 intersected DE 273 , with the road splitting into a one @-@ way pair . Eastbound DE 2 Bus . / northbound DE 896 ran concurrent with eastbound DE 273 on West Delaware Avenue , heading to the east , while westbound DE 2 Bus . / southbound DE 896 remained along South Main Street , also concurrent with eastbound DE 273 . The one @-@ way pair carried two lanes in each direction . Westbound DE 2 Bus. entered South Main Street from West Main Street , which also carried the westbound direction of DE 273 and the northbound direction of DE 896 . At the intersection with South College Avenue , the concurrency in both directions with northbound DE 896 ended . DE 2 Bus . / DE 273 passed through the University of Delaware campus and continued through the commercial downtown as East Delaware Avenue eastbound and East Main Street westbound . Farther east , East Delaware Avenue shifted farther to the south of East Main Street , with the one @-@ way streets passing between a residential neighborhood and East Delaware Avenue passing to the north of Newark High School . Past here , the route came to an intersection with DE 2 / DE 72 . At this point , DE 2 Bus. ended and eastbound DE 273 headed north with DE 2 / DE 72 to rejoin westbound DE 273 .
The route was created by 1990 when DE 2 was routed to bypass Newark . In 2012 , the Newark city council voted in favor of renaming the portion of Elkton Road carrying DE 2 Bus . / DE 896 between West Park Place and West Main Street to South Main Street in order to promote businesses along this stretch of road . The change went into effect January 1 , 2013 . DE 2 Bus. was decommissioned in 2013 as part of changes that also truncated the western terminus of DE 2 to the intersection with DE 72 and DE 273 in the eastern part of Newark .
Major intersections
The entire route was in Newark , New Castle County .
= George Rogers Clark National Historical Park =
George Rogers Clark National Historical Park , located in Vincennes , Indiana , on the banks of the Wabash River at what is believed to be the site of Fort Sackville , is a United States National Historical Park . President Calvin Coolidge authorized a classical memorial and President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicated the completed structure in 1936 .
In a celebrated campaign , Lieutenant Colonel George Rogers Clark , older brother of William Clark , and his frontiersmen captured Fort Sackville and British Lt. Governor Henry Hamilton on February 25 , 1779 . The heroic march of Clark 's men from Kaskaskia on the Mississippi River in mid @-@ winter and the subsequent victory over the British remains one of the great feats of the American Revolution .
In 1966 , Indiana transferred the site to the National Park Service . Adjacent to the memorial is a visitor center which presents interpretive programs and displays . The center is located on South 2nd Street in Vincennes . It is located in the Vincennes Historic District .
= = History = =
The memorial is placed at the believed site of Fort Sackville ; no archeological evidence has shown the exact location , but it is undoubtedly within the park 's boundaries . The episode being commemorated marked the finest moment in General George Rogers Clark 's life . He was sent by the state of Virginia to protect its interest in the Old Northwest . His 1778 @-@ 1779 campaign included the founding of Louisville , Kentucky and the capture of British forts in the lower Ohio and Mississippi valleys . Forces under Clark 's command had captured Fort Sackville months before , but when notified that British forces under Henry Hamilton had retaken the fort , Clark led a desperate march to retake the fort again for the American cause , succeeding on February 25 , 1779 . This led to the newly formed United States claiming control of what would become the states of Ohio , Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , and Wisconsin in the 1783 Treaty of Paris .
As Vincennes grew in the 1800s , it overran the site of Fort Sackville and its boundaries were lost . In 1905 , the Daughters of the American Revolution placed a stone marker on what they believed was the location of the fort . In 1929 , local residents made a major effort to commemorate the 150th anniversary of Clark 's campaign . The state of Indiana chose to build a memorial to General Clark 's triumph in the 1930s , with the assistance of the United States government ; the various funds amounted to $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The memorial was designed by New York architect Frederic Charles Hirons and dedicated June 14 , 1936 , by President Franklin Roosevelt . Though the National Park Service in 1976 called the finished memorial the " last major Classical style memorial " constructed in the United States , the New York State Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt at the American Museum of Natural History by John Russell Pope was also completed in 1936 , and Pope 's Jefferson Memorial in Washington , D.C. was completed 1939 @-@ 1943 , are of the same era .
= = Structures = =
The memorial building is a circular granite structure surrounded by sixteen granite fluted Greek Doric columns in a peripteral colonnade , capped with a saucer dome of glass panels and resting on a stylobate . The north and east corners have restrooms and various maintenance rooms . Except for the maintenance rooms , these feature plastered walls and ceilings , marble wainscoting , and terrazzo flooring . Visitors enter the memorial by climbing thirty granite steps in the northwest corner . The basement is unfinished , with fluorescent lighting revealing a ceiling and walls of exposed concrete , and a dirt floor .
Other prominent features in the park include Johns Angel 's granite statue of Francis Vigo , a 4 @-@ by @-@ 9 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 by 2 @.@ 7 m ) monument overlooking the Wabash River erected in 1934 that honors the Italian @-@ American merchant who assisted General Clark . The adjacent grounds of the Basilica of St. Francis Xavier hold a 1934 bronze statue by Albin Polasek honoring Father Pierre Gibault , another figure in the Revolutionary War . Raoul Josset designed the Lincoln Memorial Bridge across the Wabash River to compliment the memorial aesthetically . It includes relief carvings designed by a monument by Nellie Walker on the Illinois side of the bridge and celebrates the migration of Abraham Lincoln . A concrete floodwall that protects the memorial and Vincennes from Wabash flooding is also designed in a complimentary Classical style . The grounds also hold a memorial to the soldiers from Knox County who served in World War I , a marker denoting where Clark 's headquarters probably stood during his siege of Fort Sackville , and the original Daughters of the American Revolution memorial , which has moved several times due to construction of the main memorial .
= = Murals = =
Muralist Ezra Winter executed a series of eleven murals for the building .
= = Purpose and significance = =
The park was authorized by the Act of July 23 , 1966 ( PL 89 @-@ 517 ) . This law ( Appendix A ) contains three provisions . The first authorized the Secretary of the Interior to accept from the State of Indiana , the donation of the Clark Memorial and surrounding grounds for a national park . This was accomplished within one year of the law ’ s enactment . The second provision permits the Secretary to enter into cooperative agreements with the owners of other historic properties in Vincennes which are associated with George Rogers Clark and the Northwest Territory . Such properties would become part of the park , and the Secretary could assist in their preservation , renewal and interpretation . The third provision requires the Secretary to administer , protect , develop and maintain the park in accordance with the provisions of the act of August 25 , 1916 , which established the National Park Service .
George Rogers Clark NHP was established to commemorate the accomplishments of George Rogers Clark and the expansion of the United States into the Northwest Territory ; to commemorate this story and its significance to the American people ; and to cooperate in the preservation , renewal and interpretation of the sites and structures in Vincennes associated with this story . The park also commemorates the actions of Father Pierre Gibault and Francis Vigo who sided with Clark against the British .
The park is located on the site of Fort Sackville which Clark captured from the British during the American Revolution on February 25 , 1779 . The victory extended American land claims in the Ohio Valley and contributed to the United States acquisition of the Northwest Territory in the 1783 Treaty of Paris . No structures dating from the Revolution exist in the park today .
The historical theme represented by George Rogers Clark NHP is the “ Revolution , War in the Frontier , ” according to 1987 History and Prehistory in the National Park System and the National Historic Landmarks Program .
= = Restoration = =
August 9 , 2008 , George Rogers Clark National Historical Park closed for 13 @-@ months to complete a three @-@ million @-@ dollar renovation by Frontier Waterproofing , Inc out of Denton , Texas . Park Superintendent Dale Phillips said , " This is a once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime restoration project , and is critically needed for the long @-@ term preservation of the Clark Memorial " . The main goal was to fix the drainage of the terrace , which has leaked since the 1930s , and renovate the access steps . The monument reopened September 24 , 2009 , and was rededicated on October 3 , 2009 . The 2009 Spirit of Vincennes Rendezvous was not impacted by the renovation .
Work during the renovation included demolition and installation of new parapets and rusitifications ; repair of wall cracks ; removal , temporary storage , and numbering of approximately 1 @,@ 000 large granite paving stones ; installation of new waterproofing on the existing concrete structural deck of the plaza and the monuments stylobate ; cleaning and repair of the granite stone , steps , and veneer ; installation of a new exposed aggregate concrete walking surface around the Monument plaza ; and replacing the existing sprinkler system and landscaping elements . This repaired problems first identified in a 1939 structural inspection .
George Rogers Clark National Historical Park will be honored on an America the Beautiful Quarter representing Indiana in 2017 .
= = Gallery = =
= 12 Songs of Christmas ( Etta James album ) =
12 Songs of Christmas is a holiday album by American singer Etta James , released in October 1998 through the record label Private Music . The album , produced by John Snyder , features standards arranged mostly by pianist Cedar Walton and solos by Walton , George Bohanon on trombone and Red Holloway on tenor saxophone . Critical reception of the album was positive overall . Following its release , 12 Songs reached a peak position of number five on Billboard 's Top Blues Albums chart .
= = Composition = =
12 Songs of Christmas consists of twelve standard holiday songs with arrangements mostly by pianist Cedar Walton and solos by Walton , George Bohanon on trombone and Red Holloway on tenor saxophone . The album combines James ' blues style with a jazz sound
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. 12 Songs , recorded during May and June 1998 , was produced by John Snyder with Lupe DeLeon serving as executive producer .
The album opens with " Winter Wonderland " , originally by Felix Bernard and Richard B. Smith , followed by James Pierpont 's " Jingle Bells " . A " bluesy " rendition of Lou Baxter and Johnny Moore 's " Merry Christmas , Baby " trails " This Time of Year " ( Hollis , Owens ) . Other holiday standards appearing on the album include : " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " ( Ralph Blane , Hugh Martin ) , John Frederick Coots and Haven Gillespie 's " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " , and " White Christmas " , originally by Irving Berlin . " The Christmas Song ( Chestnuts Roasting on an Open Fire ) " , originally by Mel Tormé and Robert Wells , " The Little Drummer Boy ( Carol of the Drum ) " ( Katherine Kennicott Davis , Henry Onorati , Harry Simeone ) , Franz Xaver Gruber and Joseph Mohr 's " Silent Night " , and " Joy to the World " ( George Frideric Handel , Lowell Mason , Isaac Watts ) follow . The album closes with a rendition of Adolphe Adam and John Sullivan Dwight 's " O Holy Night " .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of the album was positive overall . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote a positive review of the album , claiming that James turned standards into " suave after @-@ hours jazz arrangements " that seemed " cozy and intimate " . He wrote that James was " surprisingly reverent " and sounded " downright devout " on " Joy to the World " . Entertainment Weekly 's Matt Diehl felt that James ' performances brought both " sass and class " and " ooze [ d ] passionately with old @-@ school soul " . David Hinckley of New York City 's Daily News awarded 12 Songs " two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half bells " out of four . Rolling Stone called 12 Songs a " tour de force of interpretive rethinking " with " scintillating , bluesy spins on Yuletide evergreens " . The Spartanburg Herald @-@ Journal 's Dan DeLuca also complimented the set .
The album received some negative criticism . Larry Nager of The Cincinnati Enquirer awarded the album two out of four stars and wrote that James had the ability to make " the ultimate blue Christmas disc " but failed to do so . Nager complimented " Merry Christmas , Baby " but considered the performance to be a " rare bit of juke joint " among " supper club sounds " that left him " wanting more " .
= = Track listing = =
" Winter Wonderland " ( Felix Bernard , Richard B. Smith ) – 4 : 26
" Jingle Bells " ( James Pierpont , traditional ) – 5 : 26
" This Time of Year " ( Jesse Hollis , Cliff Owens ) – 5 : 47
" Merry Christmas , Baby " ( Lou Baxter , Johnny Moore ) – 6 : 10
" Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " ( Ralph Blane , Hugh Martin ) – 4 : 45
" Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " ( John Frederick Coots , Haven Gillespie ) – 6 : 22
" White Christmas " ( Irving Berlin ) – 5 : 52
" The Christmas Song ( Chestnuts Roasting on an Open Fire ) " ( Mel Tormé , Robert Wells ) – 4 : 23
" The Little Drummer Boy ( Carol of the Drum ) " ( Katherine Kennicott Davis , Henry Onorati , Harry Simeone ) – 4 : 59
" Silent Night " ( Franz Xaver Gruber , Joseph Mohr , traditional ) – 4 : 49
" Joy to the World " ( George Frideric Handel , Lowell Mason , traditional , Isaac Watts ) – 5 : 30
" O Holy Night " ( Adolphe Adam , John Sullivan Dwight ) – 4 : 50
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
Following its release , 12 Songs of Christmas reached a peak position of number five on Billboard 's Top Blues Albums chart . In 1999 , James had five albums chart in the United States : Life , Love & the Blues , 12 Songs of Christmas , Heart of a Woman ( 1999 ) , as well as two compilation albums Best of Etta James and Her Best ( 1997 ) .
= History of the horse in Britain =
The known history of the horse in Britain starts with horse remains found in Pakefield , Suffolk , dating from 700 @,@ 000 BC , and in Boxgrove , West Sussex , dating from 500 @,@ 000 BC . Early humans were active hunters of horses , and finds from the Ice Age have been recovered from many sites . At that time , land which now forms the British Isles was part of a peninsula attached to continental Europe by a low @-@ lying area now known as " Doggerland , " and land animals could migrate freely between what is now island Britain and continental Europe . The domestication of horses , and their use to pull vehicles , had begun in Britain by 2500 BC ; by the time of the Roman conquest of Britain , British tribes could assemble armies which included thousands of chariots .
Horse improvement as a goal , and horse breeding as an enterprise , date to medieval times ; King John imported a hundred Flemish stallions , Edward III imported fifty Spanish stallions , and various priories and abbeys owned stud farms . Laws were passed restricting and prohibiting horse exports and for the culling of horses considered undesirable in type . By the 17th century , specific horse breeds were being recorded as suitable for specific purposes , and new horse @-@ drawn agricultural machinery was being designed . Fast coaches pulled by teams of horses with Thoroughbred blood could make use of improved roads , and coaching inn proprietors owned hundreds of horses to support the trade . Steam power took over the role of horses in agriculture from the mid @-@ 19th century , but horses continued to be used in warfare for almost another 100 years , as their speed and agility over rough terrain remained unequalled . Working horses had all but disappeared from Britain by the 1980s , and today horses in Britain are kept almost wholly for recreational purposes .
= = Pleistocene epoch = =
The earliest horse remains found in the area now covered by Britain and Ireland date to the Middle Pleistocene . Two species of horse have been identified from remains at Pakefield , East Anglia , dating back to 700 @,@ 000 BC . Spear damage on a horse shoulder bone discovered at Eartham Pit , Boxgrove , dated 500 @,@ 000 BC , showed that early hominids were hunting horses in the area at that time . The land which now comprises the British Isles was periodically joined to continental Europe by a land bridge , extending from approximately the current coast of North Yorkshire to the English Channel , most recently until about 9 @,@ 000 years ago . Dependent on the rise and fall of sea levels associated with advancing and retreating Ice ages , this allowed humans and fauna to migrate between these areas ; as the climate fluctuated , hunters could follow their prey , including equids .
Although much of Britain from this time is now beneath the sea , remains have been discovered on land that show horses were present , and being hunted , in this period . Significant finds include a horse tooth dating from between 55 @,@ 000 and 47 @,@ 000 BC and horse bones dating from between 50 @,@ 000 and 45 @,@ 000 BC , recovered from Pin Hole Cave , in the Creswell Crags ravine in the North Midlands ; further horse remains from the same era have been recovered from Kent 's Cavern . In Robin Hood Cave , also in Creswell Crags , a horse tooth was recovered dating from between 32 @,@ 000 and 24 @,@ 000 BC ; this cave has also preserved one of the earliest examples of prehistoric artwork in Britain – an engraving of a horse , on a piece of horse bone . A goddess figurine carved from horse bone and dating from around 23 @,@ 000 BC has been recovered from Paviland Cave in South Wales .
Horse remains dating to the later part of this period – roughly coinciding with the end of the last glacial period – have been found at Farndon Fields , Nottinghamshire , dating from around 12 @,@ 000 BC . Mother Grundy 's Parlour , also in Creswell Crags , contains horse remains showing cut marks indicating that hunting of horses occurred there around 10 @,@ 000 BC . A study of Victoria Cave in North Yorkshire produced a horse bone showing cut marks dating from about the same time .
= = Holocene period = =
The Holocene period began around 11 @,@ 700 years ago and continues to the present . Identified with the current warm period , known as " Marine Isotope Stage 1 " , or MIS 1 , the Holocene is considered an interglacial period in the current Ice Age . Horse remains dating from the Mesolithic period , or Middle Stone Age , early in the Holocene , have been found in Britain , though much of Mesolithic Britain now lies under the North Sea , the Irish Sea and the English Channel , and material which may include archaeological evidence for the presence of the horse in Britain continues to be washed into the sea , by rivers and coastal erosion .
During the Devensian glaciation , the northernmost part of the peninsula from which Britain was formed was covered with glacial ice , and the sea level was about 120 metres ( 390 ft ) lower than it is today . This glacial ice advanced and retreated several times during this period , and much of what is now the North Sea and the English Channel was an expanse of low @-@ lying tundra , which , around 12 @,@ 000 BC , extended northwards to a point roughly parallel with Aberdeenshire , in eastern Scotland . In 1998 , archaeologist B.J. Coles named this low @-@ lying area " Doggerland " , in which the River Thames flowed somewhat to the north of its current route , joining the Rhine to flow west to the Atlantic Ocean along the line of what is now the English Channel . Human hunters roamed this land , which , by about 8000 BC , had a varied coastline of lagoons , salt marshes , mudflats , beaches , inland streams , rivers , marshes , and included lakes . It may have been the richest hunting , fowling and fishing ground available to the people of Mesolithic Europe .
Horse remains dating from 10 @,@ 500 – 8 @,@ 000 BC have been recovered from Sewell 's Cave , Flixton , Seamer Carr , Uxbridge and Thatcham . Remains dating from around 7 @,@ 000 BC have been found in Gough 's Cave in Cheddar .
Although there is an apparent absence of horse remains between 7000 BC and 3500 BC , there is evidence that wild horses remained in Britain after it became an island separate from Europe by about 5 @,@ 500 BC . Pre @-@ domestication wild horse bones have been found in Neolithic tombs of the Severn @-@ Cotswold type , dating from around 3500 BC .
= = Domestication in pre @-@ Roman times = =
Domesticated horses were present in Bronze Age Britain from around 2000 BC . Bronze Age horse trappings including snaffle bits have been found which were used in harnessing horses to vehicles ; Bronze Age cart wheels have been found at Flag Fen and Blair Drummond , the latter dating from around 1255 – 815 BC , though these may have belonged to vehicles pulled by oxen . Early Bronze Age evidence for horses being ridden is lacking , though bareback riding may have involved materials which have not survived or have not been found ; but horses were ridden in battle in Britain by the late Bronze Age . Domesticated ponies were on Dartmoor by around 1500 BC .
Excavations of Iron Age sites have recovered horse bones from ritual pits at a temple site near Cambridge , and around twenty Iron Age chariot burials have been found , including one of a woman discovered at Wetwang Slack . The majority of Iron Age chariot burials in Britain are associated with the Arras culture , and in most cases the chariots were dismantled before burial . Exceptions are the Ferrybridge and Newbridge chariots , which are the only ones found to have been buried intact . The Newbridge burial has been radiocarbon dated to 520 – 370 BC , and the Ferrybridge burial is likely to be of similar date .
Towards the end of the Iron Age , there is much evidence for the use of horses in transport and battle , and for extensive trade between the inhabitants of Britain and other cultures . A collection of Iron Age artefacts from Polden Hill in Somerset includes a very large hoard of horse gear , and a rare , cast copper alloy cheekpiece dating from the late , pre @-@ Roman Iron Age was found in St Ewe , Cornwall . The horse was an important figure in Bronze Age and Iron Age Celtic religion and myth , and is symbolised in the hill figure of the Uffington White Horse , near the Iron Age hill fort of Uffington Castle in Oxfordshire .
= = Roman Britain to the Norman Conquest = =
By the time of Julius Caesar 's attempted invasion of Britain in 55 BC , the inhabitants of Britain included proficient horsemen . Caesar 's forces were met by British horsemen and war chariots , the chariots outfighting the Gaulish horsemen who had accompanied him . Caesar later faced organised resistance led by Cassivellaunus , with over 4 @,@ 000 war chariots . To the east of the Pennines , the Romans also encountered the Gabrantovici , or " horse @-@ riding warriors . " The spread and development of horse trappings recovered from this period , such as bits , strap junctions and terrets , have been used to indicate the withdrawal of ruling groups of Britons during the Roman conquest of Britain .
A large amount of horse dung has been found in a well at a Roman fort in Lancaster , Lancashire , which was a base for cavalry units in the 1st and 2nd centuries . The bones of 28 horses have been found in a Roman well at Dunstable , Bedfordshire , which was a Roman posting @-@ station on Watling Street , where horses would have been kept . These horses had been butchered for horsemeat ; but a revival of the cult of the Celtic goddess Epona , protector of horses , donkeys and mules , may account for horse carcasses buried whole at Dunstable , with " special care " . Buried with humans in a 4th – 5th century cemetery , these horses represent a belief that Epona protected the dead .
One of the earliest records of British horses being recognised for their quality and exported dates from the Roman era ; many British horses were taken to Italy to improve native stock . Some of the earliest evidence of horses used for sport in Britain also dates from Roman times , a chariot @-@ racing arena having been discovered at Colchester , in Essex .
From the 5th century , the role of the horse in Anglo @-@ Saxon culture is partly illustrated by the number of words for " horse " in Old English . These distinguish between cart horses ( two words ) , pack horses ( two words ) , riding horses ( three words ) , horses for breeding ( three words , male and female ) , horses suitable for royalty and aristocracy ( five words , of which three were mainly used in poetry ) , and warhorses ( one word ) . There was no word for " plough horse , " and no evidence that horses were used for ploughing in Anglo @-@ Saxon times , when this was still done by ox teams ; but Domesday Book records a horse used for harrowing , in 1086 . Horses were used predominantly for transporting goods and people ; numerous English place @-@ names , such as Stadhampton , Stoodleigh and Studham , refer to the keeping of " studs " , in this case " herds " , of horses ; and Anglo @-@ Saxon stirrups and spurs have been found by archaeologists . Horses were also raced for sport , and a " race @-@ course " in Kent is mentioned in a charter of King Eadred , dated 949 .
There is some evidence that horses were occasionally eaten , perhaps in a hard winter , or ridden until five years of age and then slaughtered for meat ; but there are many references in medieval sources indicating that the Anglo @-@ Saxons placed a high value on horses . They were often included in the price paid for land and in bequests and other gifts , and kings ' servants included horse @-@ thegns , or marshals . Numerous horses and horse @-@ breeding establishments were recorded in Domesday Book , though many more horses were probably omitted , given the need for horses for riding and pulling carts . Only 71 smiths are recorded in Domesday Book , but others " must be concealed under the heading of other classes . " Six smiths in Hereford were obliged to supply 120 horseshoes each year for the maintenance of horses belonging to warriors .
Horses held religious significance in Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism . The 8th century historian Bede , of Jarrow , in Northumbria , wrote that the first Anglo @-@ Saxon chieftains , in the 5th century , were Hengist and Horsa – Old English words for " stallion " and " horse " , respectively . Modern scholars regard Hengist and Horsa as horse deities venerated by pagan Anglo @-@ Saxons , euhemerised into ancestors of Anglo @-@ Saxon royalty , and stemming from the divine twins of Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European religion , with cognates in various other Indo @-@ European cultures .
Horses appear frequently in accounts concerning miraculous events in the context of Anglo @-@ Saxon Christianity . In the 7th century , a horse is reported to have revealed warm bread and some meat when St Cuthbert was hungry , by pulling straw from the roof of a hut ; and , when Cuthbert was suffering from a diseased knee , he was visited by an angel on horseback , who helped him to heal his knee . In the 8th century , the Anglo @-@ Saxon Bishop Willibald of Eichstätt wrote that , when a source of fresh water was needed for a monastery on the site where St Boniface had died , in the kingdom of Frisia , the ground gave way under the forelegs of a horse , and , when the horse was pulled free , a fountain of spring water came out of the ground and formed a brook . In the 10th century , King Edmund I is reported to have been saved from death while chasing a deer on horseback when he prayed for forgiveness for his maltreatment of St Dunstan , and thereafter made him abbot of Glastonbury : the horse stopped at the edge of a cliff , over which the deer and hunting dogs had already fallen . On a later occasion , a horse fell dead under Dunstan when he heard a voice from heaven telling him that King Eadred had died .
Although there is reference to Viking horsemen fighting in the 10th century Battle of Sulcoit , in Ireland , their primary use for horses in Britain – some of which they captured or seized , and some of which they brought with them – was to facilitate rapid travel . This is a central purpose for which horses were used in Anglo @-@ Saxon England , particularly in warfare , since conflict between the various Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms was carried out over long distances . In the 7th century , King Penda of Mercia , in central England , took his armies north to Bamburgh , nearly 50 miles ( 80 km ) north of Hadrian 's Wall ; and Oswald of Northumbria was killed fighting the Mercians in Shropshire . These armies probably rode horses to war , and the maintenance of horses was required of many , or perhaps all , who held land under Anglo @-@ Saxon kings . In the 7th century , an Anglo @-@ Saxon warrior was buried with his horse at Sutton Hoo ; carvings on Anglo @-@ Saxon stone crosses feature warriors on horseback ; and 62 " warhorses " are recorded in Domesday Book . In the 11th century , Anglo @-@ Saxon warriors on horseback fought successfully against Viking , Welsh and Scottish armies , the latter including Norman allies .
Duke William of Normandy shipped horses across the English Channel when he invaded England in 1066 , and the outcome of the subsequent Battle of Hastings has been described as " the inevitable victory of stirruped cavalry over helpless infantry " . The Battle of Hastings took place in King Harold of England 's former earldom , at the centre of his property and connections ; but it came less than three weeks after he had taken an army north and defeated Norwegian invaders , under King Harald Hardrada , at the Battle of Stamford Bridge , near York . Harold of England had then been " strong in cavalry " . However , that battle had seriously depleted the English king 's resources in the south , and , although he re @-@ inforced his army in London on his way to meet the Norman invaders , the force which he brought to the Battle of Hastings was smaller than that which fought at the Battle of Stamford Bridge . No English cavalry was deployed :
[ This ] was a tactical decision ... The [ English ] troops withstood four Norman cavalry charges before they finally broke and this may well have been due to the deaths of commanders rather than the superiority of the invaders ' mounted troops .
Although these mounted troops have been described as cavalry , their weapons and armour were similar to those of foot soldiers , and they did not fight as an organised group in the way that cavalries are normally understood to have done .
= = Medieval period to the Industrial Age = =
The improvement of horses for various purposes began in earnest during the Middle Ages . King Alexander I of Scotland ( c . 1078 – 1124 ) imported two horses of Eastern origin into Britain , in the first documented import of oriental horses . King John of England ( 1199 – 1216 ) imported 100 Flemish stallions to continue the improvement of the " great horse " for tournament and breeding . At the coronation of Edward I of England and his queen Eleanor of Castile in 1274 , royal and aristocratic guests gave away hundreds of their own horses , to whoever could catch them .
[ When King Edward ] was sat at his meat king [ Alexander III ] of Scotland came to do him service ... and a hundred knights with him , horsed and arrayed . And when they were light off their horses , they let their horses go whither they would , and they that could catch them had them to their own behoof . ... [ The Earl of Pembroke and the Earl of Warenne each ] led a horse by their hand , and a hundred of their knights did the same . And when they were alight off their horses they let them go wherever they would , and they that could take them had them still at their liking .
King Edward III of England ( 1312 – 1377 ) imported 50 Spanish stallions , and three " great horses " from France . He was a passionate supporter of hunting , the tournament , and horse racing , in which Spanish horses known as " running horses " were then primarily involved .
Horse ownership was widespread by the 12th century . Both tenant farmers and landlords were involved in the harrowing of land for arable crops in the relatively new open field system , and employed horses for this work . Horses and carts were increasingly used for transporting farm goods and implements ; peasants were obliged to transport such items in their own carts , though the poorest may have had to rely on one horse for all their farm work . The necessity for carting produce revolutionised communication between villages . Horse @-@ breeding as an enterprise continued ; in the 14th century , Hexham Priory had 80 broodmares , the Prior of Durham owned two stud farms , Rievaulx Abbey owned one , Gilbert d 'Umfraville , Earl of Angus , in Scotland , had significant grazing lands for mares , and horse @-@ breeding was being carried out both east and west of the Pennines .
The introduction of the horse @-@ drawn , four @-@ wheeled wagon in Britain , by the early 15th century at the latest , meant that much heavier loads could be hauled , but brought with it the necessity for horse teams capable of hauling those heavier loads over the poor roads of the time . Where loads were suitable , and the ground was exceptionally poor , pack horses had an advantage over wagons as they needed fewer handlers , were faster , and could travel over much rougher ground . By that time , post @-@ horses were available for general hire in post @-@ stage towns on principal routes in England . These were used by royal messengers with warrants from the Privy Council to hire horses at half price , but they would be delayed if all available horses were already engaged . In 1482 , while in Scotland , King Edward IV established a temporary relay of riders between London and Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed , which allowed messages to be transmitted within two days , and appears to have imitated a system used by Louis XI of France . London merchants established a private post @-@ horse system for correspondence with Calais , France , in 1496 . Henry VIII appointed the first British Master of the Post in 1512 : he established local postmasters , whose post @-@ boys would carry royal mail from one stage to the next on horseback , in a system which " combined elements of several European models " .
By the early 16th century , horse teams were beginning to replace ox teams in ploughing work in Britain because of their greater speed , strength and agility , particularly on lighter soils ; in heavier soils ox teams retained an advantage , both because they pulled more steadily , albeit more slowly , and because they could work despite being fed by grazing alone . While the horse collar , which allows a horse greater freedom to pull heavy loads , had been used in western Europe by the 10th century , and may be shown in the Bayeux Tapestry of the 11th or 12th century , the use of horse teams in Britain was made possible in part because of an increase in the farming of oats , a staple food for hard @-@ working horses .
During the Hundred Years War of the 14th – 15th centuries , the English government banned the export of horses in times of crisis ; in the 16th century , Henry VII passed a number of laws relating to the breeding and export of horses in an attempt to improve the British stock , under which it was forbidden to allow uncastrated male horses to be turned out in fields or on common land ; they had to be " kept within bounds and tied in stalls . " This ruling caused inconvenience , and the practice of gelding horses became widespread . In 1535 , Henry VIII passed the Breed of Horses Act aimed at improving the height and strength of horses ; no stallion under 15 hands ( 60 inches , 152 cm ) and no mare under 13 hands ( 52 inches , 132 cm ) was permitted to run out on common land , or to run wild , and no two @-@ year @-@ old colt under 11 @.@ 2 hands ( 46 inches , 117 cm ) was allowed to run out in any area with mares . Annual round @-@ ups on common land were enforced , and any stallion under the height limit was ordered to be destroyed , along with " all unlikely [ small horses ] whether mares or foals . " Henry VIII also established a stud for breeding imported horses such as the Spanish Jennet , Neapolitan coursers , Irish Hobbies , Flemish " roiles " , or draught horses , and Scottish " nags " , or riding horses . However , it was reported in 1577 that this had " little effect " ; soon after , in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , Nicholas Arnold was said to have bred " the best horses in England " .
During the successive reigns of queens Mary I and Elizabeth I , laws were introduced with the aim of reducing horse theft , requiring all sale transactions of horses to be recorded . Laws calling for swingeing culls of " under @-@ height " horses were partially repealed by Elizabeth I in 1566 . Areas of poor quality land could not support the weight of horses desired by Henry VIII , and were exempted because of " their rottenness ... [ They ] are not able to breed beare and bring forth such great breeds of [ stallions ] as by the statute of 32 Henry VIII is expressed , without peril of miring and perishing of them " . This allowed many of Britain 's mountain and moorland pony breeds to escape slaughter . Human population expansion in Britain during the reign of Elizabeth , and the resulting necessity for improvements in transport , increased the demand for good horses . Horse transport was so extensive at the time that on one morning alone 2 @,@ 200 horses were counted on the road between Shoreditch , just north of the city of London , and Enfield , about 14 @.@ 6 miles ( 23 km ) further north .
During the Tudor and Stuart periods , horse ownership was more widespread in Britain than in continental Europe , but it suffered a decline in the harsh economic environment of the late 16th and early 17th centuries . With economic recovery , the number of horse owners increased again . Travel became more popular , along with the hiring of horses , although a common practice at the time was for a traveller to buy a horse for a journey , and then sell it on arrival at his destination . Horses had been raced in Britain for hundreds of years by the time of King James VI of Scotland ( 1567 – 1625 ) , but he brought the sport as it is known today into England from Scotland while he was king of both countries ( 1603 – 1625 ) ; he organised public races in a number of places , and continued to import quality animals aimed at the development of a new , lighter , faster type of horse .
When Gervase Markham published his Cavalarice , or the English Horseman in 1617 , farmers were not only using pack horses , farm horses and cart horses , but were also breeding horses for saddling and driving . Markham recommended crossing native horses with other breeds for particular purposes , for example suggesting Turks or Irish Hobbies as an outcross to produce riding animals , Friesland and Flanders horses to produce light driving animals , and German heavy draught horses to produce heavy haulage animals . Horse fairs were numerous , and some of the earliest mentions of specific breeds , such as Cleveland horses and Suffolk Punch horses , date from this time . Large Dutch horses were imported by King William III ( 1650 – 1702 ) when he discovered that existing cart horses did not have the strength for the task of draining the Fens . These horses became known as Lincolnshire Blacks , and the English heavy draught horses of today are their descendants . By the middle of the 17th century , the reputation of the British horse throughout Europe had become so good that , according to Sir Jonas Moore in 1703 , " since the peace treaty with France , farmers had been offered by Frenchmen three times the accustomed price for their horses " .
During the reign of Charles I ( 1625 – 1649 ) , passion for racing and racehorses , and for swift horses for the hunting field , became the focus of horse breeding to the point that there was a dearth of the heavier horses used in tournament and for warfare . This led to complaints , as there was still a need for stronger , more powerful types of horse . The English Civil War , from 1642 to 1651 , disrupted horse racing ; Oliver Cromwell banned horse racing and ordered that all race horses and spectators at such an event should be seized . He concentrated on the breeding of animals suited as cavalry horses , by encouraging crossbreeding of lightweight racing horses with the heavier working horses , and effectively produced a new type of horse altogether in the warmblood . The export of any horse other than geldings was prohibited , and the ending of the war resulted in hardship for horse breeders , as demand for their horses was significantly reduced ; but an illicit trade in horses flourished with wealthier Europeans , who wanted to buy from the vastly @-@ improved British stock . It was not until 1656 that legislation removed the restrictions on horses for export . With the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , the breeding of quality horses was begun again " from scratch " .
Horse @-@ powered agricultural implements were improved during this period . By 1600 , a lighter plough which could be drawn by two horses , the " Dutch plough " , was used in eastern England ; this was followed in 1730 by the lightweight Rotherham plough , an unwheeled , or " swing " plough . It was advertised as reducing ploughing times by a third , or using a third less horsepower for the same ploughing time . The improved seed drill and horse @-@ hoe were invented by Jethro Tull in 1731 ; but it took more than 100 years for these designs to come into common use . The earliest horse @-@ powered threshing machines , which were installed permanently in barns , were developed towards the end of the 18th century .
The use of fast horse @-@ drawn coaches , known as ' Flying Coaches ' , began in 1669 . Travelling between London and Oxford by coach had involved an overnight stay at Beaconsfield , but Oxford University organised a project to allow completion of the journey between sunrise and sunset . The project succeeded , and was quickly copied by Cambridge University ; by the end of Charles II 's reign , in 1685 , Flying Coaches ran three times a week from London to all major towns , in good conditions covering a distance of around fifty miles in a day . The Thoroughbred horse was developed from about this time , with native mares being crossbred to Arab , Turk and Barb horses to produce excellent racehorses ; the General Stud Book , giving clear and detailed pedigrees , was first published in the 1790s , and the lineage of today 's Thoroughbred horses can be traced with great accuracy to 1791 . Horses running in races sponsored by the monarchy then carried weights of around 12 stone ( 76 kg ) , more than the usual weight of 8 – 10 stone ( 51 – 64 kg ) , indicating that horse racing , hunting and chasing partly originated in a need for military training .
The Mail coach service began towards the end of the 18th century , adding to the existing use of fast coaches . The horses required for fast coaches were mainly produced by outcrossing heavy farm mares to the lighter racing type of horse , as a combination of speed , agility , endurance and strength was required . While the aristocracy and gentry paid high prices for matched teams of quality horses , farmers sold the best of their animals at a good profit , keeping lower @-@ quality animals for themselves , or for sale as saddle horses . The coaching trade grew from the trade in carriage of goods ; some public transport was provided by farmers , who could keep large numbers of horses on their own farms more cheaply than those who had to buy in food and forage . However , proprietors of coaching inns accounted for most of the trade . In many cases a proprietor would work his horse teams only in his local district , but some owned many coaching establishments , and could provide transport over much greater distances . An advantage to proprietors of a string of coaching inns was that passengers on their coaches also used and paid for the services offered by their inns , often including overnight accommodation . Some inn proprietors owned hundreds of horses .
= = 19th and 20th centuries = =
Horses remained the primary source of power for agriculture , mining , transport and warfare , until the arrival of the steam engine . The Middleton Railway had been established for industrial use by an Act of Parliament in 1785 ; Parliament also allowed the construction of the Surrey Iron Railway , intended to carry goods , in 1801 , and the Oystermouth Railway , later known as the Swansea and Mumbles Railway , in 1804 . These initially used horse @-@ drawn vehicles , but developments in steam engines made them cheaper to run than horses , and more useful as a source of locomotive power on railways . The Swansea and Mumbles Railway was the first to carry paying passengers , from 1807 , and was soon followed by many others , with Parliament passing around one new railway Act per year until 1821 . By 1840 , numerous railway lines had been laid , forming networks such as that created by George Hudson ; the number of rail miles expanded from 1 @,@ 497 in 1840 to 6 @,@ 084 by 1850 , and horse @-@ drawn passenger coaches became virtually obsolete over long distances .
Use of the steam engine also began to make the horse redundant in farm work . In a letter to The Farmer 's Magazine in 1849 , Alderman Kell of Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye , Herefordshire , commented that " [ enough ] ... has been said , although perhaps not mathematically correct , to show that horses are kept at vast expense in comparison with a steam engine that eats only when it works . " With the invention of the portable steam engine in the 1840s , which was promoted by the Royal Agricultural Society , steam @-@ powered machines could be used on small farms . One man could invest in a portable machine , and recoup the cost by hiring it out for haymaking and harvest ; the only use for horses here was to move the machine from one place to another . There were about 3 @.@ 3 million horses in late Victorian Britain . In 1900 about a million of these were working horses , but by 1914 this number had dropped to between 20 @,@ 000 and 25 @,@ 000 .
Horses and ponies began to be used in Britain 's mining pits in the 18th century , to haul " tubs " of coal and ore from the working face to the lifts , in deep mines , or to the surface in shallower mines . Many of these ponies were Shetlands , as their small size was combined with great strength . A stud farm for the sole purpose of breeding ponies for the pits was established in 1870 by colliery owner Frederick Stewart , 4th Marquess of Londonderry , and the Shetland Pony Stud Book Society was formed in 1890 to stop the use of the best stallions in the pits . By 1984 , only 55 pit ponies were being used by the National Coal Board in Britain , chiefly at the modern pit in Ellington , Northumberland . A horse called " Robbie " , probably the last to work underground in a British coal mine , was retired from a mine at Pant y Gasseg , near Pontypool , in May 1999 .
In the First World War , horses were used in combat for cavalry charges , and they remained the best means for moving scouts , messengers , supply wagons , ambulances , and artillery quickly on the battlefield ; the horse could refuel itself to some extent by grazing , and could cope with terrain which was beyond machines of the time . However , this war had a devastating effect on the British horse population . As thousands of animals were drafted for the war effort , some breeds were so reduced in number that they were in danger of disappearing . Many breeds were saved by the dedicated efforts of a few breeders who formed breed societies , tracking down remaining animals and registering them .
= = 21st century = =
Working horses all but disappeared from Britain 's streets by the 21st century ; among few exceptions are heavy horses pulling brewers ' wagons , or drays . However , when Young 's Brewery ceased brewing in Wandsworth , London , in 2006 , it ended more than 300 years ' use of dray horses by the brewery : its team of Shire horses was retired from delivery work and given a new career with the head horsekeeper , offering heavy horse team driving as a recreational event , although they continue to appear at opening ceremonies for new Young 's pubs and other publicity events . There are still working brewery horses in other areas , such as Wadworth Brewery 's Shire horses in Devizes , Wiltshire , but working teams are becoming increasingly rare . In some areas , such as the New Forest , local farmers and commoners use horses to round up thousands of semi @-@ feral ponies grazing on the open Forest during the drift season , and Britain 's mounted police use horses in crowd control , but other than such niche areas , the horse in Britain today is kept almost entirely for recreational purposes . They compete in all equestrian disciplines , carry riders from novice to advanced on trekking and trail @-@ riding holidays , work in riding schools , provide therapy for the disabled , and are much @-@ loved companions and hacks . The horses and riders of Great Britain have won numerous medals for eventing in equestrian sports at the Summer Olympic Games .
= Arizona Robbins =
Arizona Robbins , M.D. is a fictional character on the ABC television series Grey 's Anatomy , portrayed by Jessica Capshaw . She was introduced in the show 's fifth season as an attending surgeon and the new chief of pediatric surgery . Originally contracted to appear in three episodes , Capshaw 's contract was extended to the remainder of the fifth season , with her becoming a series regular in the sixth season .
Robbins has been characterized as " quirky " and " perky " , and is well known for wearing roller skates and a Holly Hobbie pink scrub cap , designed to appeal to her younger patients . She was established as a love @-@ interest for orthopedic resident Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) after the Torres ' storyline with Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) was cut short due to what series creator Shonda Rhimes called " a lack of chemistry " . Shonda Rhimes was in contrast pleased with the chemistry between Robbins and Torres , citing the addition of Capshaw to the cast as an element of the season of which she was most proud . Initial media reaction to the character was positive . Matt Mitovich of TV Guide described her as a " fan favorite " , and Chris Monfette for IGN praised the addition of " fresh , new characters " , such as Robbins over the course of the season .
= = Storylines = =
Following the death of Dr. Jordan Kenley ( John Sloman ) , Chief Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) replaces his head of pediatric surgery with Dr. Arizona Robbins , a graduate of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine . Robbins has a romantic interest in orthopedic 5 resident Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) , and kisses her . The two embark on a relationship , but when Torres ' father , Carlos ( Héctor Elizondo ) , learns of the relationship , he threatens to cut her off financially unless she returns home with him . When Torres ' father returns to Seattle and continues to reject his daughter 's sexuality , Robbins is able to convince him to reconsider . She tells Mr. Torres that her father was able to accept her own sexuality , as she promised him she was still the " good man in a storm " he raised her to be , and that Torres is still the same person he raised . Torres is dismayed to learn that Robbins doesn 't want children , and the two come to a conclusion that they cannot continue their relationship , since they both want different things . However , after a shooter enters Seattle Grace with a vendetta for Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , and Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) , they are in lockdown together , and the two reconcile .
Robbins receives word that she has been given a grant to go to Malawi , and become a doctor there . In the end , Torres is shown to have accepted this as well and has decided to leave with Robbins . However , a fight at the airport results in Robbins leaving for Malawi without Torres , ending their relationship . She returns , hoping to rekindle her relationship with Torres , but is initially rejected . Eventually , Torres reveals that she is pregnant with Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) ' s baby . Robbins accepts the situation , and she and Torres restart their relationship . Torres gifts Robbins with a weekend getaway , and Robbins proposes to Torres . After proposing , the two get in a car crash leaving Torres in critical condition . A series of surgeries follows , including the delivery of her premature baby , along with emotional breakdowns of both Sloan and Robbins . Upon the awakening of Torres , she accepts her marriage proposal , and the two are married by Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) . As the fifth year residents are coming close to the end of their residency , Robbins urges Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) to work under her . At the end of the eighth season , Robbins is hurt badly in a plane crash , resulting in her left leg being amputated . In the aftermath of the plane accident , in which Sloan and Lexie Grey were killed , the hospital is sued and eventually found guilty of negligence . Each victim including Shepherd , Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , and Robbins herself must receive $ 15 million of compensation , which leads the hospital to a near bankruptcy as the insurances refuse to pay . Those doctors and Callie buy the hospital with the help of the Harper @-@ Avery Foundation to prevent it from closing , and each become members of the new directing board . Robbins is initially cold towards Callie because she was the one who decided for an amputation . She also struggles with body image issues , but they slowly reconcile as Robbins tries to adapt to her new life . When Dr. Lauren Boswell ( Hilarie Burton ) arrives at the hospital to reconstruct the face of a baby and flirts with Robbins , she is flattered that a stranger still finds her attractive despite knowing about her injury and the two have a one @-@ night stand .
After finding out that Arizona cheated on her with Lauren , Callie kicks Arizona out of their apartment . They also let out their true feelings about the accident and more is revealed about how they actually have felt . Callie initially agrees to couples therapy , but she shows up at the office only to tell Arizona that she isn 't going in . Arizona gets drunk with April for a laugh while Callie , who is at the fundraiser , tells people that Arizona died in the plane crash . Arizona is led to believe that she and Leah slept together , however all they did was dance and make grilled cheese sandwiches after watching Derek perform surgery on film . Arizona pursues a sexual relationship with Leah but cuts ties with her when Callie asks her to come back home . It is revealed that Arizona became pregnant via a sperm donor prior to sleeping with Lauren . They decided to try again for a second child , but after agreeing that Callie would carry it , Callie went to see an OB / GYN and discovered that she had developed adhesions in her uterus since Sofia 's birth , meaning she can 't carry any more children . When she told Arizona , Arizona offered to carry the baby , but Callie decided that since they 're still on unsteady footing that if something goes wrong , they won 't make it and she doesn 't want to put them in that position . They agree to postpone their plans to have another baby . However , in the season finale of Season 10 it is implied that Callie and Arizona 's dream of having other child may come by means of a surrogate . At the beginning of Season 11 , Callie and Arizona decide to have a baby by surrogate and Arizona applies for a fetal surgery fellowship with Dr. Herman . Arizona , with a heavy workload because of the fellowship , and Callie have an argument in the waiting room , and they choose to go to therapy together , resulting in a 30 @-@ day break . Arizona believes that the break strengthened their relationship and made her realize that she needs Callie - Callie on the other hand declares that the break gave her a taste of the freedom that she has been missing . Callie walks away and the two get a divorce later .
Callie wants to take Sofia and move to New York with Penny but Arizona does not want to be separated from her daughter so she hires a lawyer and they go to court for a custody battle . After a long case , Arizona wins sole custody of Sofia. but in the end she ends up sharing Sofia with Callie because she thinks that ; ' both of Sofia 's moms deserve to be happy ' .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
It was first reported in December 2008 that Capshaw would be joining the cast of Grey 's Anatomy as pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins , for a multi @-@ episode arc . Initially scheduled to appear in three episodes of the show 's fifth season , series creator Shonda Rhimes later extended Capshaw 's contract to appear in all of the season 's remaining episodes , becoming a series regular in the sixth season . Speaking of the new addition , Rhimes said :
I love Jessica Capshaw , and when I say love I mean love . She couldn 't be a more wonderful person , and I feel like the chemistry Arizona and Callie have feels like the Meredith and Derek chemistry to me . I find them delightful to watch .
This promotion saw Robbins become the only lesbian series regular on primetime TV . Robbins is described as " quirky [ and ] perky " by TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich , and " a clear and rational surgeon who is not ruled by her emotions " by Kris De Leon of BuddyTV . William Harper , writer of the episode " Beat Your Heart Out " in which Robbins and Torres kiss for the first time , has deemed Robbins : " genuinely , positively interested in people , in the most selfless way . " Commenting on Robbins ' confidence , Capshaw commented : " she never thinks she 's wrong and you don 't hate her for it . There 's no ego though , she just always thinks she 's right and she is . " She is portrayed as having " wacky tendencies " , including wearing roller shoes to work .
= = = Characterization = = =
The American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) characterized Robbins as " confident " , " ambitious " , and " cheerful " . Shortly after her arrival in the show , Robbins became a love @-@ interest for Torres ( Ramirez ) . The relationship between the two is referred to by fans by the portmanteau " Calzona " . Torres ' previous girlfriend Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) was written out of Grey 's Anatomy in 2008 , due to a lack of chemistry between the characters . Rhimes praised the chemistry between Robbins and Torres in contrast , comparing it to that between the show 's primary couple Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) and Shepherd ( Dempsey ) , and stating : " They have that little thing that makes you want to watch them . " Rhimes named the addition of Capshaw to the cast as one of the elements of the season she was most proud of , commenting that she wished she could have found Callie a love interest that " sparkled " sooner , but was pleased with eventually having found one in Robbins .
When Robbins turned Torres down in the episode " An Honest Mistake " due to her inexperience with women , series writer Peter Nowalk offered the insight :
I totally understand why Arizona wouldn 't want to date a newborn . It 's like getting a Freshman as your Physics lab partner even though you 're a Senior who not only knows the Laws of Motion but has mastered them in ways that would rock that Freshman 's world . Which is not to say the Freshman won 't grow to be really good at Physics , or that Callie won 't catch up to Arizona on the lesbian front , it 's simply that Arizona might not have the patience to wait that long .
Although the characters go on to begin a relationship , the show 's one @-@ hundredth episode " What a Difference a Day Makes " sees them experience difficulties as a result of Torres ' father rejecting her for her sexuality . Rhimes commented on their ultimate reconciliation : " I love [ Callie ] with Arizona . [ ... ] I like that they make me feel hopeful about love . " Rhimes has said of their relationship in the sixth season : " I would like to see Callie happily in a long @-@ term relationship . We have so much to explore with them , because we barely know anything about [ Arizona ] . " Capshaw has characterized the relationship as " incredibly understanding and compassionate and sensitive " . She described the sixth season as being about : " cementing a very mature and grounded relationship and taking it forward . This is a drama , of course ; there will be conflict , but for the time being , they 're enjoying being in a relationship that seems stable . "
Asked whether Robbins and Torres might marry in the future , Capshaw replied : " There 's probably a lot more stuff that has to happen before that happens . [ ... ] I don 't think they 're going to get married just to get married . As Arizona goes , I think she has incredible discipline and she does , as you said , have a very strict moral compass and marriage would not be something she would jump into without giving it a great amount of thought . " Discussing Robbins ' relationship with Torres ' former lover Sloan , Capshaw divulged : " Whenever there 's been a chance to play that I am intimidated by him or being standoffish , I 've always chosen to make it very playful . It 's much more Arizona 's style to find it very amusing . "
= = Reception = =
Robbins ranked seventh in a top ten list of gay characters on TV compiled by Jane Boursaw of TV Squad . Boursaw wrote : " She 's a mix of ironies - a pediatrician who glides around the hospital on wheelies , impulsively kisses Callie , then tells her she doesn 't have time to teach a newbie how to be gay . Still , she 's more interesting than the other gays on this show , which are dwindling in numbers since Erica left for parts unknown . " Commenting on Hahn 's abrupt departure from the show , Dorothy Snarker , writing for LGBT website AfterEllen.com observed of Robbins and Torres ' relationship : " I [ ... ] can 't help but be wary of how the Grey 's writers will handle this relationship . Jessica has proven lovely and likable in her brief screen time so far . But it 's not how the romance starts , but what happens next that really matters . " AfterEllen.com also included Robbins in their poll of the Top 50 Lesbian and Bisexual Characters , ranking her at No. 3 and in their Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters , placing her at No. 2 .
Matt Mitovich of TV Guide noted that Robbins " quickly established herself as a fan favorite " , describing her as : " a breath of fresh air in the often angsty halls of Seattle Grace . " Chris Monfette for IGN has opinionated that the fifth season of Grey 's Anatomy was an improvement on the previous two seasons , attributing this in part to the introduction of " fresh , new characters " Robbins and Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) . Monfette wrote that Arizona 's ultimate contribution to the season was " introducing the element of childcare to Seattle Grace " , which in turn gave Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) " a great arc " . Jennifer Godwin for E ! Online approved of Arizona 's season six promotion to a series regular , particularly as it meant the continuation of her relationship with Callie .
The Los Angeles Times 's Carina MacKenzie wrote of the sixth season episode " Invasion " : " By far the best moment in this episode was Robbins ' scene with Torres ' father , Carlos . Jessica Capshaw has an incredible ability to take even the most melodramatic of " Grey 's " speeches and deliver them with a subtlety and an honesty that makes them come off as sincere instead of overwrought . " I was named for a battleship , " she said , and in the powerful monologue that followed , she calmly and carefully explained that Torres was still the woman Carlos raised .
= Cuban macaw =
The Cuban macaw or Cuban red macaw ( Ara tricolor ) was a species of macaw native to the main island of Cuba and the nearby Isla de la Juventud that became extinct in the late 19th century . Its relationship with other macaws in the genus Ara is uncertain , but it may have been closely related to the scarlet macaw , which has some similarities in appearance . It may also have been closely related , or identical , to the hypothetical Jamaican red macaw . No modern skeletons are known , but a few subfossil remains have been found on Cuba .
At about 45 – 50 centimetres ( 18 – 20 in ) long , the Cuban macaw was one of the smallest macaws . It had a red , orange , yellow , and white head , and a red , orange , green , brown , and blue body . Little is known of its behaviour , but it is reported to have nested in hollow trees , lived in pairs or families , and fed on seeds and fruits . The species ' original distribution on Cuba is unknown , but it may have been restricted to the central and western parts of the island . It was mainly reported from the vast Zapata Swamp , where it inhabited open terrain with scattered trees .
The Cuban macaw was traded and hunted by Amerindians , and by Europeans after their arrival in the 15th century . Many individuals were brought to Europe as cagebirds , and 19 museum skins exist today . It had become rare by the mid @-@ 19th century due to pressure from hunting , trade , and habitat destruction . Hurricanes may also have contributed to its demise . The last reliable accounts of the species are from the 1850s on Cuba and 1864 on Isla de la Juventud , but it may have persisted until 1885 .
= = Taxonomy = =
Early explorers of Cuba , such as Christopher Columbus and Diego Álvarez Chanca , mentioned macaws on Cuba in 14th- and 15th @-@ century writings . Cuban macaws were described and illustrated in several early accounts about the island . In 1811 , Johann Matthäus Bechstein scientifically named the species Psittacus tricolor . Bechstein 's description was based on the bird 's entry in François Le Vaillant 's 1801 book Histoire Naturelle des Perroquets . Le Vaillant 's account was itself partially based on the late 1700s work Planches Enuminées and a specimen in Paris ; as it is unknown which specimen this was , the species has no holotype . Jacques Barraband 's original watercolour painting which was the basis of the plate in Le Vaillant 's book differs from the final illustration in showing bright red lesser wing covert feathers ( " shoulder " area ) , but the significance of this is unclear .
Today , 19 skins of the Cuban macaw exist in 15 collections worldwide ( two each in Natural History Museum at Tring , Muséum national d 'histoire naturelle in Paris , the Swedish Museum of Natural History , and the Smithsonian Museum ) , but many are of unclear provenance . Several were provided by Juan Gundlach , who collected some of the last individuals that regularly fed near the Zapata Swamp in 1849 – 50 . Some of the preserved specimens are known to have lived in captivity in zoos ( such as Jardin des Plantes de Paris , Berlin Zoo , and Amsterdam Zoo ) or as cagebirds . Several more skins are known to have existed , but have been lost . There are no records of its eggs .
No modern skeletal remains are known , but three subfossil specimens have been discovered : half a carpometacarpus from a possibly Pleistocene spring deposit in Ciego Montero , identified by extrapolating from the size of Cuban macaw skins and bones of extant macaws ( reported in 1928 ) , a rostrum from a Quaternary cave deposit in Caimito ( reported in 1984 ) , and a worn skull from Sagua La Grande , which was deposited in a waterfilled sinkhole possibly during the Quaternary and associated with various extinct birds and ground sloths ( reported in 2008 ) .
As many as 13 now @-@ extinct species of macaw have variously been suggested to have lived on the Caribbean islands , but many of these were based on old descriptions or drawings and only represent hypothetical species . Only three endemic Caribbean macaw species are known from physical remains : the Cuban macaw , the Saint Croix macaw ( Ara autochthones ) , which is known only from subfossils , and the Lesser Antillean macaw ( Ara guadeloupensis ) , which is known from subfossils and reports . Macaws are known to have been transported between the Caribbean islands and from mainland South America to the Caribbean both in historic times by Europeans and natives , and in prehistoric times by Paleoamericans . Historical records of macaws on these islands , therefore , may not have represented distinct , endemic species ; it is also possible that they were escaped or feral foreign macaws that had been transported to the islands . All the endemic Caribbean macaws were likely driven to extinction by humans in historic and prehistoric times . The identity of these macaws is only likely to be further resolved through fossil finds and examination of contemporary reports and artwork .
The Jamaican red macaw ( Ara gossei ) was named by Walter Rothschild in 1905 on the basis of a description of a specimen shot in 1765 . It was described as being similar to the Cuban macaw , mainly differing in having a yellow forehead . Some researchers believe the specimen described may have been a feral Cuban macaw . A stylised 1765 painting of a macaw by Lieutenant L. J. Robins , published in a volume called The Natural History of Jamaica , matches the Cuban macaw , and may show a specimen that had been imported there ; however , it has also been claimed that the painting shows the Jamaican red macaw . Rothschild 's 1907 book Extinct Birds included a depiction of a specimen in the Liverpool Museum which was presented as a Cuban macaw . In a 1908 review of the book published in The Auk , the reviewer claimed that the picture looked sufficiently dissimilar from known Cuban macaws that the specimen may actually be of one of the largely unknown species of macaw , such as a species from Haiti . The reviewer 's objection has not been accepted .
In 1985 , David Wetherbee suggested that extant specimens of the Cuban macaw had come from both Cuba and Hispaniola , based on his interpretation of an 1888 report . He believed the name Ara tricolor applied to the supposed Hispaniolan species , and therefore coined the new name Ara cubensis for the Cuban species . This hypothesis has not been accepted by other researchers , and there is no clear evidence for a species of macaw on Hispaniola . The trinomial name Ara tricolor haitius was coined for a supposed Hispaniolan macaw by Dieter Hoppe in 1983 , but is now considered to have been based on erroneous records .
Since detailed descriptions of extinct macaws exist only for the species on Cuba , it is impossible to determine the species ' relationships . It has been suggested that the closest mainland relative of the Cuban macaw is the scarlet macaw ( Ara macao ) , due to the similar distribution of red and blue in their plumage , and the presence of a white patch around the eyes , naked except for lines of small red feathers . Furthermore , the range of the scarlet macaw extends to the margins of the Caribbean Sea . The Cuban macaw is distinct due to its lack of a yellow shoulder patch , its all @-@ black beak , and its smaller size . The two also share a species of feather mite , which supports their relationship . James Greenway believed the scarlet macaw and the Cuban macaw formed a superspecies with the other extinct species suggested to have inhabited Jamaica , Hispaniola and Guadeloupe .
= = Description = =
The Cuban macaw had a red forehead fading to orange and then to yellow at the nape of the neck . It had white unfeathered areas around the eyes , and yellow irises . The face , chin , chest , abdomen and thighs were orange . The legs were brown . The upper back was brownish red with feathers scalloped with green . The rump , undertail feathers , and lower back were blue . The wing feathers were brown , red and purplish blue . The upper surface of the tail was dark red fading to blue at the tip , and
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the under surface of the tail was brownish red . The beak has variously been described as dark , all @-@ black , and greyish black . The sexes were identical in external appearance , as with other macaws .
About 50 centimetres ( 20 in ) long , the Cuban Macaw was a third smaller than its largest relatives . The wing was 275 – 290 millimetres ( 10 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 4 in ) long , the tail was 215 – 290 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 4 in ) , the culmen 42 – 46 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) , and the tarsus 27 – 30 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) . The subfossil cranium shows that the length between the naso @-@ frontal hinge and the occipital condyle was 47 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 85 in ) , the width across the naso @-@ frontal hinge was about 25 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) , and the width of the postorbital processes was about 40 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) . Details of the skull were similar to other Ara species .
Austin Hobart Clark reported that juvenile Cuban macaws were green , though he did not provide any source for this claim . It is unclear whether green birds spotted on the island were in fact juvenile Cuban macaws or if they were instead feral military macaws ( Ara militaris ) .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Little is known about the behaviour of the Cuban macaw and its extinct Caribbean relatives . Gundlach reported that it vocalised loudly like its Central American relatives and that it lived in pairs or families . Its speech imitation abilities were reportedly inferior to those of other parrots . Nothing is known about its breeding habits or its eggs , but one reported nest was a hollow in a palm .
The skull roof of the subfossil cranium was flattened , indicating the Cuban macaw fed on hard seeds , especially from palms . This is consistent with the habits of their large relatives on mainland South America and distinct from those of smaller , mainly frugivorous relatives . In 1876 , Gundlach wrote that the Cuban macaw ate fruits , seeds of the royal palm ( Roystonea regia ) and the chinaberry tree ( Melia azedarach ) , as well as other seeds and shoots . Cuba has many species of palms , and those found in swamps were probably most important to the Cuban macaw . The pulp surrounding the seeds of the chinaberry tree were probably the part consumed by the Cuban macaw .
In 2005 , a new species of chewing louse , Psittacobrosus bechsteini , was described based on a dead specimen discovered on a museum skin of the Cuban macaw . It is thought to have been unique to this species , and is therefore an example of coextinction . The feather mite species Genoprotolichus eurycnemis and Distigmesikya extincta have also been reported from Cuban macaw skins , the latter new to science .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The breadth of the Cuban macaw 's distribution the time of European settlement on the main island of Cuba is unclear , but the species was reportedly becoming rare by the mid @-@ 19th century . It may have been restricted to the central and western part of Cuba . Most accounts from the 19th century are based on Gundlach 's reports from the immense Zapata Swamp , where the species was somewhat common near the northern edge . By the 1870s , it was becoming rarer and had retreated to the interior . The subfossil skull from Sagua La Grande is the northernmost and easternmost record of the Cuban macaw . One subfossil rostrum was found in a cave . Caves are usually not visited by macaws , but the surrounding region is possibly a former swamp . The Cuban macaw had also inhabited Isla de la Juventud ( previously called the Isle of Pines ) off Cuba , but Outram Bangs and W. R. Zappey reported that the last pair was shot near La Vega in 1864 . Early writers also claimed it lived on Haiti and Jamaica , but this is no longer accepted .
The habitat of the Cuban macaw was open savanna terrain with scattered trees , typical of the Zapata Swamp area . Cuba was originally widely covered in forest , much of which has since been converted to cropland and pastures . Lomas de Rompe , where the macaw was also reported , had rainforest @-@ like gallery forest .
= = Extinction = =
Hunting has been proposed as a factor in the extinction of the Cuban macaw . Parrots were hunted , kept as pets , and traded by Amerindians in the Caribbean before the arrival of Europeans . The Cuban macaw was reportedly " stupid " and slow to escape , and therefore was easily caught . It was killed for food ; Gemelli Careri found the meat tasty , but Gundlach considered it tough . Archaeological evidence suggests the Cuban macaw was hunted in Havana in the 16th – 18th centuries . It may also have been persecuted as a crop pest , though it did not live near dwellings .
In addition to being kept as pets locally , many Cuban macaws ( perhaps thousands of specimens ) were traded and sent to Europe . This trade has also been suggested as a contributing cause for extinction . Judging by the number of preserved specimens that originated as captives , the species was probably not uncommon in European zoos and other collections . It was popular as a cagebird , despite its reputation for damaging items with its beak . Furthermore , collectors caught young birds by observing adults and felling the trees in which they nested , although sometimes nestlings were accidentally killed . This practice reduced population numbers and selectively destroyed the species ' breeding habitat . This means of collection continues today with the Cuban parakeet ( Psittacara euops ) and the Cuban amazon ( Amazona leucocephala ) .
A hurricane in 1844 is said to have wiped out the population of Cuban macaws from Pinar del Río . Subsequent hurricanes in 1846 and 1856 further destroyed their habitat in western Cuba and scattered the remaining population . In addition , a tropical storm hit the Zapata Swamp in 1851 . With a healthy macaw population , such events could have been beneficial by creating suitable habitat . However , given the species ' precarious position , it may have resulted in fragmented habitat and caused them to seek food in areas where they were more vulnerable to hunting .
The extinction date of the Cuban macaw is uncertain . Gundlach 's sightings in the Zapata Swamp in the 1850s and Zappey 's second @-@ hand report of a pair on Isla de la Juventud in 1864 are the last reliable accounts . In 1886 , Gundlach reported that he believed birds persisted in southern Cuba , which led Greenway to suggest that the species survived until 1885 . Parrots are often among the first species to be exterminated from a given locality , especially islands .
According to British writer Errol Fuller , aviculturalists are rumoured to have bred birds similar in appearance to the Cuban macaw . These birds , however , are reportedly larger in size than the Cuban macaw , having been bred from larger macaw species .
= Nikita Khrushchev =
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev ( April 15 [ O.S. April 3 ] 1894 – September 11 , 1971 ) was a politician who led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War . He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 , and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers , or Premier , from 1958 to 1964 . Khrushchev was responsible for the de @-@ Stalinization of the Soviet Union , for backing the progress of the early Soviet space program , and for several relatively liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy . Khrushchev 's party colleagues removed him from power in 1964 , replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier .
Khrushchev was born in the village of Kalinovka in 1894 , close to the present @-@ day border between Russia and Ukraine . He was employed as a metalworker in his youth , and during the Russian Civil War was a political commissar . With the help of Lazar Kaganovich , he worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy . He supported Joseph Stalin 's purges , and approved thousands of arrests . In 1938 , Stalin sent him to govern Ukraine , and he continued the purges there . During what was known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War ( Eastern Front of World War II ) , Khrushchev was again a commissar , serving as an intermediary between Stalin and his generals . Khrushchev was present at the bloody defense of Stalingrad , a fact he took great pride in throughout his life . After the war , he returned to Ukraine before being recalled to Moscow as one of Stalin 's close advisers .
In the power struggle triggered by Stalin 's death in 1953 , Khrushchev , after several years , emerged victorious . On February 25 , 1956 , at the 20th Party Congress , he delivered the " Secret Speech " , denouncing Stalin 's purges and ushering in a less repressive era in the Soviet Union . His domestic policies , aimed at bettering the lives of ordinary citizens , were often ineffective , especially in agriculture . Hoping eventually to rely on missiles for national defense , Khrushchev ordered major cuts in conventional forces . Despite the cuts , Khrushchev 's rule saw the most tense years of the Cold War , culminating in the Cuban Missile Crisis .
Some of Khrushchev 's policies were seen as erratic , particularly by his emerging rivals within the Party , who quietly rose in strength and deposed him in October 1964 . He did not suffer the deadly fate of some previous losers of Soviet power struggles , and was pensioned off with an apartment in Moscow and a dacha in the countryside . His lengthy memoirs were smuggled to the West and published in part in 1970 . Khrushchev died in 1971 of heart disease .
= = Early years = =
Khrushchev was born on April 15 , 1894 , in Kalinovka , a village in what is now Russia 's Kursk Oblast , near the present Ukrainian border . His parents , Sergei Khrushchev and Ksenia Khrushcheva , were poor peasants of Russian origin , and had a daughter two years Nikita 's junior , Irina . Sergei Khrushchev was employed in a number of positions in the Donbas area of far eastern Ukraine , working as a railwayman , as a miner , and laboring in a brick factory . Wages were much higher in the Donbas than in the Kursk region , and Sergei Khrushchev generally left his family in Kalinovka , returning there when he had enough money .
Kalinovka was a peasant village ; Khrushchev 's teacher , Lydia Shevchenko , later stated that she had never seen a village as poor as Kalinovka had been . Nikita worked as a herdsboy from an early age . He was schooled for a total of four years , part in the village parochial school and part under Shevchenko 's tutelage in Kalinovka 's state school . According to Khrushchev in his memoirs , Shevchenko was a freethinker who upset the villagers by not attending church , and when her brother visited , he gave the boy books which had been banned by the Imperial Government . She urged Nikita to seek further education , but family finances did not permit this .
In 1908 , Sergei Khrushchev moved to the Donbas city of Yuzovka ; fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Nikita followed later that year , while Ksenia Khrushcheva and her daughter came after . Yuzovka , which was renamed Stalino in 1924 and Donetsk in 1961 , was at the heart of one of the most industrialized areas of the Russian Empire . After the boy worked briefly in other fields , Khrushchev 's parents found him a place as a metal fitter 's apprentice . Upon completing that apprenticeship , the teenage Khrushchev was hired by a factory . He lost that job when he collected money for the families of the victims of the Lena Goldfields Massacre , and was hired to mend underground equipment by a mine in nearby Rutchenkovo , where his father was the union organizer , and he helped distribute copies and organize public readings of Pravda . He later stated that he considered emigrating to the United States for better wages , but did not do so .
When World War I broke out in 1914 , Khrushchev , as a skilled metal worker , was exempt from conscription . Employed by a workshop which serviced ten mines , Khrushchev was involved in several strikes demanding higher pay , better working conditions , and an end to the war . In 1914 , he married Yefrosinia Pisareva , daughter of the elevator operator at the Rutchenkovo mine . In 1915 , they had a daughter , Yulia , and in 1917 , a son , Leonid .
After the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in 1917 , the new Russian Provisional Government in Petrograd had little influence over Ukraine . Khrushchev was elected to the worker 's council ( or soviet ) in Rutchenkovo , and in May he became its chairman . He did not join the Bolsheviks until 1918 , a year in which the Russian Civil War , between the Bolsheviks and a coalition of opponents known as the White Army , began in earnest . His biographer , William Taubman , suggests that Khrushchev 's delay in affiliating himself with the Bolsheviks was because he felt closer to the Mensheviks who prioritized economic progress , whereas the Bolsheviks sought political power . In his memoirs , Khrushchev indicated that he waited because there were many groups , and it was difficult to keep them all straight .
In March 1918 , as the Bolshevik government concluded a separate peace with the Central Powers , the Germans occupied the Donbas and Khrushchev fled to Kalinovka . In late 1918 or early 1919 he was mobilized into the Red Army as a political commissar . The post of political commissar had recently been introduced as the Bolsheviks came to rely less on worker activists and more on military recruits ; its functions included indoctrination of recruits in the tenets of Bolshevism , and promoting troop morale and battle readiness . Beginning as commissar to a construction platoon , Khrushchev rose to become commissar to a construction battalion and was sent from the front for a two @-@ month political course . The young commissar came under fire many times , though many of the war stories he would tell in later life dealt more with his ( and his troops ' ) cultural awkwardness , rather than with combat . In 1921 , the civil war ended , and Khrushchev was demobilized and assigned as commissar to a labor brigade in the Donbas , where he and his men lived in poor conditions .
The wars had caused widespread devastation and famine , and one of the victims of the hunger and disease was Khrushchev 's wife , Yefrosinia , who died of typhus in Kalinovka while Khrushchev was in the army . The commissar returned for the funeral and , loyal to his Bolshevik principles , refused to allow his wife 's coffin to enter the local church . With the only way into the churchyard through the church , he had the coffin lifted and passed over the fence into the burial ground , shocking the village .
= = Party official = =
= = = Donbas years = = =
Through the intervention of a friend , Khrushchev was assigned in 1921 as assistant director for political affairs for the Rutchenkovo mine in the Donbas region , where he had previously worked . There were as yet few Bolsheviks in the area . At that time , the movement was split by Lenin 's New Economic Policy , which allowed for some measure of private enterprise and was seen as an ideological retreat by some Bolsheviks . While Khrushchev 's responsibility lay in political affairs , he involved himself in the practicalities of resuming full production at the mine after the chaos of the war years . He helped restart the machines ( key parts and papers had been removed by the pre @-@ Soviet mineowners ) and he wore his old mine outfit for inspection tours .
Khrushchev was highly successful at the Rutchenkovo mine , and in mid @-@ 1922 he was offered the directorship of the nearby Pastukhov mine . However , he refused the offer , seeking to be assigned to the newly established technical college ( tekhnikum ) in Yuzovka , though his superiors were reluctant to let him go . As he had only four years of formal schooling , he applied to the training program ( rabfak ) attached to the tekhnikum that was designed to bring undereducated students to high @-@ school level , a prerequisite for entry into the tekhnikum . While enrolled in the rabfak , Khrushchev continued his work at the Rutchenkovo mine . One of his teachers later described him as a poor student . He was more successful in advancing in the Communist Party ; soon after his admission to the rabfak in August 1922 , he was appointed party secretary of the entire tekhnikum , and became a member of the bureau — the governing council — of the party committee for the town of Yuzovka ( renamed Stalino in 1924 ) . He briefly joined supporters of Leon Trotsky against those of Joseph Stalin over the question of party democracy . All of these activities left him with little time for his schoolwork , and while he later claimed to have finished his rabfak studies , it is unclear whether this was true .
In 1922 , Khrushchev met and married his second wife , Marusia , whose maiden name is unknown . The two soon separated , though Khrushchev helped Marusia in later years , especially when Marusia 's daughter by a previous relationship suffered a fatal illness . Soon after the abortive marriage , Khrushchev met Nina Petrovna Kukharchuk , a well @-@ educated Party organizer and daughter of well @-@ to @-@ do Ukrainian peasants . The two lived together as husband and wife for the rest of Khrushchev 's life , though they did not register their marriage until 1965 . They had three children together : daughter Rada was born in 1929 , son Sergei in 1935 and daughter Elena in 1937 .
In mid @-@ 1925 , Khrushchev was appointed Party secretary of the Petrovo @-@ Marinsky raikom , or district , near Stalino . The raikom was about 400 square miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km2 ) in area , and Khrushchev was constantly on the move throughout his domain , taking an interest in even minor matters . In late 1925 , Khrushchev was elected a non @-@ voting delegate to the 14th Congress of the USSR Communist Party in Moscow .
= = = Kaganovich protégé = = =
Khrushchev met Lazar Kaganovich as early as 1917 . In 1925 , Kaganovich became Party head in Ukraine and Khrushchev , falling under his patronage , was rapidly promoted . He was appointed second in command of the Stalino party apparatus in late 1926 . Within nine months his superior , Konstantin Moiseyenko , was ousted , which , according to Taubman , was due to Khrushchev 's instigation . Kaganovich transferred Khrushchev to Kharkov , then the capital of Ukraine , as head of the Organizational Department of the Ukrainian Party 's Central Committee . In 1928 , Khrushchev was transferred to Kiev , where he served as second @-@ in @-@ command of the Party organization there .
In 1929 , Khrushchev again sought to further his education , following Kaganovich ( now in the Kremlin as a close associate of Stalin ) to Moscow and enrolling in the Stalin Industrial Academy . Khrushchev never completed his studies there , but his career in the Party flourished . When the school 's Party cell elected a number of rightists to an upcoming district Party conference , the cell was attacked in Pravda . Khrushchev emerged victorious in the ensuing power struggle , becoming Party secretary of the school , arranging for the delegates to be withdrawn , and afterward purging the cell of the rightists . Khrushchev rose rapidly through the Party ranks , first becoming Party leader for the Bauman district , site of the Academy , before taking the same position in the Krasnopresnensky district , the capital 's largest and most important . By 1932 , Khrushchev had become second in command , behind Kaganovich , of the Moscow city Party organization , and in 1934 , he became Party leader for the city and a member of the Party 's Central Committee . Khrushchev attributed his rapid rise to his acquaintance with fellow Academy student Nadezhda Alliluyeva , Stalin 's wife . In his memoirs , Khrushchev stated that Alliluyeva spoke well of him to her husband . His biographer , William Tompson , downplays the possibility , stating that Khrushchev was too low in the Party hierarchy to enjoy Stalin 's patronage , and that if influence was brought to bear on Khrushchev 's career at this stage , it was by Kaganovich .
While head of the Moscow city organization , Khrushchev superintended construction of the Moscow Metro , a highly expensive undertaking , with Kaganovich in overall charge . Faced with an already @-@ announced opening date of November 7 , 1934 , Khrushchev took considerable risks in the construction and spent much of his time down in the tunnels . When the inevitable accidents did occur , they were depicted as heroic sacrifices in a great cause . The Metro did not open until May 1 , 1935 , but Khrushchev received the Order of Lenin for his role in its construction . Later that year , he was selected as First Secretary of the Moscow Regional Committee which was responsible for Moscow oblast , a province with a population of 11 million .
= = = Involvement in purges = = =
Stalin 's office records show meetings at which Khrushchev was present as early as 1932 . The two increasingly built a good relationship . Khrushchev greatly admired the dictator and treasured informal meetings with him and invitations to Stalin 's dacha , while Stalin felt warm affection for his young subordinate .
Beginning in 1934 , Stalin began a campaign of political repression known as the Great Purge , during which millions of people were executed or sent to the Gulag . Central to this campaign were Moscow Trials , a series of show trials of the purged top leaders of the party and the military . In 1936 , as the trials proceeded , Khrushchev expressed his vehement support :
Everyone who rejoices in the successes achieved in our country , the victories of our party led by the great Stalin , will find only one word suitable for the mercenary , fascist dogs of the Trotskyite @-@ Zinovievite gang . That word is execution .
Khrushchev assisted in the purge of many friends and colleagues in Moscow oblast . Of 38 top Party officials in Moscow city and province , 35 were killed — the three survivors were transferred to other parts of the USSR . Of the 146 Party secretaries of cities and districts outside Moscow city in the province , only 10 survived the purges . In his memoirs , Khrushchev noted that almost everyone who worked with him was arrested . By Party protocol , Khrushchev was required to approve these arrests , and did little or nothing to save his friends and colleagues .
Party leaders were given numerical quotas of " enemies " to be turned in and arrested . In June 1937 , the Politburo set a quota of 35 @,@ 000 enemies to be arrested in Moscow province ; 5 @,@ 000 of these were to be executed . In reply , Khrushchev asked that 2 @,@ 000 wealthy peasants , or kulaks living in Moscow be killed in part fulfillment of the quota . In any event , only two weeks after receiving the Politburo order , Khrushchev was able to report to Stalin that 41 @,@ 305 " criminal and kulak elements " had been arrested . Of the arrestees , according to Khrushchev , 8 @,@ 500 deserved execution .
Khrushchev had no reason to think himself immune from the purges , and in 1937 , confessed his own 1923 dalliance with Trotskyism to Kaganovich , who , according to Khrushchev , " blanched " ( for his protégé 's sins could affect his own standing ) and advised him to tell Stalin . The dictator took the confession in his stride , and , after initially advising Khrushchev to keep it quiet , suggested that Khrushchev tell his tale to the Moscow party conference . Khrushchev did so , to applause , and was immediately reelected to his post . Khrushchev related in his memoirs that he was also denounced by an arrested colleague . Stalin told Khrushchev of the accusation personally , looking him in the eye and awaiting his response . Khrushchev speculated in his memoirs that had Stalin doubted his reaction , he would have been categorized as an enemy of the people then and there . Nonetheless , Khrushchev became a candidate member of the Politburo in January 1938 and a full member in March 1939 .
In late 1937 , Stalin appointed Khrushchev as head of the Communist Party in Ukraine , and Khrushchev duly left Moscow for Kiev , again the Ukrainian capital , in January 1938 . Ukraine had been the site of extensive purges , with the murdered including professors in Stalino whom Khrushchev greatly respected . The high ranks of the Party were not immune ; the Central Committee of Ukraine was so devastated that it could not convene a quorum . After Khrushchev 's arrival , the pace of arrests accelerated . All but one member of the Ukrainian Politburo Organizational Bureau and Secretariat were arrested . Almost all government officials and Red Army commanders were replaced . During the first few months after Khrushchev 's arrival , almost everyone arrested received the death penalty .
Biographer William Taubman suggests that , since Khrushchev was again unsuccessfully denounced while in Kiev , he must have known that some of the denunciations were not true and that innocent people were suffering . In 1939 , Khrushchev addressed the Fourteenth Ukrainian Party Congress , saying " Comrades , we must unmask and relentlessly destroy all enemies of the people . But we must not allow a single honest Bolshevik to be harmed . We must conduct a struggle against slanderers . "
= = World War II = =
= = = Occupation of Polish territory = = =
When Soviet troops , pursuant to the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , invaded the eastern portion of Poland on September 17 , 1939 , Khrushchev accompanied the troops at Stalin 's direction . A large number of ethnic Ukrainians lived in the invaded area , much of which today forms the western portion of Ukraine . Many inhabitants therefore initially welcomed the invasion , though they hoped that they would eventually become independent . Khrushchev 's role was to ensure that the occupied areas voted for union with the USSR . Through a combination of propaganda , deception as to what was being voted for , and outright fraud , the Soviets ensured that their new territories would elect assemblies which would unanimously petition for union with the USSR . When the new assemblies did so , their petitions were granted by the USSR Supreme Soviet , and Western Ukraine became a part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic ( SSR ) on November 1 , 1939 . Clumsy actions by the Soviets , such as staffing Western Ukrainian organizations with Eastern Ukrainians , and giving confiscated land to collective farms ( kolkhozes ) rather than to peasants , soon alienated Western Ukrainians damaging Khrushchev 's efforts to achieve unity .
= = = War against Germany = = =
When Nazi Germany invaded the USSR , in June 1941 , Khrushchev was still at his post in Kiev . Stalin appointed him a political commissar , and Khrushchev served on a number of fronts as an intermediary between the local military commanders and the political rulers in Moscow . Stalin used Khrushchev to keep commanders on a tight leash , while the commanders sought to have him influence Stalin . As the Germans advanced , Khrushchev worked with the military in an attempt to defend and save Kiev . Handicapped by orders from Stalin that under no circumstances should the city be abandoned , the Red Army was soon encircled by the Germans . While the Germans stated they took 655 @,@ 000 prisoners , according to the Soviets , 150 @,@ 541 men out of 677 @,@ 085 escaped the trap . Primary sources differ on Khrushchev 's involvement at this point . According to Marshal Georgi Zhukov , writing some years after Khrushchev fired and disgraced him in 1957 , Khrushchev persuaded Stalin not to evacuate troops from Kiev . However , Khrushchev noted in his memoirs that he and Marshal Semyon Budyonny proposed redeploying Soviet forces to avoid the encirclement until Marshal Semyon Timoshenko arrived from Moscow with orders for the troops to hold their positions . Early Khrushchev biographer Mark Frankland suggested that Khrushchev 's faith in his leader was first shaken by the Red Army 's setbacks . Khrushchev stated in his memoirs :
But let me return to the enemy breakthrough in the Kiev area , the encirclement of our group , and the destruction of the 37th Army . Later , the Fifth Army also perished ... All of this was senseless , and from the military point of view , a display of ignorance , incompetence , and illiteracy . ... There you have the result of not taking a step backward . We were unable to save these troops because we didn 't withdraw them , and as a result we simply lost them . ... And yet it was possible to allow this not to happen .
In 1942 , Khrushchev was on the Southwest Front , and he and Timoshenko proposed a massive counteroffensive in the Kharkov area . Stalin approved only part of the plan , but 640 @,@ 000 Red Army soldiers would still become involved in the offensive . The Germans , however , had deduced that the Soviets were likely to attack at Kharkov , and set a trap . Beginning on May 12 , 1942 , the Soviet offensive initially appeared successful , but within five days the Germans had driven deep into the Soviet flanks , and the Red Army troops were in danger of being cut off . Stalin refused to halt the offensive , and the Red Army divisions were soon encircled by the Germans . The USSR lost about 267 @,@ 000 soldiers , including more than 200 @,@ 000 men captured , and Stalin demoted Timoshenko and recalled Khrushchev to Moscow . While Stalin hinted at arresting and executing Khrushchev , he allowed the commissar to return to the front by sending him to Stalingrad .
Khrushchev reached the Stalingrad Front in August 1942 , soon after the start of the battle for the city . His role in the Stalingrad defense was not major — General Vasily Chuikov , who led the city 's defense , mentions Khrushchev only briefly in a memoir published while Khrushchev was premier — but to the end of his life , he was proud of his role . Though he visited Stalin in Moscow on occasion , he remained in Stalingrad for much of the battle , and was nearly killed at least once . He proposed a counterattack , only to find that Zhukov and other generals had already planned Operation Uranus , a plan to break out from Soviet positions and encircle and destroy the Germans ; it was being kept secret . Before Uranus was launched , Khrushchev spent much time checking on troop readiness and morale , interrogating Nazi prisoners , and recruiting some for propaganda reasons .
Soon after Stalingrad , Khrushchev met with personal tragedy , as his son Leonid , a fighter pilot , was apparently shot down and killed in action on March 11 , 1943 . The circumstances of Leonid 's death remain obscure and controversial , as none of his fellow fliers stated that they witnessed him being shot down , nor was his plane found or body recovered . As a result , Leonid 's fate has been the subject of considerable speculation . One theory has Leonid surviving the crash and collaborating with the Germans , and when he was recaptured by the Soviets , Stalin ordering him shot despite Nikita Khrushchev pleading for his life . This supposed killing is used to explain why Khrushchev later denounced Stalin in the Secret Speech . While there is no supporting evidence for this account in Soviet files , some historians allege that Leonid Khrushchev 's file was tampered with after the war . In later years , Leonid Khrushchev 's wingmate stated that he saw his plane disintegrate , but did not report it . Khrushchev biographer Taubman speculates that this omission was most likely to avoid the possibility of being seen as complicit in the death of the son of a Politburo member . In mid @-@ 1943 , Leonid 's wife , Liuba Khrushcheva , was arrested on accusations of spying and sentenced to five years in a labor camp , and her son ( by another relationship ) , Tolya , was placed in a series of orphanages . Leonid 's daughter , Yulia , was raised by Nikita Khrushchev and his wife .
After Uranus forced the Germans into retreat , Khrushchev served in other fronts of the war . He was attached to Soviet troops at the Battle of Kursk , in July 1943 , which turned back the last major German offensive on Soviet soil . Khrushchev related that he interrogated an SS defector , learning that the Germans intended an attack — a claim dismissed by his biographer Taubman as " almost certainly exaggerated " . He accompanied Soviet troops as they took Kiev in November 1943 , entering the shattered city as Soviet forces drove out German troops . As Soviet forces met with greater success , driving the Nazis westwards towards Germany , Nikita Khrushchev became increasingly involved in reconstruction work in Ukraine . He was appointed Premier of the Ukrainian SSR in addition to his earlier party post , one of the rare instances in which the Ukrainian party and civil leader posts were held by one person .
According to Khrushchev biographer William Tompson , it is difficult to assess Khrushchev 's war record , since he most often acted as part of a military council , and it is not possible to know the extent to which he influenced decisions , rather than signing off on the orders of military officers . However , Tompson points to the fact that the few mentions of Khrushchev in military memoirs published during the Brezhnev era were generally favorable , at a time when it was " barely possible to mention Khrushchev in print in any context " . Tompson suggests that these favorable mentions indicate that military officers held Khrushchev in high regard .
= = Rise to power = =
= = = Return to Ukraine = = =
Almost all of Ukraine had been occupied by the Germans , and Khrushchev returned to his domain in late 1943 to find devastation . Ukraine 's industry had been destroyed , and agriculture faced critical shortages . Even though millions of Ukrainians had been taken to Germany as workers or prisoners of war , there was insufficient housing for those who remained . One out of every six Ukrainians was killed in World War II .
Khrushchev sought to reconstruct Ukraine , but also desired to complete the interrupted work of imposing the Soviet system on it , though he hoped that the purges of the 1930s would not recur . As Ukraine was recovered militarily , conscription was imposed , and 750 @,@ 000 men aged between nineteen and fifty were given minimal military training and sent to join the Red Army . Other Ukrainians joined partisan forces , seeking an independent Ukraine . Khrushchev rushed from district to district through Ukraine , urging the depleted labor force to greater efforts . He made a short visit to his birthplace of Kalinovka , finding a starving population , with only a third of the men who had joined the Red Army having returned . Khrushchev did what he could to assist his hometown . Despite Khrushchev 's efforts , in 1945 , Ukrainian industry was at only a quarter of pre @-@ war levels , and the harvest actually dropped from that of 1944 , when the entire territory of Ukraine had not yet been retaken .
In an effort to increase agricultural production , the kolkhozes ( collective farms ) were empowered to expel residents who were not pulling their weight . Kolkhoz leaders used this as an excuse to expel their personal enemies , invalids , and the elderly , and nearly 12 @,@ 000 people were sent to the eastern parts of the Soviet Union . Khrushchev viewed this policy as very effective , and recommended its adoption elsewhere to Stalin . He also worked to impose collectivization on Western Ukraine . While Khrushchev hoped to accomplish this by 1947 , lack of resources and armed resistance by partisans slowed the process . The partisans , many of whom fought as the Ukrainian Insurgent Army ( UIA ) , were gradually defeated , as Soviet police and military reported killing 110 @,@ 825 " bandits " and capturing a quarter million more between 1944 and 1946 . About 600 @,@ 000 Western Ukrainians were arrested between 1944 and 1952 , with one @-@ third executed and the remainder imprisoned or exiled to the east .
The war years of 1944 and 1945 had seen poor harvests , and 1946 saw intense drought strike Ukraine and Western Russia . Despite this , collective and state farms were required to turn over 52 % of the harvest to the government . The Soviet government sought to collect as much grain as possible in order to supply communist allies in Eastern Europe . Khrushchev set the quotas at a high level , leading Stalin to expect an unrealistically large quantity of grain from Ukraine . Food was rationed — but non @-@ agricultural rural workers throughout the USSR were given no ration cards . The inevitable starvation was largely confined to remote rural regions , and was little noticed outside the USSR . Khrushchev , realizing the desperate situation in late 1946 , repeatedly appealed to Stalin for aid , to be met with anger and resistance on the part of the leader . When letters to Stalin had no effect , Khrushchev flew to Moscow and made his case in person . Stalin finally gave Ukraine limited food aid , and money to set up free soup kitchens . However , Khrushchev 's political standing had been damaged , and in February 1947 , Stalin suggested that Lazar Kaganovich be sent to Ukraine to " help " Khrushchev . The following month , the Ukrainian Central Committee removed Khrushchev as party leader in favor of Kaganovich , while retaining him as premier .
Soon after Kaganovich arrived in Kiev , Khrushchev fell ill , and was barely seen until September 1947 . In his memoirs , Khrushchev indicates he had pneumonia ; some biographers have theorized that Khrushchev 's illness was entirely political , out of fear that his loss of position was the first step towards downfall and demise . However , Khrushchev 's children remembered their father as having been seriously ill . Once Khrushchev was able to get out of bed , he and his family took their first vacation since before the war , to a beachfront resort in Latvia . Khrushchev , though , soon broke the beach routine with duck @-@ hunting trips , and a visit to newly Soviet Kaliningrad , where he toured factories and quarries . By the end of 1947 , Kaganovich had been recalled to Moscow and the recovered Khrushchev had been restored to the First Secretaryship . He then resigned the Ukrainian premiership in favor of Demyan Korotchenko , Khrushchev 's protégé .
Khrushchev 's final years in Ukraine were generally peaceful , with industry recovering , Soviet forces overcoming the partisans , and 1947 and 1948 seeing better @-@ than @-@ expected harvests . Collectivization advanced in Western Ukraine , and Khrushchev implemented more policies that encouraged collectivization and discouraged private farms . These sometimes backfired , however : a tax on private livestock holdings led to peasants slaughtering their stock . With the idea of eliminating differences in attitude between town and countryside and transforming the peasantry into a " rural proletariat " , Khrushchev conceived the idea of the " agro @-@ town " . Rather than agricultural workers living in villages close to farms , they would live further away in larger towns which would offer municipal services such as utilities and libraries , which were not present in villages . He completed only one such town before his December 1949 return to Moscow ; he dedicated it to Stalin as a 70th birthday present .
In his memoirs , Khrushchev spoke highly of Ukraine , where he governed for over a decade :
I 'll say that the Ukrainian people treated me well . I recall warmly the years I spent there . This was a period full of responsibilities , but pleasant because it brought satisfaction ... But far be it from me to inflate my significance . The entire Ukrainian people was exerting great efforts ... I attribute Ukraine 's successes to the Ukrainian people as a whole . I won 't elaborate further on this theme , but in principle it 's very easy to demonstrate . I 'm Russian myself , and I don 't want to offend the Russians .
= = = Stalin 's final years = = =
Khrushchev attributed his recall to Moscow to mental disorder on the part of Stalin , who feared conspiracies in Moscow matching those which the ruler believed to have occurred in the fabricated Leningrad case , in which many of that city 's Party officials had been falsely accused of treason . Khrushchev again served as head of the Party in Moscow city and province . Khrushchev biographer Taubman suggests that Stalin most likely recalled Khrushchev to Moscow to balance the influence of Georgy Malenkov and security chief Lavrentiy Beria , who were widely seen as Stalin 's heirs .
At this time , the aging leader rarely called Politburo meetings . Instead , much of the high @-@ level work of government took place at dinners hosted by Stalin . These sessions , which Beria , Malenkov , Khrushchev , Kaganovich , Kliment Voroshilov , Vyacheslav Molotov , and Nikolai Bulganin , who comprised Stalin 's inner circle , attended , began with showings of cowboy movies favored by Stalin . Stolen from the West , they lacked subtitles . The dictator had the meal served at around 1 a.m. , and insisted that his subordinates stay with him and drink until dawn . On one occasion , Stalin had Khrushchev , then aged almost sixty , dance a traditional Ukrainian dance . Khrushchev did so , later stating , " When Stalin says dance , a wise man dances . " Khrushchev attempted to nap at lunch so that he would not fall asleep in Stalin 's presence ; he noted in his memoirs , " Things went badly for those who dozed off at Stalin 's table . "
In 1950 , Khrushchev began a large @-@ scale housing program for Moscow . A large part of the housing was in the form of five- or six @-@ story apartment buildings , which became ubiquitous throughout the Soviet Union ; many remain in use today . Khrushchev had prefabricated reinforced concrete used , greatly speeding up construction . These structures were completed at triple the construction rate of Moscow housing from 1946 – 1950 , lacked elevators or balconies , and were nicknamed Khrushchyovka by the public , but because of their shoddy workmanship sometimes disparagingly called Khrushchoba , a portmanteau formed from the name Khrushchev and the Russian word trushchoba , meaning " slum " . Almost 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 residents of the former Soviet republics still live in these buildings .
In his new positions , Khrushchev continued his kolkhoz consolidation scheme , decreasing the number of collective farms in Moscow province by about 70 % . This resulted in farms that were too large for one chairman to manage effectively . Khrushchev also sought to implement his agro @-@ town proposal , but when his lengthy speech on the subject was published in Pravda in March 1951 , Stalin disapproved of it . The periodical quickly published a note stating that Khrushchev 's speech was merely a proposal , not policy . In April , the Politburo disavowed the agro @-@ town proposal . Khrushchev feared that Stalin would remove him from office , but the leader mocked Khrushchev , then allowed the episode to pass .
On March 1 , 1953 , Stalin suffered a massive stroke , apparently on rising after sleep . Stalin had left orders not to be disturbed , and it was twelve hours until his condition was discovered . Even as terrified doctors attempted treatment , Khrushchev and his colleagues engaged in intense discussion as to the new government . On March 5 , Stalin died . As Khrushchev and other high officials stood weeping by Stalin 's bedside , Beria raced from the room , shouting for his car .
Khrushchev reflected on Stalin in his memoirs :
Stalin called everyone who didn 't agree with him an " enemy of the people . " He said that they wanted to restore the old order , and for this purpose , " the enemies of the people " had linked up with the forces of reaction internationally . As a result , several hundred thousand honest people perished . Everyone lived in fear in those days . Everyone expected that at any moment there would be a knock on the door in the middle of the night and that knock on the door would prove fatal ... [ P ] eople not to Stalin 's liking were annihilated , honest party members , irreproachable people , loyal and hard workers for our cause who had gone through the school of revolutionary struggle under Lenin 's leadership . This was utter and complete arbitrariness . And now is all this to be forgiven and forgotten ? Never !
= = = Struggle for control = = =
On March 6 , 1953 , Stalin 's death was announced , as was the new leadership . Malenkov was the new Chairman of the Council of Ministers , with Beria ( who consolidated his hold over the security agencies ) , Kaganovich , Bulganin , and former Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov as first vice @-@ chairmen . Those members of the Presidium of the Central Committee who had been recently promoted by Stalin were demoted . Khrushchev was relieved of his duties as Party head for Moscow to concentrate on unspecified duties in the Party 's Central Committee . The New York Times listed Malenkov and Beria first and second among the ten @-@ man Presidium — and Khrushchev last .
However , on March 14 , Malenkov resigned from the secretariat of the Central Committee . This came due to concerns that he was acquiring too much power . The major beneficiary was Khrushchev . His name appeared atop a revised list of secretaries — indicating that he was now in charge of the party . The Central Committee formally elected him First Secretary in September .
Even before Stalin had been laid to rest , Beria launched a lengthy series of reforms which rivalled those of Khrushchev during his period of power and even those of Mikhail Gorbachev a third of a century later . Beria 's proposals were designed to denigrate Stalin and pass the blame for Beria 's own crimes to the late leader . One proposal , which was adopted , was an amnesty which eventually led to the freeing of over a million prisoners . Another , which was not , was to release East Germany into a united , neutral Germany in exchange for compensation from the West — a proposal considered by Khrushchev to be anti @-@ communist . Khrushchev allied with Malenkov to block many of Beria 's proposals , while the two slowly picked up support from other Presidium members . Their campaign against Beria was aided by fears that Beria was planning a military coup , and , according to Khrushchev in his memoirs , by the conviction that " Beria is getting his knives ready for us . "
On June 26 , 1953 Beria was arrested at a Presidium meeting , following extensive military preparations by Khrushchev and his allies . Beria was tried in secret , and executed in December 1953 with five of his close associates . The execution of Beria proved to be the last time the loser of a top @-@ level Soviet power struggle paid with his life .
The power struggle in the Presidium was not resolved by the elimination of Beria . Malenkov 's power was in the central state apparatus , which he sought to extend through reorganizing the government , giving it additional power at the expense of the Party . He also sought public support by lowering retail prices and lowering the level of bond sales to citizens , which had long been effectively obligatory . Khrushchev , on the other hand , with his power base in the Party , sought to both strengthen the Party and his position within it . While , under the Soviet system , the Party was to be preeminent , it had been greatly drained of power by Stalin , who had given much of that power to himself and to the Politburo ( later , to the Presidium ) . Khrushchev saw that with the Presidium in conflict , the Party and its Central Committee might again become powerful . Khrushchev carefully cultivated high Party officials , and was able to appoint supporters as local Party bosses , who then took seats on the Central Committee .
Khrushchev presented himself as a down @-@ to @-@ earth activist prepared to take up any challenge , contrasting with Malenkov who , though sophisticated , came across as colorless . Khrushchev arranged for the Kremlin grounds to be opened to the public , an act with " great public resonance " . While both Malenkov and Khrushchev sought reforms to agriculture , Khrushchev 's proposals were broader , and included the Virgin Lands Campaign , under which hundreds of thousands of young volunteers would settle and farm areas of Western Siberia and Northern Kazakhstan . While the scheme eventually became a tremendous disaster for Soviet agriculture , it was initially successful . In addition , Khrushchev possessed incriminating information on Malenkov , taken from Beria 's secret files . As Soviet prosecutors investigated the atrocities of Stalin 's last years , including the Leningrad case , they came across evidence of Malenkov 's involvement . Beginning in February 1954 , Khrushchev replaced Malenkov in the seat of honor at Presidium meetings ; in June , Malenkov ceased to head the list of Presidium members , which was thereafter organized in alphabetical order . Khrushchev 's influence continued to increase , winning the allegiance of local party heads , and with his nominee heading the KGB .
At a Central Committee meeting in January 1955 , Malenkov was accused of involvement in atrocities , and the committee passed a resolution accusing him of involvement in the Leningrad case , and of facilitating Beria 's climb to power . At a meeting of the mostly ceremonial Supreme Soviet the following month , Malenkov was demoted in favor of Bulganin , to the surprise of Western observers . Malenkov remained in the Presidium as Minister of Electric Power Stations . According to Khrushchev biographer William Tompson , " Khrushchev 's position as first among the members of the collective leadership was now beyond any reasonable doubt . "
= = Leader ( 1953 – 1964 ) = =
= = = Domestic policies = = =
= = = = Consolidation of power ; Secret Speech = = = =
After the demotion of Malenkov , Khrushchev and Molotov initially worked together well , and the longtime foreign minister even proposed that Khrushchev , not Bulganin , replace Malenkov as premier . However , Khrushchev and Molotov increasingly differed on policy . Molotov opposed the Virgin Lands policy , instead proposing heavy investment to increase yields in developed agricultural areas , which Khrushchev felt was not feasible due to a lack of resources and a lack of a sophisticated farm labor force . The two differed on foreign policy as well ; soon after Khrushchev took power , he sought a peace treaty with Austria , which would allow Soviet troops then in occupation of part of the country to leave . Molotov was resistant , but Khrushchev arranged for an Austrian delegation to come to Moscow and negotiate the treaty . Although Khrushchev and other Presidium members attacked Molotov at a Central Committee meeting in mid @-@ 1955 , accusing him of conducting a foreign policy which turned the world against the USSR , Molotov remained in his position .
By the end of 1955 , thousands of political prisoners had returned home , and told their experiences of the gulag labor camps . Continuing investigation into the abuses brought home the full breadth of Stalin 's crimes to his successors . Khrushchev believed that once the stain of Stalinism was removed , the Party would inspire loyalty among the people . Beginning in October 1955 , Khrushchev fought to tell the delegates to the upcoming 20th Party Congress about Stalin 's crimes . Some of his colleagues , including Molotov and Malenkov , opposed the disclosure , and managed to persuade him to make his remarks in a closed session .
The 20th Party Congress opened on February 14 , 1956 . In his opening words in his initial address , Khrushchev denigrated Stalin by asking delegates to rise in honor of the communist leaders who had died since the last congress , whom he named , equating Stalin with Klement Gottwald and the little @-@ known Kyuichi Tokuda . In the early morning hours of February 25 , Khrushchev delivered what became known as the " Secret Speech " to a closed session of the Congress limited to Soviet delegates . In four hours , he demolished Stalin 's reputation . Khrushchev noted in his memoirs that the " congress listened to me in silence . As the saying goes , you could have heard a pin drop . It was all so sudden and unexpected . " Khrushchev told the delegates :
It is here that Stalin showed in a whole series of cases his intolerance , his brutality , and his abuse of power ... he often chose the path of repression and physical annihilation , not only against actual enemies , but also against individuals who had not committed any crimes against the party or the Soviet Government .
The Secret Speech , while it did not fundamentally change Soviet society , had wide @-@ ranging effects . The speech was a factor in unrest in Poland and revolution in Hungary later in 1956 , and Stalin defenders led four days of rioting in his native Georgia in June , calling for Khrushchev to resign and Molotov to take over . In meetings where the Secret Speech was read , communists would make even more severe condemnations of Stalin ( and of Khrushchev ) , and even call for multi @-@ party elections . However , Stalin was not publicly denounced , and his portrait remained widespread through the USSR , from airports to Khrushchev 's Kremlin office . Mikhail Gorbachev , then a Komsomol official , recalled that though young and well @-@ educated Soviets in his district were excited by the speech , many others decried it , either defending Stalin or seeing little point in digging up the past . Forty years later , after the fall of the Soviet Union , Gorbachev applauded Khrushchev for his courage in taking a huge political risk and showing himself to be " a moral man after all " .
The term " Secret Speech " proved to be an utter misnomer . While the attendees at the Speech were all Soviet , Eastern European delegates were allowed to hear it the following night , read slowly to allow them to take notes . By March 5 , copies were being mailed throughout the Soviet Union , marked " not for the press " rather than " top secret " . An official translation appeared within a month in Poland ; the Poles printed 12 @,@ 000 extra copies , one of which soon reached the West . Khrushchev 's son , Sergei , later wrote , " [ C ] learly , Father tried to ensure it would reach as many ears as possible . It was soon read at Komsomol meetings ; that meant another eighteen million listeners . If you include their relatives , friends , and acquaintances , you could say that the entire country became familiar with the speech ... Spring had barely begun when the speech began circulating around the world . "
The anti @-@ Khrushchev minority in the Presidium was augmented by those opposed to Khrushchev 's proposals to decentralize authority over industry , which struck at the heart of Malenkov 's power base . During the first half of 1957 , Malenkov , Molotov , and Kaganovich worked to quietly build support to dismiss Khrushchev . At a June 18 Presidium meeting at which two Khrushchev supporters were absent , the plotters moved that Bulganin , who had joined the scheme , take the chair , and proposed other moves which would effectively demote Khrushchev and put themselves in control . Khrushchev objected on the grounds that not all Presidium members had been notified , an objection which would have been quickly dismissed had Khrushchev not held firm control over the military , through Minister of Defense Marshal Zhukov , and the security departments . Lengthy Presidium meetings took place , continuing over several days . As word leaked of the power struggle , members of the Central Committee , which Khrushchev controlled , streamed to Moscow , many flown there aboard military planes , and demanded to be admitted to the meeting . While they were not admitted , there were soon enough Central Committee members in Moscow to call an emergency Party Congress , which effectively forced the leadership to allow a session of the Central Committee . At that meeting , the three main conspirators were dubbed the Anti @-@ Party Group , accused of factionalism and complicity in Stalin 's crimes . The three were expelled from the Central Committee and Presidium , as was former Foreign Minister and Khrushchev client Dmitri Shepilov who joined them in the plot . Molotov was sent as Ambassador to Mongolia ; the others were sent to head industrial facilities and institutes far from Moscow .
Marshal Zhukov was rewarded for his support with full membership in the Presidium , but Khrushchev feared his popularity and power . In October , the defense minister was sent on a tour of the Balkans , as Khrushchev arranged a Presidium meeting to dismiss him . Zhukov learned what was happening , and hurried back to Moscow , only to be formally notified of his dismissal . At a Central Committee meeting several weeks later , not a word was said in Zhukov 's defense . Khrushchev completed the consolidation of power by arranging for Bulganin 's dismissal as premier in favor of himself ( Bulganin was appointed to head the Gosbank ) and by establishing a USSR Defense Council , led by himself , effectively making him commander in chief . Though Khrushchev was now preeminent , he did not enjoy Stalin 's absolute power .
= = = = Liberalization and the arts = = = =
After assuming power , Khrushchev allowed a modest amount of freedom in the arts . Vladimir Dudintsev 's Not by Bread Alone , about an idealistic engineer opposed by rigid bureaucrats , was allowed to be published in 1956 , though Khrushchev called the novel " false at its base " . In 1958 , however , Khrushchev ordered a fierce attack on Boris Pasternak after his novel Doctor Zhivago was published abroad ( he was denied permission to publish it in the Soviet Union ) . Pravda described the novel as " low @-@ grade reactionary hackwork " , and the author was expelled from the Writer 's Union . To make things worse ( from Khrushchev 's perspective ) , Pasternak was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature , which , under heavy pressure , he declined . Once he did so , Khrushchev ordered a halt to the attacks on Pasternak . In his memoirs , Khrushchev stated that he agonized over the novel , very nearly allowed it to be published , and later regretted not doing so . After his fall from power , Khrushchev obtained a copy of the novel and read it ( he had earlier read only excerpts ) and stated , " We shouldn 't have banned it . I should have read it myself . There 's nothing anti @-@ Soviet in it . "
Khrushchev believed that the USSR could match the West 's living standards , and was not afraid to allow Soviet citizens to see Western achievements . Stalin had permitted few tourists to the Soviet Union , and had allowed few Soviets to travel . Khrushchev let Soviets travel ( over 700 @,@ 000 Soviet citizens travelled abroad in 1957 ) and allowed foreigners to visit the Soviet Union , where tourists became subjects of immense curiosity . In 1957 , Khrushchev authorized the 6th World Festival of Youth and Students to be held in Moscow that summer . He instructed Komsomol officials to " smother foreign guests in our embrace " . The resulting " socialist carnival " involved over three million Moscovites , who joined with 30 @,@ 000 young foreign visitors in events that ranged from discussion groups throughout the city to events at the Kremlin itself . According to historian Vladislav Zubok , the festival " shattered propagandist clichés " about Westerners by allowing Moscovites to see them for themselves .
In 1962 , Khrushchev , impressed by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 's One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich , persuaded the Presidium to allow publication . That renewed thaw ended on December 1 , 1962 , when Khrushchev was taken to the Manezh Gallery to view an exhibit which included a number of avant @-@ garde works . On seeing them , Khrushchev exploded with anger , describing the artwork as " dog shit " , and proclaiming that " a donkey could smear better art with its tail " . A week later , Pravda issued a call for artistic purity . When writers and filmmakers defended the painters , Khrushchev extended his anger to them . However , despite the premier 's rage , none of the artists were arrested or exiled . The Manezh Gallery exhibit remained open for some time after Khrushchev 's visit , and experienced a considerable rise in attendance after the article in Pravda .
= = = = Political reform = = = =
Under Khrushchev , the special tribunals operated by security agencies were abolished . These tribunals ( known as troikas ) , had often ignored laws and procedures . Under the reforms , no prosecution for a political crime could be brought even in the regular courts unless approved by the local Party committee . This rarely happened ; there were no major political trials under Khrushchev , and at most several hundred political prosecutions overall . Instead , other sanctions were imposed on dissidents , including loss of job or university place , or expulsion from the Party . During Khrushchev 's rule , forced hospitalization for the " socially dangerous " was introduced . According to author Roy Medvedev , who wrote an early analysis of Khrushchev 's years in power , " political terror as an everyday method of government was replaced under Khrushchev by administrative means of repression " .
In 1958 , Khrushchev opened a Central Committee meeting to hundreds of Soviet officials ; some were even allowed to address the meeting . For the first time , the proceedings of the Committee were made public in book form , a practice which was continued at subsequent meetings . This openness , however , actually allowed Khrushchev greater control over the Committee , since any dissenters would have to make their case in front of a large , disapproving crowd .
In 1962 , Khrushchev divided oblast ( province ) level Party committees into two parallel structures , one for industry and one for agriculture . This was unpopular among Party apparatchiks , and led to confusions in the chain of command , as neither committee secretary had precedence over the other . As there were limited numbers of Central Committee seats from each oblast , the division set up the possibility of rivalry for office between factions , and , according to Medvedev , had the potential for beginning a two @-@ party system . Khrushchev also ordered that one @-@ third of the membership of each committee , from low @-@ level councils to the Central Committee itself , be replaced at each election . This decree created tension between Khrushchev and the Central Committee and upset the party leaders upon whose support Khrushchev had risen to power .
= = = = Agricultural policy = = = =
Since the 1940s , Khrushchev had advocated the cultivation of corn ( maize ) in the Soviet Union . He established a corn institute in Ukraine and ordered thousands of acres to be planted with corn in the Virgin Lands . In February 1955 , Khrushchev gave a speech in which he advocated an Iowa @-@ style corn belt in the Soviet Union , and a Soviet delegation visited the U.S. state that summer . While their intent was to visit only small farms , the delegation chief was approached by farmer and corn salesman Roswell Garst , who persuaded him to insist on visiting Garst 's large farm . The Iowan visited the Soviet Union in September , where he became great friends with Khrushchev , and Garst sold the USSR 5 @,@ 000 short tons ( 4 @,@ 500 t ) of seed corn . Garst warned the Soviets to grow the corn in the southern part of the country , and to ensure there were sufficient stocks of fertilizer , insecticides , and herbicides . This , however , was not done , as Khrushchev sought to plant corn even in Siberia , and without the necessary chemicals . While Khrushchev warned against those who " would have us plant the whole planet with corn " , he displayed a great passion for corn , so much so that when he visited a Latvian kolkhoz , he stated that some in his audience were probably wondering , " Will Khrushchev say something about corn or won 't he ? " He did , rebuking the farmers for not planting more corn . The corn experiment was not a great success , and he later wrote that overenthusiastic officials , wanting to please him , had overplanted without laying the proper groundwork , and " as a result corn was discredited as a silage crop — and so was I " .
Khrushchev sought to abolish the Machine @-@ Tractor Stations ( MTS ) which not only owned most large agricultural machines such as combines and tractors , but also provided services such as plowing , and transfer their equipment and functions to the kolkhozes and sovkhozes ( state farms ) . After a successful test involving MTS which served one large kolkhoz each , Khrushchev ordered a gradual transition — but then ordered that the change take place with great speed . Within three months , over half of the MTS facilities had been closed , and kolkhozes were being required to buy the equipment , with no discount given for older or dilapidated machines . MTS employees , unwilling to bind themselves to kolkhozes and lose their state employee benefits and the right to change their jobs , fled to the cities , creating a shortage of skilled operators . The costs of the machinery , plus the costs of building storage sheds and fuel tanks for the equipment , impoverished many kolkhozes . Inadequate provisions were made for repair stations . Without the MTS , the market for Soviet agricultural equipment fell apart , as the kolkhozes now had neither the money nor skilled buyers to purchase new equipment .
One adviser to Khrushchev was Trofim Lysenko , who promised greatly increased production with minimal investment . Such schemes were attractive to Khrushchev , who ordered them implemented . Lysenko managed to maintain his influence under Khrushchev despite repeated failures ; as each proposal failed , he advocated another . Lysenko 's influence greatly retarded the development of genetic science in the Soviet Union . In 1959 , Khrushchev announced a goal of overtaking the United States in production of milk , meat , and butter . Local officials , with Khrushchev 's encouragement , made unrealistic pledges of production . These goals were met by forcing farmers to slaughter their breeding herds and by purchasing meat at state stores , then reselling it back to the government , artificially increasing recorded production .
In June 1962 , food prices were raised , particularly on meat and butter ( by 25 – 30 % ) . This caused public discontent . In the southern Russian city of Novocherkassk ( Rostov Region ) this discontent escalated to a strike and a revolt against the authorities . The revolt was put down by the military . According to Soviet official accounts , 22 people were killed and 87 wounded . In addition , 116 demonstrators were convicted of involvement and seven of them executed . Information about the revolt was completely suppressed in the USSR , but spread through Samizdat and damaged Khrushchev 's reputation in the West .
Drought struck the Soviet Union in 1963 ; the harvest of 107 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 short tons ( 97 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 t ) of grain was down from a peak of 134 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 short tons ( 122 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 t ) in 1958 . The shortages resulted in bread lines , a fact at first kept from Khrushchev . Reluctant to purchase food in the West , but faced with the alternative of widespread hunger , Khrushchev exhausted the nation 's hard currency reserves and expended part of its gold stockpile in the purchase of grain and other foodstuffs .
= = = = Education = = = =
While visiting the United States in 1959 , Khrushchev was greatly impressed by the agricultural education program at Iowa State University , and sought to imitate it in the Soviet Union . At the time , the main agricultural college in the USSR was in Moscow , and students did not do the manual labor of farming . Khrushchev proposed to move the programs to rural areas . He was unsuccessful , due to resistance from professors and students , who never actually disagreed with the premier , but who did not carry out his proposals . Khrushchev recalled in his memoirs , " It 's nice to live in Moscow and work at the Timiryazev Agricultural Academy . It 's a venerable old institution , a large economic unit , with skilled instructors , but it 's in the city ! Its students aren 't yearning to work on the collective farms because to do that they 'd have to go out in the provinces and live in the sticks . "
Khrushchev founded several academic towns , such as Akademgorodok . The premier believed that Western science flourished because many scientists lived in university towns such as Oxford , isolated from big city distractions , and had pleasant living conditions and good pay . He sought to duplicate those conditions in the Soviet Union . Khrushchev 's attempt was generally successful , though his new towns and scientific centers tended to attract younger scientists , with older ones unwilling to leave Moscow or Leningrad .
Khrushchev also proposed to restructure Soviet high schools . While the high schools provided a college preparatory curriculum , in fact few Soviet youths went on to university . Khrushchev wanted to shift the focus of secondary schools to vocational training : students would spend much of their time at factory jobs or in apprenticeships and only a small part at the schools . In practice , what
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Square . It debuted at first place in the U.S. box office , collecting $ 35 @.@ 677 million in its opening weekend . Forbes considered those numbers below expectations , as they gave the film a small edge over Lilo & Stitch , which debuted in second place ( $ 35 @.@ 260 million ) . Lilo & Stitch sold more tickets , but since much of the film 's attendees were children , its average ticket price was much lower . The movie opened at the top of the box office in numerous foreign markets ; it made $ 6 @.@ 7 million in 780 locations in Germany its opening weekend , and accounted for 35 % of France 's total box office weekend office gross when it collected $ 5 million in 700 theaters . In Great Britain , Minority Report made $ 36 @.@ 9 million in its first three days , in Italy , $ 6 @.@ 2 million in its first ten , in Belgium , $ 815 @,@ 000 in its 75 location opening weekend , and in Switzerland , $ 405 @,@ 000 in an 80 theater opening weekend . The BBC felt the film 's UK performance was " buoyed by Cruise 's charm offensive at last week 's London premiere . " Minority Report made a total of $ 132 million in the United States and $ 226 @.@ 3 million overseas .
= = = Home media = = =
DreamWorks spent several million dollars marketing the film 's DVD and VHS releases . The campaign included a tie @-@ in video game released by Activision , which contained a trailer for the movie 's DVD . Minority Report was successful in the home video market , selling at least four million DVDs in its first few months of release . The DVD took two years to produce . For the first time , Spielberg allowed filmmakers to shoot footage on the set of one of his films . Premiere @-@ award winning DVD producer Laurent Bouzereau , who would become a frequent Spielberg DVD collaborator , shot hundreds of hours of the film 's production in the then @-@ new high @-@ definition video format . It contained over an hour of featurettes which discussed various aspects of film production , included breakdowns of the film 's stunt sequences , and new interviews with Spielberg , Cruise , and other " Academy Award @-@ winning filmmakers " . The film was released on a two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray by Paramount Pictures ( now the owner of the early DreamWorks library ) on May 16 , 2010 . It included exclusive extras and interactive features , such as a new Spielberg interview , that were not included in the DVD edition . The film was transferred from its " HD master " which retained the movie 's distinctive grainy appearance .
= = = Video game = = =
A video game based on the film titled Minority Report : Everybody Runs was developed by Treyarch , published by Activision and released on November 18 , 2002 for Game Boy Advance , Nintendo GameCube , PlayStation 2 and Xbox . It received mixed reviews .
= = Reception = =
The film received positive reviews . On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , Minority Report received 90 % positive reviews based on 239 critics , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus is , " Thought @-@ provoking and visceral , Steven Spielberg successfully combines high concept ideas and high octane action in this fast and febrile sci @-@ fi thriller . " The website listed it among the best reviewed films of 2002 . The film also earned an 80 out of a possible 100 on the similar review aggregating website Metacritic . Most critics gave the film 's handling of its central theme ( free will vs. determinism ) positive reviews , and many ranked it as the film 's main strength . Other reviewers however , felt that Spielberg did not adequately tackle the issues he raised . The movie has inspired significant discussion and analysis , the scope of which has been compared to the continuing analysis of Blade Runner . This discussion has advanced past the realm of standard film criticism . Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek fashioned a criticism of the Cheney Doctrine , by comparing its preemptive strike methodology to that of the film 's PreCrime system .
Richard Corliss of Time said its " Spielberg 's sharpest , brawniest , most bustling entertainment since Raiders of the Lost Ark " . Mike Clark of USA Today felt it succeeded due to a " breathless 140 @-@ minute pace with a no @-@ flab script packed with all kinds of surprises . " Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly praised the film 's visuals , and Todd McCarthy of Variety complimented the cast 's performances . Film scholar Warren Buckland recommended the film , but felt that the comedic elements — aside from Stormare 's lines — detracted from the plot and undermined the film 's credibility .
Several critics used their reviews to discuss Spielberg and analyze what the movie signified in his development as a filmmaker . Andrew O 'Hehir of the online magazine Salon expressed excitement over the atypically hard edge of the movie . " Little Steven Spielberg is all grown up now ... into of all things a superior film artist ... It 's too early to know whether Minority Report , on the heels of A.I. , marks a brief detour in Spielberg 's career or a permanent change of course , but either way it 's a dark and dazzling spectacle . " J. Hoberman of the The Village Voice said it is " the most entertaining , least pretentious genre movie Steven Spielberg has made in the decade since Jurassic Park . " Randy Shulman of Metro Weekly said that " the movie is a huge leap forward for the director , who moves once and for all into the world of adult movie making . " Roger Ebert called the film a " masterpiece " and said that when most directors of the period were putting " their trust in technology " , Spielberg had already mastered it , and was emphasizing " story and character " while merely using technology as a " workman uses his tools " . David Edelstein of Slate echoed the positive sentiments , saying " [ i ] t has been a long time since a Spielberg film felt so nimble , so unfettered , so free of self @-@ cannibalizing . " Jonathan Rosenbaum , then of the Chicago Reader , was less convinced . Though he approved of the movie , he derided it in his review as a superficial action film , cautioning audiences to enjoy the movie , but not " be conned into thinking that some sort of serious , thoughtful statement is being delivered along with the roller @-@ coaster ride . "
Andrew Sarris of The New York Observer gave the film a negative review in which he described the script as full of plot holes , the car chases as silly , and criticized the mixture of futuristic environments with " defiantly retro costuming " . The complexity of the storyline was also a source of criticism for Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times , who considered the plot " too intricate and difficult to follow " . Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail criticized Tom Cruise 's performance , and though Hoberman liked the movie , he described the film as " miscast , misguided , and often nonsensical " . Both Rosenbaum and Hoberman belittled the titular minority report as a " red herring " . More positive reviews have seen it similarly , but referred to it as a " MacGuffin " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The film earned nominations for many awards , including Best Sound Editing at the Academy Awards , and Best Visual Effects at the BAFTAs . It was nominated for eleven Saturn Awards including Best Actor for Cruise , Best Supporting Actor for von Sydow and Best Music for Williams , and won four : Best Science Fiction Film , Best Direction for Spielberg , Best Writing for Frank and Cohen and Supporting Actress for Morton . It also won the BMI Film Music Award , the Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actress , and the Empire Awards for Best Actor for Cruise , Best Director for Spielberg and Best British Actress for Morton . Ebert listed Minority Report as the best film of 2002 , as did online film reviewer James Berardinelli . The film was also included in top ten lists by critic Richard Roeper , and both reviewers at USA Today .
Minority Report was nominated for AFI 's Top 10 Science Fiction Films list .
= = Television series = =
On September 9 , 2014 , it was announced that a follow @-@ up television series had been given a pilot commitment at Fox . Max Borenstein will write the script and serve as executive producer alongside Spielberg , Justin Falvey and Darryl Frank . The series is envisioned to be set 10 years after the movie , and will focus on a male Precog who teams up with a female detective to find a purpose to his gift . On February 13 , 2015 , Daniel London and Li Jun Li joined the cast . On February 24 , 2015 , Laura Regan was cast as Agatha Lively , replacing Samantha Morton , who was said to have been offered the return role . In March 2015 , Stark Sands and Meagan Good have landed the lead roles with Sands playing the role of Dash one of the male Precogs , and Good playing Lara Vega , a detective haunted by her past , who will work with Dash to help him find a purpose for his gift , Li Jun Li will play Akeela , a CSI technician , Daniel London will reprise his role as Wally the Caretaker from the original 2002 film and Wilmer Valderrama as a police detective . The show was picked up to series by Fox on May 9 , 2015 , and made its broadcast debut on September 21 , 2015 .
= Thaddeus Stevens =
Thaddeus Stevens ( April 4 , 1792 – August 11 , 1868 ) was a member of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania and one of the leaders of the Radical Republican faction of the Republican Party during the 1860s . A fierce opponent of slavery and discrimination against African @-@ Americans , Stevens sought to secure their rights during Reconstruction , in opposition to President Andrew Johnson . As chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee during the American Civil War , he played a major part in the war 's financing .
Stevens was born in rural Vermont , in poverty , and with a club foot , giving him a limp he kept his entire life . He moved to Pennsylvania as a young man , and quickly became a successful lawyer in Gettysburg . He interested himself in municipal affairs , and then in politics . He was elected to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives , where he became a strong advocate of free public education . Financial setbacks in 1842 caused him to move his home and practice to the larger city of Lancaster . There , he joined the Whig Party , and was elected to Congress in 1848 . His activities as a lawyer and politician in opposition to slavery cost him votes and he did not seek reelection in 1852 . After a brief flirtation with the Know @-@ Nothing Party , Stevens joined the newly formed Republican Party , and was elected to Congress again in 1858 . There , with fellow radicals such as Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner , he opposed the expansion of slavery and concessions to the South as war came .
Stevens argued that slavery should not survive the war ; he was frustrated by the slowness of President Abraham Lincoln to support his position . He guided the government 's financial legislation through the House as Ways and Means chairman . As the war progressed towards a northern victory , Stevens came to believe that not only should slavery be abolished , but that African @-@ Americans should be given a stake in the South 's future through the confiscation of land from planters to be distributed to the freedmen . His plans went too far for the Moderate Republicans , and were not enacted .
After Lincoln 's assassination in April 1865 , Stevens came into conflict with the new president , Johnson , who sought rapid restoration of the seceded states without guarantees for freedmen . The difference in views caused an ongoing battle between Johnson and Congress , with Stevens leading the Radical Republicans . After gains in the 1866 election the radicals took control of Reconstruction away from Johnson . Stevens 's last great battle was to secure articles of impeachment in the House against Johnson , though the Senate did not convict the President . Historiographical views of Stevens have dramatically shifted over the years , from the early 20th @-@ century view of Stevens as reckless and motivated by hatred of the white South , to the perspective of the neoabolitionists of the 1950s and afterwards , who applauded him for his egalitarian views .
= = Early life and education = =
Stevens was born in Danville , Vermont , on April 4 , 1792 . He was the second of four children , all boys , and was named to honor the Polish general who served in the American Revolution , Thaddeus Kościuszko . His parents were Baptists who had emigrated from Massachusetts around 1786 . Thaddeus was born with a club foot , at the time seen as a judgment from God for secret parental sin — and his older brother was born with the condition in both feet . The boys ' father , Joshua Stevens , was a farmer and cobbler who struggled to make a living in Vermont . After fathering two more sons ( born without disability ) Joshua abandoned the children and his wife Sarah ( née Morrill ) . The circumstances of his departure and his subsequent fate are uncertain ; he may have died at the Battle of Oswego during the War of 1812 .
Sarah Stevens struggled to make a living from the farm , with the increasing aid of her sons . She was determined that her sons improve themselves , and in 1807 moved the family to the neighboring town of Peacham , where she enrolled young Thaddeus in the Caledonia Grammar School ( often called the Peacham Academy ) . He suffered much from the taunts of his classmates for his disability . Later accounts describe him there as " wilful , headstrong " with " an overwhelming burning desire to secure an education " .
After graduation , he enrolled at Burlington College of the University of Vermont , but suspended his studies due to the federal government 's appropriation of campus buildings during the War of 1812 . Stevens then enrolled in the sophomore class at Dartmouth College in Hanover , New Hampshire . At Dartmouth , despite a stellar academic career , he was not elected to Phi Beta Kappa ; this was reportedly a scarring experience for him .
Stevens graduated from Dartmouth in 1814 , and was chosen as a commencement speaker . Afterwards , he returned to Peacham and briefly taught there . Stevens also began to study law with Judge John Mattocks in Danville . In early 1815 , after writing to friends in York , Pennsylvania , he moved there .
= = Pennsylvania attorney and politician = =
= = = Early years = = =
In Pennsylvania , Stevens taught school at the York Academy and continued his studies for the bar . Local lawyers passed a resolution barring from membership anyone who had " followed any other profession while preparing for admission . " , a restriction likely aimed at Stevens . Undaunted , he reportedly ( according to a story he often retold ) presented himself and four bottles of Madeira wine to the examining board in nearby Harford County , Maryland , and few questions were asked but much wine drunk . He left Bel Air the next morning with a certificate allowing him , through reciprocity , to practice law anywhere . Stevens then went to Gettysburg , the seat of Adams County , where he opened an office in September 1816 .
Stevens knew no one in Gettysburg , and initially had little success as a lawyer . His breakthrough , in mid @-@ 1817 , was a case in which a farmer who had been jailed for debt later killed one of the constables who had arrested him . His defense , although unsuccessful , impressed the local people , and he never lacked for business thereafter . In his legal career , he demonstrated the propensity for sarcasm that would later mark him as a politician , once telling a judge who accused him of manifesting contempt , " Sir , I am doing my best to conceal it . "
Many who memorialized Stevens after his death in 1868 agreed on his talent as a lawyer . He was involved in the first ten cases to reach the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania from Adams County after he began practice , and won nine . One case he later wished he had not won was Butler v. Delaplaine , in which he successfully reclaimed a slave on behalf of her owner .
In Gettysburg , Stevens also began his involvement in politics , serving six one @-@ year terms on the borough council between 1822 and 1831 and becoming its president . He took the profits from his practice and invested them in Gettysburg real estate , becoming the largest landowner in the community by 1825 , and had an interest in several iron furnaces outside town . In addition to assets , he acquired enemies ; after the death of a pregnant black woman in Gettysburg , there were anonymous letter @-@ writers to newspapers , hinting that Stevens was culpable . The rumors dogged him for years ; when one newspaper opposed to Stevens printed a letter in 1831 naming him as the killer , he successfully sued for libel .
= = = Anti @-@ Masonry = = =
Stevens 's first political cause was Anti @-@ Masonry , which became widespread in 1826 after the disappearance and death of William Morgan , a Mason in Upstate New York ; fellow masons were presumed to be the killers of Morgan because they disapproved of his publishing a book revealing the order 's secret rites . Since the leading candidate in opposition to President John Quincy Adams was General Andrew Jackson , a Mason who mocked opponents of the order , Anti @-@ Masonry became closely associated with opposition to Jackson , and to his policies once he was elected president in 1828 .
Jackson 's adherents were from the old Democratic @-@ Republican Party and eventually became known as the Democrats . Stevens had been told by fellow attorney ( and future president ) James Buchanan that he could advance politically if he joined them , but Stevens could not support Jackson , out of principle . For Stevens , Anti @-@ Masonry became one means of opposing Jackson ; he may also have had personal reasons as the Masons barred " cripples " from joining . Stevens took to Anti @-@ Masonry with enthusiasm , and remained loyal to it after most Pennsylvanians had dropped the cause . His biographer , Hans Trefousse , suggested that another reason for Stevens 's virulence was an attack of disease in the late 1820s that cost him his hair ( he thereafter wore wigs , often ill @-@ fitting ) , and " the unwelcome illness may well have contributed to his unreasonable fanaticism concerning the Masons " .
By 1829 , Anti @-@ Masonry had evolved into a political party that proved popular in rural central Pennsylvania . Stevens quickly became prominent in the movement , attending the party 's first two national conventions in 1830 and 1831 . At the latter , he pressed the candidacy of Supreme Court Justice John McLean as the party 's presidential candidate , but in vain as the nomination fell to former Attorney General William Wirt . Jackson was easily reelected ; the crushing defeat ( Wirt won only Vermont ) caused the party to disappear in most places , though it remained powerful in Pennsylvania for several years .
In September 1833 , Stevens was elected to a one @-@ year term in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives as an Anti @-@ Mason , and once in Harrisburg sought to have the body establish a committee to investigate Masonry . Stevens gained attention far beyond Pennsylvania for his oratory against Masonry , and also quickly became expert in legislative maneuvers . In 1835 , a split among the Democrats put the Anti @-@ Masons in control of the legislature . Granted subpoena powers , Stevens summoned leading state politicians who were Masons , including Governor George Wolf . The witnesses invoked their Fifth Amendment right against self @-@ incrimination , and when Stevens verbally abused one of them , it created a backlash that caused his own party to end the investigation . The fracas cost Stevens reelection in 1836 , and the issue of Anti @-@ Masonry died in Pennsylvania . Nevertheless , Stevens remained an opponent of the order for the rest of his life .
= = = Crusader for education = = =
Beginning with his early years in Gettysburg , Stevens advanced the cause of universal education . At the time , no state outside New England had free public education for all . In Pennsylvania , there was free education in Philadelphia , but elsewhere in the state , those wishing to have their children educated without paying tuition had to swear a pauper 's oath . Stevens opened his extensive private library to the public and gave up his presidency of the borough council , believing his service on the school board more important . In 1825 , he was elected by the voters of Adams County as a trustee of Gettysburg Academy . As the school was failing , Stevens got county voters to agree to pay its debt , allowing it to be sold as a Lutheran seminary . It was granted the right to award college degrees in 1831 as Pennsylvania College , and in 1921 became Gettysburg College . Stevens gave the school land upon which a building could be raised and for many years served as a trustee .
In April 1834 , Stevens , working with Governor Wolf , guided through the legislature an act to allow districts across the state to vote on whether to have public schools and the taxes to pay for them . Gettysburg 's district voted in favor , and also elected Stevens as a school director , where he served until 1839 . Tens of thousands of voters signed petitions urging a reversal . The result was a repeal bill that easily passed the Senate . It was widely believed the bill would also pass the House , and be enacted despite opposition by Stevens . When he rose to speak on April 11 , 1835 , he defended the new educational system , stating that it would actually save money , and demonstrated how . He stated opponents were seeking to separate the poor into a lower caste than themselves , and accused the rich of greed and failure to empathize with the poor . Stevens argued , " Build not your monuments of brass or marble , but make them of everliving mind ! " The repeal bill was defeated ; Stevens was given wide credit . Trefousse suggested that the victory was not due to Stevens 's eloquence , but due to his influence , combined with that of Governor Wolf .
= = = Political change ; move to Lancaster = = =
In 1838 , Stevens ran again for the legislature . He hoped that if the remaining Anti @-@ Masons and the emerging Whig Party gained a majority , he could be elected to the United States Senate , whose members until 1913 were chosen by state legislatures . A campaign dirty even by the standards of the times followed . The result was a Democrat elected as governor , Whig control of the state Senate , and the state House in dispute , with a number of seats from Philadelphia in question , though Stevens won his seat in Adams County . Stevens sought to have those Philadelphia Democrats excluded , which would create a Whig majority that could elect a Speaker and himself as senator . Amid rioting in Harrisburg — later known as the " Buckshot War " — Stevens 's ploy backfired , with the Democrats taking control of the House . Stevens remained in the legislature most years through 1842 , but the episode cost him much of his political influence , as the Whigs blamed him for the debacle and were increasingly unwilling to give leadership to someone who had not yet joined their party . Nevertheless , he supported the pro @-@ business and pro @-@ development Whig stances . He campaigned for the Whig candidate in the 1840 presidential election , former general William Henry Harrison . Though Stevens later alleged that Harrison had promised him a Cabinet position if elected , he received none , and any influence ended when Harrison died after a month in office , to be succeeded by John Tyler , a southerner hostile to Stevens 's stances on slavery .
Although Stevens was the most successful lawyer in Gettysburg , he had accrued debt due to his business interests . Refusing to take advantage of the bankruptcy laws , he felt he needed to move to a larger municipality in order to gain the money to pay his obligations . In 1842 , Stevens moved his home and practice to the city of Lancaster . He knew Lancaster County was an Anti @-@ Mason and Whig stronghold , which ensured that he retained a political base . Within a short period , he was earning more than any other Lancaster attorney ; by 1848 he had reduced his debts to $ 30 @,@ 000 , and paid them off soon after . It was in Lancaster that he engaged the services of Lydia Hamilton Smith , a mulatto housekeeper who remained with him the rest of his life .
= = Abolitionist and prewar congressman = =
= = = Evolution of views = = =
In the 1830s , few sought the immediate eradication of slavery . The abolitionist movement was young and only recently had figures such as William Lloyd Garrison taken on the fight . Stevens 's reason for adopting slavery as a cause has been disputed among his recent biographers . Richard Current in 1942 , suggested it was out of ambition ; Fawn Brodie , in her controversial 1959 psychobiography of Stevens , suggested it was out of identification with the downtrodden , based on his handicap . Trefousse , in his 1997 work , also suggested that Stevens 's feelings towards the downtrodden were a factor , combined with remorse over the Butler case , but that ambition was unlikely to have been a major motivator , as Stevens 's fervor in the anti @-@ slavery cause inhibited his career .
At the Pennsylvania constitutional convention in 1837 , Stevens , who was a delegate , fought against the disenfranchisement of African @-@ Americans , though he was willing to support a minimum property requirement for all voters . According to historian Eric Foner , " When Stevens refused to sign the 1837 constitution because of its voting provision , he announced his commitment to a non @-@ racial definition of American citizenship to which he would adhere for the remainder of his life " . After he moved to Lancaster , a city not far from the Mason – Dixon line , he became active in the Underground Railroad , not only defending people believed to be fugitive slaves , but coordinating the movements of those seeking freedom . A 2003 renovation at his former home in Lancaster disclosed that there was a hidden cistern , attached to the main building by a concealed tunnel , in which escaped slaves hid .
Stevens , until the outbreak of the Civil War , took the public position that he supported slavery 's end and opposed its expansion . Nevertheless , he would not seek to disturb it in the states where it existed as the Constitution protected their internal affairs from outside interference . He also supported slaveowning Whig candidates for president : Henry Clay in 1844 and Zachary Taylor in 1848 .
= = = First tenure in Congress = = =
In 1848 , Stevens ran for election to Congress from Pennsylvania 's 8th congressional district . There was opposition to him at the Whig convention . Some delegates felt that because Stevens had been late to join the party , he should not receive the nomination ; others disliked his stance on slavery . He narrowly won the nomination . In a strong year for Whigs nationally , Taylor was chosen as president and Stevens was elected to Congress .
When Congress convened in December 1849 , Stevens took his seat , joining other newly elected slavery opponents such as Salmon P. Chase . Stevens spoke out against the Compromise of 1850 , crafted by Kentucky Senator Henry Clay , that gave victories to both North and South , but would allow for some of the territories recently gained from Mexico to become slave states . In June , as the debates continued , he stated , " This word ' compromise ' when applied to human rights and constitutional rights I abhor " . Nevertheless , the pieces of legislation that made up the Compromise passed , including the Fugitive Slave Act , which Stevens found particularly offensive . Although many Americans hoped that the Compromise would bring sectional peace , Stevens warned that it would be " the fruitful mother of future rebellion , disunion , and civil war " .
Stevens was easily renominated and reelected in 1850 , even though his stance caused him problems among pro @-@ Compromise Whigs . In 1851 , Stevens was one of the defense lawyers in the trial of 38 African @-@ Americans and three others in federal court in Philadelphia on treason charges . The defendants had been implicated in the so @-@ called Christiana Riot , in which an attempt to enforce a Fugitive Slave Act warrant had resulted in the killing of the slaveowner . Justice Robert Grier of the U.S. Supreme Court , as circuit justice , tried the case , and instructed the jury to acquit on the grounds that though the defendants might be guilty of murder or riot , they were not charged with that , and were not guilty of treason . The well @-@ publicized incident ( and others like it ) increased polarization over the issue of slavery and made Stevens a prominent face of Northern abolitionism .
Despite this trend , Stevens suffered political problems . He left the Whig caucus in December 1851 , when his colleagues would not join him in seeking the repeal of the offensive elements of the Compromise , though he supported its unsuccessful 1852 candidate for president , General Winfield Scott . His political opposition , and local dislike of his stance on slavery and participation in the treason trial , made him unlikely to win renomination , and he sought only to pick his successor . His choice was defeated for the Whig nomination .
= = = Know @-@ Nothing and Republican = = =
Out of office , Stevens concentrated on the practice of law in Lancaster , remaining one of the leading attorneys in the state . He stayed active in politics , and in 1854 , to gain more votes for the anti @-@ slavery movement , he joined the nativist Know Nothing Party . The members were pledged not to speak of party deliberations ( thus , they knew nothing ) , and Stevens was attacked for his membership in a group with similar rules of secrecy as the Masons . In 1855 , Stevens joined the new Republican Party . Other former Whigs who were anti @-@ slavery joined as well , including William H. Seward of New York , Charles E. Sumner of Massachusetts , and Abraham Lincoln of Illinois .
Stevens was a delegate to the 1856 Republican National Convention , where he supported Justice McLean , as he had in 1832 . The convention , however , nominated John C. Frémont , whom Stevens actively supported in the race against his fellow Lancastrian , the Democratic candidate James Buchanan . Nonetheless , Pennsylvania helped elect Buchanan . Stevens returned to the practice of law , but by 1858 , with the President and his party unpopular and the nation torn by such controversies as the Dred Scott decision , Stevens saw an opportunity to return to Congress . As the Republican nominee , he was easily elected . Democratic papers were appalled . One banner headline read , " Niggerism Triumphant " .
= = = 1860 election ; secession crisis = = =
Stevens took his seat in Congress in December 1859 , only days after the hanging of John Brown , who had attacked the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry hoping to cause a slave insurrection . Stevens opposed Brown 's violent actions at the time , though later , he was more approving . Sectional tensions spilled over into the House , which proved unable to elect a Speaker for eight weeks . Stevens was active in the bitter flow of invective from both sides ; at one point , Mississippi Congressman William Barksdale drew a knife on him , though no blood was spilled .
With the Democrats unable to agree on a single presidential candidate , the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago became crucial , as the nominee would be in a favorable position to become president . Prominent figures in the party such as Seward and Lincoln sought the nomination . Stevens continued to support the 75 @-@ year @-@ old Justice McLean . Beginning on the second ballot , most Pennsylvania delegates supported Lincoln , helping to win the Illinoisan the nomination . As the Democrats put up no candidate in his district , Stevens was assured of reelection to the House , and campaigned for Lincoln in Pennsylvania . Lincoln won a majority in the Electoral College . The President @-@ elect 's known opposition to the expansion of slavery caused immediate talk of secession in the southern states , a threat that Stevens had downplayed during the campaign .
Congress convened in December 1860 , with several of the southern states already pledging to secede . Stevens was unyielding in opposing efforts to appease the southerners , such as the Crittenden Compromise , which would have enshrined slavery as beyond constitutional amendment . He stated , in a remark widely quoted both North and South , that rather than offer concessions because of Lincoln 's election , he would see " this Government crumble into a thousand atoms " , and that the forces of the United States would crush any rebellion . Despite Stevens 's protests , the lame @-@ duck Buchanan administration did little in response to the secession votes , allowing most federal resources in the South to fall into rebel hands . Many , even in the abolition movement , were content to let it be so , and to let the South go its own way . Stevens did not agree , and the congressman was " undoubtedly pleased " by Lincoln 's statement in his first inaugural address on March 4 , 1861 , that he would " hold , occupy and possess the property and places belonging to the Government " .
= = American Civil War = =
= = = Slavery = = =
When war began in April 1861 , Stevens argued that the Confederates were revolutionaries , to be crushed by force . He also believed that the Confederacy had placed itself beyond the protection of the U.S. Constitution by making war , and in a reconstituted United States , slavery would have no place . Speaker Galusha Grow , whose views placed him with Stevens among the members becoming known as the Radical Republican ( for their position on slavery , as opposed to the Conservative or Moderate Republicans ) , appointed him as chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee . This position gave him power over the House 's agenda .
In July 1861 , Stevens secured the passage of an act to confiscate the property , including slaves , of certain rebels . In November 1861 , Stevens introduced a resolution to emancipate all slaves ; it was defeated . However , legislation did pass that abolished slavery in the District of Columbia and in the territories . By March 1862 , to Stevens 's exasperation , the most Lincoln had publicly supported was gradual emancipation in the Border states , with the masters compensated by the federal government .
Stevens and other radicals were frustrated at how slow Lincoln was to adopt their policies for emancipation ; according to Brodie , " Lincoln seldom succeeded in matching Stevens 's pace , though both were marching towards the same bright horizon " . In April 1862 , Stevens wrote to a friend , " As for future hopes , they are poor as Lincoln is nobody . " The radicals aggressively pushed the issue , provoking Lincoln to comment : " Stevens , Sumner and [ Massachusetts Senator Henry ] Wilson simply haunt me with their importunities for a Proclamation of Emancipation . Wherever I go and whatever way I turn , they are on my tail , and still in my heart , I have the deep conviction that the hour [ to issue one ] has not yet come . " The President stated that if it came to a showdown between the radicals and their enemies , he would have to side with Stevens and his fellows , and deemed them " the unhandiest devils in the world to deal with " but " with their faces ... set Zionwards " . Although Lincoln composed his proclamation in June and July 1862 , the secret was held within his Cabinet , and the President turned aside radical pleadings to issue one until after the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam in September . Stevens quickly adopted the Emancipation Proclamation for use in his successful reelection campaign . When Congress returned in December , Stevens maintained his criticism of Lincoln 's policies , calling them " flagrant usurpations , deserving the condemnation of the community " . Stevens generally opposed Lincoln 's plans to colonize freed slaves abroad , though sometimes he supported emigration proposals for political reasons . Stevens wrote a nephew in June 1863 saying , " The slaves ought to be incited to insurrection and give the rebels a taste of real civil war . "
During the Confederate incursion into the North in mid @-@ 1863 that culminated in the Battle of Gettysburg , Confederates twice sent parties to Stevens 's Caledonia Forge . Stevens , who had been there supervising operations , was hastened away by his workers against his will . General Jubal Early looted and vandalized the Forge , causing a loss to Stevens of about $ 80 @,@ 000 . Early said that the North had done the same to southern figures , and that Stevens was well known for his vindictiveness towards the South . Asked if he would have taken the congressman to Libby Prison in Richmond , Early replied that he would have hanged Stevens and divided his bones among the Confederate states .
Stevens pushed Congress to pass a constitutional amendment abolishing slavery . The Emancipation Proclamation was a wartime measure , did not apply to all slaves , and might be reversed by peacetime courts ; an amendment would be slavery 's end . The Thirteenth Amendment — which outlawed slavery and involuntary servitude except as punishment for crime — easily passed the Senate , but failed in the House in June ; fears that it might not pass delayed a renewed attempt there . Lincoln campaigned aggressively for the amendment after his re @-@ election in 1864 , and Stevens described his December annual message to Congress as " the most important and best message that has been communicated to Congress for the last 60 years " . Stevens closed the debate on the amendment on January 13 , 1865 . Illinois Representative Isaac Arnold wrote : " distinguished soldiers and citizens filled every available seat , to hear the eloquent old man speak on a measure that was to consummate the warfare of forty years against slavery " .
The amendment passed narrowly after heavy pressure exerted by Lincoln himself , along with offers of political appointments from the " Seward lobby " . Allegations of bribery were made by Democrats ; Stevens stated " the greatest measure of the nineteenth century was passed by corruption , aided and abetted by the purest man in America . " The amendment was declared ratified on December 18 , 1865 . Stevens continued to push for a broad interpretation of it that included economic justice in addition to the formal end of slavery .
After passing the Thirteenth Amendment , Congress debated the economic rights of the freedmen . Urged on by Stevens , it voted to authorize the Bureau of Refugees , Freedmen , and Abandoned Lands , with a mandate ( though no funding ) to set up schools and to distribute " not more than forty acres " [ 16 ha ] of confiscated Confederate land to each family of freed slaves .
= = = Financing the war = = =
Stevens worked closely with Lincoln administration officials on legislation to finance the war . Within a day of his appointment as Ways and Means chairman , he had reported a bill for a war loan . Legislation to pay the soldiers Lincoln had already called into service and to allow the administration to borrow to prosecute the war quickly followed . These acts and more were pushed through the House by Stevens . To defeat the delaying tactics of Copperhead opponents , he had the House set debate limits as short as half a minute .
Stevens played a major part in the passage of the Legal Tender Act of 1862 , when for the first time the United States issued currency backed only by its own credit , not by gold or silver . Early makeshifts to finance the war , such as war bonds , had failed as it became clear the war would not be short . In 1863 , Stevens aided the passage of the National Banking Act , that required that banks limit their currency issues to the amount of federal bonds that they were required to hold . The system endured for a half @-@ century , until supplanted by the Federal Reserve System in 1913 .
Although the Legal Tender legislation allowed for the payment of government obligations in paper money , Stevens was unable to get the Senate to agree that interest on the national debt should be paid with greenbacks . As the value of paper money dropped , Stevens railed against gold speculators , and in June 1864 after consultation with Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase , proposed what became known as the Gold Bill — to abolish the gold market by forbidding its sale by brokers or for future delivery . It passed Congress in June ; the chaos caused by the lack of an organized gold market caused the value of paper to drop even faster . Under heavy pressure from the business community , Congress repealed the bill on July 1 , twelve days after its passage . Stevens was unrepentant even as the value of paper currency recovered in late 1864 amid the expectation of Union victory , proposing legislation to make paying a premium in greenbacks for an amount in gold coin a criminal offense . It did not pass .
Stevens , like most Pennsylvania politicians of both parties , was a major proponent of tariffs , which increased from 19 % to 48 % from fiscal 1861 to fiscal 1865 . According to activist Ida Tarbell in " The Tariff in Our Times : " [ Import ] duties were never too high for [ Stevens ] , particularly for iron , for he was a manufacturer and it was often said in Pennsylvania that the duties he advocated in no way represented the large iron interests of the state , but were hoisted to cover the needs of his own ... badly managed works . "
= = Reconstruction = =
= = = Problem of reconstructing the South = = =
As Congress debated how the U.S. would be organized after the war , the status of freed slaves and former Confederates remained undetermined . Stevens stated that what was needed was a " radical reorganization of southern institutions , habits , and manners " . Stevens , Sumner and other radicals argued that the southern states should be treated like conquered provinces , without constitutional rights . Lincoln , on the contrary , said that only individuals , not states , had rebelled . In July 1864 , Stevens pushed Lincoln to sign the Wade – Davis Bill , which required at least half of prewar voters to sign an oath of loyalty for a state to gain readmission . Lincoln , who advocated his more lenient ten percent plan , pocket vetoed it .
Stevens reluctantly voted for Lincoln at the convention of the National Union Party , a coalition of Republicans and War Democrats . He would have preferred to vote for the sitting vice president , Hannibal Hamlin , as Lincoln 's running mate in 1864 , but his delegation voted to cast the state 's ballots for the administration 's favored candidate , Military Governor of Tennessee Andrew Johnson , a War Democrat who had been a Tennessee senator and elected governor . Stevens was disgusted at Johnson 's nomination , complaining , " can 't you get a candidate for Vice @-@ President without going down into a damned rebel province for one ? " Stevens campaigned for the Lincoln @-@ Johnson ticket ; it was elected , as was Stevens for another term in the House . When in January 1865 Congress learned that Lincoln had attempted peace talks with Confederate leaders , an outraged Stevens declared that if the American electorate could vote again , they would elect General Benjamin Butler instead of Lincoln .
= = = Presidential Reconstruction = = =
Before leaving town after Congress adjourned in March 1865 , Stevens privately urged Lincoln to press the South hard militarily , though the war was ending . Lincoln replied , " Stevens , this is a pretty big hog we are trying to catch and to hold when we catch him . We must take care that he does not slip away from us . " Never to see Lincoln again , Stevens left with " a homely metaphor but no real certainty of having left as much as a thumbprint on Lincoln 's policy " . On the evening of April 14 , 1865 , Lincoln was assassinated by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth . Stevens did not attend the ceremonies when Lincoln 's funeral train stopped in Lancaster ; he was said to be ill . Trefousse speculated he may avoided the rites for other reasons . According to Lincoln biographer Carl Sandburg , Stevens stood at a railroad bridge and lifted his hat .
In May 1865 , Andrew Johnson began what came to be known as " Presidential Reconstruction " : recognizing a provisional government of Virginia led by Francis Harrison Pierpont , calling for other former rebel states to organize constitutional conventions , declaring amnesty for many southerners , and issuing individual pardons to even more . Johnson did not push the states to protect the rights of freed slaves , and immediately began to counteract the land reform policies of the Freedmen 's Bureau . These actions outraged Stevens and others who took his view . The radicals saw that freedmen in the South risked losing the economic and political liberty necessary to sustain emancipation from slavery . They began to call for universal male suffrage and continued their demands for land reform .
Stevens wrote to Johnson that his policies were gravely damaging the country and that he should call a special session of Congress , which was not scheduled to meet until December . When his communications were ignored , Stevens began to discuss with other radicals how to prevail over Johnson when the two houses convened . Congress has the constitutional power to be the judge of whether those seeking to be its members are properly elected ; Stevens urged that no senators or representatives from the South be seated . He argued that the states should not be readmitted as thereafter Congress would lack the power to force race reform .
In September , Stevens gave a widely reprinted speech in Lancaster in which he set forth what he wanted for the South . He proposed that the government confiscate the estates of the largest 70 @,@ 000 landholders there , those who owned more than 200 acres ( 81 ha ) . Much of this property he wanted distributed in plots of 40 acres ( 16 ha ) to the freedmen ; other lands would go to reward loyalists in both North and South , or to meet government obligations . He warned that under the President 's plan , the southern states would send rebels to Congress who would join with northern Democrats and Johnson to govern the nation and perhaps undo emancipation .
Through late 1865 , the southern states held white @-@ only balloting and in congressional elections , chose many former rebels , most prominently Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens , voted as senator by the Georgia Legislature . Violence against African @-@ Americans was common and unpunished in the South ; the new legislatures enacted Black Codes , depriving the freedmen of most civil rights . These actions , seen as provocative in the North , both privately dismayed Johnson and helped turn northern public opinion against him .
= = = Congressional Reconstruction = = =
By this time , Stevens was in his seventies and in poor health ; he was carried everywhere in a special chair . When Congress convened in early December 1865 , Stevens made arrangements with the Clerk of the House that when the roll was called , the names of the southern electees be omitted . The Senate also excluded southern claimants . A new congressman , Ohio 's Rutherford B. Hayes , described Stevens , " He is radical throughout , except , I am told , he don 't believe in hanging . He is leader . "
As the responsibilities of the Ways and Means chairman had been divided , Stevens took the post of chairman of the House Committee on Appropriations , retaining control over the House 's agenda . Stevens focused on legislation that would secure the freedom promised by the newly ratified Thirteenth Amendment . He proposed and then co @-@ chaired the Joint Committee on Reconstruction with Maine Senator William Pitt Fessenden . This body , also called the Committee of Fifteen , investigated conditions in the South . It heard not only of the violence against African @-@ Americans , but against Union loyalists , and against what southerners termed " carpetbaggers " , northerners who had journeyed south after the restoration of peace . Stevens declared : that " our loyal brethren at the South , whether they be black or white " required urgent protection " from the barbarians who are now daily murdering them . "
The Committee of Fifteen began consideration of what would become the Fourteenth Amendment . Stevens had begun drafting versions in December 1865 , before the Committee had even formed . In January 1866 , a subcommittee including Stevens and John Bingham proposed two amendments : one giving Congress the unqualified power to secure equal rights , privileges , and protections for all citizens ; the other explicitly annulling all racially discriminatory laws . Stevens believed that the Declaration of Independence and Organic Acts already bound the federal government to these principles , but that an amendment was necessary to allow enforcement against discrimination at the State level . The resolution providing for what would become the Fourteenth Amendment was watered down in Congress ; during the closing debate , Stevens said these changes had shattered his lifelong dream in equality for all Americans . Nevertheless , stating that he lived among men , not angels , he supported the passage of the compromise amendment . Still , Stevens told the House : " Forty acres of land and a hut would be more valuable to [ the African @-@ American ] than the immediate right to vote . "
When Illinois Senator Lyman Trumbull introduced legislation to reauthorize and expand the Freedmen 's Bureau , Stevens called the Bill a " robbery " because it did not include sufficient provisions for land reform or protect the property of refugees given them by the military occupation of the South . Johnson vetoed the Bill anyway , calling the Freedmen 's Bureau unconstitutional , and decrying its cost — Congress had never purchased land , established schools , or provided financial help for " our own people " . Congress was unable to override Johnson 's veto in February , but five months later passed a similar bill . Stevens criticized the passage of the Southern Homestead Act of 1866 arguing that the low @-@ quality land it made available would not drive real economic growth for black families .
Congress overrode a Johnson veto to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1866 ( also introduced by Trumbull ) , granting African @-@ Americans citizenship and equality before the law , and forbidding any action by a state to the contrary . Johnson made the gap between him and Congress wider when he accused Stevens , Sumner , and Wendell Phillips of trying to destroy the government .
After Congress adjourned in July , the campaigning for the fall elections began . Johnson embarked on a trip by rail , dubbed the " Swing Around the Circle " , that won him few supporters ; his arguments with hecklers were deemed undignified . He attacked Stevens and other radicals during this tour . Stevens campaigned for firm measures against the South , his hand strengthened by violence in Memphis and New Orleans , where African @-@ Americans and white Unionists had been attacked by mobs , including the police . Stevens was returned to Congress by his constituents ; Republicans would have a two @-@ thirds majority in both houses in the next Congress .
= = = Radical Reconstruction = = =
In January 1867 , Stevens introduced legislation to divide the South into five districts , each commanded by an army general empowered to override civil authorities . These military officers were to supervise elections with all males , of whatever race , entitled to vote , except for those who could not take an oath of past loyalty — most white southerners could not . The states were to write new constitutions ( subject to approval by Congress ) and hold elections for state officials . Only if a state ratified the Fourteenth Amendment would its delegation be seated in Congress . The system gave power to a Republican coalitions of freedmen ( mobilized by the Union League ) , carpetbaggers and co @-@ operative southerners ( the last dubbed scalawags by indignant ex @-@ rebels ) in most southern states . These states ratified the Fourteenth Amendment , which became part of the Constitution in mid @-@ 1868 .
Stevens introduced a Tenure of Office Act , restricting Johnson from firing officials who had received Senate confirmation without getting that body 's consent . The Tenure of Office Act was ambiguous , since it could be read to protect officeholders only during the tenure of the president who appointed them , and most of the officials the radicals sought to protect had been named by Lincoln . Chief among these was Secretary of War Edwin Stanton , a radical himself .
Stevens steered a bill to enfranchise African @-@ Americans in the District of Columbia through the House ; the Senate passed it in 1867 , and it was enacted over Johnson 's veto . Congress was downsizing the Army for peacetime ; Stevens offered an amendment , which became part of the bill as enacted , to have two regiments of African @-@ American cavalry . His solicitude for African @-@ Americans extended to the Native American ; Stevens was successful in defeating a bill to place reservations under state law , noting that the native people had often been abused by the states . An expansionist , he supported the railroads . He added a stipulation into the [ Transcontinental ] Pacific Railroad Act requiring the applicable railroads to buy iron " of American manufacture " of the top price qualities.Although he sought to protect manufacturers with high tariffs , he also sought unsuccessfully to get a bill passed to protect labor with an eight @-@ hour day in the District of Columbia . Stevens advocated a bill to give government workers raises ; it did not pass .
= = Impeaching the President = =
The new Congress , which convened on March 4 , 1867 , was not as aggressive in opposing Johnson as Stevens had hoped . It soon adjourned until July , though its Judiciary Committee remained to hold hearings on whether the President should be impeached . Stevens firmly supported impeachment , but others were less enthusiastic once the Senate elected Ohio 's Benjamin Wade as its president pro tempore , next in line to the presidency in the absence of a vice president . Wade was a radical who supported wealth redistribution ; a speech of his in Kansas so impressed Karl Marx that he mentioned it in the first German edition of Das Kapital . Also a supporter of women 's suffrage , Wade was widely mistrusted for his views ; the prospect of his succession made some advocates of Johnson 's removal more hesitant . Stevens , however , strongly supported the removal of the President , and when the Judiciary Committee failed to report , tried to keep Congress in session until it did . Despite his opposition to its leader , Stevens worked with the administration on matters both supported ; he obtained an appropriation for the purchase of Alaska and urged Secretary of State Seward to seek other territories to expand into .
Most of Johnson 's Cabinet supported him but Secretary of War Stanton did not , and with the General of the Army , war hero Ulysses S. Grant , worked to undermine Johnson 's Reconstruction policies . Johnson obeyed the laws that Congress had passed , sometimes over his veto , though he often interpreted them in ways contrary to their intent . After Stanton refused Johnson 's request that he resign in August 1867 , Johnson suspended Stanton , as permitted by the Tenure of Office Act , and made General Grant interim Secretary of War . Republicans campaigned in that year 's election on the issue of African @-@ American suffrage , but were met with a voter surge towards the Democrats , who opposed it . Although no seats at Congress were directly at stake , voters in Ohio both defeated a referendum on black suffrage and elected the Democrats to the majority in the legislature , meaning that Wade , whose term was due to expire in 1869 , would not be reelected .
When Congress met again in December , although the Judiciary Committee voted 5 – 4 for impeachment , the House voted against it . On January 13 , 1868 , the Senate overturned Johnson 's suspension of Stanton . Grant resigned as Secretary of War , and Stanton reclaimed his place . Nevertheless , on February 21 , the President ousted Stanton from his position , appointing General Lorenzo Thomas in his place — though Stanton barricaded himself in his office . These actions caused great excitement in Washington , and in the House of Representatives , Stevens went from group to group on the floor , repeating , " Didn 't I tell you so ? What good did your moderation do you ? If you don 't kill the beast , it will kill you . " Stevens concluded the debate on a renewed impeachment resolution on February 24 , though due to his poor health he was unable to complete his speech and gave it to the Clerk to read aloud . He accused Johnson of usurping the powers of other branches of government , and of ignoring the will of the people . He did not deny impeachment was a political matter , but " this is not to be the temporary triumph of a political party , but is to endure in its consequence until the whole continent shall be filled with a free and untrammeled people or shall be a nest of shrinking , cowardly slaves . " The House voted 126 – 47 to impeach the President .
Stevens led the delegation of House members sent the following day to inform the Senate of the impeachment , though he had to be carried to its doors by his bearers . Elected to the committee charged with drafting articles of impeachment , his illness limited his involvement . Nevertheless , dissatisfied with the committee 's proposed articles , Stevens suggested another , that would become Article XI . This grounded the various accusations in statements Johnson had made denying the legitimacy of Congress due to the exclusion of the southern states , and stated that Johnson had tried to disobey the Reconstruction Acts . Stevens was one of the managers , or prosecutors , elected by the House to present its case in the impeachment trial . Although Stevens was too ill to appear in the Senate on March 3 , when the managers requested that Johnson be summoned ( the President would appear only by his counsel , or defense managers ) , he was there ten days later when the summons was returnable . The New York Herald described him as having a " face of corpselike color , and rigidly twitching lips ... a strange and unearthly apparition — a reclused remonstrance from the tomb ... the very embodiment of fanaticism , without a solitary leaven of justice or mercy ... the avenging Nemesis of his party — the sworn and implacable foe of the Executive of the nation " .
Increasingly ill , Stevens took little part in the impeachment trial , at which the leading House manager was Massachusetts Representative Benjamin F. Butler . Stevens nourished himself on the Senate floor with raw eggs and terrapin , port and brandy . He spoke only twice before making a closing argument for the House managers on April 27 . As he spoke , his voice weakened , and finally he allowed Butler to read the second half of his speech for him . Stevens focused on Article XI , taking the position that Johnson could be removed for political crimes ; he need not have committed an offense against the law . The President , having sworn to faithfully execute the laws , had intentionally disobeyed the Tenure of Office Act after the Senate had refused to uphold his removal of Stanton , " and now this offspring of assassination turns upon the Senate who have ... rebuked him in a constitutional manner and bids them defiance . How can he escape the just vengeance of the law ? "
Most radicals were confident that Johnson would be convicted and removed from office . Stevens , however , was never certain of the result as Chief Justice Chase ( the former Treasury Secretary ) made rulings that favored the defense , and he had no great confidence Republicans would stick together . On May 11 , the Senate met in secret session , and senators gave speeches explaining how they intended to vote . All Democrats were opposed , but an unexpectedly large number of Republicans also favored acquittal on some or all of the articles . Counting votes , managers realized their best chance of gaining the required two @-@ thirds for conviction was on the Stevens @-@ inspired Article XI , and when the Senate assembled to give its verdict , they scheduled it to be voted upon first . The suspense was broken when Kansas Senator Edmund Ross , whose position was uncertain , voted for acquittal . This meant that , with the votes of those who remained , the President would not be convicted on that article . The article failed , 35 in favor to 19 against . In the hope that delay would bring a different result , Republicans adjourned the Senate for ten days . Stevens was carried from the Senate in his chair — one observer described him as " black with rage and disappointment " — and when those outside clamored for the result , Stevens shouted , " The country is going to the devil ! "
= = Final months and death = =
During the recess of the impeachment court , the Republicans met in convention in Chicago and nominated Grant for president . Stevens did not attend , and was dismayed by the exclusion of African @-@ American suffrage from the party platform as radical influence began to fade in the Republican Party . When the Senate returned to session , it voted down Articles II and III by the same 35 – 19 margin as before , and Chase declared the President acquitted . Stevens did not give up on the idea of removing Johnson ; in July , he proffered several more impeachment articles ( the House refused to adopt them ) . He offered a bill to divide Texas into several parts so as to gain additional Republican senators to vote out Johnson . It was defeated ; the Herald stated , " It is lamentable to see this old man , with one foot in the grave , pursuing the President with such vindictiveness . " Nevertheless , Stevens planned to revisit the question of impeachment when Congress met again in late 1868 .
Brodie suggested that Stevens 's hatred of Johnson was the only thing keeping him from despair , aware as he was of the continued violence in the South , some of which was committed by the Ku Klux Klan . Several of the southern states had been re @-@ admitted by this time , and the murders and intimidation were aiding the Democrats there in restoring white rule . With the Republicans unwilling to embrace black suffrage in their platform and the Democrats opposed to it , Stevens feared Democratic victory in the 1868 elections might even bring back slavery . He told his fellow Pennsylvania politician , Alexander McClure , " My life has been a failure . With all this great struggle of years in Washington , and the fearful sacrifice of life and treasure , I see little hope for the Republic . " , He took pride , he continued , in his role in establishing free public education in Pennsylvania . When interviewed by a reporter seeking to gain his life story , Stevens replied , " I have no history . My life @-@ long regret is that I have lived so long and so uselessly . " Nevertheless , in his last formal speech to the House , Stevens stated that " man still is vile . But such large steps have lately been taken in the true direction , that the patriot has a right to take courage . "
When Congress adjourned in late July , Stevens remained in Washington , too ill to return to Pennsylvania . Stevens was in pain from his stomach ailments , from swollen feet , and from dropsy . By early August , he was unable to leave the house . He still received some visitors though , and correctly predicted to his friend and former student Simon Stevens ( no relation ) that Grant would win the election . On the afternoon of August 11 , his doctor warned that he would probably not last through the night . His longtime housekeeper and companion , Lydia Hamilton Smith , his nephew Thaddeus , and friends gathered by him . Two black preachers came to pray by him , telling him that he had the prayers of all their people . He sucked on ice to try to sooth the pain ; his last words were a request for more of it . Thaddeus Stevens died on the night of August 11 , 1868 , as the old day departed .
President Johnson issued no statement upon the death of his enemy . Newspaper reaction was generally along partisan lines , though sometimes mixed . The Detroit Post stated that " if to die crowned with noble laurels , and ... secure of the respect of the world ... is an end worthy the ambition of a well spent life , then the veteran Radical may lie down with the noblest of the fathers to a well contented sleep " . The New York Times stated that Stevens had " discerned the expediency of emancipation , and urged it long before Mr. Lincoln issued his proclamation " but that after the war , " on the subject of Reconstruction , then , Mr. Stevens must be deemed the Evil Genius of the Republican Party . The [ Franklin , Louisiana ] Planter 's Banner exulted , " The prayers of the righteous have at last removed the Congressional curse ! May ... the fires of his new furnace never go out ! "
Stevens 's body was conveyed from his house to the Capitol by white and African @-@ American pallbearers together . Thousands of mourners , of both races , filed past his casket as he lay in state in the Rotunda ; Stevens was the third man , after Clay and Lincoln , to receive that honor . African @-@ American soldiers constituted the guard of honor . After a service there , his body was taken by funeral train to Lancaster , a city draped in black for the funeral . Stevens was laid to rest in Shreiner 's Cemetery ( today the Shreiner @-@ Concord Cemetery ) ; it allowed burial of people of all races , although at the time of Stevens 's interment , only one African @-@ American was buried there . The people of his district posthumously renominated him to Congress , and elected his former student , Oliver J. Dickey to succeed him . When Congress convened in December 1868 , there were a number of speeches in tribute to Stevens ; they were afterwards collected in book form .
= = Personal life = =
Stevens never married , though there were rumors about his 20 @-@ year relationship ( 1848 – 1868 ) with his widowed housekeeper , Lydia Hamilton Smith ( 1813 – 1884 ) . She was a light @-@ skinned African @-@ American ; her husband Jacob and at least one of her sons were much darker than she was .
It is uncertain if the Stevens @-@ Smith relationship was romantic . The Democratic press , especially in the South , assumed so , and when he brought Mrs. Smith to Washington in 1859 , where she managed his household , that did nothing to stop their insinuations . In the one brief surviving letter from Stevens to her , Stevens addresses her as Mrs. Lydia Smith . Stevens insisted that his nieces and nephews refer to her as Mrs. Smith , deference towards an African @-@ American servant almost unheard of at that time . They do so in surviving letters , warmly , asking Stevens to see that she comes with him next time he visits .
As evidence that their relationship was sexual , Brodie pointed to an 1868 letter in which Stevens compares himself to Richard M. Johnson , vice president under Martin Van Buren , who lived openly with a series of African @-@ American slave mistresses . Johnson was elected even though this became known during the 1836 campaign , a fact that Stevens notes , and expresses his bitterness about his inability to gain election by the legislature to the Senate , or to secure a Cabinet position .
When Stevens died , Smith was at his bedside , along with his friend Simon Stevens , nephew Thaddeus Stevens Jr . , two African @-@ American nuns , and several other individuals . Under Stevens ' will , Smith was allowed to choose between a lump sum of $ 5 @,@ 000 or a $ 500 annual allowance ; she was also allowed to take any furniture in his house . With the inheritance , she purchased Stevens ' house , where she had lived for many years . A Roman Catholic , she chose to be buried in a Catholic cemetery , not near Stevens , although she left money for the upkeep of his grave .
Stevens had taken custody of his two young nephews , Thaddeus ( often called " Thaddeus Jr . " ) and Alanson Joshua Stevens after their parents died in Vermont . Alanson was sent to work at Stevens 's business , Caledonia Forge , Thaddeus Jr. was expelled from Dartmouth , though he subsequently graduated and was taken into his uncle 's law practice . Alanson during the Civil War rose to be commanding captain of a Pennsylvania Volunteers field artillery unit and was killed in action at Chickamauga . After Alanson 's death , his uncle used his influence to have Thaddeus Jr. made provost marshal of Lancaster .
= = Related sites = =
Buildings associated with Stevens and with Smith in Lancaster are being renovated by the local historical society , LancasterHistory.org. In his will , Stevens made a number of bequests , with much of his estate to his nephew Thaddeus Jr . , on condition that he refrain from alcohol . If he did not , that bequest would go to establish an orphanage in Lancaster , to be open to all races and nationalities without discrimination . A legal fight over his estate ensued , and it was not until 1894 that the courts settled the matter , awarding $ 50 @,@ 000 to found the orphanage . The school today is the Thaddeus Stevens College of Technology , in Lancaster .
Among a number of other schools named for Stevens , the Thaddeus Stevens Elementary School in Washington , D.C. was founded in 1868 as the first school built for African @-@ American children there . It was segregated for the first 86 years of its existence . In 1977 , Amy Carter , daughter of President Jimmy Carter , a Georgian , was enrolled there , the first child of a sitting president to attend public school in almost 70 years .
= = Historical and popular view = =
As Stevens biographer Richard N. Current put it , " to find out what really made the man go , the historian would need the combined aid of two experts from outside the profession — a psychoanalyst and a spiritualist . " The historical view of Thaddeus Stevens has fluctuated widely in the near century and a half since his death , generally in a manner inverse to that of Andrew Johnson . Early biographical works on Stevens were composed by men who knew him , and reflected their prejudices . Biographies at the turn of the century , such as that by Samuel McCall in 1899 and James Albert Woodburn in 1913 , presented Stevens favorably , as a sincere man , motivated by principle . Early African @-@ American historian W. E. B. Du Bois called Stevens " a leader of the common people " and " a stern believer in democracy , both in politics and in industry " . Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning historian James Ford Rhodes opined that though Stevens had a " profound sympathy " towards the African @-@ American , " coming straight from the heart " , he also showed " virulence toward the South " and was " bitter and vindictive " . This view of a vengeful Stevens originated during Reconstruction , and persisted well into the 20th century .
With the advent of the Dunning School 's view of Reconstruction after 1900 , Stevens continued to be viewed negatively , and generally as motivated by hatred . These historians , led by William Dunning , taught that Reconstruction had been an opportunity for radical politicians , motivated by ill @-@ will towards the South , to destroy what little of southern life and dignity the war had left . Dunning himself deemed Stevens " truculent , vindictive , and cynical " . Lloyd Paul Stryker , who wrote a highly favorable 1929 biography of Johnson , labeled Stevens as a " horrible old man ... craftily preparing to strangle the bleeding , broken body of the South " and who thought it would be " a beautiful thing " to see " the white men , especially the white women of the South , writhing under negro domination " . In 1915 , D. W. Griffith 's film The Birth of a Nation was released , containing the villainous character , Congressman Austin Stoneman , who resembled Stevens down to the ill @-@ fitting wig , limp , and African @-@ American lover ( named Lydia Brown ) . This popular treatment reinforced and reinvigorated public prejudices towards Stevens . According to Foner , " as historians exalted the magnanimity of Lincoln and Andrew Johnson , Stevens came to symbolize Northern malice , revenge , and irrational hatred of the South . " The highly popular historian James Truslow Adams described Stevens as " perhaps the most despicable , malevolent , and morally deformed character who has ever risen to high power in America . "
Historians who penned biographies of Stevens in the late 1930s sought to move away from this perspective , seeking to rehabilitate him and his political career . Thomas F. Woodley wrote of Stevens in 1937 , and while his work shows admiration of Stevens , he attributed Stevens 's driving force to bitterness over his clubfoot . Alphonse Miller , in his 1939 biography , found that the former congressman was motivated by a desire for justice . Both men were convinced that recent books had not treated him fairly . Richard Current 's 1942 work reflected current Beardian historiography which saw all American history , including Reconstruction , as a three @-@ way economic struggle between the industrialists of the Northeast ( represented by Stevens ) , the planters of the South and the farmers of the Midwest . Current argued that Stevens was motivated in his Reconstruction policies by frustrated ambitions , and a desire to use his political position to promote industrial capitalism and advance the Republican Party . He concluded that despite Stevens 's egalitarian beliefs he actually promoted inequality , for " none had done more than he to bring on the age of Big Business , with its concentration of wealth " .
With Ralph Korngold 's 1955 biography of Stevens , the neoabolitionist school of historians began to consider the former congressman . These professors rejected the earlier view that those who had gone South to aid the African @-@ American after the war were " rapscallion carpetbaggers " defeated by " saintly redeemers " . Instead , they applauded those who had sought to end slavery and forward civil rights , and castigated Johnson for obstructionism . They took the view that the African @-@ American was central to Reconstruction , and the only things wrong with the congressional program were that it did not go far enough , and stopped too soon . Brodie 's 1959 biography of Stevens was of this school . Controversial in its conclusions for being a psychobiography , it found that Stevens was a " consummate underdog who identified with the oppressed " , and whose intelligence won him success , while his consciousness of his clubfoot retarded his social development . According to Brodie , this also made him unwilling to marry a woman of his own social standing .
Scholars who followed Brodie continued to chip away at the idea of Stevens as a vindictive dictator , who dominated Congress to get his way . In 1960 , Eric McKitrick deemed Stevens " a picturesque and adroit politician , but a very limited one " whose career was " a long comic sequence of devilish schemes which , one after another , kept blowing up in his face " . From the mid @-@ 1970s onward , Foner argued that Stevens 's role was in staking out radical position , but events , not Stevens , caused the Republicans to support him . Michael Les Benedict in 1974 suggested that Stevens 's reputation as a dictator was based more on his personality than on his influence . In 1989 , Allan Bogue found that as chairman of Ways and Means , Stevens was " less than complete master " of his committee .
Historian Hans Trefousse stated in a 1969 study of the Radical Republicans that Stevens 's " one abiding passion was equality " . In 1991 , he noted that Stevens " was one of the most influential representatives ever to serve in Congress . [ He dominated ] the House with his wit , knowledge of
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84 , the first international match was played at the ground between Wales and Ireland , when 5 @,@ 000 people watched Wales beat Ireland by two tries and a drop goal to nil .
The Arms Park rugby ground became the permanent home of the Wales national rugby union team in 1964 . Later , the National Stadium was also home to the WRU Challenge Cup from 1972 until the match held at the Stadium on 26 April 1997 , at a much reduced capacity , between Cardiff RFC and Swansea RFC . Cardiff RFC won the match 33 – 26 .
The National Stadium is best known as the venue for what is considered to be " the greatest try ever scored " by Gareth Edwards for the Barbarians against New Zealand in what is also called " the greatest match ever played " on 27 January 1973 . The final result was a win for the Barbarians . The score , 23 – 11 , which translates to 27 – 13 in today 's scoring system .
The scorers were :
Barbarians : Tries : Gareth Edwards , Fergus Slattery , John Bevan , J P R Williams ; Conversions : Phil Bennett ( 2 ) ; Penalty : Phil Bennett .
All Blacks : Tries : Grant Batty ( 2 ) ; Penalty : Joseph Karam .
The National Stadium hosted four games in the 1991 Rugby World Cup , including the third @-@ place play @-@ off . The National Stadium was also host to the inaugural Heineken Cup final of 1995 – 96 when Toulouse beat Cardiff RFC by 21 – 18 after extra time , in front of 21 @,@ 800 spectators . The following final in 1996 – 97 was also held at the National Stadium , this time it was between Brive and Leicester Tigers . Brive won the match 28 – 9 , in front of a crowd of 41 @,@ 664 .
In 2008 , the rugby ground hosted all the games in Pool A of the 2008 IRB Junior World Championship and also the semi @-@ final on 18 June 2008 , in which England beat South Africa 26 – 18 .
Until February 2012 , it had been assumed that the last professional rugby union game to take place at the Arms Park was on 17 May 2009 , when Edinburgh beat the Cardiff Blues 36 – 14 in a Celtic League match during the 2008 – 09 season .
However , on Tuesday , 7 February 2012 , it was confirmed that Cardiff Blues would face Connacht at the Arms Park on Friday , 10 February 2012 . The Pro12 League game result was a win for the Cardiff Blues 22 – 15 and attendance of 8 @,@ 000 . The following Tuesday , it was announced that the match against Ulster on Friday , 17 February , would also be at the Arms Park , resulting in a Blues win , 21 – 14 and attendance of 8 @,@ 600 . The agreement signed during 2009 tied Cardiff Blues to a 20 @-@ year contract to play a maximum of 18 games per season for a set fee , rather than per match at Cardiff City Stadium . But on 23 February , it was announced that the two Welsh ' derbies ' against the Scarlets and the Ospreys would be played at Cardiff City Stadium , rather than the Arms Park , because of Cardiff Blues ' anticipation that the attendance figures would far exceed the maximum capacity of 9 @,@ 000 . On 8 May 2012 , it was announced that Cardiff Blues would be returning to the Arms Park on a permanent basis after just three years at the Cardiff City Stadium .
On 23 May 2014 , the rugby ground hosted the final of the 2013 – 14 Amlin Challenge Cup in which Northampton Saints beat Bath 30 @-@ 16 .
= = = Rugby league = = =
South Wales Scorpions played a Rugby League Championship 1 match against London Skolars at Cardiff Arms Park on Sunday , 27 July 2014 and on Sunday 10 May 2015 at Cardiff Arms Park , South Wales Scorpions took on North Wales Crusaders . The 2015 European Cup match between France and Wales was held at Cardiff Arms Park on Friday , 30 October 2015 at 18 : 30 GMT .
The highest attendance for a rugby league game at the Arms Park was recorded on 8 June 1996 during the first Super League season when 6 @,@ 708 saw St Helens defeat the Sheffield Eagles 43 @-@ 32 . The St Helens team at the time contained Welsh players Anthony Sullivan , Karle Hammond and Keiron Cunningham .
= = = = Rugby league test matches = = = =
List of rugby league test matches played at Cardiff Arms Park .
= = = Tennis = = =
Tennis courts were laid out in the Arms Park for Cardiff Tennis Club until the club moved to Sophia Gardens in 1967 . In 2003 , the club amalgamated with Lisvane Tennis Club to form Lisvane ( CAC ) Tennis Club , which is still a section of Cardiff Athletic Club ( CAC ) .
= = Music concerts = =
Major music concerts were also held at the National Stadium from 1987 until 1996 , they included Tina Turner , U2 , Michael Jackson , The Rolling Stones , Dire Straits , Bon Jovi and R.E.M. The last music concert was held on 14 July 1996 . Jehovah 's Witnesses held their annual conventions at the National Stadium .
= = Singing tradition = =
The National Stadium was known primarily as the venue for massed voices singing such hymns as " Cwm Rhondda " , " Calon Lân " , " Men of Harlech " and " Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau " ( " Land of my Fathers " – the national anthem of Wales ) . The legendary atmosphere including singing of the crowd was said to be worth at least a try or a goal to the home nation . This tradition of singing has now passed on to the Millennium Stadium .
The Arms Park has its own choir , called the Cardiff Arms Park Male Choir . It was formed in 1966 as the Cardiff Athletic Club Male Voice Choir , and today performs internationally with a schedule of concerts and tours . In 2000 , the choir changed their name to become the Cardiff Arms Park Male Choir .
= Italian battleship Impero =
Impero was the fourth Littorio @-@ class battleship built for Italy 's Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) during the Second World War . She was the fourth ship of her class and was named after the Italian word for " empire , " in this case referring to the newly ( 1936 ) conquered Italian Empire in East Africa ( Somaliland , Eritrea and Ethiopia territories ) as a result of the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War . She was constructed under the order of the 1938 Naval Expansion Program , along with her sister ship Roma .
Impero was laid down in May 1938 and launched in November 1939 . The entrance of Italy into World War II forced the Regia Marina to refocus its construction priorities on escort warships , which meant that Impero would not be completed . After Italy surrendered to the Allies on 8 September 1943 , the rest of the Italian Navy steamed to Sardinia to rendezvous with their American contemporaries . Impero was still incomplete in Trieste and was captured by the Germans , who used her for target practice . Sunk by Allied bombers in February 1945 , she was refloated in 1947 and scrapped in Venice from 1948 to 1950 .
= = Background = =
For additional information , see Littorio @-@ class battleship
The Italian leader Benito Mussolini did not authorize any large naval rearmament until 1933 . Once he did , two old battleships of the Conte di Cavour class were sent to be modernized in the same year , and Vittorio Veneto and Littorio were laid down in 1934 . In May 1935 , the Italian Naval Ministry began preparing for a five @-@ year naval building program that would include four battleships , three aircraft carriers , four cruisers , fifty @-@ four submarines , and forty smaller ships . In December 1935 , Admiral Domenico Cavagnari proposed to Mussolini that , among other things , two more battleships of the Littorio class be built to attempt to counter a possible Franco @-@ British alliance — if the two countries combined forces , they would easily outnumber the Italian fleet . Mussolini postponed his decision , but later authorized planning for the two ships in January 1937 for the 1938 Naval Expansion Program . In December , they were approved and money was appropriated for them ; they were named Roma and Impero .
= = Description = =
Impero was 240 @.@ 68 meters ( 789 @.@ 6 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 32 @.@ 82 m ( 107 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 6 m ( 31 ft ) . She was designed with a standard displacement of 40 @,@ 992 long tons ( 41 @,@ 650 t ) , a violation of the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) restriction of the Washington Naval Treaty ; at full combat loading , she displaced 45 @,@ 485 long tons ( 46 @,@ 215 t ) . The ship was to be powered by four Belluzo geared steam turbines rated at 128 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 95 @,@ 000 kW ) . Steam was provided by eight oil @-@ fired Yarrow boilers . The engines provided a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) and a range of 3 @,@ 920 mi ( 6 @,@ 310 km ; 3 @,@ 410 nmi ) at 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Impero would have had a crew of 1 @,@ 830 to 1 @,@ 950 if she had been completed .
Impero 's main armament would have consisted of nine 381 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ caliber Model 1934 guns in three triple turrets ; two turrets were placed forward in a superfiring arrangement and the third was located aft . Her secondary anti @-@ surface armament would have consisted of twelve 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) 55 @-@ caliber Model 1934 / 35 guns in four triple turrets amidships . These were to be supplemented by four 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) 40 @-@ caliber Model 1891 / 92 guns in single mounts ; these guns were old weapons and were primarily intended to fire star shells . Impero was intended to be equipped with an anti @-@ aircraft battery that comprised twelve 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) 50 @-@ caliber Model 1938 guns in single mounts , twenty 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 54 @-@ caliber guns in eight twin and four single mounts , and sixteen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) 65 @-@ caliber guns in eight twin mounts .
The ship was protected by a main armored belt that was 280 mm ( 11 in ) with a second layer of steel that was 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The main deck was 162 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) thick in the central area of the ship and reduced to 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) in less critical areas . The main battery turrets were 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick and the lower turret structure was housed in barbettes that were also 350 mm thick . The secondary turrets had 280 mm thick faces and the conning tower had 260 mm ( 10 in ) thick sides . Impero was to be fitted with a catapult on her stern and equipped with three IMAM Ro.43 reconnaissance float planes or Reggiane Re.2000 fighters .
= = History = =
Authorized to be built by Ansaldo of Genoa , the new battleship 's keel was laid down on 14 May 1938 and launched on 15 November 1939 . At her launching , she was christened Impero , after Italy 's empire in Africa . With Genoa being in bombing range of France , and war now a definite possibility , Impero was moved to Brindisi on 8 June 1940 due to fears of French attack . Trieste was considered a better location , but Roma was fitting out there and the shipyard could not handle two battleships at one time . While at Brindisi , some of her machinery was installed , along with parts of her smaller caliber weaponry . Despite the intent to move Impero to a safer location , Brindisi was still hit by Allied bombers , though Impero was not damaged . Nevertheless , the Regia Marina decided to shift production priorities to desperately needed escorts for merchant convoys . As a result , construction of Impero was delayed to expedite those ships . The only work done was the fitting of the engines and some gun mountings .
Fitted with small @-@ caliber anti @-@ aircraft and anti @-@ surface weaponry , Impero was sailed — using her own propulsion — to Venice on 22 January 1942 . At some later time , she was moved again to Trieste , though no further work was done on the ship . After Italy 's capitulation to the Allies in September 1943 , Impero was seized by the Germans , who intended to break her up for scrap . This was evidently never completed , as the hulk was discovered by Allied forces in Trieste after the war half @-@ sunk . The Germans had instead used her as a target ship and the Allies had damaged her during an air attack on 20 February 1945 . Impero was stricken from the naval register on 27 March 1947 . The hulk was raised sometime that year and towed to Venice and beached , where she was scrapped from 1948 to 1950 .
At the time of the capitulation , Impero 's hull was 88 % complete and the engines were 76 % complete , but overall the ship was only 28 % complete ; it would have required about eighteen more months of full work to be finished . Key features such as the armament , electrical wiring and a reworking of the bridge had still not been completed .
= Mon Calamari cruiser =
Mon Calamari cruisers are starships in the fictional Star Wars universe . These starships were first depicted in Return of the Jedi as part of the Rebel Alliance fleet that attacks the second Death Star . Industrial Light and Magic designed the vessels to visually contrast the Imperial Star Destroyers . Various Mon Calamari cruisers also appear in literature and video games of the Star Wars expanded universe . Replicas , toys and other depictions of the ships have been released by several merchandise companies .
= = Origin and design = =
Industrial Light and Magic ( ILM ) created two Mon Calamari cruiser designs : the cylindrical Home One command ship and a " winged " model identified in the Expanded Universe as the Liberty , which would have its wings removed and thrusters modified to portray another subtype . The ships were designed to be as aesthetically different from the Imperial Star Destroyers as possible , although the filming crew disliked the " pickle ships " due to the models ' unflattering angles . The ships ' design precluded ILM 's modelmakers from kitbashing other models to create the ships ; the model was largely vacuformed . Internal neon lights provided lighting , and detail was painted on by using the second Death Star model 's exposed framework as a makeshift frisket .
= = Depiction = =
According to Expanded Universe material , the peaceful Mon Calamari converted their passenger liners into warships to support the rebellion against the Galactic Empire . Expanded Universe texts state that the ships are crewed almost entirely by Mon Calamari due to the ships ' Mon Calamari @-@ oriented controls and interface . The primary opponent of Mon Calamari cruisers are the Imperial Star Destroyers . Although Mon Calamari cruisers are roughly the same size as most Imperial Destroyers , in head @-@ to @-@ head engagements the Mon Calamari cruisers are usually at a disadvantage , due to their thinner armor . Even so , Mon Calamari cruisers are still a formidable threat to the Imperial fleet ; their large numbers of fighter squadrons , modular weapons systems and overlapping shields make them ideal for hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks on Imperial ships , bases , and military outposts . In Return of the Jedi , Admiral Ackbar ( Timothy M. Rose ) leads the Rebels during the Battle of Endor from the Mon Calamari cruiser Home One ; although that ship survives , the Death Star 's superlaser destroys other Mon Calamari cruisers , including the Liberty . The franchise 's books , comics , and video games describe and depict other Mon Calamari cruisers and successor designs , such as the Mediator @-@ class battle cruisers and Viscount @-@ class Star Defenders in R.A. Salvatore 's Vector Prime .
= = Merchandise = =
A 1994 Micro Machines three @-@ pack included a winged Mon Calamari cruiser toy , and a 1996 three @-@ pack included the other variety . Hasbro in 2003 planned to release a Mon Calamari cruiser as part of its Action Fleet collection but they cancelled the line before producing it . Decipher and Wizards of the Coast published Mon Calamari cruiser cards for the Star Wars Customizable Card Game and Star Wars Trading Card Game , respectively . In 2006 , Wizards of the Coast created a Mon Calamari Star Defender miniature as part of its Star Wars Miniatures Starship Battles game . Mon Calamari cruisers are player @-@ controllable units in LucasArts ' Empire at War real @-@ time strategy .
= Rise Against =
Rise Against is an American melodic hardcore band from Chicago , Illinois , formed in 1999 . The band 's current line @-@ up comprises vocalist / rhythm guitarist Tim McIlrath , lead guitarist Zach Blair , bassist Joe Principe and drummer Brandon Barnes . Former members are guitarists Dan Wlekinski , Kevin White , Todd Mohney and Chris Chasse , and drummers Toni Tintari and Dan Lumley .
The band spent its first four years signed to the independent record label Fat Wreck Chords , on which it released two studio albums , The Unraveling ( 2001 ) and Revolutions per Minute ( 2003 ) . Both the albums met with considerable underground success , and in 2003 the band signed with the major label Geffen . Their major label debut Siren Song of the Counter Culture ( 2004 ) brought the band mainstream success , producing several successful singles . Their next two albums , The Sufferer & the Witness ( 2006 ) and Appeal to Reason ( 2008 ) , were also successful and peaked at number ten and number three on the Billboard 200 chart , respectively . Appeal to Reason was followed three years later by Endgame ( 2011 ) . All four albums released via Geffen were certified platinum in Canada , while three of these albums were certified gold in the United States .
Rise Against is also known for their advocacy of progressivism , supporting organisations such as Amnesty International and the It Gets Better Project . The band actively promotes animal rights and most of the members are straight edge ( excluding Barnes ) , PETA supporters and vegetarians .
= = History = =
= = = Early years , The Unraveling and Revolutions Per Minute ( 1999 – 2003 ) = = =
Following the disbandment of the Chicago hardcore punk band 88 Fingers Louie in 1999 , bassist Joe Principe and guitarist Dan Wleklinski began recording demos in the hope of using them in a new band . The two recruited drummer Toni Tintari , and auditioned several vocalists before settling on former Baxter and Arma Angelus member Tim McIlrath , whom Principe had met at a Sick of It All concert . The group called themselves Transistor Revolt , and released a self @-@ titled extended play in 2000 .
The band changed its name to Rise Against in 2001 and released their first album , The Unraveling , via Fat Wreck Chords that same year , produced by veteran punk producer Mass Giorgini . Wlekinski left the band in 2001 , and was replaced by former The Killing Tree guitarist Todd Mohney . After touring in support of The Unraveling , the band returned to the studio in December 2002 to work on their second full @-@ length studio album , Revolutions per Minute , which was released in 2003 . The band toured extensively in support of its first two albums , opening for Sick of It All , NOFX , Agnostic Front , No Use for a Name , AFI , and Strung Out . In addition , Rise Against participated in the 2003 Warped Tour .
= = = Siren Song of the Counter Culture and The Sufferer & the Witness ( 2004 – 2007 ) = = =
After the release of Revolutions per Minute , Rise Against was approached by several major record labels , and eventually signed with DreamWorks Records in December 2003 . However , DreamWorks Records folded into Geffen Records the following year , forcing the band to switch labels . Rise Against were also to switch guitarists , following Mohney 's departure in 2003 ; he was replaced by former Reach the Sky member Chris Chasse . Under the new lineup , Rise Against made their major record label debut with Siren Song of the Counter Culture in August 2004 . It became the band 's first album to reach the Billboard 200 music chart , where it peaked at 136 , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . The album received generally positive reviews from critics , but drew criticism for its accessibility and melodious sound compared to previous Rise Against works . In giving the album 3 out of 5 stars , Johnny Loftus of Allmusic commented " Siren Song of the Counter Culture sometimes gets carried away with its own melodic urgency . " However , he also stated that because of the album being the band 's major @-@ label debut , " maybe the fuller sound and occasional forays into acoustic guitars and cello overdubs ... are OK . " Rise Against toured North America , Europe , Australia , and Japan in support of Siren Song of the Counter Culture . Some of the most notable mentions include performances on the first international Taste of Chaos tour in 2005 ( with Funeral for a Friend , Story of the Year , The Used , and Killswitch Engage ) , a worldwide tour to the UK , Germany , Australia , New Zealand , and Japan , the Give It a Name tour in the UK , the Reading Festival and Leeds Festival in the UK , a US tour with Alkaline Trio , and the Warped Tour in North America .
In January 2006 , after touring in support of Siren Song of the Counter Culture , Rise Against recorded their fourth studio album at the Blasting Room studio in Fort Collins , Colorado with producers Bill Stevenson and Jason Livermore . Mixed by Chris Lord @-@ Alge at Resonate Sound in Burbank , California , The Sufferer & the Witness was released on July 4 , 2006 . The album peaked at number 10 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , selling 48 @,@ 397 copies in its first week of release ; it was eventually certified gold by the RIAA in 2008 . The Age newspaper said that with The Sufferer & the Witness , the band " returns to their punk roots . " In addition to earning Rise Against its best chart and sales numbers at the time , the album was generally well received by critics . Corey Apar of Allmusic , in giving the album 4 out of 5 stars , said of it , " the band 's inner grit is aptly drawn out amid all the pit @-@ ready choruses and fist @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air , stirring lyrics . " and also commented that " Rise Against continue to muscularly confront political and personal grievances to the tune of swirling guitars , assertive rhythms , and Tim McIlrath 's sandpapered vocals . " Contrastingly , Christine Leonard of Fast Forward Weekly said of the band , " Returning to their old school form with the ballistic intensity of " Bricks , " they just as quickly lose focus with questionable efforts such as ' Worth Dying For ' and ' Prayer of the Refugee . ' "
A DVD titled Generation Lost was released on December 5 , 2006 to promote the band and their new album . It contained a documentary of the careers of the band members , as well as live performance videos and making @-@ of clips . Rise Against toured in support of The Sufferer & the Witness throughout the second half of 2006 and all of 2007 . The band was a headliner in the 2006 Warped Tour . In late 2006 , the band co @-@ headlined a tour with Thursday that included the bands Circa Survive and Billy Talent . In early 2007 , the band supported My Chemical Romance as openers on the first half of their arena tour . On February 23 , 2007 , Rise Against announced the departure of guitarist Chris Chasse , who left on his own accord because the touring schedule was becoming " too much , " on the band 's official website . Chasse was replaced by longtime friend Zach Blair from Only Crime . On June 15 , 2007 , the band began their first official headlining tour in support of The Sufferer & the Witness ; it was a North American tour that lasted throughout the summer months . During this tour , on July 3 , 2007 , Rise Against released an EP in Canada titled This Is Noise , which was subsequently released in the United States on January 15 , 2008 .
= = = Appeal to Reason ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = =
Rise Against played at the sixteenth annual KROQ Weenie Roast on May 17 in Irvine , California , and at the sixth annual Download Festival on June 13 at Donington Park , England . They also played at Switzerland 's Greenfield Festival as well as Germany 's Hurricane Festival and Southside Festival . Like several previous years , the band participated in the Warped Tour , although they decided only to perform on the tour 's west coast swing from August 6 to August 17 .
Rise Against 's fifth studio album Appeal to Reason was released on October 4 in Australia , October 6 across Europe , and October 7 in the United States . The album sold 64 @,@ 700 copies in its first week and peaked at number three on the U.S. Billboard 200 , making it Rise Against 's highest @-@ charting album to date . Appeal to Reason was met with generally positive reviews . However , critics did not rate it as highly as The Sufferer & the Witness , mostly blaming the movement toward the mainstream and away from faster hardcore punk . Giving the album a C + rating , Marc Weingarten of Entertainment Weekly said the album is filled with " protest anthems that lean closer to the burnished angst of such bands as New Found Glory and Fall Out Boy than the genuine outrage of brainy Green Day " and songs that are " peppy but pretty empty , power @-@ chord downers with little bark or bite . " Kyle Anderson of Rolling Stone stated that the songs on Appeal to Reason " are driven by an ever @-@ sharpening pop sensibility . " He also said that " Rise Against may be nervous about leaving the underground behind , but with sharp songs like these , they 're ready for the rest of the world . "
Rise Against released a song called " Death Blossoms " for DLC on Guitar Hero : World Tour on March 12 , 2009 . " Ready to Fall " and " Audience of One " were also added for a track pack . Another song called " Sight Unseen " was released on the Internet at about the same time . " Death Blossoms " and " Sight Unseen " were later released on the compilation album Long Forgotten Songs : B @-@ Sides & Covers ( 2000 @-@ 2013 ) as tracks 2 and 10 respectively . Two previously unreleased songs from the Appeal to Reason recording sessions were released on Fat Wreck Chords on May 12 , 2009 , as a self @-@ titled 7 " vinyl . The release included the songs " Grammatizator " and " Voice of Dissent " and was released on 7 inch vinyl , with 1010 pressings made on coloured vinyl and a further 4008 made on black vinyl . Another split 7 " shared with Anti @-@ Flag was released that same year , originally given away with any merchandise purchase on the 2009 Rise Against / Anti @-@ Flag / Flobots UK tour .
Rise Against embarked on a North American tour with bands Rancid , Billy Talent , Killswitch Engage , and Riverboat Gamblers in June and July 2009 . They were also on a short tour of the UK in November , which was supported by the bands Thursday and Poison the Well . The band also played at KROQ 's Almost Acoustic Christmas in December 2009 , playing right before AFI . After completing a European tour from October to November 2009 , an Australian tour in January and February 2010 and a summer European festival tour , Rise Against began recording their next album in the fall of 2010 . In September 2010 , Rise Against took part in A.V. Club Undercover by covering the song " Sliver " by Nirvana . On September 7 , 2010 , it was announced on their official website that Rise Against would be releasing their second live DVD entitled Another Station : Another Mile on October 5 , 2010 . According to the band this DVD will focus more on the band 's live , unreleased footage than a documentary , but will show backstage , on tour , and on the road footage as well .
= = = Endgame ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = =
On September 14 , 2010 , according to guitarist Zach Blair , Rise Against had begun recording their sixth studio album for a 2011 release , at the Blasting Room in Fort Collins , Colorado . On Rise Against 's latest DVD Another Station : Another Mile , there are samples of possible songs for their upcoming album played throughout the beginning of the DVD . Rise Against has announced two South American shows in Brazil and Argentina and a run of European shows in late February and March 2011 respectively .
Rise Against finished recording their sixth studio album , Endgame , in January 2011 , after recording some last @-@ minute guest vocals . The lyrics of the album focus on real world events , such as Hurricane Katrina and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill . According to McIlrath , although the lyrics discuss grim topics , they actually take on a positive view and were written from the perspective of : " What if the place on the other side of this transition is a place we 'd all rather be living in ? " On January 12 , 2011 , Rise Against announced the release date of Endgame as March 15 , 2011 . Although Spin Magazine labeled Endgame as a concept album , on January 7 , 2011 , McIlrath tweeted a clarifying message stating that " the record is not a concept record and , fret not , has absolutely nothing to do with the Dixie Chicks . " The first single from the album , " Help Is on the Way " , debuted on KROQ on January 17 . A second song from the album , " Architects " , was debuted and released digitally on February 15 . As a promotion effort , the band embarked on a short tour of South America in February and then a month @-@ long tour of Europe in March . Upon returning to the United States , the band announced a U.S. spring tour with Bad Religion and Four Year Strong .
Endgame is notable for being the first album to establish Rise Against 's stance on homophobia with the third song on the album , " Make It Stop ( September 's Children ) , " which references the September 2010 suicides of teenagers in the LGBT community , specifically mentioning Tyler Clementi , Billy Lucas , Harrison Chase Brown , Cody J. Barker , and Seth Walsh . Upon the album 's release , the band put a message on their website inviting listeners to apply the songs ' messages to current events , in addition to those on which they were originally based .
On May 10 , 2011 , the band released a 7 " split vinyl with Face to Face . The 7 " features 2 songs , with each band covering a song by the other band . In August 2011 , Rise Against made appearances at the Reading and Leeds Festivals . The band was the main support act for the Foo Fighters ' fall US tour 2011 . Rise Against supported the Foo Fighters on 9 dates in September , with Mariachi El Bronx as the opening act . After this , the band announced a tour of Canada throughout October 2011 , supported by Flogging Molly and Black Pacific . The tour consisted of nine dates . Rise Against contributed a cover of " Ballad of Hollis Brown " to Chimes of Freedom , a tribute album of Bob Dylan songs produced in February 2012 to commemorate Amnesty International 's 50th anniversary .
Rise Against embarked on a two @-@ leg US tour with A Day to Remember and The Menzingers in the spring of 2012 . Leg one ended with the band launching another European tour . The band continued back to Europe for the summer months . Doing a slew of festivals along the way . To end 2012 , the band announced the return to the US with a fall tour with Gaslight Anthem and Hot Water Music . The tour will include two stops in Arizona , which the band has not played since 2009 due to the Sound Strike . On January 2 , 2013 , vocalist Tim McIlrath told Rolling Stone that Rise Against was " focusing on recharging [ their ] batteries " after two years of touring in support of Endgame . In March 2013 , Rise Against played their first ever performances on African soil when they performed in South Africa for the Durban , Johannesburg and Cape Town legs of RAMFest , where they headlined the festival along with the UK band Bring Me the Horizon .
= = = The Black Market ( 2013 – present ) = = =
On May 22 , 2013 , Principe told AbsolutePunk.net that Rise Against was going to begin work on their seventh studio album around the end of the year for a 2014 release . On September 10 , 2013 , Rise Against released a compilation of B @-@ sides , sampler contributions and covers titled Long Forgotten Songs : B @-@ Sides & Covers 2000 – 2013 . In an interview with ESPN on the same day singer Tim McIlrath was asked about the next record 's progress and said " ... We are getting together periodically all fall to put some ideas together and then we 'll hit the studio when we are ready . It 's been a good breather , but now I can 't wait turn up some amps and scream . "
On April 14 , 2014 , the band posted a short video on their Facebook page teasing a new album with the message " Coming Soon " . On May 5 , 2014 , the band posted another short video indicating that a new album would be released in the summer of 2014 . On May 27 , 2014 , the band released a short video with a teaser of a song from the new album , and clarified the summer release date to be July 2014 . On June 4 , 2014 , a new teaser was released on Facebook revealing the album title The Black Market and release date of July 15 , 2014 . The album 's first single , " I Don 't Want To Be Here Anymore " , was released on June 10 , 2014 . In an interview with Kerrang ! Magazine , Tim McIlrath gave an insight into The Black Market and also confirmed five song titles for the new album : " I Don 't Want To Be Here Anymore " , " The Great Die Off " , " People Live Here " , " Zero Visibility " and " Awake Too Long " . On June 13 , 2014 , the band unveiled the official album artwork for The Black Market on their website . The track listing for the album was released one week later on June 20 , 2014 , on their website and other social media sites . On June 23 , 2014 , " The Eco @-@ Terrorist In Me " was leaked on iTunes and became available for purchase . The Black Market was released on July 15 , 2014 . Following the release of The Black Market , Rise Against obtained its second no . 1 on Billboard 's Top Rock Albums with 53 @,@ 000 hits , according to Nielsen SoundScan . Their first no . 1 was their previous album , Endgame .
= = Politics and ethics = =
All of the group 's members are vegetarians and active supporters of PETA , an animal rights organization . Their video for the single " Ready to Fall " contains footage of factory farming , rodeos , and sport hunting , as well as deforestation , melting ice caps , and forest fires . The group has called the video the most important video they have ever made . In February 2012 the band released a cover of the Bob Dylan song Ballad of Hollis Brown as part of a benefit for Amnesty International . The Director 's Cut of the video was first made available to a PETA website . In 2009 , the band was voted Best Animal @-@ Friendly Band by PETA . In addition to being vegetarians , all the members of Rise Against , with the exception of Brandon Barnes , are straight edge ; that is , they refrain from consuming alcohol or using drugs .
In addition to their support of animal rights , the band has voiced their support for Democratic causes . During the 2004 United States presidential election , the band was part of Punkvoter , a political activist group , and appeared on the Rock Against Bush , Vol . 1 compilation . The Rock Against Bush project raised over $ 1 million for then presidential candidate John Kerry . During the 2008 presidential election , the band members endorsed Barack Obama . In a news bulletin in early 2009 , the band stated : " Few things are more exciting than watching Bush finally release America as his eight year hostage . "
= = = Vans shoes = = =
On May 23 , 2007 Rise Against announced their endorsement of a new line of Vans shoes that would be " completely vegan in consideration to [ their ] animal rights efforts " . In response to criticism spawning from rumors of Vans ' use of sweatshops , Rise Against released a statement to address the matter on both their MySpace profile and website saying ,
= = Musical style and influences = =
Rise Against 's musical style throughout the band 's career has been described by most critics as melodic hardcore , punk rock , and hardcore punk . The band has cited numerous punk and hardcore bands as influences to its music . In 2004 , drummer Brandon Barnes stated : " I think we have a lot of different influences from hardcore like old Cave In , to a lot of punk like Face to Face , Screeching Weasel , and Down By Law . "
In 2006 , Tim McIlrath stated of the band 's style : " We ’ re emulating Minor Threat and Black Flag . Who knows , maybe if Ian MacKaye was wearing eyeliner then I would be . " Other bands that have influenced Rise Against include Descendents , Dead Kennedys , Refused , Bad Brains , and Bad Religion .
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
The Unraveling ( 2001 )
Revolutions per Minute ( 2003 )
Siren Song of the Counter Culture ( 2004 )
The Sufferer & the Witness ( 2006 )
Appeal to Reason ( 2008 )
Endgame ( 2011 )
The Black Market ( 2014 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
= 2015 Chicago Bears season =
The 2015 Chicago Bears season was the franchise 's 96th season in the National Football League . After the firing of general manager Phil Emery and head coach Marc Trestman following the 2014 season , the team hired former New Orleans Saints director of player personnel Ryan Pace and Denver Broncos head coach John Fox to fill those positions , respectively . Fox 's hiring marked the Bears ' third head coach in four seasons .
The Bears entered the 2015 season with hopes of improving their 5 – 11 record in 2014 . The team started the regular season on a poor note , losing their first three games . In the following eight games , the team went 5 – 3 , including a Thanksgiving win over the rival Green Bay Packers . However , the Bears then lost the first three games in December , and were officially eliminated from playoff contention in week fourteen by the Washington Redskins . In week sixteen against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , the Bears improved upon their 2014 record with a 26 – 21 win . After losing in the final game of the season to the Detroit Lions , the Bears ended the season 6 – 10 and last in the NFC North .
The 2015 Bears were more competitive in games compared to the 2014 team , with six of their ten losses being by less than a touchdown . Additionally , new coordinators Adam Gase and Vic Fangio helped revitalize the offense and defense , respectively ; under Gase , quarterback Jay Cutler threw a career @-@ low eleven interceptions and recorded a 92 @.@ 3 passer rating , the highest in his career . With Fangio , the defense allowed 397 points ; the last two defenses had previously allowed franchise highs in points , including 442 in 2014 . However , the team was marred by injuries during the year , with only four players starting all sixteen games .
= = Offseason = =
= = = Organizational changes = = =
= = = = Front office = = = =
After three years , general manager Phil Emery was fired on December 29 , 2014 . Later in the day , former Baltimore Colts , Cleveland Browns , and New York Giants general manager and presidential assistant of Bears ' founder George Halas , Ernie Accorsi , was hired by the organization as a consultant to help the team find a new GM and head coach .
On December 29 , NFL Network insider Ian Rapoport reported that the Bears had four candidates for the GM position : Kansas City Chiefs director of player personnel and former Bears ' director of pro scouting Chris Ballard , Giants ' vice president of player evaluation and 2012 finalist for the Bears ' GM job Marc Ross , Tennessee Titans vice president of player personnel Lake Dawson , and Baltimore Ravens director of pro personnel Vince Newsome . Ravens ' assistant general manager Eric DeCosta was also rumored to be a potential candidate by Dan Pompei , while Minnesota Vikings assistant GM George Paton declined an offer . DeCosta later announced his intention to remain with the Ravens . Later in the week , Chicago requested an interview with New Orleans Saints director of player personnel Ryan Pace and Houston Texans director of pro scouting Brian Gaine .
On January 6 , the Bears conducted interviews for general manager with Gaine and Dawson . Ballard and Pace were interviewed the next day , and Pace was hired on January 8 . On January 13 , director of pro personnel Kevin Turks was fired . The Bears hired former Saints area scout Josh Lucas as their director of player personnel on January 18 . In the scouting department , three scouts were hired on May 15 . Ravens national scout Joe Douglas became the director of college scouting , Broncos assistant director of pro personnel Anthony Kelly as director of pro scouting and New York Jets area scout Christopher Prescott was hired in the same role .
= = = = Coaching = = = =
On the same day of Emery 's firing , two @-@ year head coach Marc Trestman was also fired , as was offensive coordinator Aaron Kromer . Quarterbacks coach Matt Cavanaugh 's contract expired on the same day , and was not retained by the team .
In the hunt for a new head coach , the Bears requested interviews with Denver Broncos offensive coordinator Adam Gase , Arizona Cardinals defensive coordinator Todd Bowles , Seattle Seahawks defensive coordinator Dan Quinn , and Detroit Lions defensive coordinator Teryl Austin . The team also showed interest in Ravens ' offensive coordinator Gary Kubiak and former Buffalo Bills head coach Doug Marrone . However , Kubiak announced
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'Deem Carey , the Bears rushing attack ended the season sixth in rushing attempts with 469 and 11th in total rushing yards with 1 @,@ 851 . The group also ranked 11th in the league in rushing yards per game with 115 @.@ 7 . Forte led the three in attempts ( 218 ) , yards ( 898 ) and yards per attempt ( 4 @.@ 1 ) despite not playing in three due to injury , while Langford had the most touchdowns with six . Playing in eleven games , Carey scored twice on 43 attempts .
Chicago 's top four receivers ( Alshon Jeffery , Kevin White , Eddie Royal and Marquess Wilson ) missed a combined 35 of 64 games . Jeffery , who never played four consecutive games in 2015 , recorded 54 receptions for 807 yards and four touchdowns , while Zach Miller led the team in receiving touchdowns with five . Without the four , the Bears relied on Marc Mariani , Joshua Bellamy , Cameron Meredith and Deonte Thompson . Mariani recorded 22 receptions for 300 yards , while excelling on third down , recording eleven catches that resulted in first downs . Tight ends Martellus Bennett and Zach Miller also suffered injuries that led to them missing games ; the former scored three times in eleven games , while the latter led the Bears in touchdowns with five .
The offensive line was frequently shuffled due to injuries , with left guard Matt Slauson playing some games at center and right guard Kyle Long moving to tackle . The former alternated between guard and center during the season , playing weeks seven to nine and sixteen at center . At left tackle , second @-@ year player Charles Leno , Jr. started 13 games after taking over for an injured Jermon Bushrod ; Gase stated , " He had a little bit of a rough start , but he just kept working and then when he got the opportunity at left tackle , he took full advantage of it . "
= = = = Defense = = = =
On the line , rookie Eddie Goldman played fifteen games , recording 39 tackles and six tackles for a loss ( TFLs ) , while being ranked fourth among rookies with 4 @.@ 5 sacks . Other defensive linemen who contributed are Jarvis Jenkins , Will Sutton and Mitch Unrein . In fifteen starts , Jenkins recorded a career @-@ best 32 tackles , four sacks and six TFLs . Sutton had 37 tackles and two TFLs , while Unrein , who also played as a fullback , had 32 tackles , two TFLs and a sack .
Christian Jones led the team in combined tackles with 87 . Outside linebackers Lamarr Houston ( 8 ) , Willie Young ( 6 @.@ 5 ) and Pernell McPhee ( 6 ) recorded a combined 20 @.@ 5 sacks , becoming one of only five defensive trios with at least six sacks per player in 2015 . Houston , coming off a season @-@ ending ACL injury in 2014 , converted from defensive end to outside linebacker ; he did not play much during the early portion of the season until Jared Allen was traded . He played only four snaps against the Vikings , but recorded 28 tackles , five sacks and six TFLs in from week nine to fourteen . In the final nine games , he had seven sacks , the sixth @-@ most in that stretch . Young , who also switched from DE to OLB , recorded a sack in five consecutive games ( weeks eleven to fifteen ) , the third player in franchise history to do so after Steve McMichael and Brian Urlacher . In the first seven games of 2015 , McPhee recorded five sacks , 42 tackles and seven TFLs , while Sam Acho had 60 tackles , three TFLS , a forced fumble and a fumble recovery . Meanwhile , inside linebackers Christian Jones and Shea McClellin had the second- and third @-@ most tackles for the Bears with 96 and 96 , respectively . Rookie John Timu , who had been on special teams and the practice squad until becoming a starter for the final three games , recorded 25 tackles and two fumble recoveries .
For the cornerbacks , of the eight interceptions , Kyle Fuller led the Bears with two . Rookie Harold Jones @-@ Quartey had an interception against the Buccaneers , the lone red zone turnover by the Bears in 2015 . Tracy Porter led the team in pass breakups with 22 , while also becoming the first player to break up four of Aaron Rodgers ' passes in a game , doing so in week twelve . Rookie safety Adrian Amos recorded a team @-@ high 108 tackles after starting every game ; Amos also had a sack and four pass breakups . Antrel Rolle , who played in only seven games in 2015 due to ankle and knee injuries , had 45 tackles . In his place , Chris Prosinski and Harold Jones @-@ Quartey emerged . In his first start against Denver , despite allowing a 48 @-@ yard touchdown on the first drive of the game , Prosinski ended the game with six tackles and a sack . The following week , he led the team in tackles with nine , while also recording his first career forced fumble . Jones @-@ Quartey , who first played against Oakland and was benched after the Detroit game , excelled in his return against Tampa Bay , forcing two turnovers .
= = = = Special teams = = = =
Robbie Gould ended the season with 33 of 39 field goals converted for an 84 @.@ 6 percentage , 19th in the league , while leading the Bears in scoring with 127 points . The 33 fields goals were the second @-@ most in the NFL . Despite his consistency , Gould struggled during the later portion of the season , missing two field goals against the 49ers and a potential game @-@ tying kick against the Redskins . Pat O 'Donnell punted 70 times for 3097 yards in 2015 , 28 of which landed in the red zone with only four touchbacks . He ended the year with a net punting average of 39 @.@ 6 , the second @-@ highest in team history since the stat began to be recorded in 1966 . In his lone start with the Bears , Spencer Lanning punted three times for 156 yards with a net average of 35 @.@ 7 .
On punt returns , Marc Mariani averaged 6 @.@ 6 yards on 29 attempts with his longest being a 20 @-@ yard return . The longest was a 65 @-@ yard touchdown by Bryce Callahan against the 49ers , which was eventually nullified by a holding penalty . The group ended the year with a 7 @.@ 8 yard return average , 20th in the league . For kickoffs , the Bears finished with an average of 27 yards , which ranked third in the NFL . Mariani averaged 26 @.@ 1 yards on 16 returns , while Deonte Thompson averaged 29 @.@ 2 yards on 14 attempts , with his best being a 74 @-@ yard return . Thompson 's average is the second @-@ best in the league among players with at least ten attempts and the highest for a Bear since Devin Hester in 2010 .
The kickoff team started the year on a sour note after allowing returns of 105 and 108 yards against the Cardinals and Seahawks , but was able to allow just one return of at least 40 yards in the next thirteen games , while also forcing opponents to return an average of 25 @.@ 2 yards , which ranked 21st in the league . For the punting unit , despite allowing 64- and 65 @-@ yard returns against Seattle and Minnesota , opposing return teams recorded 7 @.@ 5 yards , 14th in the NFL . Sherrick McManis led the special teams unit in tackles with eleven .
= = Awards and records = =
On December 22 , the rosters for the 2016 Pro Bowl were announced , with no Bears players making it for the first time since 1998 . However , on January 14 , 2016 , Kyle Long was named as an alternate for Eagles lineman Jason Peters , marking his third consecutive Pro Bowl appearance . On January 7 , Eddie Goldman and Adrian Amos were named to Mel Kiper , Jr . ' s All @-@ Rookie Team and the Pro Football Writers of America 's All @-@ Rookie Team .
At the start of the season , Robbie Gould 's first field goal marked the 244th of his career , surpassing Kevin Butler for the most in franchise history . By the end of the season , Gould set the all @-@ time franchise record for most points scored ( 1 @,@ 207 ) , field goals ( 276 ) and field goals made from at least 50 yards ( 23 ) , along with the most field goals in a season ( 33 ) . Against the Chargers , Jay Cutler threw his 138th career touchdown pass to Martellus Bennett , breaking a tie with Sid Luckman ; the record had stood since September 17 , 1950 .
= = Staff = =
= = Final roster = =
= Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency =
Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency is a 2003 book by W. Thomas Smith , Jr . It is an encyclopedic work on the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , the only independent agency of the United States federal government that is tasked with intelligence @-@ gathering . The work chronicles the history of the agency from its founding in 1947 through the War on Terror , which began after September 11 , 2001 . The encyclopedia 's chronology ends in 2003 . It provides approximately 550 entries across 282 pages on topics including notable contributors , intelligence operations , historical events , and depictions of the CIA in fictional media .
The encyclopedia was praised by the School Library Journal for its reference value and comprehensiveness . Booklist recommended the encyclopedia be placed in academic , public , and high school libraries as a helpful resource . Publishers Weekly was critical of the author 's objectivity , suggesting that the encyclopedia was biased in favor of the agency 's intelligence operations , but concluded that the book was still a useful reference tool .
= = Background = =
Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency is written by W. Thomas Smith , Jr . Prior to authoring the work , he served in the United States Marine Corps as a paratrooper and leader within the infantry . Smith worked as a journalist for the Star @-@ Reporter in Columbia , South Carolina , and subsequently taught journalism at the University of South Carolina .
Smith gave an interview to the Columbia newspaper The State about his book and his interest in researching the history of the Central Intelligence Agency . He explained that he was long interested in researching military history , and was initially asked by the American Society of Journalists and Authors to put together a monograph on the 1944 Invasion of Normandy by Western Allied forces during Operation Overlord in World War II . His literary representative later telephoned him to ask if he would instead be interested in writing an encyclopedia detailing the history of the CIA . Smith agreed as he felt the CIA was highly relevant to military history .
= = Publication history = =
Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency was first published in 2003 by Facts on File . It was released in both hardcover and paperback formats . An eBook edition was published the same year . Additionally an eBook was also published in 2003 in Great Britain .
= = Contents summary = =
In the Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency , Smith discusses and defines key concepts relating to intelligence gathering , including " clandestine mentality " , a colloquial term used to characterize what may be called a more paranoid perspective of the world . The book is 282 pages in length , and contains more than 500 separate entries on topics such as the roles played by key contributors to the agency , notable historical events , major intelligence operations , and depictions of the organization in fictional media . The work cites approximately 300 reference sources .
Starting with the founding of the CIA in 1947 as the successor to the Office of Strategic Services , the author provides the reader with a chronological overview of the agency 's history . He documents the CIA 's involvement in the 1953 Iranian coup d 'état , and provides a biographical assessment of the motivations of Mohammad Mosaddegh , the Iranian leader deposed in the coup . In briefly describing individuals , organizations and events related to the history of the CIA , Smith notes Russian intelligence Colonel Vilyam Genrikhovich Fisher ( Rudolf Ivanovich Abel ) , and discusses the U.S. intelligence operation that used a front company called Zenith Technical Enterprises . The chronological presentation of CIA history is used to provide additional background with regard to the agency 's involvement with the War on Terror . The encyclopedia 's chronology ends in March 2003 .
= = Reception = =
In a review by School Library Journal , Smith 's encyclopedia was praised for its reference value . The review called the encyclopedia comprehensive , and noted it contained helpful appendices including a glossary , lists of executive staff members of the CIA , and a large bibliography and index . Booklist commented in its review that the encyclopedia was a good resource to have in libraries at the academic , public , and high school levels . Publishers Weekly reviewed the encyclopedia and criticized Smith 's objectivity , suggesting that he took an unabashedly positive view of the agency 's role and focused exclusively on its operational successes . Despite the issue with bias , the review concluded that the book was still a useful reference work .
= Guido von List =
Guido Karl Anton List , better known as Guido von List ( October 5 , 1848 – May 17 , 1919 ) , was an Austrian occultist , journalist , playwright , and novelist . He expounded a modern Pagan new religious movement known as Wotanism , which he claimed was the revival of the religion of the ancient German race , and which included an inner set of Ariosophical teachings that he termed Armanism .
Born to a wealthy middle @-@ class family in Vienna , List claimed that he abandoned his family 's Roman Catholic faith in childhood , instead devoting himself to the pre @-@ Christian god Wotan . Spending much time in the Austrian countryside , he engaged in rowing , hiking , and sketching the landscape . From 1877 he began a career as a journalist , primarily authoring articles on the Austrian countryside for nationalist newspapers and magazines . In these he placed a völkisch emphasis on the folk culture and customs of rural people , believing that many of them were survivals of pre @-@ Christian , pagan religion . He published three novels , Carnuntum ( 1888 ) , Jung Diethers Heimkehr ( 1894 ) , and Pipara ( 1895 ) , each set among the German tribes of the Iron Age , as well as authoring several plays . During the 1890s he continued writing völkisch articles , now largely for the nationalist Ostdeutsche Rundschau newspaper , with his works taking on an anti @-@ semitic dimension half @-@ way through that decade . In 1893 , he co @-@ founded the Literarische Donaugesellschaft literary society , and involved himself in Austria 's Pan @-@ German nationalist movement , a milieu which sought the integration of Austria into the German Empire .
During an 11 @-@ month period of blindness in 1902 , List became increasingly interested in occultism , in particular coming under the influence of the Theosophical Society , resulting in an expansion of his Wotanic beliefs to incorporate Runology and the Armanen Futharkh . The popularity of his work among the völkisch and nationalist communities resulted in the establishment of a List Society in 1908 ; attracting significant middle and upper @-@ class support , the Society published List 's writings and included an Ariosophist inner group , the High Armanen Order , over whom List presided as Grand Master . Through these ventures he promoted the millenarian view that modern society was degenerate , but that it would be cleansed through an apocalyptic event resulting in the establishment of a new Pan @-@ German Empire that would embrace Wotanism . Having erroneously prophesied that this empire would be established by victory for the Central Powers in World War I , List died on a visit to Berlin in 1919 .
During his lifetime , List became a well known figure among the nationalist and völkisch subcultures of Austria and Germany , influencing the work of many others operating in this milieu . His work , propagated through the List Society , influenced later völkisch groups such as the Reichshammerbund and Germanenorden , and through those exerted an influence on both the burgeoning Nazi Party and the SS . After World War II his work continued to influence an array of Ariosophic and Heathen practitioners in Europe , Australia , and North America .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1848 – 77 = = =
Guido Karl Anton List was born on 5 October 1848 in Vienna , then part of the Austrian Empire . Born to a prosperous middle @-@ class family , he was the eldest son of Karl Anton List , a leather goods dealer who was the son of Karl List , a publican and vintner . Guido 's mother , Marian List , was the daughter of builder 's merchant Franz Anton Killian . List was raised in the city 's second bezirk , on the eastern side of the Danube canal . Like most Austrians at the time , his family were members of the Roman Catholic denomination of Christianity , with List being christened into this faith at St Peter 's Church in Vienna . Reflecting the family 's wealth and bourgeoisie status , in 1851 a watercolour portrait of List was painted by the artist Anton von Anreiter .
Accounts suggest that List had a happy childhood . Developing a preference for rural areas rather than urban ones , he enjoyed family visits to the countryside of Lower Austria and Moravia , and – encouraged by his father – he began to sketch and paint the castles , prehistoric monuments , and natural scenery of these areas . According to his later account , he developed an early interest in the pre @-@ Christian religions of Austria , coming to believe that the catacombs beneath St. Stephen 's Cathedral in Vienna had once been a shrine devoted to a pagan deity . He claimed that on an 1862 visit to the catacombs with his father , he knelt before a ruined altar and swore that when an adult he would construct a temple to the ancient god Wotan .
Although List wanted to become an artist and scholar , he reluctantly agreed to his father 's insistence that he enter the family 's leather goods business . During his leisure time he devoted himself to writing and sketching as well as rambling , riding , or rowing in the countryside , becoming both a member of the Viennese rowing club Donauhort and the secretary of the Austrian Alpine Association ( Österreichischer Aplenverein ) . He was involved in both solitary and group expeditions into the Austrian Alps , and it was on one of the latter journeys that he left his mountaineering group to spend Midsummer night alone atop the Geiselberg hillfort . On 24 June 1875 he and four friends rowed down the Danube before camping for the night at the site of the ancient Roman fortification of Carnuntum to commemorate the 1500th anniversary of the Battle of Carnuntum , in which Germanic tribes defeated the Roman Army . List later claimed that while his friends caroused , he celebrated the event with a fire and by burying eight bottles of wine in the shape of a swastika beneath the arch of the monument 's Pagan Gate .
= = = Early literary endeavours : 1877 – 1902 = = =
In 1877 , List 's father died . List soon abandoned the leather goods business that he inherited , intent on devoting himself to literary endeavours as a journalist , even if this meant a significant reduction in his income . On 26 September 1878 he married his first wife , Helene Förster @-@ Peters . From 1877 to 1887 he wrote for the nationalist magazines Neue Welt ( " New World " ) , Heimat ( " Homeland " ) , Deutsche Zeitung ( " German Newspaper " ) , and the Neue Deutsche Alpenzeitung ( " New German Alpine Newspaper " ) , with his articles being devoted to the Austrian countryside and the folk customs of its inhabitants . His interpretations emphasised what he believed were the pagan origins of Austrian place @-@ names , customs , and legends , describing the landscape as being embodied by genius loci , and expressing clear German nationalist and völkisch sentiment .
In 1888 , he published his first novel , Carnuntum , in two volumes . Set in the late fourth century CE , the narrative focused on a romance set against the background of the conflict between Germanic tribes and the Roman Empire around the area of the eponymous Roman fort . The novel established List as a recognised figure within Austria 's Pan @-@ German community , a movement of individuals unified in their belief that the majority German @-@ speaking areas of the multi @-@ linguistic and multi @-@ ethnic Austro @-@ Hungarian state should cede and join with the newly established German Empire . The book also brought him to the attention of Friedrich Wannieck , a wealthy industrialist who was the chairman of both the Prague Iron Company and the First Brno Engineering Company . Wannieck was also president of the Verein ' Deutsches Haus ' ( " ' German House ' Association " ) , a nationalist organisation of linguistically German inhabitants of Brno who felt encircled by the largely Czech population of South Moravia . List and Wannieck began corresponding , resulting in a lifelong friendship between the two men . The Verein ' Deutsches Haus ' subsequently published three of List 's works in its series on German nationalist studies of history and literature .
List began regularly writing for a weekly newspaper , the Ostdeutsche Rundschau ( " East German Review " ) , which had been established in 1890 by the Austrian Pan @-@ German parliamentary deputy Karl Wolf . In 1891 , List anthologised many of the magazine articles that he had written over the previous decades in his book Deutsch @-@ Mythologische Landschaftsbilder ( " German Mythological Landscape Scenes " ) , extracts of which were then published in the Ostdeutsche Rundschau . Further völkisch articles on various topics pertaining to Austria 's folk culture and to its ancient Germanic tribes followed during the 1890s , although mid @-@ way through that decade his work took on an explicitly anti @-@ semitic nature with articles such as " Die Juden als Staat und Nation " . Other Austrian German nationalist newspapers which published his articles during this period included the Bote aus dem Waldviertel ( " The Waldviertel Herald " ) and Kyffhäuser .
List began lecturing on these subjects ; for instance , in February 1893 he spoke to the nationalist Verein ' Deutsches Geschichte ' ( " ' German History ' Association ) on the ancient priesthood of Wotan . He also worked as a playwright , and in December 1894 his play Der Wala Erweckung ( " The Wala 's Awakening " ) was premiered at an event organised by the Bund der Germanen ( Germanic League ) which was devoted to the German nationalist cause , with Jews being explicitly banned from attending the event . Alongside his affiliation with the Bund , List was also a member of the Deutscher Turnverein ( Germanic Gymnastic League ) , a strongly nationalistic group to whom he contributed literary works for their events .
In 1893 , List and Fanny Wschiansky founded a belletristic society devoted to encouraging German nationalist and neo @-@ romantic literature in Vienna , the Literarische Donaugesellschaft ( " Danubian Literary Society " ) . The group was partly based upon the 15th @-@ century Litteraria Sodalita Danubiana created by the Viennese humanist Conrad Celte , about whom List authored a brief biography in 1893 . He also authored two further novels during the 1890s , both of which were historical romances set in Iron Age Germany . The first appeared in 1894 as Jung Diethers Heimkehr ( " Young Diether 's Homecoming " ) , which told the story of a young Teuton living in the fifth century who has been forcefully converted to Christianity but who returns to his original solar cult . The second was Pipara , a two @-@ volume story published in 1895 which told the story of an eponymous Quadi maiden who escaped captivity from the Romans to become an empress . In 1898 , he then authored a catechism exhibiting a form of pagan deism titled Der Unbesiegbare ( " The Invincible " ) .
List 's activities had made him a celebrity within the Austrian Pan @-@ German movement , with the editors of the Ostdeutsche Rundschau convening a Guido List evening in April 1895 and South Vienna 's Wieden Singers ' Club holding a List festival in April 1897 . Having divorced his previous wife , in August 1899 List married Anna Wittek , who was from Stecky in Bohemia . Despite List 's modern Pagan faith , the wedding was held in an evangelical Protestant church , reflecting the growing popularity of Protestantism among Austria 's Pan @-@ German community , who perceived it as a more authentically German form of Christianity than the Catholicism that was popular among Austria @-@ Hungary 's other ethnic and linguistic communities . Wittek had previously appeared in a performance of List 's Der Wala Erweckung and had publicly recited some of his poetry . Following their marriage , List devoted himself fully to drama , authoring the plays König Vannius ( " King Vannius " ) in 1899 , Sommer @-@ Sonnwend @-@ Feuerzauber ( " Summer Solstice Fire Magic " ) in 1901 and Das Goldstück ( " The Gold Coin " ) in 1903 . He also authored a pamphlet titled Der Wiederaufbau von Carnuntum ( " The Reconstruction of Carnuntum " ) in 1900 , in which he called for the reconstruction of the ancient Roman amphitheatre at Carnuntum as an open @-@ air stage through which Wotanism could be promoted .
= = = Later life : 1902 – 19 = = =
According to the historian Nicholas Goodrick @-@ Clarke , 1902 marked " a fundamental change in the character of [ List 's ] ideas : occult ideas now entered his fantasy of the ancient Germanic faith . " This began when he received an operation to remove a cataract from his eye , after which he was left blind for eleven months . During this period of rest and recuperation , he contemplated questions surrounding the origins of the German language and the use of runes . He subsequently produced a manuscript detailing what he deemed to be a proto @-@ language of the Aryan race , in which he claimed that occult insight had enabled him to interpret the letters and sounds of both runes and emblems and glyphs found on ancient inscriptions . Terming it " a monumental pseudo @-@ science " , Goodrick @-@ Clarke also noted that it constituted " the masterpiece of his occult @-@ nationalist researches " . List sent a copy to the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna , but they declined to publish it . In 1903 List published an article in Die Gnosis magazine , which reflected a clear influence from the ideas of the Theosophical Society .
List had occasionally used the title of von in his name from 1903 onward , but began using it permanently in 1907 . The term was used to denote that an individual was a member of the nobility , and when the nobility archive ordered an official enquiry into List 's use of the term , he was called before magistrates in October 1907 . He defended his usage of the term with the claim that he was the descendant of aristocrats from Lower Austria and Styria , and that his great @-@ grandfather had abandoned the title to become an inn keeper . Goodrick @-@ Clarke noted that whatever the legitimacy of List 's unproven claims , claiming the title of von was " an integral part of [ List 's ] religious fantasy " because in his mind it connected him to the ancient Wotanist priesthood , from whom he believed Austria 's aristocrats were descended . It is possible that List decided to adopt the usage of the term after his friend , the fellow prominent Ariosophist Lanz von Liebenfels , had done so in 1903 .
List 's popularity among the Pan @-@ Germanist movement resulted in suggestions that a society devoted to the promotion of List 's work be established . This materialised as the Guido @-@ von @-@ List @-@ Gesellschaft in March 1908 , which was largely funded by the Wannieck family but which also included many prominent figures from middle and upper @-@ class Austrian and German society . At Midsummer 1911 , List founded the High Armanen Order ( Hoher Armanen @-@ Ordem ) , or HAO , as an inner group of Armanist practitioners within the List Society with whom he went on pilgrimages to various places that he believed had been ancient cultic sites associated with the worship of Wotan . He operated as leader of this group , using the title of Grand Master . The List Society also produced six booklets authored by List himself between 1908 and 1911 . Titled " Ario @-@ Germanic research reports " , they covered List 's opinions on the meaning and magical power of runes , the ancient Wotanic priesthood , Austrian folklore and place @-@ names , and the secret messages within heraldic devices . In 1914 , the Society then published List 's work on runes and language that the Imperial Academy had turned down . The first three of these publications furthered List 's reputation across both the völkisch and nationalist subcultures within both Austria and Germany . Many other writers were inspired by List , with a number of works being specifically dedicated to him . The editor of Prana , Johannes Balzli , authored a biography of List that was published in 1917 .
During World War I , List erroneously proclaimed that there would be victory for the Central Powers of Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary , claiming to have learned this information from a vision that he experienced in 1917 . By 1918 , List was in declining health , furthered by the food shortages experienced in Vienna as a result of the war . In the spring of 1919 , at the age of 71 , List and his wife set off to recuperate and meet followers at the manor house of Eberhard von Brockhusen , a List Society patron who lived at Langen in Brandenburg , Germany . On arrival at the Anhalter Station at Berlin , List felt too exhausted to continue the journey . After a doctor had diagnosed a lung inflammation his health deteriorated quickly , and he died in a Berlin guesthouse on the morning of 17 May 1919 . He was cremated in Leipzig and his ashes laid in an urn and then buried at the Vienna Central Cemetery , Zentralfriedhof . An obituary of List authored by Berlin journalist Philipp Stauff then appeared in the Münchener Beobachter .
= = Ideology = =
List promoted a religion termed " Wotanism " , which he saw as the exoteric , outer form of pre @-@ Christian Germanic religion , while " Armanism " was the term he applied to what he believed were the esoteric , secret teachings of this ancient belief system . He believed that while Wotanism expounded polytheism for the wider population , those who were members of the Armanist elite were aware of the reality of monotheism . List 's Armanism would later be classified as a form of " Ariosophy " , a term which was coined by Lanz von Liebenfels in 1915 . Goodrick @-@ Clarke considered List 's ideas to be a " unique amalgam of nationalist mythology and esotericism " . Religious studies scholar Olav Hammer noted that List 's Wotanism " increasingly came to consist of an original synthesis of his reading of Germanic mythology with Theosophy " . List 's early Theosophical influence came largely from the writings of German Theosophist Max Ferdinand Sebaldt von Werth , who had combined Theosophical ideas with his own interpretations of Germanic mythology and emphasis on racial doctrines , thus anticipating Ariosophy . In later work , this Theosophical influence over List 's thinking grew , and he began referencing works such as Helena Blavatsky 's Die Geheimlehre and William Scott Elliot 's The Lost Lemuria in his publications . He expressed the view that Norse mythology accorded with – and thus proved – the cosmogonical teachings of Theosophy .
Much of List 's understanding of the ancient past was based not on empirical research into historical , archaeological , and folkloric sources , but rather on ideas that he claimed to have received as a result of clairvoyant illumination . Later writer Richard Rudgley thus characterised List 's understanding of the " pagan past " as an " imaginative reconstruction " . List 's Wotanism was constructed largely on the Prose Edda and the Poetic Edda , two Old Norse textual sources which had been composed in Iceland during the late Middle Ages ; he nevertheless believed that they accurately reflected the belief systems of Germany , having been authored by " Wotanist " refugees fleeing Christianity . He believed that prior to the spread of Christianity into Northern Europe , there had once been a culturally unified German civilisation that had been spread across much of Europe , which came to be degraded and divided under the impact of Christianity . He believed that the Danubian region of modern Austria had thus been part of this unified German civilisation before the growth of the Roman Empire , an idea in contrast to the view accepted by historians of the time that linguistically German communities only settled in the area during the reign of the Frankish king Charlemagne in the ninth century CE , pushing out the pre @-@ existing linguistically Celtic groups .
= = = Runes and the Armanenschaft = = =
List believed that the basic teachings of Wotanism were found in the runic alphabet , believing that they could be deciphered by linking these letters with particular runic spells which appear in the Old Norse Havamal . He claimed to have deciphered these secret meanings himself , translating them as statements such as " Know yourself , then you know everything " , " Do not fear death , he cannot kill you " , " Marriage is the root of the Aryan race ! " , and " Man is one with God ! " List emphasised the importance of a mystical union between humans and the universe , viewing divinity as being immanent in nature , with all life being an emanation of it . Connected to this , he believed in a close identification between the racial group – the volk or folk – and the natural world . List believed that human beings had an immortal soul , and that it would be reincarnated according to the laws of karma until eventually uniting with divinity .
In the 1890s , List initially devised the idea that ancient German society had been led by a hierarchical system of initiates , the Armanenschaft , an idea which had developed into a key part of his thinking by 1908 . List 's image of the Armanenschaft 's structure was based largely on his knowledge of Freemasonry . He claimed that the ancient brotherhood had consisted of three degrees , each with their own secret signs , grips , and passwords . He believed that the Armanenschaft had societal control over the ancient German people , acting as teachers , priests , and judges . In List 's interpretation of history , the Christian missionaries persecuted the Armanenschaft , resulting in many fleeing northward into Scandinavia and Iceland . He believed that they developed a secretive language for transmitting their teachings , known as kala .
List claimed that after the Christianisation of Northern Europe , the Armanist teachings were passed down in secret , thus resulting in their transmission through later esoteric traditions such as Freemasonry and Rosicrucianism . He also claimed that the Medieval Knights Templar had been keepers of these Armanist secrets , and that they had been persecuted by the Christian establishment as a result of this ; he believed that the deity they were accused of worshiping , Baphomet , was actually a sigil of the Maltese Cross representing Armanist teachings . According to List , a number of prominent Renaissance humanists – including Giovanni Pico della Mirandola , Giordano Bruno , Johannes Trithemius , Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa , and Johann Reuchlin – were also aware of this ancient Armanist teaching , with List claiming that he was actually the reincarnation of Reuchlin . In addition , List claimed that in the eighth century , Armanists had imparted their secret teachings to the Jewish rabbis of Cologne in the hope of preserving them from Christian persecution ; he believed that these teachings became the Kabbalah , which he therefore reasoned was an ancient German and not Jewish innovation , thus legitimising its usage in his own teachings . Rudgley stated that this " tortuous argument " was used to support List 's anti @-@ semitic agenda .
= = = Millenarian views = = =
List generally saw the world in which he was living as one of degeneration , comparing it with the societies of the Late Roman and Byzantine Empires . He bemoaned the decline of the rural peasantry through urbanisation , having witnessed how Vienna 's population tripled between 1870 and 1890 , resulting in overcrowding , a growth in diseases like tuberculosis , and a severe strain on the city 's resources . A staunch monarchist , he opposed all forms of democracy , feminism , and modern trends in the arts , such as those of the Vienna Secessionists . Influenced by the Pan @-@ Germanist politician Georg Ritter von Schönerer and his Away from Rome ! movement , List decried the growing influence of linguistically Slavic communities within the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire . He was opposed to laissez @-@ faire capitalism and large @-@ scale enterprise , instead favouring an economic system based on small @-@ scale artisans and craftsmen , being particularly unhappy with the decline in tradesmen 's guilds . He was similarly opposed to the modern banking sector and financial institutions , deeming it to be dominated by Jews ; in criticising these institutions , he expressed anti @-@ semitic sentiments . Such views of the country 's economic situation were not uncommon in Austria at the time , having become particularly widespread following the Panic of 1873 . The later Heathen and runologist Edred Thorsson noted that List 's " theories were to some degree based on the anti @-@ semitic dogmas of the day " , while Hammer stated that the Ariosophic tradition promulgated by List and others was " unambiguously racist and anti @-@ semitic " .
List believed that the degradation of modern Western society was as a result of a conspiracy orchestrated by a secret organisation known as the Great International Party , an idea influenced by anti @-@ semitic conspiracy theories . Adopting a millenarianist perspective , he believed in the imminent defeat of this enemy and the establishment of a better future for the Ario @-@ German race . In April 1915 he welcomed the start of World War I as a conflict that would bring about the defeat of Germany 's enemies and the establishment of a golden age for the new Ario @-@ German Empire . Toward the war 's end , he believed that the German war dead would be reincarnated as a generation who would push through with a national revolution and establish this new , better society . For List , this better future would be intricately connected to the ancient past , reflecting his belief in the cyclical nature of time , something which he had adopted both from a reading of Norse mythology and from Theosophy . Reflecting his monarchist beliefs , he envisioned this future state as being governed by the House of Hapsburg , with a revived feudal system of land ownership being introduced through which land would be inherited by a man 's eldest son . In List 's opinion , this new empire would be highly hierarchical , with non @-@ Aryans being subjugated under the Aryan population and opportunities for education and jobs in public service being restricted to those deemed racially pure . He envisioned this Empire following the Wotanic religion which he promoted .
= = Influence and legacy = =
Writing in 2003 , the historian of religion Mattias Gardell believed that List had become the " revered guru of Ariosophic paganism " . Gardell considered the Austrian esotericist to have been " a legend in his lifetime " , with List 's ideas being embraced by many völkisch groups in Germany . German members of the List Society included Philipp Stauff , Karl Hellwig , Georg Hauerstein , Bernhard Koerner , and Eberhard von Brockhusen , who were founding members of the Reichshammerbund and Germanenorden ; through the Germanenorden 's Munich offshoot , the Thule Society , a lineage can be drawn between the List Society and the early Nazi Party as it was established after World War I. Goodrick @-@ Clarke opined that " this channel of influence certainly carries most weight in any assessment of List 's historical importance . " The scholar of Western esotericism Joscelyn Godwin expressed the view that List was one of the " three godfathers of Nazi Thule " alongside Liebenfels and Rudolf von Sebottendorff , while Rudgley went further by claiming that List 's vision of a future German Empire constituted " a blueprint for the Nazi regime " .
Other German völkisch figures promoted Listian ideas to the wider public during and after the First World War . Further individuals – notably Rudolf John Gorsleben , Werner von Bülow , Friedrich Bernhard Marby , Herbert Reichstein , and Frodi Ingolfson Werhmann – took List 's Ariosophical ideas alongside those of Liebenfels and built upon them further , resulting in a flourishing Ariosophical movement in the late 1920s and 1930s , with some of these individuals being within the coterie of prominent Nazi Heinrich Himmler and influencing the symbolism and rituals of the SS . His was also exerted an influence on the Australian Odinist and Ariosophist Alexander Rud Mills .
Both Goodrick @-@ Clarke and later the religious studies scholar Stefanie von Schnurbein described List as " the pioneer of völkisch rune occultism " , with the latter adding that " the roots of modern esoteric runology are found in Guido List 's visions . " In 1984 , Thorsson expressed the view that List 's impact was such that he was " able to shape the runic theories of German magicians ( although not necessarily their political ones ) from that time to the present day . " In 1976 , two longstanding activists in the völkisch and far @-@ right milieu , Adolf and Sigrun Schleipfer , established the Armanen @-@ Order in order to revive List 's ideas , adopting a strong anti @-@ modernist stance and a desire to revive pre @-@ Christian religion . It was through the Armanen @-@ Order that Thorsson , who joined it , learned about List 's work . Thorsson then spearheaded " the post @-@ war runic revival " , founding an initiatory organisation known as the Rune Gild in 1980 . Thorsson was responsible for translating a number of List 's works into English , alongside those of other völkisch mystics like Siegfried Adolf Kummer . These publications brought awareness of List to an English @-@ speaking readership , with his 1988 translation of List 's The Secret of the Runes initiating a surge of interest in Ariosophy among the Heathen community of the United States . List 's runology also made an appearance in Stephan Grundy 's 1990 book Teutonic Magic . List 's Armanist ideas have been cited as an inspiration for the American Odinist militant David Lane , with Wotansvolk , a group that List was involved in establishing , viewing their own activism as a continuation of that begun by List . List was also of interest to the Heathen Michael Moynihan , who spent time visiting the places in Austria that are associated with List 's life .
= Big Two @-@ Hearted River =
" Big Two @-@ Hearted River " is a two @-@ part short story written by American author Ernest Hemingway , published in the 1925 Boni & Liveright edition of In Our Time , the first American volume of Hemingway 's short stories . It features a single protagonist , Hemingway 's recurrent autobiographical character Nick Adams , whose speaking voice is heard just three times . The story explores the destructive qualities of war which is countered by the healing and regenerative powers of nature . When it was published , critics praised Hemingway 's sparse writing style and it became an important work in his canon .
The story is one of Hemingway 's earliest pieces to employ his Iceberg Theory of writing ; a modernist approach to prose in which the underlying meaning is hinted at , rather than explicitly stated . " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " is almost exclusively descriptive and intentionally devoid of plot . Hemingway was influenced by the visual innovations of Cézanne 's paintings and adapted the painter 's idea of presenting background minutiae in lower focus than the main image . In this story , the small details of a fishing trip are explored in great depth , while the landscape setting , and most obviously the swamp , are given cursory attention .
= = Background and publication = =
In 1922 , Hemingway moved with his wife Hadley to
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't sell them out . It was a failed band . It doesn 't mean they weren 't great . It means the masses didn 't care . "
= = = Tribute albums = = =
In April 2009 , Spin writer Mark Prindle observed that the Ramones had to date " inspired a jaw @-@ dropping 48 ( at least ! ) full @-@ length tribute records . " The first Ramones tribute album featuring multiple performers was released in 1991 : Gabba Gabba Hey : A Tribute to the Ramones includes tracks by such acts as the Flesh Eaters , L7 , Mojo Nixon , and Bad Religion . In 2001 , Dee Dee made a guest appearance on one track of Ramones Maniacs , a multi @-@ artist cover of the entire Ramones Mania compilation album . The Song Ramones the Same , which came out the following year , includes performances by the Dictators , who were part of the early New York punk scene , and Wayne Kramer , guitarist for the influential protopunk band MC5 . We 're a Happy Family : A Tribute to Ramones , released in 2003 , features performers such as Rancid , Green Day , Metallica , Kiss , the Offspring , Red Hot Chili Peppers , U2 , and Rob Zombie ( who also did the album cover artwork ) . Also some other famous bands recorded tribute songs . Motörhead 's Phil Campbell tells in Jari @-@ Pekka Laitio @-@ Ramone 's book Ramones : Soundtrack Of Our Lives : " We did a cover of Rockaway Beach with me on backing vocals , which was quite enjoyable . When Johnny Ramone heard it , he refused to put it on the tribute album . Lemmy and I thought we did a good version . "
Punk bands such as Screeching Weasel , the Vindictives , the Queers , Parasites , the Mr. T Experience , Boris the Sprinkler , Beatnik Termites , Tip Toppers , Jon Cougar Concentration Camp , McRackins , and Kobanes have recorded cover versions of entire Ramones albums — Ramones , Leave Home , Rocket to Russia , It 's Alive , Road to Ruin , End of the Century , Pleasant Dreams , Subterranean Jungle , two versions of Too Tough to Die , and Halfway To Sanity respectively . The Huntingtons ' File Under Ramones consists of Ramones covers from across the band 's history .
Shonen Knife , an all @-@ woman trio band from Osaka , Japan , was formed in 1981 as a direct result of founder @-@ lead singer @-@ guitarist Naoko Yamano 's instant infatuation with the music of the Ramones . In 2012 , to observe the band 's 30th anniversary , Shonen Knife released Osaka Ramones , which featured thirteen Ramones songs covered by the band .
There are also many other tribute albums listed on Jari @-@ Pekka Laitio @-@ Ramone 's site . [ 1 ]
= = Band members = =
Johnny Ramone ( John Cummings ) – guitar ( 1974 – 96 )
Dee Dee Ramone ( Douglas Colvin ) – bass guitar , vocals ( 1974 – 89 )
Joey Ramone ( Jeffrey Hyman ) – vocals ( 1974 – 96 ) ; drums ( 1974 )
Tommy Ramone ( Thomas Erdelyi ) – drums ( 1974 – 78 )
Marky Ramone ( Marc Bell ) – drums ( 1978 – 82 , 1987 – 96 )
Richie Ramone ( Richard Reinhardt ) – drums , vocals ( 1983 – 87 )
C. J. Ramone ( Christopher Joseph Ward ) – bass guitar , vocals ( 1989 – 96 )
Elvis Ramone ( Clem Burke ) – drums ( 1987 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Ramones ( 1976 )
Leave Home ( 1977 )
Rocket to Russia ( 1977 )
Road to Ruin ( 1978 )
End of the Century ( 1980 )
Pleasant Dreams ( 1981 )
Subterranean Jungle ( 1983 )
Too Tough to Die ( 1984 )
Animal Boy ( 1986 )
Halfway to Sanity ( 1987 )
Brain Drain ( 1989 )
Mondo Bizarro ( 1992 )
Acid Eaters ( 1994 )
¡ Adios Amigos ! ( 1995 )
Timeline
Note : The bars indicate the release of the studio albums , not their recording . An album release occurring in the same relative time period of a band member change usually indicates that the album was recorded with the previous member , and not his replacement .
= Tina McKenzie =
Tina McKenzie ( born 8 June 1974 ) is an Australian wheelchair basketball player . She participated in the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , where she won a silver medal ; in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , where she won a bronze medal ; and the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , where she won a second silver medal . After becoming an incomplete paraplegic as a result of a fall from a building in 1994 , she took up wheelchair tennis and later wheelchair basketball . She joined the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , in 1999 , and played her first international match at the 2002 World Wheelchair Basketball Championship in Japan . She has over 100 international caps .
= = Personal = =
McKenzie was born in Albury , New South Wales , on 8 June 1974 . She had a brother who died at the age of 19 in 1997 .
She left home in 1990 at the age of 16 , and moved to Melbourne , where she qualified as a hairdresser and beauty therapist . By 1994 she was running a hair dressing store and managing seven employees . Her life was changed that year by a fall from a building in Melbourne in which fractured her third and fourth thoracic vertebrae , rendering her an incomplete paraplegic . She lay there for forty minutes before someone found her . She spent the next four weeks in the Austin Hospital in Heidelberg , and then another two and a half months in the Royal Talbot Rehabilitation Centre in Kew . She was forced to move back in with her parents , where she lived for the next five years , but within a year of her accident , she was managing five hairdressing stores .
She has a Bachelor of Education degree from Macquarie University , which she attended on an NRMA ParaQuad scholarship . As of 2013 , she works as a primary school teacher , and lives in St Peters , New South Wales .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
McKenzie is a 3 point player , who plays guard . She took up wheelchair tennis while in rehabilitation at Royal Talbot . Her tennis team entered a basketball competition in 1997 for fun during the off season .
In 2011 / 12 , the Australian Sports Commission gave her A $ 17 @,@ 000 grants through the Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program , a scheme which provides direct financial support to elite athletes . She received $ 5 @,@ 200 in 2008 / 9 , $ 5 @,@ 571 in 2009 / 10 and $ 8 @,@ 000 in 2010 / 11 . In 2012 , she had a scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport . Macquarie University awarded her the Chancellor 's Award for academic and sporting excellence in 2005 and 2006 , and a university full blue in 2008 .
= = = Club = = =
In 2000 and 2001 , she played for the Whittlesea City Pacers in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) . In 2008 and 2009 , she played for the Dandenong Rangers . In the second round of the 2008 season , the Dandenong Rangers defeated the Western Stars 53 – 47 . Despite fouling out late in the game , she scored 21 points in her team 's victory . In 2010 , she played for St Peters and the Wenty Leagues Wheelkings , and for the Stacks Goudkamp Bears in the WNWBL . She was a three @-@ time All Star Five WNWBL player , in 2004 , 2006 and 2007 . After moving to Melbourne , McKenzie began playing for Victoria in 2014 . The team became the Kilsyth Cobras in 2015 , with McKenzie on the roster .
= = = National team = = =
McKenzie has over 100 international caps with the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , generally known as the Gliders . She joined the team in 1999 , but missed out on selection for the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney . She played in a four @-@ game test series in Canberra against the Japan women 's national wheelchair basketball team held in March 2002 , the first Australian hosted international for the Gliders since the Paralympics . She was then selected to play at the 2002World Wheelchair Basketball Championship in Japan , winning a bronze medal , and later at the 2006 and 2010 World Championships , where the Gliders finished fourth each time .
She was selected to represent Australia at the 2009 Four Nations tournament in Canada , one of six players in the side who played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 , and captained the team at the Osaka Cup and the World Championships that year . In July , she played in a three @-@ game test series against Germany .
= = = Paralympics = = =
McKenzie was part of the silver medal winning team at the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , and the bronze medal winning team at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing .
At the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , she took to the court only twice . The first time was in her team 's victory over Great Britain on 31 August , in which she played for 7 minutes 2 seconds . The second was in her team 's quarterfinal 62 – 37 victory over Mexico women 's national wheelchair basketball team , in which she played for 10 minutes 47 seconds . She was awarded a silver medal after her team was defeated by Germany in the final .
= = = Retirement = = =
In December 2012 , McKenzie officially announced her retirement . After thanking various people , she concluded her remarks by saying : " I will always be proud to call myself a Glider . "
= V for Vendetta ( film ) =
V for Vendetta is a 2006 dystopian political thriller film directed by James McTeigue and written by The Wachowski Brothers , based on the 1988 Vertigo Comics limited series of the same name by Alan Moore and David Lloyd . The film is set in an alternate future where a neo @-@ fascist regime has subjugated the United Kingdom . Hugo Weaving portrays V , an anarchist freedom fighter who attempts to ignite a revolution through elaborate terrorist acts and Natalie Portman plays Evey , a young , working @-@ class woman caught up in V 's mission , while Stephen Rea portrays the detective leading a desperate quest to stop V.
The film was originally scheduled for release by Warner Bros. on Friday , November 4 , 2005 ( a day before the 400th Guy Fawkes Night ) , but was delayed ; it opened on March 17 , 2006 , to positive reviews . Alan Moore , having been dissatisfied with the film adaptations of his other works From Hell ( 2001 ) and The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen ( 2003 ) , declined to watch the film and asked not to be credited or paid royalties .
V for Vendetta has been seen by many political groups as an allegory of oppression by government ; libertarians and anarchists have used it to promote their beliefs . David Lloyd stated : " The Guy Fawkes mask has now become a common brand and a convenient placard to use in protest against tyranny – and I 'm happy with people using it , it seems quite unique , an icon of popular culture being used this way . "
The film is the final project cinematographer Adrian Biddle worked on before his death in 2005 . The film is dedicated to his memory .
= = Plot = =
In the late 2020s the world is in turmoil , with the United States fractured as a result of prolonged civil war and a pandemic of the " St. Mary 's Virus " ravaging Europe . The United Kingdom is ruled as a fascist police state by the Norsefire Party . Political opponents , immigrants , Muslims , homosexuals and other " undesirables " are imprisoned in concentration camps . On November 4 , a Guy Fawkes @-@ masked vigilante identifying himself as " V " ( Hugo Weaving ) rescues Evey Hammond ( Natalie Portman ) , an employee of the state @-@ run British Television Network ( BTN ) , from members of the " Fingermen " secret police while she is out past curfew . From a rooftop , they watch his demolition of the Old Bailey criminal court building , accompanied by fireworks and the 1812 Overture . Inspector Finch ( Stephen Rea ) , Scotland Yard 's Chief of Police , is tasked with investigating V 's activities while BTN declares the incident an " emergency demolition " . V interrupts the broadcast to claim responsibility and encourage the people of Britain to rise up against their government and meet him on November 5 ( Guy Fawkes Night ) , outside the Houses of Parliament . During the broadcast , the police attempt to capture V. Evey helps him escape but is knocked unconscious .
V takes Evey to his home , where she is told she must remain for one year . V then kills Lewis Prothero ( Roger Allam ) , Norsefire 's chief propagandist , and Anthony Lilliman ( John Standing ) , the Bishop of London . Evey offers to help , and uses the opportunity to escape to the home of her boss , comedian and talk show host Gordon Deitrich ( Stephen Fry ) . In return for Evey trusting him with her safety , Gordon reveals prohibited materials including subversive paintings , an antique Quran , and homoerotic photographs . After Gordon performs a satire of the government on his show , his home is raided and Evey is captured . She is imprisoned and tortured for information about V , with her only solace being a note written by actress Valerie Page ( Natasha Wightman ) , a former prisoner .
Evey is told she will be executed unless she reveals V 's location . When she says she would rather die , she is released and finds herself in V 's home . It turns out that V was the one who had " captured " her at Gordon 's home , and staged her imprisonment and torture to free her from her fears . The note was real , passed from Valerie to V when he was imprisoned . He also informs her that Deitrich had been executed when the Quran was found in his home . While Evey initially hates V for what he did to her , she realises she has become a stronger person . She leaves him , promising to return before November 5 .
Finch learns V is the result of human experimentation and is murdering the people who detained him . Finch searches for the true identity of V , tracing him to a bioweapons program at a detention centre for " social deviants " and political dissidents in Larkhill concentration camp . Finch meets William Rookwood , who tells him that the program , directed by then @-@ Undersecretary Adam Sutler ( John Hurt ) , resulted in the creation of the " St. Mary 's Virus " and its release in a false flag terrorist attack . The deaths of over 100 @,@ 000 people and the resulting fear enabled the Norsefire Party to win the next election and turn the country into a totalitarian state under Sutler 's rule as High Chancellor . Finch later discovers the man he met was V in disguise , and Finch initially disbelieves his story .
As November 5 nears , V distributes thousands of Guy Fawkes masks and the population questions Party rule . On the eve of November 5 , Evey visits V , who shows her an explosive @-@ laden train in the abandoned London Underground , set to destroy Parliament . He leaves it to Evey to decide whether to use it . V meets Party Leader Creedy ( Tim Pigott @-@ Smith ) , with whom he made a deal to surrender in exchange for Sutler 's execution . After Creedy executes Sutler , V reneges on his deal and kills Creedy and his men . Mortally wounded , he returns to Evey and tells her he loves her before dying .
As Evey places V 's body aboard the train she is found by Finch . Disillusioned by the Party 's regime , Finch allows Evey to send the train . Thousands of unarmed Londoners wearing Guy Fawkes masks march towards Parliament . As Creedy and Sutler are both dead , the military receives no orders , and allows the crowd to pass . Parliament is destroyed as Finch asks Evey for V 's identity , to which she replies , " He was all of us . "
= = Cast = =
Hugo Weaving as V :
A charismatic and skilled freedom fighter who was the unwilling subject of experimentation by Norsefire . James Purefoy was originally cast as V , but left six weeks into filming , citing difficulties wearing the mask for the entire film . He was replaced by Weaving , who had previously worked with Joel Silver and the Wachowskis on the Matrix series .
Natalie Portman as Evey Hammond :
Director James McTeigue first met Portman on the set of Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones , where he worked as assistant director . In preparing for the role , Portman worked with dialectologist Barbara Berkery in order to perform with an English accent . She also studied films such as The Weather Underground and read the autobiography of Menachem Begin . Portman received top billing for the film . Portman 's role in the film has parallels to her role as Mathilda Lando in the film Léon . According to Portman : " the relationship between V and Evey has a complication [ like ] the relationship in that film . " Portman also had her head shaved on screen during a scene where her character is tortured .
Stephen Rea as Eric Finch :
Finch is the lead inspector in the V investigation , who , during his investigation , uncovers an unspeakable government crime . When asked whether the politics attracted him to the film , Rea replied " Well , I don 't think it would be very interesting if it was just comic @-@ book stuff . The politics of it are what gives it its dimension and momentum , and of course I was interested in the politics . Why wouldn 't I be ? "
John Hurt as High Chancellor Adam Sutler :
A former Conservative Member of Parliament and Under @-@ Secretary for Defence , Chancellor Sutler is the founder of Norsefire and is Britain 's dictator . Hurt played a contrary role in another dystopian film : Winston Smith , a victim of the state in the film adaptation of Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four .
Stephen Fry portrays Gordon Deitrich , a closeted homosexual and talk / comedy show host . When asked in an interview what he liked about the role , Fry replied " Being beaten up ! I hadn 't been beaten up in a movie before and I was very excited by the idea of being clubbed to death . "
Also included in the cast are Tim Pigott @-@ Smith as Peter Creedy , Norsefire 's Party leader and the head of Britain 's secret police ( the " Finger " ) ; Rupert Graves as Dominic Stone , Inspector Finch 's lieutenant ; Roger Allam as Lewis Prothero , a propagandist for Norsefire ; John Standing as Anthony James Lilliman , a corrupt bishop at Westminster Abbey ; and Sinéad Cusack as Dr. Delia Surridge , the former head physician at the Larkhill Detention Centre , now a coroner . Natasha Wightman portrays Valerie Page , a lesbian imprisoned for her sexuality . Imogen Poots portrays Valerie as a child .
= = Themes = =
= = = Modern fears of totalitarianism = = =
The filmmakers added topical references relevant to a 2006 audience . According to the Los Angeles Times , " With a wealth of new , real @-@ life parallels to draw from in the areas of government surveillance , torture , fear mongering and media manipulation , not to mention corporate corruption and religious hypocrisy , you can 't really blame the filmmakers for having a field day referencing current events . " There are also references to an avian flu pandemic , as well as pervasive use of biometric identification and signal @-@ intelligence gathering and analysis by the regime .
Film critics , political commentators and other members of the media have also noted the film 's numerous references to events surrounding the George W. Bush administration in the United States . These include the hoods and sacks worn by the prisoners in Larkhill that have been seen as a reference to the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse . The Homeland Security Advisory System and rendition are also referenced . One of the forbidden items in Gordon 's secret basement is a protest poster with a mixed U.S. – U.K. flag with a swastika and the title " Coalition of the Willing , To Power " which combines the " Coalition of the Willing " with Friedrich Nietzsche 's concept of Will to Power .
Despite the America @-@ specific references , the filmmakers have always referred to the film as adding dialogue to a set of issues much broader than the U.S. administration . When James McTeigue was asked whether or not BTN was based on Fox News Channel , McTeigue replied , " Yes . But not just Fox . Everyone is complicit in this kind of stuff . It could just as well been the Britain 's Sky News Channel , also a part of News Corp. "
= = Production and release = =
= = = Development = = =
The film was made by many of the same filmmakers involved in The Matrix series . In 1988 , producer Joel Silver acquired the rights to two of Alan Moore 's works : V for Vendetta and Watchmen . After the release and relative success of Road House , writer Hilary Henkin was brought on to flesh out the project with an initial draft – one that bears little , if any , relation to the finished product , with the inclusion of overtly satirical and surrealistic elements not present in the graphic novel , as well as the removal of much of the novel 's ambiguity , especially in regard to V 's identity . The Wachowskis were fans of V for Vendetta and in the mid @-@ 1990s , before working on The Matrix , wrote a draft screenplay that closely followed the graphic novel . During the post @-@ production of the second and third The Matrix films , they revisited the screenplay and offered the director 's role to James McTeigue . All three were intrigued by the original story 's themes and found them to be relevant to the current political landscape . Upon revisiting the screenplay , the Wachowskis set about making revisions to condense and modernise the story , while at the same time attempting to preserve its integrity and themes . James McTeigue cites the film The Battle of Algiers as his principal influence in preparing to film V for Vendetta .
Moore explicitly disassociated himself from the film due to his lack of involvement in its writing or directing , as well as due to a continuing series of disputes over film adaptations of his work . He ended cooperation with his publisher , DC Comics , after its corporate parent , Warner Bros. , failed to retract statements about Moore 's supposed endorsement of the film . Moore said that the script contained plot holes and that it ran contrary to the theme of his original work , which was to place two political extremes ( fascism and anarchism ) against one another . He argues his work had been recast as a story about " current American neo @-@ conservatism vs. current American liberalism " . Per his wishes , Moore 's name does not appear in the film 's closing credits . Co @-@ creator and illustrator David Lloyd supports the film adaptation , commenting that the script is very good but that Moore would only ever be truly happy with a complete book @-@ to @-@ screen adaptation .
= = = Filming = = =
V for Vendetta was filmed in London , United Kingdom , and in Potsdam , Germany , at Babelsberg Studios . Much of the film was shot on sound stages and indoor sets , with location work done in Berlin for three scenes : the Norsefire rally flashback , Larkhill , and Bishop Lilliman 's bedroom . The scenes that took place in the abandoned London Underground were filmed at the disused Aldwych tube station . Filming began in early March 2005 and principal photography officially wrapped in early June 2005 . V for Vendetta is the final film shot by cinematographer Adrian Biddle , who died of a heart attack on December 7 , 2005 .
To film the final scene at Westminster , the area from Trafalgar Square and Whitehall up to Parliament and Big Ben had to be closed for three nights from midnight until 5 am . This was the first time the security @-@ sensitive area ( home to 10 Downing Street and the Ministry of Defence ) had ever been closed to accommodate filming . Prime Minister ( at the time of filming ) Tony Blair 's son , Euan , worked on the film 's production and is said ( according to an interview with Stephen Fry ) to have helped the filmmakers obtain the unparalleled filming access . This drew criticism of Blair from MP David Davis due to the film 's content . However , the filmmakers denied Euan Blair 's involvement in the deal , stating that access was acquired through nine months of negotiations with fourteen different government departments and agencies .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The film was designed to have a future @-@ retro look , with heavy use of grey tones to give a dreary , stagnant feel to totalitarian London . The largest set created for the film was the Shadow Gallery , which was made to feel like a cross between a crypt and an undercroft . The Gallery is V 's home as well as the place where he stores various artefacts forbidden by the government . Some of the works of art displayed in the gallery include The Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck , Bacchus and Ariadne by Titian , a Mildred Pierce poster , St. Sebastian by Andrea Mantegna , The Lady of Shalott by John William Waterhouse and statues by Giacometti . One of the major challenges in the film was how to bring V to life from under an expressionless mask . Thus , considerable effort was made to bring together lighting , acting , and Weaving 's voice to create the proper mood for the situation . Since the mask muffled Weaving 's voice , his entire dialogue was re @-@ recorded in post @-@ production .
= = = Promotion = = =
The cast and filmmakers attended several press conferences that allowed them to address issues surrounding the film , including its authenticity , Alan Moore 's reaction to it and its intended political message . The film was intended to be a departure from some of Moore 's original themes . In the words of Hugo Weaving : " Alan Moore was writing about something which happened some time ago . It was a response to living in Thatcherite Britain ... This is a response to the world in which we live today . So I think that the film and the graphic novel are two separate entities . " Regarding the film 's controversial political content , the filmmakers have said that the film is intended more to raise questions and add to a dialogue already present in society , rather than provide answers or tell viewers what to think .
= = = Release = = =
The film adopts extensive imagery from the 1605 Gunpowder Plot , in which a group of Catholic conspirators plotted to destroy the then Houses of Parliament in order to spark a revolution in England . The film was originally scheduled for release on the weekend of November 5 , 2005 , the Plot 's 400th anniversary , with the tag line " Remember , remember the 5th of November " , taken from a traditional British rhyme memorialising the event . However , the marketing angle lost much of its value when the release date was pushed back to March 17 , 2006 . Many have speculated that the delay was caused by the London tube bombing on the July 7 and the failed July 21 bombing . The filmmakers have denied this , saying that the delays were due to the need for more time to finish the visual effects production . V for Vendetta had its first major premiere on February 13 at the Berlin Film Festival . It opened for general release on March 17 , 2006 in 3 @,@ 365 cinemas in the United States , the United Kingdom and six other countries .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial = = =
By December 2006 , V for Vendetta had grossed $ 132 @,@ 511 @,@ 035 , of which $ 70 @,@ 511 @,@ 035 was from the United States . The film led the U.S. box office on its opening day , taking in an estimated $ 8 @,@ 742 @,@ 504 , and remained the number one film for the remainder of the weekend , taking in an estimated $ 25 @,@ 642 @,@ 340 . Its closest rival , Failure to Launch , took in $ 15 @,@ 604 @,@ 892 . The film debuted at number one in the Philippines , Singapore , South Korea , Sweden and Taiwan . V for Vendetta also opened in 56 IMAX cinemas in North America , grossing $ 1 @.@ 36 million during the opening three days .
= = = Critical = = =
Ebert and Roeper gave the film a " two thumbs up " rating . Roger Ebert stated that V for Vendetta " almost always has something going on that is actually interesting , inviting us to decode the character and plot and apply the message where we will " . Margaret Pomeranz and David Stratton from At the Movies stated that despite the problem of never seeing Weaving 's face , there was good acting and an interesting plot , adding that the film is also disturbing , with scenes reminiscent of Nazi Germany . Jonathan Ross from the BBC blasted the film , calling it a " woeful , depressing failure " and stating that the " cast of notable and familiar talents such as John Hurt and Stephen Rea stand little chance amid the wreckage of the Wachowski siblings ' dismal script and its particularly poor dialogue . " Sean Burns of Philadelphia Weekly gave the film a ' D ' , criticizing the film 's treatment of its political message as being " fairly dim , adolescent stuff , " as well as expressing dislike for the " barely decorated sets with television @-@ standard overlit shadow @-@ free cinematography by the late Adrian Biddle . The film is a visual insult . " On Alan Moore removing his name from the project , Burns says " it 's not hard to see why , " as well as criticising Portman 's performance : " Portman still seems to believe that standing around with your mouth hanging open constitutes a performance . " Harry Guerin from the Irish TV network RTÉ states the film " works as a political thriller , adventure and social commentary and it deserves to be seen by audiences who would otherwise avoid any / all of the three " . He added that the film will become " a cult favourite whose reputation will only be enhanced with age . " Andy Jacobs for the BBC gave the film two stars out of five , remarking that it is " a bit of a mess ... it rarely thrills or engages as a story . "
V for Vendetta received few awards , although at the 2007 Saturn Awards Natalie Portman won the Best Actress award . Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 73 % " Certified Fresh " approval rating . The film was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Long Form in 2007 . V was included on Fandomania 's list of The 100 Greatest Fictional Characters . Empire magazine ( in 2008 ) named the film the 418th greatest movie of all time .
= = = Political = = =
V for Vendetta deals with issues of homosexuality , criticism of religion , totalitarianism , Islamophobia and terrorism . Its controversial story line and themes have been the target of both criticism and praise from sociopolitical groups .
On April 17 , 2006 the New York Metro Alliance of Anarchists organised a protest against DC Comics and Time Warner , accusing it of watering down the story 's original message in favour of violence and special effects . David Graeber , an anarchist scholar and former professor at Yale University , was not upset by the film . " I thought the message of anarchy got out in spite of Hollywood . " However , Graeber went on to state : " Anarchy is about creating communities and democratic decision making . That 's what is absent from Hollywood 's interpretation . "
Film critic Richard Roeper dismissed right @-@ wing Christian criticism of the film on the television show Ebert and Roeper , saying that V 's terrorist label is applied in the film " by someone who 's essentially Hitler , a dictator . "
LGBT commentators have praised the film for its positive depiction of homosexuals . Sarah Warn of AfterEllen.com called the film " one of the most pro @-@ gay ever " . Warn went on to praise the central role of the character Valerie " not just because it is beautifully acted and well @-@ written , but because it is so utterly unexpected [ in a Hollywood film ] . "
David Walsh from the World Socialist Web Site criticises V 's actions as " antidemocratic , " calling the film an example of " the bankruptcy of anarcho @-@ terrorist ideology ; " Walsh writes that because the people have not played any part in the revolution , they will be unable to produce a " new , liberated society . "
Clay Duke , the perpetrator of the 2010 Panama City school board shootings , was reportedly obsessed with the film V for Vendetta . Prior to the shootings and his eventual suicide , Duke spray @-@ painted a red V inside a red circle , a supposed allusion to his fascination with the graphic novel .
The film was broadcast on China 's national TV station , China Central Television ( CCTV ) on December 16 , 2012 completely uncensored , surprising many viewers . While many believed that the government had banned the film , the State Administration of Radio , Film and Television stated that it was not aware of a ban ; CCTV makes its own decisions on whether to censor foreign films . Liu Shanying , a political scientist at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences who used to work for CCTV , speculated that the showing indicated that Chinese film censorship might be loosened .
= = Differences between the film and graphic novel = =
The film 's story was adapted from Alan Moore and David Lloyd 's graphic novel V for Vendetta ; this was originally published between 1982 and 1985 in the British comic anthology Warrior , and then reprinted and completed by DC . Moore 's comics were later compiled into a graphic novel and published again in the United States under DC 's Vertigo imprint and in the United Kingdom under Titan Books .
There are several fundamental differences between the film and the original source material . For example , the comic is set in the 1990s , while the film is set sometime between 2028 and 2038 : Alan Moore 's original story was created as a response to British Thatcherism in the early ' 80s and was set as a conflict between a fascist state and anarchism , while the film 's story has been changed by the Wachowski Brothers to fit a modern political context . Alan Moore , however , charged that , in doing so , the story has turned into an American @-@ centric conflict between liberalism and neo @-@ conservatism , and abandons the original anarchist @-@ fascist themes . Moore states " There wasn 't a mention of anarchy as far as I could see . The fascism had been completely defanged . I mean , I think that any references to racial purity had been excised , whereas actually , fascists are quite big on racial purity . " Furthermore , in the original story , Moore attempted to maintain moral ambiguity , and not to portray the fascists as caricatures , but as realistic , rounded characters . The time limitations of a film meant that the story had to omit or streamline some of the characters , details , and plotlines from the original story . Chiefly , the original graphic novel has the fascists elected legally and kept in power through the general apathy of the public , whereas the film introduces the " St. Mary 's virus " , a biological weapon engineered and released by the Norsefire Party as a means of clandestinely gaining control over their own country .
Many of the characters from the graphic novel underwent significant changes for the film . V is characterized in the film as a romantic freedom fighter who shows concern over the loss of innocent life . However , in the graphic novel , he is portrayed as ruthless , willing to kill anyone who gets in his way . Evey Hammond 's transformation as V 's protégée is also much more drastic in the novel than in the film . At the beginning of the film , she is already a confident woman with a hint of rebellion in her ; in the graphic novel , she starts off as an insecure , desperate young woman forced into prostitution . V and Evey 's relationship , though not as obvious in the book , ends in the film with pledges of love . In the graphic novel 's finale , she not only carries out V 's plans as she does in the film , but also clearly takes on V 's identity . In the film , Inspector Finch sympathizes with V , but , in the graphic novel , he is determined to stop V and goes as far as taking LSD to enter into a criminal 's state of mind . Gordon , a very minor character in both adaptations , is also drastically changed . In the novel , Gordon is a small @-@ time criminal who takes Evey into his home after V abandons her on the street . The two share a brief romance before Gordon is killed by a Scottish gang . In the film , however , Gordon is a well @-@ mannered colleague of Evey 's , and is later revealed to be gay . He is arrested by fingermen for broadcasting a political parody on his TV program , and is later executed when a Quran is found in his possession .
= = Marketing = =
= = = Home media = = =
V for Vendetta was released on DVD in the US on August 1 , 2006 in three formats : a single @-@ disc wide @-@ screen version , a single @-@ disc full @-@ screen version , and a two @-@ disc wide @-@ screen special edition . DVD sales were successful , selling 1 @,@ 412 @,@ 865 DVD units in the first week of release which translated to $ 27 @,@ 683 @,@ 818 in revenue . By the end of 2006 , 3 @,@ 086 @,@ 073 DVD units had been sold , bringing in slightly more than its production cost of $ 58 @,@ 342 @,@ 597 . The single disc versions contain a short ( 15 : 56 ) behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette titled " Freedom ! Forever ! Making V for Vendetta " and the film 's theatrical trailer , whereas the two @-@ disc special edition contains three additional documentaries , and several extra features for collectors . On the second disc of the special edition , a short Easter egg clip of Natalie Portman on Saturday Night Live can be viewed by selecting the picture of wings on the second page of the menu . The film has also been released on the HD DVD high definition format , which features a unique ' in @-@ film experience ' created exclusively for the disc . Warner Bros. later released the video on Blu @-@ Ray , on May 20 , 2008 . The film also saw release on Sony 's PSP UMD format .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The V for Vendetta soundtrack was released by Astralwerks Records on March 21 , 2006 . The original scores from the film 's composer , Dario Marianelli , make up most of the tracks on the album . The soundtrack also features three vocals played during the film : " Cry Me a River " by Julie London , a cover of The Velvet Underground song , " I Found a Reason " by Cat Power and " Bird Gerhl " by Antony and the Johnsons . As mentioned in the film , these songs are samples of the 872 blacklisted tracks on V 's Wurlitzer jukebox that V " reclaimed " from the Ministry of Objectionable Materials . The climax of Tchaikovsky 's 1812 Overture appears at the end of the track " Knives and Bullets ( and Cannons too ) " . The Overture 's finale is played at key parts at the beginning and end of the film .
Three songs were played during the ending credits which were not included on the V for Vendetta soundtrack . The first was " Street Fighting Man " by the Rolling Stones . The second was a special version of Ethan Stoller 's " BKAB " . In keeping with revolutionary tone of the film , excerpts from " On Black Power " ( also in " A Declaration of Independence " ) by black nationalist leader Malcolm X , and from " Address to the Women of America " by feminist writer Gloria Steinem were added to the song . Gloria Steinem can be heard saying : " This is no simple reform ... It really is a revolution . Sex and race , because they are easy and visible differences , have been the primary ways of organising human beings into superior and inferior groups and into the cheap labour on which this system still depends . " The final song was " Out of Sight " by Spiritualized .
Also in the film were segments from two of Antonio Carlos Jobim 's classic bossa nova songs , " The Girl From Ipanema " and " Quiet Nights of Quiet Stars " . These songs were played during the " breakfast scenes " with V and Deitrich and were one of the ways used to tie the two characters together . Beethoven 's Symphony No.5 also plays an important role in the film , with the first four notes of the first movement signifying the letter " V " in Morse code . Gordon Deitrich 's Benny Hill @-@ styled comedy sketch of Chancellor Sutler includes the " Yakety Sax " theme . Inspector Finch 's alarm clock begins the morning of November 4 with the song " Long Black Train " by Richard Hawley , which contains the foreshadowing lyrics " Ride the long black train ... take me home black train . "
= = = Books = = =
The original graphic novel by Moore and Lloyd was re @-@ released as a hardback collection in October 2005 to tie into the film 's original release date of November 5 , 2005 . The film renewed interest in Alan Moore 's original story , and sales of the original graphic novel rose dramatically in the United States .
A novelisation of the film , written by Steve Moore and based on the Wachowski Brothers ' script , was published by Pocket Star on January 31 , 2006 . Spencer Lamm , who has worked with the Wachowskis , created a " behind @-@ the @-@ scenes " book . Titled V for Vendetta : From Script to Film , it was published by Universe on August 22 , 2006 .
= = = Other = = =
As well as promotional items created to publicise the film ( which included a shoulder bag and bust of " V " ' s Guy Fawkes mask ) , replicas of the mask and action figures were released . Figures released by NECA include a 12 @-@ inch ( 30 cm ) action figure which speaks phrases from the film , a 12 @-@ inch resin statue and a seven @-@ inch ( 17 cm ) figure .
= = Cultural influence = =
The ideology of the hero of the film has greatly influenced the ideological group called Anonymous , which adopts the typical mask as its symbol .
In 2007 Italian comedian and activist Beppe Grillo , on the occasion of V @-@ Day and V2 @-@ Day ( a political campaign of public mobilisation in Italy to prevent the nomination as Parliamentary candidates of recipients of criminal convictions and other issues ) , has reused the graphic symbol of the " V " revising the ideology of Moore 's work . The same " V " is also contained in the symbol of the 5 Star Movement , founded in 2009 by the same Grillo .
French rapper Keny Arkana used the symbol " V " for her song " V pour Vérités " , a hymn to collective awakening and for an uprising against a sick system .
= Star Wars Knights of the Old Republic II : The Sith Lords =
Star Wars Knights of the Old Republic II : The Sith Lords is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Obsidian Entertainment and published by LucasArts . It is the sequel to BioWare 's Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic and was released for the Xbox on December 6 , 2004 , for Microsoft Windows on February 8 , 2005 , and for OS X and Linux on July 21 , 2015 . Like its predecessor , it is set in the Star Wars universe 4 @,@ 000 years before the events of the film Episode I : The Phantom Menace and is based on the d20 System developed by Wizards of the Coast . The game uses the Odyssey Engine , which was originally used in Knights of the Old Republic . The plot first started being written before the original Knights of the Old Republic was released , and development began in October 2003 , after BioWare offered Obsidian their Star Wars license due to being confident in their previous work .
Knights of the Old Republic II starts five years after the events of the first game , and follows the story of The Exile , a Jedi Knight who was exiled from the Jedi Order . During this time , the Jedi Order has been almost completely wiped out by the Sith . The game begins with the protagonist waking up from unconsciousness on a Republic cruiser . After he or she escapes with the help of their party members , they find the person who exiled them ten years ago , who sends the protagonist on a mission to seek out the remaining Jedi to fight against the Sith .
The game 's critical reception upon its release was generally positive ; praise was given to the story , characters and writing , which were noted to be more grey than the original Knights of the Old Republic . However , the game received criticism for being too similar to its predecessor in terms of graphics and gameplay systems . GameSpy named one of the game 's party members , Kreia , the best video game character of 2005 , and the game was included in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die .
= = Gameplay = =
Knights of the Old Republic II is a role @-@ playing video game played from a third @-@ person view that features pausable real @-@ time combat . Combat and interactions with the environment and non @-@ player characters in Knights of the Old Republic II are based on the d20 System as in Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic . The game starts with a character creation screen with several choices to make , and there is also an option of letting the game do it automatically . There are 30 new Force powers , which are manifestations of the Force , in Knights of the Old Republic II . Like its predecessor , the game has several minigames , including swoop bike racing and a card game called Pazaak . The interface has been streamlined from the original game and party management was made easier ; for example , the player can now switch between two selected weapon sets in the menu . As in the first game , the player can choose to align with either the light side or the dark side . Choosing dialogue options that are respectful and empathetic give the protagonist light side points , while options that are egotistic and evil result in dark side points .
The combat of Knights of the Old Republic II is identical to its predecessor . Several new lightsaber crystals were added to the game . Each of them is useful for a different situation . For example , one is best for enemies using blaster weapons , while another would be good for recovering from using Force powers . The player can use a variety of melee and ranged weapons , including swords and firearms . Fighting unarmed is also an option . A new addition to the game are " prestige classes " . These are add @-@ ons to the Jedi classes that were established in Knights of the Old Republic . They let the player character practice in lightsaber combat or Force powers , depending on player choice .
The player can travel with up to two party members at a time , which gain experience points at the same rate as the player character . Equipment and perks for party characters can be selected for different statistical effects or abilities . Players can loot corpses and various environmental objects . The protagonist also has the ability to " influence " their party members ; by doing things that impress them , the player increases their influence with them . Depending on the level of influence , party members may support the player character unconditionally or turn on the protagonist . The player can also exploit high influence by drawing party members to either the light side or the dark side .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game takes place five years after the events of Knights of the Old Republic and 4 @,@ 000 years before Episode I : The Phantom Menace , in a time when the Jedi have been nearly exterminated
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renches the presence of minority MPs in Parliament , ensuring that interests of minority communities are represented in Parliament . Article 39A ( 1 ) ( a ) of the Constitution allows for a maximum number of six MPs for each GRC so as to provide flexibility in ensuring that a GRC with a rapidly expanding population is properly managed . As the population of a constituency grows , it becomes increasingly difficult for an MP to singlehandedly represent all his or her constituents ' views . A team of MPs arguably has greater access to more constituents , and the fact that there are different MPs in the team suggests they can more effectively provide representation in Parliament of a wide range of constituents ' views .
= = = Criticisms of the scheme = = =
= = = = Diversion from original purpose = = = =
The official justification for the GRC scheme is to entrench minority representation in Parliament . However , opposition parties have questioned the usefulness of GRCs in fulfilling this purpose , especially since Singapore has not faced the issue of minorities being under @-@ represented in Parliament . In fact , statistics show that all PAP minority candidates have won regularly and that the only two MPs to lose their seats in 1984 were Chinese . One of them was beaten by a minority candidate . In addition , Joshua Benjamin Jeyaratnam of the Workers ' Party of Singapore won a by @-@ election in 1981 at Anson , a largely Chinese constituency , and the first elected Chief Minister of Singapore was David Marshall who was Jewish . Technically , as the size of GRCs has increased , the minority has had less representation overall as the proportion of minority MPs per GRC has been reduced . Since minority MPs are a numerical minority in Parliament , their political clout has also been reduced .
Furthermore , the GRC scheme is now used as a recruiting tool for the PAP . In 2006 , Goh Chok Tong stated , " Without some assurance of a good chance of winning at least their first election , many able and successful young Singaporeans may not risk their careers to join politics " . Indeed , every PAP GRC team is helmed by a major figure such as a minister , and this allows new candidates to ride on the coat @-@ tails of the experienced PAP members . Since 1991 , the PAP has generally not fielded first @-@ time candidates in SMC wards . On the other hand , one of the " in @-@ built weaknesses " of GRCs may be that " through no fault of their own or that of their team " , " high @-@ value " MPs can be voted out ; this was said to have occurred when former Minister for Foreign Affairs George Yeo lost his parliamentary seat to a Workers ' Party of Singapore team in Aljunied GRC at the 2011 general election .
It is also said that GRCs serve more as administrative tools than to ensure minority representation . The size of GRCs was increased to take advantage of economies of scale when managing the wards . However , whether GRCs are required for this purpose is arguable , as Goh Chok Tong stated in 1988 that MPs in SMCs could still group together after elections to enjoy economies of scale .
= = = = Opposition parties disadvantaged = = = =
The GRC scheme has also been criticized for raising the bar for the opposition in elections . First , opposition parties may find it harder to find competent candidates , including minority candidates , to form teams to contest GRCs . Goh Chok Tong has acknowledged that the GRC scheme benefits the PAP as they can put together stronger teams . With the GRC system the threshold for votes for the opposition is also increased , and opposition parties have to take a gamble and commit huge proportions of their resources to contest GRCs . Each candidate in a GRC is required to deposit a sum equal to 8 % of the total allowances payable to an MP in the calendar year preceding the election , rounded to the nearest S $ 500 . At the 2011 general election , the deposit was $ 16 @,@ 000 . Unsuccessful candidates have their deposits forfeited if they do not receive at least one @-@ eighth of the total number of votes polled in the GRC . Critics have noted that the number of walkovers has generally increased since the introduction of GRCs . To date , only one opposition party , the Workers ' Party , has won a GRC : Aljunied , in the 2011 general election .
= = = = Creation of unequal voting power = = = =
GRCs have been criticized as creating unequal voting powers between electors . At present , one vote in a GRC ward returns five or six candidates into Parliament , compared with one vote in a SMC ward , which only returns one candidate . The GRC scheme has also diluted electors ' voting power . For instance , in an SMC ward there are around 14 @,@ 000 voters , compared to 140 @,@ 000 voters in a five- or six @-@ member GRC . Thus , the power of each vote in a GRC is lower than in an SMC , as each voter in a GRC finds it harder to vote out an MP that he or she does not like . The situation is compounded by the fact that a 30 % deviation from equality of electoral divisions is tolerated . Another commentator has pointed out that the current MP @-@ to @-@ voter guide ratio is one MP to 26 @,@ 000 voters , which implies that the number of voters in an electoral division can vary between 18 @,@ 200 and 33 @,@ 800 . By extrapolation , a five @-@ member GRC can have between 91 @,@ 000 and 169 @,@ 000 voters , a difference of 86 % .
= = = = Weakening of voter – MP relationship = = = =
Critics have noted that the credibility and accountability of some candidates may be reduced because in a GRC the members of the team who are popular " protect " less popular members from being voted out . It has been said that the relationship between the electorate and their representatives is also weakened , because the relationship is between the individual and the GRC team rather than between the individual and a particular MP . Improving the link between voters and MPs , and to make the latter more accountable was the reason for the changes proposed in 2009 to introduce more SMCs and to reduce the size of GRCs .
= = = = Enshrining of racialism = = = =
Even though the GRC scheme is intended to ensure minority representation in Parliament , it can be said that the scheme emphasizes racial consciousness and hence widens the gap between races . It may undermine the esteem of minority candidates as they would not be sure if they are elected on their own merit , or due to the scheme and the merits of the rest of the team of MPs . This would result in minority candidates resenting that they are dependent on the majority to enter Parliament , and the majority candidates believing that minority candidates have insufficient ability . It has also been claimed that the GRC scheme demeans the majority of Singaporeans as it assumes that they are not able to see the value or merit of minority candidates , and only vote for candidates with whom they share a common race , culture and language .
= = = = Law of large numbers = = = =
Derek da Cunha has proposed that the law of large numbers favours the GRC system . According to the theory , the large number of voters from GRC wards generally , though not necessarily always , reflects the popular vote . This was evident at the 2006 elections , at which the PAP garnered an average of 67 @.@ 04 % of the votes in a contested GRC , while the average was 61 @.@ 67 % for a SMC ward . The national average for the 2006 elections was 66 @.@ 6 % . Similar trends can be seen from previous elections . In fact , the percentage difference in the PAP votes between SMCs and GRCs grew from 3 % in 1991 , and remained stable at around 5 % in the 1997 , 2001 and 2006 elections . This may be attributable to the enlargement of the size of GRCs in 1997 which gave greater effect to the law of large numbers .
= = = Legislation = = =
Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( 1999 Reprint ) .
Parliamentary Elections Act ( Cap . 218 , 2007 Rev. Ed . ) ( " PEA " ) .
= = = Other works = = =
Singh , Bilveer ( 2006 ) , Politics and Governance in Singapore : An Introduction , Singapore : McGraw @-@ Hill , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 07 @-@ 126184 @-@ 5 .
Goh , Chok Tong ( Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Defence ) , speech during the Second Reading of the Parliamentary Elections ( Amendment ) Bill , Singapore Parliamentary Debates , Official Report ( 11 January 1988 ) , vol . 50 , cols . 178 – 192 .
Li , Xueying ( 18 September 2010 ) , " Making sense of electoral boundaries " , The Straits Times , pp . A38 – A39 .
Report of the Constitutional Commission , 1966 [ Chairman : Wee Chong Jin ] , Singapore : Government Printer , 1966 , OCLC 51640681 .
= = = Articles and websites = = =
Lua , Ee Laine ; Sim , Disa Jek Sok ; Koh , Christopher Theng Jer ( 1996 ) , " Principles and Practices of Voting : The Singapore Electoral System " , Singapore Law Review 17 : 244 – 321 at 299 – 303 .
Tan , Eugene K [ heng ] B [ oon ] ( November 2005 ) , " Multiracialism Engineered : The Limits of Electoral and Spatial Integration in Singapore " , Ethnopolitics 4 ( 4 ) : 413 – 428 , doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 17449050500348659 , also published in Bieber , Florian ; Wolff , Stefan , eds . ( 2007 ) , The Ethnopolitics of Elections , London ; New York , N.Y. : Routledge , pp. 53 – 68 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 40047 @-@ 3 .
Tan , Eugene ; Chan , Gary ( 13 April 2009 ) , " The Legislature " , The Singapore Legal System , SingaporeLaw.sg , Singapore Academy of Law , archived from the original on 1 December 2010 , retrieved 1 December 2010 .
Tan , Kevin Yew Lee ( 1992 ) , " Constitutional Implications of the 1991 Singapore General Election " , Singapore Law Review 13 : 26 – 59 .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ( 1997 ) , " Is Singapore 's Electoral System in Need of Reform ? " , Commentary 14 : 109 – 117 .
Tey , Tsun Hang ( December 2008 ) , " Singapore 's Electoral System : Government by the People ? " , Legal Studies 28 ( 4 ) : 610 – 628 , doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1748 @-@ 121X.2008.00106.x .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2002 ) , " The Right to Political Participation in Singapore : Tailor @-@ making a Westminster @-@ modelled Constitution to Fit the Imperatives of ' Asian ' Democracy " , Singapore Journal of International and Comparative Law 6 : 181 – 243 .
= = = Books = = =
Chan , Helena H [ ui- ] M [ eng ] ( 1995 ) , " Parliament and Law Making " , The Legal System of Singapore , Singapore : Butterworths Asia , pp. 41 – 68 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 409 @-@ 99789 @-@ 7 .
Chua , Beng Huat ( 1995 ) , Communitarian Ideology and Democracy in Singapore , London : Routledge , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 16465 @-@ 8 .
Hussin Mutalib ( 2003 ) , Parties and Politics : A Study of Opposition Parties and the PAP in Singapore , Singapore : Eastern Universities Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 210 @-@ 211 @-@ 9 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 210 @-@ 268 @-@ 3 ( pbk . ) .
Report of the Select Committee on the Parliamentary Elections ( Amendment ) Bill ( Bill No. 23 / 87 ) and the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore ( Amendment No. 2 ) Bill ( Bill No. 24 / 87 ) [ Parl . 3 of 1988 ] , Singapore : Printed for the Government of Singapore by Singapore National Printers , 1988 , OCLC 30875454 .
Rodan , Garry , ed . ( 1993 ) , Singapore Changes Guard : Social , Political and Economic Directions in the 1990s , New York , N.Y. : St. Martin 's Press , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 09687 @-@ 8 .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ( 2011 ) , " Making Law : Parliament " , An Introduction to Singapore 's Constitution ( rev. ed . ) , Singapore : Talisman Publishing , pp. 33 – 60 at 53 – 55 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 08 @-@ 6456 @-@ 9 .
Tan , Kevin Y [ ew ] L [ ee ] ; Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2010 ) , " The Legislature " , Constitutional Law in Malaysia and Singapore ( 3rd ed . ) , Singapore : LexisNexis , pp. 299 – 360 at 310 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 236 @-@ 795 @-@ 2 .
Thio , Li @-@ ann ( 2012 ) , " The Legislature and the Electoral System " , A Treatise on Singapore Constitutional Law , Singapore : Academy Publishing , pp. 285 – 359 at 332 – 355 , ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 07 @-@ 1515 @-@ 1 .
= Minefields in Croatia =
Minefields in Croatia cover 480 @.@ 77 square kilometres ( 185 @.@ 63 square miles ) of territory . The minefields ( usually known as " mine suspected areas " ) are located in 69 cities and municipalities within 9 counties . These areas are thought to contain approximately 46 @,@ 317 land mines , in addition to unexploded ordnance left over from the Croatian War of Independence . Land mines were used extensively during the war by all sides in the conflict ; about 1 @.@ 5 million were deployed . They were intended to strengthen defensive positions lacking sufficient weapons or manpower , but played a limited role in the fighting .
After the war 13 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 5 @,@ 000 square miles ) of territory was initially suspected to contain mines , but this estimate was later reduced to 1 @,@ 174 square kilometres ( 453 square miles ) after physical inspection . As of 2013 demining programmes were coordinated through governmental bodies such as the Croatian Mine Action Centre , which was hiring private demining companies employing 632 deminers . As of September 2015 , Croatia plans to clear all suspected minefields by 2019 . The areas are marked with 13 @,@ 274 warning signs .
As of 4 April 2013 , 509 people had been killed and 1 @,@ 466 injured by land mines in Croatia since the war ; with these figures including 60 deminers and seven Croatian Army engineers killed during demining operations . In the immediate aftermath of the war there were about 100 civilian mine casualties per year , but this gradually decreased to below ten per year through demining , mine @-@ awareness and education programmes . Croatia has spent approximately € 450 million on demining since 1998 , when the process was taken over by private contractors coordinated by the Croatian Mine Action Centre . The cost to complete the demining is estimated at € 500 million or more . Economic loss to Croatia ( due to loss of land use within suspected minefields ) is estimated at € 47 @.@ 3 million per year .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the Communist regime in Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) , ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs worsened . After the elections , the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence weapons to minimize potential resistance . On 17 August , tensions escalated to an open revolt by the Croatian Serbs . The JNA stepped in , preventing Croatian police from intervening . The revolt centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun and Banovina regions and eastern Croatian settlements with a significant Serb population . This contiguous area was subsequently named the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) . The RSK declared its intention to join Serbia , and as a result came to be viewed by the Government of Croatia as a breakaway region . By March 1991 , the conflict had escalated into what became known as the Croatian War of Independence . In June , Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated . By January 1992 , the RSK held 17 @,@ 028 square kilometres ( 6 @,@ 575 sq mi ) of territory within borders claimed by Croatia . This territory ranged from 2 @.@ 5 to 63 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 to 39 @.@ 2 miles ) in depth , and had a 923 @-@ kilometre ( 574 mi ) front line along Croatian @-@ controlled territory .
= = Wartime use = =
Land mines were first used by the JNA in early 1991 , before its withdrawal from Croatia , to protect military barracks and other facilities . Even JNA facilities located in urban centres were secured in this way , using mines such as the PROM @-@ 1 bounding mine and MRUD directional anti @-@ personnel mine . The Croatian Army ( HV ) and Croatian police began laying land mines in late 1991 , relying heavily on them to stop advances by the JNA and the Army of the RSK ( ARSK ) until early 1992 . These early minefields were laid with little documentation . In 1992 the ARSK increased its use of mines to secure the front line , largely due to its limited number of troops . Consequently , the ARSK constructed static defensive lines ( consisting of trenches , bunkers and large numbers of mines designed to protect thinly @-@ manned defences ) to delay HV offensives . This approach was necessitated by the limited depth of RSK territory and the lack of reserves available with which to counterattack ( or block ) breaches of its defensive line , which meant that the ARSK was unable to employ defence in depth tactics . The combination of poor documentation of minefield locations and the lack of markings ( or fencing ) led to frequent injuries to military personnel caused by mines laid by friendly forces . It is estimated that a total of 1 @.@ 5 million land mines were laid during the war .
The HV successfully used anti @-@ tank mines as obstacles in combination with infantry anti @-@ tank weapons , destroying or disabling more than 300 JNA tanks ( particularly during defensive operations in Slavonia ) . Conversely , anti @-@ personnel mines deployed by the ARSK proved less effective against the HV during operations Flash and Storm in 1995 . During these operations , the HV crossed ( or bypassed ) many ARSK minefields based on information from land @-@ based and unmanned aerial vehicle reconnaissance of the movement of ARSK patrols , civilian populations and the activation of mines by wildlife . Out of the 224 HV personnel killed in operations Flash and Storm , only 15 fatalities were caused by land mines . Similarly , out of 966 wounded in the two offensives only 92 were injured by land mines .
= = Casualties = =
As of 4 April 2013 a total of 509 people had been killed and 1 @,@ 466 injured by land mines in 1 @,@ 352 incidents in Croatia . There were 557 civilian casualties from land mines between 1991 and 1995 , during the war and in its immediate aftermath . Between 1996 and 1998 there were approximately 100 civilian casualties from land mines per year in Croatia , but the number gradually decreased to less than ten per year by 2010 . During the war , 57 HV troops were killed or injured by mines in 1992 . In 1995 , 169 were killed or injured ( most during operations Flash and Storm ) out of 130 @,@ 000 HV troops involved . Seven HV engineers were killed and 18 injured by land mines during HV mine clearance operations between 1996 and 1998 . Civilian casualties include 60 deminers killed since 1998 .
Croatia has established an extensive framework to assist those injured by mines and the families of mine victims . This assistance includes emergency and ongoing medical care , physical rehabilitation , psychological and social support , employment and social @-@ integration assistance , public awareness and access to public services . Institutions and organizations supporting mine victims include a wide range of governmental bodies and non @-@ governmental organizations ( NGOs ) .
= = Existing minefields = =
As of 27 November 2015 , there were 487 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 188 @.@ 2 square miles ) of Croatian territory suspected to contain land mines . These areas are located in 9 counties and 70 cities and municipalities . They are thought to contain approximately 46 @,@ 317 land mines , as well as unexploded ordnance left over from the Croatian War of Independence . Areas suspected to contain land mines are marked with more than 12 @,@ 000 warning signs . Areas thought to contain unexploded ordnance ( but no land mines ) are marked with 409 warning signs . Suspected minefields are primarily located in forests ( 62 percent ) ; the remainder are on agricultural land ( 26 percent ) , karst and shrubland ( 12 percent ) .
= = = Social and economic impacts = = =
Land mines are a safety issue for populations living near minefields . In 2008 , an estimated 920 @,@ 000 people in Croatia were endangered by their proximity to mined areas ( 20 @.@ 8 percent of the population ) . Land mines are also a significant problem for development , because a substantial portion of the minefields in Croatia are on agricultural land and in forests . Some drainage channels are consequently inaccessible for maintenance , resulting in intermittent flooding ; this is particularly severe in areas bordering Hungary . Similar problems are caused by mines laid on the banks of the Drava , Kupa and Sava rivers . The presence of land mines adversely affected post @-@ war recovery in rural areas , reducing the amount of available agricultural land , impeding development and affecting the quality of life for people in mined areas . In addition to agriculture , the most significant economic problem caused by mines in Croatia is their impact on tourism ( especially on forested areas and hunting in areas inland from the Adriatic Sea coast ) . In 2012 , it was estimated that the economy of Croatia lost 355 million kuna ( c . 47 @.@ 3 million euros ) a year from the effects of mine @-@ suspected areas on the economy .
Because of the importance of tourism to the Croatian economy , areas frequented by tourists ( or near major tourist routes ) have been given priority for demining . Other safety @-@ related areas receiving demining priority are settlements , commercial and industrial facilities and all documented minefields . Agricultural land , infrastructure and forests are grouped in three priority categories depending on their economic significance . National parks in Croatia were also demined as top @-@ priority areas , along with areas significant for fire protection . Theft of minefield signs is a significant problem , and is particularly pronounced in areas with concerns among the local population that the signs harm tourism . The signs are regularly replaced , sometimes with concrete or masonry structures to display them instead of metal poles . Since the 1990s , only one tourist has been injured by a land mine in Croatia .
The Government of Croatia established several bodies to address the problem of land mines in Croatia ; foremost among them are the Office for Mine Action and the Croatian Mine Action Centre . The Office for Mine Action is a government agency tasked with providing expert analysis and advice on demining . The Croatian Mine Action Centre is a public @-@ sector body tasked with planning and conducting demining surveys , accepting cleared areas , marking mine @-@ suspected areas , quality assurance , demining research and development , and victim assistance . The work of the Croatian Mine Action Centre is supervised by the Office for Mine Action .
As refugees flee to Europe , from Syria and other Middle Eastern nations , some are migrating through Croatia due to Hungary 's recent closing of its borders . These immigrants trying to cross to Europe are seeking Croatia 's help in finding safe routes of passage .
= = = Mine awareness and education = = =
Croatia has implemented a mine @-@ awareness educational programme aimed at reducing the frequency of mine @-@ related accidents through an ongoing information campaign . The programme is conducted by the Croatian Red Cross , the Ministry of Science , Education and Sports and a number of NGOs in cooperation with the Croatian Mine Action Centre . The Croatian Mine Action Centre actively supports NGOs to develop as many programmes as possible and attract new NGOs to mine @-@ awareness and educational activities . It maintains an accessible online database with cartographic information on the location of mine @-@ suspected areas in Croatia .
One mine @-@ awareness campaign involving billboard advertising attracted criticism from the Ministry of Tourism and the Croatian National Tourist Board ( CNTB ) because the signs were placed in tourist areas , far from any mine @-@ suspected areas . The Ministry of Tourism and the CNTB welcomed the effort 's humanitarian aspect , but considered the signs a potential source of unwarranted negative reaction from tourists . Tourist guidebooks of Croatia include warnings about the danger posed by mines in the country , and provide general information about their location .
= = Demining = =
At the end of the Croatian War of Independence , approximately 13 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 5 @,@ 000 square miles ) of the country was suspected of containing land mines . During the war and in its immediate aftermath , demining was performed by HV engineers supported by police and civil defence personnel . Wartime demining was focused on clearance tasks in support of military operations and the safety of the civilian population . In 1996 the Parliament of Croatia enacted the Demining Act , tasking police with its organization and the government @-@ owned AKD Mungos company with the demining itself . By April 1998 approximately 40 square kilometres ( 15 square miles ) had been cleared of mines , and the initial estimate of minefield areas was reduced after inspection . By 2003 the entire territory of Croatia was reviewed , and the minefield area reduced to 1 @,@ 174 square kilometres ( 453 square miles ) .
Since May 1998 the Croatian Mine Action Centre has been tasked with the development of demining plans , projects , technical inspections , cleared @-@ area handover , demining quality assurance , expert assistance and the coordination of mine @-@ clearance activities . The demining is performed by 35 licensed companies , employing 632 demining professionals and 58 auxiliary personnel . The companies do their work with 681 metal detectors , 55 mine rollers and mine flails , and 15 mine @-@ detection dogs . Mine @-@ clearing machines include locally designed models produced by DOK @-@ ING . Deminers typically earn € .50 – 1 @.@ 20 for each 1 square metre ( 11 square feet ) cleared , or € 800 – 900 a month .
Since 1998 , demining has been funded through the government and by donations . From 1998 to 2011 , donations amounted to € 75 @.@ 5 million ( 17 percent of the total of € 450 million spent on demining during that period ) . Most donations were from foreign contributors , including NGOs and foreign governments ( among them Japan , Germany , Monaco , Luxembourg and the United States ) . The European Union was also a significant contributor during that period , providing € 20 @.@ 7 million . As of 2013 , the Croatian Mine Action Centre has been allocated approximately 400 million kuna ( c . 53 million euros ) a year for demining . An estimated further € 500 million ( or more ) will be needed to remove all remaining land mines from Croatia by 2019 , the deadline for land @-@ mine clearance set by the Ottawa Treaty . The Croatian Mine Action Centre spends approximately 500 @,@ 000 kuna ( c . 66 @,@ 600 euros ) a year to maintain minefield warning signs ( including the replacement of stolen signs ) .
= Keith Aulie =
Keith Aulie ( born June 11 , 1989 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing with HIFK of the Finnish Liiga . Aulie was drafted by the Calgary Flames 116th overall in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft . Aulie played junior hockey for the Brandon Wheat Kings of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , and was honoured as the League 's Top Scholastic Player in 2007 .
Internationally , Aulie played in the 2009 World Junior Championships , where he paired with Tyler Myers on defence and helped Canada capture a gold medal . He was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs in trade for Dion Phaneuf , among others , from the Flames during the 2009 – 10 season . Aulie made his NHL debut with the Maple Leafs in November 2010 . Off the ice , Aulie was honoured by the Canadian Red Cross for saving his father after he fell through ice on the family farm .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Aulie played junior hockey with the Brandon Wheat Kings of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , after being selected in the first round of the 2004 WHL Bantam Draft . Prior to being drafted , Aulie played minor hockey with the Weyburn Bantam RedCoat Rams . Aulie made his WHL debut with the Wheat Kings during the 2005 – 06 season , playing in 38 games and recording two assists . After the 2006 – 07 season , Aulie was named the winner of the Doc Seaman Trophy as the WHL 's top scholastic player . He played in 66 games that season , scoring his first career WHL goal , and adding eight assists . The Calgary Flames made Aulie their fourth @-@ round pick , 116th overall , in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft . In the leadup to the Draft , Aulie was ranked 108th overall among North American skaters by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . Aulie spent his entire WHL career with the Wheat Kings , and in his final season ( 2008 – 09 ) , he served as the team 's captain and was named to the WHL Eastern Conference All @-@ Star Team . Aulie improved his point totals in each of his four WHL seasons , finishing with 17 points in his third season and 33 during his final season .
= = = Professional = = =
Aulie signed his first professional contract with the Calgary Flames in January 2009 . After exhausting his junior eligibility , Aulie began his professional career with the Abbotsford Heat of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , the Flames ' top minor league affiliate . During his first professional season with the Heat , Aulie 's rights were traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs , along with Dion Phaneuf and Fredrik Sjöström , in exchange for Matt Stajan , Ian White , Niklas Hagman and Jamal Mayers . After the trade , Aulie joined the Toronto Marlies , the Maple Leafs ' AHL affiliate , for the remainder of the 2009 – 10 season . His season was cut short after only five games with the Marlies , however , due to an injury . He played 48 games during his first professional season , scoring two goals and adding four assists between both teams at the AHL level .
At the start of the 2010 – 11 season , Aulie was assigned to the Marlies after training camp with the Maple Leafs . He was later called up to the NHL on November 12 , 2010 , when Dion Phaneuf was injured . Aulie played his first career NHL game the next day against the Vancouver Canucks , playing 12 games total with the Maple Leafs in his call @-@ up before ultimately being returned to the Marlies . Despite the time he spent away from the AHL , Aulie was selected to the Western Conference team for the AHL All @-@ Star Game . During the Skills Competition , Aulie competed in the hardest shot event , finishing third , with a top speed of 95 @.@ 5 mph . After the Maple Leafs traded defenceman François Beauchemin to the Anaheim Ducks , Aulie was called up to rejoin the team . Maple Leafs General Manager Brian Burke said one of the reasons for the trade was to open up a spot at the NHL level for Aulie : " ... as soon as we get a roster spot , we 're calling up Keith Aulie . We expect him to be here for a while . " Aulie engaged in his first career NHL fight against Scott Hartnell of the Philadelphia Flyers , earning him the nickname " Muhammad Aulie . " He scored his first career NHL goal against the New York Islanders on March 9 , 2011 .
Prior to the 2011 – 12 season , Aulie was demoted to the Toronto Marlies . On February 27 , 2012 , he was then traded to the Tampa Bay Lightning in exchange for Carter Ashton . After the trade , Aulie split time between the AHL level with the Norfolk Admirals and Syracuse Crunch and the NHL with the Lightning .
On July 1 , 2014 , Aulie signed as a free agent to a one @-@ year contract with the Edmonton Oilers . On December 31 , Aulie was suspended for two games as a result of an illegal check to Calgary Flames center Matt Stajan .
As a free agent , Aulie accepted a professional try @-@ out contract to attend the training camp of the Arizona Coyotes on September 9 , 2015 . A month into the 2015 – 16 season , Aulie was signed to a professional try @-@ out contract with the Coyotes AHL affiliate , the Springfield Falcons on November 3 , 2015 . Aulie featured in 7 games for 1 goal over the duration of his try @-@ out before he was released on November 26 , 2015 . On January 3 , 2016 , Aulie signed his first European contract , joining HIFK of the Finnish Liiga for the remainder of the season .
= = International play = =
Aulie represented Canada internationally for the first time at the 2009 World Junior Championships . He played on a defensive pairing with Tyler Myers and helped Team Canada to a gold medal . Aulie , standing 6 ' 5 " tall , and Myers , at 6 ' 7 " , were nicknamed the " twin towers " by media covering the event . After the tournament , Aulie was honoured by his hometown of Rouleau with a steak dinner , as well as by his then @-@ NHL team , the Calgary Flames , when he attended a game against the St. Louis Blues .
= = Personal life = =
Aulie 's parents are Bill and Karen . He has a younger sister , Krystal . He attended school in Rouleau , Saskatchewan , until Grade 9 , where he helped capture a provincial volleyball championship in addition to multiple provincial track medals . He attended high school at Athol Murray College of Notre Dame in Wilcox , before he began playing with the Brandon Wheat Kings .
In December 2006 , Aulie 's father was using a tractor to clear snow off a frozen dugout in anticipation of an outdoor shinny game on New Year 's Day . The ice could not support the weight of the tractor , and he fell through . Aulie was able to pull his father out of the water and get him to safety . The Canadian Red Cross honoured Aulie with their Rescuer Award for his act .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
Junior and professional statistics source
= = = International = = =
International statistics source
= Casual Friday ( The Office ) =
" Casual Friday " is the twenty @-@ sixth episode of the fifth season of the television series The Office , and the 98th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 30 , 2009 . In this episode , Michael , Pam and Ryan return to Dunder Mifflin as salespeople , and other members of the sales staff become upset when they don 't get their old clients back that the Michael Scott Paper Company stole from them . Meanwhile , Jim tries to remain neutral about the situation and plays board games with Creed , and Casual Friday is reinstated in the office , with mixed results .
The episode was written by Anthony Q. Farrell and directed by Brent Forrester . The episode received generally positive reviews , with several commentators expressing relief that the series appeared to remain fresh following the six @-@ episode " Michael Scott Paper Company " story arc , which had ended in the previous episode , " Broke " . According to Nielsen ratings , " Casual Friday " was watched by 7 @.@ 3 million viewers during its original broadcast , marking the lowest original episode rating of the fifth season until the May 14 season finale , " Company Picnic " .
= = Plot = =
Michael ( Steve Carell ) has returned to his old job as regional manager of the Dunder Mifflin Scranton branch and announces that Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) and Ryan ( B. J. Novak ) have joined the sales team , retaining their old clients from the Michael Scott Paper Company . Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , Andy ( Ed Helms ) , Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) and Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) are upset because most of those clients were ones Michael previously stole from them . They are also upset that Michael treats Pam and Ryan with more respect because they were the only people to follow him to his new company , with Michael believing his company operates within the branch despite the buyout . Dwight calls a secret meeting in the warehouse with the salespeople , minus Pam and Ryan , to think of a way to get their clients back .
Jim ( John Krasinski ) , trying to remain impartial , informs Michael of the potential mutiny and heads to the break room to play board games with Creed ( Creed Bratton ) until the conflict is resolved . Things take a turn for the worse when Dwight interrupts a sales call with Ryan , causing him to lose the client . Michael steps in and demands an apology , but Dwight , Andy , Phyllis and Stanley threaten to quit and start their own paper company . When Michael calls their bluff and starts throwing " seed money " at them , Phyllis breaks down and says that they were the real victims of Michael 's company , not corporate , and that they were hurt since Michael had treated them like a family and then turned on them . Michael is taken aback by her words .
Meanwhile , it is Casual Friday and most people dress too loosely at the office . Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) complains to Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) about Oscar ( Oscar Nunez ) wearing sandals to work and having to look at his feet . Meredith ( Kate Flannery ) disgusts the rest of the employees by wearing a very short dress without any panties or a bra , thus exposing herself to the rest of the office as she tries to adjust it to meet Toby 's requests . Toby calls a meeting with everyone regarding Casual Friday . When Dwight tries to take charge of the meeting , Toby is finally stern with him and cancels Casual Friday , much to everyone 's disappointment .
Michael calls a meeting with Dwight , Andy , Phyllis and Stanley to give them a formal apology , but they do not accept it since all they want is their clients back . Michael reluctantly agrees to give back their clients . In doing so , however , there are not enough clients to keep both Pam and Ryan on the sales team , leaving Michael to decide which one to keep . He talks it over with Jim , who suggests Pam would be better suited , but Michael argues that Jim is biased since Pam is his fiance . Michael calls a meeting with Pam and tells her she did not get the sales job . Pam is visibly disappointed , but Michael starts laughing and tells her that she did get it , having offered Ryan a temp position again . Pam tells him he should stop with the " fake @-@ firing " joke , but Michael decides to pull the joke on the new receptionist , Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) . This is a callback to the pilot episode in which Michael " fake fires " Pam .
= = Production = =
" Casual Friday " was written by Anthony Q. Farrell and directed by Brent Forrester . The official website for The Office included two cut scenes from " Casual Friday " within a week of its original release . In the first 50 @-@ second clip , Jim welcomes Pam to her new sales desk with a gift of a model of an island with figures representing Jim , Pam and Dwight , who share the office pod together . Dwight insists he did not have anything to do with the gift and does not welcome Pam to the desk because she " obscures my view of the shredder . " In the second 50 @-@ second clip , Dwight tells Andy , Stanley and Phyllis that they should " put our balls in the guillotine , as they say , " by threatening to quit if Michael does not give their clients back . The others express doubt and wonder if they should keep quiet in order to protect their jobs .
= = Cultural references = =
Ryan makes reference to Michael Chiklis in The Shield ; Michael is not familiar with the show , but recognizes the actor from The Commish . Erin says that Kelly looks like J @-@ Lo in her outfit , a reference to the actress and singer Jennifer Lopez . Kevin is shown to drive a Honda CR @-@ V.
" Casual Friday " included several callbacks to previous episodes . The scene in which Michael pretends to fire Pam , and she tells him , " Maybe you shouldn 't fake fire people anymore , " is a reference to the first episode of The Office , in which Michael pretends to fire Pam as a prank and she becomes very upset , which he then does exactly to Erin . Michael compares the difficult choice of choosing between renting the movies The Devil Wears Prada and Sophie 's Choice , both of which star Meryl Streep . The reference to the former film is a callback to the cold open to fourth season episode , " Money " , in which Michael discusses having watched the movie recently and acts rudely toward Pam in the same fashion as Miranda Priestly , the film 's antagonist , who is played by Streep . When Dwight is writing the secret messages , he uses Ryan 's coffee mug , that Kelly gave to him from the " Customer Survey " episode , to hold the urine .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on April 30 , 2009 , " Casual Friday " was watched by 7 @.@ 3 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . It was the lowest original episode rating of the fifth season at the time of its broadcast , although the season finale " Company Picnic " , would later receive a lower rating on May 14 , being watched by 6 @.@ 72 million viewers . " Casual Friday " received a 4 @.@ 2 rating / 12 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34 , and a 3 @.@ 7 rating / 10 share among viewers between 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews . Most reviewers particularly praised the opening scene with Kevin dropping his pot of chili ; Fickett called it " a great silent comedy moment ( and ) a quintessential Office moment " .
Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger praised the episode , saying that it proves the show will still be good following the " Michael Scott Paper Company " arc , which he referred to as one of the best storylines in the show 's history . Sepinwall said he thought all the supporting characters were excellent , and that he particularly liked the new adversarial dynamic between Michael and Dwight . Margaret Lyons of Entertainment Weekly said , " This was the episode I 've been waiting for weeks . " She said she particularly enjoyed many of the subplots involving Kelly 's clothing , Creed 's chess game with Jim and Toby dealing with casual Friday problems . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club gave " Casual Friday " a B + grade , and said the episode had good character moments and a bit of dramatic depth in addition to a few good laughs .
Travis Fickett in IGN said Creed , Kevin , Meredith and Toby were all in top form in " Casual Friday " , and said he enjoyed the changes that resulted in Michael 's departure from and return to the company . However , Fickett questioned what direction the show would go now that so many questions have been resolved . Jay Black of TV Squad said the conflict between Michael and his co @-@ workers was very good , and he enjoys the way Phyllis revealed how hurt she was by Michael 's departure from the company ; however , Black said he did not like that the episode included a " Casual Friday " even though the office had never had one before . Rick Porter of Zap2it said the supporting characters were all in top form and that the episode demonstrated how Michael , in offering a genuine apology , has grown this season . Porter also praised the scenes with Jim and Creed , and described Kate Flannery as " one of the most fearless actresses on TV " for her scene with the short bathing suit . Josh McAuliffe of The Times @-@ Tribune called the episode " yet another winner in what 's shaping up to be a terrific last third of the season " .
" Casual Friday " was voted the sixteenth highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 7 @.@ 95 out of 10 .
= Icelandic Naming Committee =
The Icelandic Naming Committee ( Icelandic : Mannanafnanefnd ; pronounced [ ˈmanːaˌnapnaˌnɛmt ] ) — also known in English as the Personal Names Committee — maintains an official register of approved Icelandic given names and governs the introduction of new given names into the culture of Iceland .
= = Composition and mission = =
The Naming Committee was established in 1991 to determine whether new given names not previously used in Iceland are suitable for integration into the country 's language and culture . The committee comprises three appointees who serve for four years , appointed by the Minister of Justice — one to be nominated by the Icelandic Language Committee , one by the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Iceland , and one by the university 's Faculty of Law .
A name not already on the official list of approved names must be submitted to the naming committee for approval . A new name is considered for its compatibility with Icelandic tradition and for the likelihood that it might cause the bearer embarrassment . Under Article 5 of the Personal Names Act , names must be compatible with Icelandic grammar ( in which all nouns , including proper names , have grammatical gender and change their forms in an orderly fashion according to the language 's case system ) . Names must also contain only letters occurring in the Icelandic alphabet , and with only occasional exceptions , a name 's grammatical gender must match the sex of the person bearing the name .
As of the end of 2012 , the Personal Names Register ( Icelandic : Mannanafnaskrá ) contained 1 @,@ 712 male names and 1 @,@ 853 female names .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Jón Gnarr = = =
Jón Gnarr , former mayor of Reykjavík , protested the committee 's denial of his request to legally drop " Kristinsson " from his name despite his desire to disassociate himself from his father . Jón pointed out that if Robert Mugabe moved to Iceland , as a foreigner he would be allowed to keep that non @-@ conforming name , but that native Icelanders were not allowed to have non @-@ conforming names . He was also unable to legally name his daughter " Camilla " after her grandmother ; it was instead spelled " Kamilla " because C is not part of the Icelandic alphabet . Jón was allowed to legally change his name in 2015 .
= = = Blær Bjarkardóttir Rúnarsdóttir = = =
The committee refused to allow Blær Bjarkardóttir Rúnarsdóttir ( born in 1997 ) to be registered under the name given to her as a baby , on the grounds that the masculine noun Blær ( " gentle breeze " in Icelandic ) could be used only as a man 's name . Blær — identified in official records as Stúlka ( " girl " in Icelandic ) — and her mother , Björk Eiðsdóttir , challenged the committee 's decision in court , arguing that Blær had been used by Nobel Prize – winning Icelandic author Halldór Laxness as the name of a female character in his 1957 novel The Fish Can Sing ( Brekkukotsannáll ) . One other woman in Iceland was already registered at the time with the name Blær , and two declensions ( sets of case forms ) — one masculine and one feminine — exist for the name .
On 31 January 2013 , the Reykjavík district court ruled in the family 's favour and overruled the naming committee , finding that Blær could in fact be both a man 's and a woman 's name and that Blær had a constitutional right to her own name , and rejecting government claims that it was necessary to deny her request in order to protect the Icelandic language . After the court 's decision , Iceland 's interior minister confirmed that the government would accept the ruling and would not appeal the case to the country 's Supreme Court . The chair of the naming committee , as well as a spokesman for the Ministry of the Interior , said the ruling in Blær 's case could prompt the government to revisit the current laws on personal names .
= = = Duncan and Harriet Cardew = = =
The committee refused to accept the names of Duncan and Harriet Cardew — Icelandic @-@ born children of a British father and an Icelandic mother — because their names did not meet the criteria for being added to the registry of approved names . The children had originally used passports with the substitute names Drengur ( boy ) and Stúlka ( girl ) ; however , in 2014 , Icelandic authorities refused to renew Harriet 's passport at all without a legally acceptable name . Since the Cardews were about to travel to France , they obtained emergency British passports for Duncan and Harriet ; the parents also announced they would file a formal complaint objecting to the naming committee 's rejection of their children 's names and the passport office 's refusal to renew their Icelandic passports . The Cardews announced in June 2016 that they had won their case and their children 's names would be recognised . As a result of this case , the Icelandic Interior Ministry announced it had begun the legislative process to abolish the Naming Committee .
= 5 euro note =
The five euro note ( € 5 ) is the lowest value euro banknote and has been used since the introduction of the euro ( in its cash form ) in 2002 . The note is used in the 25 countries which have it as their sole currency ( with 23 legally adopting it ) ; with a population of about 332 million .
Measuring 120 x 62mm , it is the smallest of the euro notes , and has a grey colour scheme . The five euro banknotes depict bridges and arches / doorways in Classical architecture ( up to the fifth century ) .
The five euro note contains several complex security features such as watermarks , invisible ink , holograms and microprinting that document its authenticity . In November 2014 , there were approximately 1 @,@ 653 @,@ 458 @,@ 000 five euro banknotes in circulation around the eurozone .
On 8 November 2012 , the European Central Bank announced the first series of notes will be replaced , starting with the 5 euro note on 2 May 2013 .
= = History = =
The euro was founded on 1 January 1999 , when it became the currency of over 300 million people in Europe . For the first three years of its existence it was an invisible currency , only used in accountancy . Euro cash was not introduced until 1 January 2002 , when it replaced the national banknotes and coins of the countries in eurozone 12 , such as the Irish pound and the Austrian schilling .
Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007 , Cyprus and Malta in 2008 , Slovakia in 2009 , Estonia in 2011 and Latvia on 1 January 2014 .
= = = The changeover period = = =
The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months , going from 1 January 2002 until 28 February 2002 . The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state . The earliest date was in Germany , where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001 , though the exchange period lasted for two months more . Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender , they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from ten years to forever .
= = = Changes = = =
Notes printed before November 2003 bear the signature of the first president of the European Central Bank , Wim Duisenberg , who was replaced on 1 November 2003 by Jean @-@ Claude Trichet , whose signature appears on issues from November 2003 to March 2012 . Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the third president of the European Central Bank , incumbent Mario Draghi .
Until May 2013 there was only one series of euro notes , however a new series , similar to the first one , is planned to be released . The bank notes are going to be replaced in ascending order . Therefore , the first new note is the 5 euro note which is in circulation since 2 May 2013 . Its new design was made public on 10 January 2013 in the Archaeological Museum of Frankfurt ( Germany ) . While broadly similar to the current notes , minor design changes include an updated map and a hologram of Europa . Moreover , the new notes will reflect the expansion of the European Union ; the current issues do not include the recent members Cyprus and Malta ( Cyprus is off the map to the east and Malta was too small to be depicted ) . It will be the first time when the Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet is going to be used on the banknotes as a result of Bulgaria joining the European Union in 2007 . Therefore , the new series of Euro banknotes will include " EBPO " , which is the Bulgarian spelling for EURO as well as the abbreviation " ЕЦБ " ( short for Европейска централна банка in Bulgarian ) . The European Central Bank will , in due time , announce when banknotes from the first series lose legal tender status .
= = Design = =
The five euro note is the smallest at 120 by 62 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in × 2 @.@ 4 in ) with a grey colour scheme . All bank notes depict bridges , arches or doorways in a different historical European style ; the five euro note shows the Classical era ( up to the fifth century ) . Although Robert Kalina 's original designs were intended to show real monuments , for political reasons the bridge and art are merely hypothetical examples of the architectural era .
Like all euro notes , it contains the denomination , the EU flag , the signature of the president of the ECB and the initials of said bank in different EU languages , a depiction of EU territories overseas , the stars from the EU flag and twelve security features as listed below .
= = = Security features ( First Series ) = = =
As a lower value note , the security features of the five euro note are not as high as the other denominations , however , it is protected by :
A hologram , tilt the note and one should see the hologram image change between the value and a window or doorway , but in the background , one should see rainbow @-@ coloured concentric circles of micro @-@ letters moving from the centre to the edges of the patch .
A EURion constellation , special printing processes give the euro notes their unique feel .
A glossy stripe , tilt the note and a glossy stripe showing the value numeral and the euro symbol will appear .
Watermarks , it appears when the banknote is against the light .
Raised printing , special methods of printing makes the ink feel raised or thicker in the main image , the lettering and the value numerals on the front of the banknotes . To feel the raised print , run your finger over it or scratch it gently with your fingernail .
Ultraviolet ink , Under ultraviolet light , the paper itself should not glow , fibres embedded in the paper should appear , and should be coloured red , blue and green , the European Union flag looks green and has orange stars , the ECB President signature turns green , the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map , a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow .
Microprinting , On numerous areas of the banknotes you can see microprinting , for example , inside the " EYPΩ " ( EURO in Greek characters ) on the front . You will need a magnifying glass to see it . The tiny text is sharp , and not blurred .
A security thread , The security thread is embedded in the banknote paper . Hold the banknote against the light - the thread will appear as a dark stripe . The word " EURO " and the value can be seen in tiny letters on the stripe .
Perforations , Hold the banknote against the light . You should see perforations in the hologram which will form the € symbol . You should also see small numbers showing the value .
A matted surface , the note paper is made out of pure cotton , which feels crisp and firm , but not limp or waxy .
Barcodes ,
A serial number .
= = = Security Features ( Europa Series ) = = =
Watermark : When the note is held under a normal light source , a portrait of Europa and an electrotype denomination appear on either side .
Portrait Hologram : When the note is tilted , the silver @-@ coloured holographic stripe reveals the portrait of Europa @-@ the same one as in the watermark . The stripe also reveals a window and the value of the banknote .
Emerald Number : When the note is tilted , the number on the note displays an effect of light that moves up and down . The number also changes color from emerald green to deep blue .
Raised Printing : On the front of the note , there is a series of short raised lines on the left and right edges . The main edge , the lettering and the large value numeral also feel thicker .
Security Thread : When the note is held against the light , the security thread appears as a dark line . The Euro symbol ( € ) and the value of the banknote can be seen in tiny white lettering in the thread .
Microprint : Tiny letters which can be read with a magnifying glass . The letters should be sharp , not blurred .
Ultraviolet ink : Some parts of the banknote shine when under UV or UV @-@ C light . These are the stars in the flag , the small circles , the large stars and several other areas on the front . On the back , a quarter of a circle in the centre as well as several other areas glow green . The horizontal serial number and a stripe appear in red .
Infrared light : Under infrared light , the emerald number , the right side of the main image and the silvery stripe are visible on the obverse of the banknote , while on the reverse , only the denomination and the horizontal serial number are visible .
= = Circulation = =
As of May 2013 , there are approximately 1 @,@ 584 @,@ 036 @,@ 800 € 5 banknotes in circulation around the Eurozone . That is approximately € 7 @,@ 920 @,@ 184 @,@ 200 worth of € 5 banknotes ( as of May 2013 ) . The European Central Bank is closely monitoring the circulation and stock of the euro coins and banknotes . It is a task of the Eurosystem to ensure an efficient and smooth supply of euro notes and to maintain their integrity throughout the euro area .
= = Legal information = =
Legally , both the European Central Bank and the central banks of the eurozone countries have the right to issue the 7 different euro banknotes . In practice , only the national central banks of the zone physically issue and withdraw euro banknotes . The European Central Bank does not have a cash office and is not involved in any cash operations .
= = Tracking = =
There are several communities of people at European level , most of which is EuroBillTracker , that , as a hobby , it keeps track of the euro banknotes that pass through their hands , to keep track and know where they travel or have travelled . The aim is to record as many notes as possible to know details about its spread , like from where and to where they travel in general , follow it up , like where a ticket has been seen in particular , and generate statistics and rankings , for example , in which countries there are more tickets . EuroBillTracker has registered over 155 million notes as of May 2016 , worth more than € 2 @.@ 897 billion .
= Joy Division =
Joy Division were an English rock band formed in 1976 in Salford , Greater Manchester . Originally named Warsaw , the band consisted of singer Ian Curtis , guitarist and keyboardist Bernard Sumner , bassist Peter Hook , and drummer Stephen Morris .
Formed by Sumner and Hook after the two attended a Sex Pistols gig , Joy Division moved beyond their punk roots to develop a sound and style that made them one of the pioneers of the post @-@ punk movement . Their self @-@ released 1978 debut EP , An Ideal for Living , drew the attention of the Manchester television personality Tony Wilson , who signed the group to his independent label , Factory Records . Joy Division 's debut album , Unknown Pleasures , recorded with producer Martin Hannett , was released in 1979 to critical acclaim . As the band 's popularity grew , Curtis , who suffered from personal problems that included severe depression , a failing marriage , and epilepsy , found it increasingly difficult to perform at live concerts , during which he occasionally collapsed into seizures .
In May 1980 , on the eve of the band 's first American tour , Curtis , aged 23 , committed suicide . The group 's second and final album , Closer , was released two months later ; the album and preceding single " Love Will Tear Us Apart " became the band 's highest charting release . After Curtis 's death , the remaining members continued as New Order and achieved critical and commercial success . Although their career spanned less than four years , Joy Division have continued to exert a vast influence on a variety of subsequent artists .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
On 20 July 1976 , childhood friends Sumner and Hook separately attended a Sex Pistols show at the Manchester Lesser Free Trade Hall . The following day Hook borrowed £ 35 from his mother to buy his first bass guitar . Sumner later said that he felt that the Pistols " destroyed the myth of being a pop star , of a musician being some kind of god that you had to worship " . Inspired by the performance , Sumner and Hook formed a band with their friend Terry Mason , who had also attended the show . Sumner bought a guitar , and Mason a drum kit . They invited schoolfriend Martin Gresty to join as vocalist , but he turned them down after getting a job at a local factory . An advertisement was placed in the Virgin Records shop in Manchester for a vocalist . Ian Curtis , who knew them from earlier gigs , responded and was hired without audition . Sumner said that he " knew he was all right to get on with and that 's what we based the whole group on . If we liked someone , they were in " .
Buzzcocks manager Richard Boon and frontman Pete Shelley have both been credited with suggesting the band name " Stiff Kittens " , but settled on " Warsaw " shortly before their first gig , referencing David Bowie 's song " Warszawa " . Warsaw debuted on 29 May 1977 at the Electric Circus , supporting the Buzzcocks , Penetration and John Cooper Clarke . They received immediate national exposure due to reviews of the gig in the NME by Paul Morley and in Sounds by Ian Wood . Tony Tabac played drums that night after joining the band two days earlier . Mason was soon made the band 's manager and Tabac was replaced on drums in June 1977 by Steve Brotherdale , who also played in the punk band Panik . During his tenure with Warsaw , Brotherdale tried to get Curtis to leave the band and join Panik and even got Curtis to audition for the band . In July 1977 , Warsaw recorded a set of five demo tracks at Pennine Sound Studios , Oldham . Uneasy with Brotherdale 's aggressive personality , the band fired him soon after the demo sessions . Driving home from the studio , they pulled over and asked Brotherdale to check on a flat tyre ; when he got out of the car , they sped off .
In August 1977 , the band placed an advertisement in a music shop window seeking a replacement drummer . Stephen Morris , who had attended the same school as Curtis , was the sole respondent . Deborah Curtis , Ian 's wife , stated that Morris " fitted perfectly " with the other men , and that with his addition Warsaw became a " complete ' family ' " . To avoid confusion with the London punk band Warsaw Pakt , the band renamed themselves Joy Division in early 1978 , borrowing their new name from the prostitution wing of a Nazi concentration camp mentioned in the 1955 novel House of Dolls . In December , the group recorded what became their debut EP , An Ideal for Living , at Pennine Sound Studio and played their final gig as Warsaw on New Year 's Eve at The Swinging Apple in Liverpool . Billed as Warsaw to ensure an audience , the band played their first gig as Joy Division on 25 January 1978 at Pip 's Disco in Manchester .
= = = Early releases = = =
Joy Division were approached by RCA Records to record a cover of Nolan " N.F. " Porter 's " Keep on Keepin ' On " and were afforded recording time at a professional Manchester studio in return . Joy Division spent late March and April 1978 writing and rehearsing material . During the Stiff / Chiswick Challenge concert at Manchester 's Rafters Club on 14 April , the group caught the attention of Tony Wilson and Rob Gretton . Curtis berated Wilson for not putting the group on his Granada Television show So It Goes ; Wilson responded that Joy Division would be the next band he would showcase on TV . Gretton , the venue 's resident DJ , was so impressed by the band 's performance that he convinced them to take him on as their manager . Gretton , whose " dogged determination " would later be credited for much of the band 's public success , contributed the business skills that Joy Division lacked to provide them with a better foundation for creativity . Joy Division spent the first week of May 1978 recording at Manchester 's Arrow Studios . The band
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match after Batista was counted out , thus retaining the title , and with the match stipulation , Batista would be unable to challenge for the World Heavyweight Championship so as long as Edge was the champion . After the match , in complete frustration , Batista attacked Edge and performed a Batista Bomb on him outside of the ring onto the ground before leaving him with the title .
The eighth match was between Melina and Candice Michelle for the WWE Women 's Championship . After a back and forth match , Michelle executed a spinning heel kick on Melina to gain the victory and win the Women 's Championship .
The main event , billed as the " WWE Championship Challenge , " saw John Cena defending the WWE Championship against King Booker , Bobby Lashley , Mick Foley and Randy Orton . Throughout the match , all five men gained an advantage over one @-@ another at one or more spots . One spot in the match saw Lashley dive over the top rope onto the other four competitors . Towards the end of the match , Cena executed an FU on Lashley through an announce table . Cena won the match and retained the title after pinning Foley following an FU .
= = Aftermath = =
Chavo Guerrero went on to defend the WWE Cruiserweight Championship in a Cruiserweight Open at The Great American Bash against Jimmy Wang Yang , Jamie Noble , Funaki , and Shannon Moore . Hornswoggle also entered the match at the bell , but immediately escaped the ring and hid under it . With all of the cruiserweights down , with the exception of Noble , Hornswoggle came out from under the ring and delivered a Tadpole Splash to Noble . He pinned him afterwards to win the match and the Cruiserweight Championship . Candice Michelle and Melina continued to feud over the WWE Women 's Championship . The two had a rematch at The Great American Bash for the title . Michelle pinned Melina after delivering a Candy Wrapper to retain the title .
On the July 2 episode of Raw , Umaga defeated Santino Marella in a rematch to capture the WWE Intercontinental Championship . Two weeks later , Jeff Hardy defeated William Regal , Shelton Benjamin , and Santino Marella in a Fatal Four @-@ Way Elimination match to become the number one contender to the Intercontinental Championship . At The Great American Bash , Umaga defeated Hardy to retain the title after the Samoan Spike . That same night , Bobby Lashley won a " Beat the Clock " tournament to become the number @-@ one contender to the WWE Championship . At The Great American Bash , Lashley faced John Cena for the WWE Championship in the main event . Cena retained the title after an FU from the top rope .
On the June 26 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , CM Punk defeated Elijah Burke in a two out of three falls match to become the number one contender to the ECW Championship . At The Great American Bash , Punk faced John Morrison ( formerly known as Johnny Nitro ) for the ECW Championship . Morrison retained the title after hitting Punk with both of his knees .
On the July 6 episode of SmackDown , Kane was named the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship after he appeared as the special guest on Edge 's Cutting Edge segment . Edge held a celebration for himself on the July 13 episode of SmackDown , and was attacked by Kane , who in the process legitimately injured Edge . On the July 20 episode of SmackDown , Edge was forced to vacate the World Heavyweight Championship as a result of his injury . The Great Khali went on to win a 20 @-@ man battle royal to become the new World Heavyweight Champion . At The Great American Bash , Khali defended the title successfully against Kane and Batista in a Triple Threat match .
= = Results = =
= Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One =
Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One , commonly abbreviated to Lola Versus Powerman , or just Lola , is the eighth studio album by British rock band the Kinks , recorded and released in 1970 . A concept album , it is a satirical appraisal of the music industry , including song publishers , unions , the press , accountants , business managers , and life on the road . Musically Lola Versus Powerman is varied , described by Stephen Thomas Erlewine as " a wildly unfocused but nonetheless dazzling tour de force " , containing some of Ray Davies ' strongest songs .
Although it appeared during a transitional period for the Kinks , Lola Versus Powerman was a success both critically and commercially for the group , charting in the Top 40 in America and helping restore them in the public eye , making it a " comeback " album . It contained two hit singles : " Lola " , which reached the top 10 in the US and UK , and " Apeman " , which peaked at number five in the UK .
= = Background and recording = =
The Kinks ban by the American Federation of Musicians on performing in America , which had been in force since 1965 , was lifted in 1969 , so the group 's management arranged a North American tour . However , members of the band fell ill , and the tour was shuffled , resulting in the band playing only a few dates in America and Canada . A follow @-@ up tour in 1970 met with similar results , with the group performing at only a select number of venues , with many dates cancelled . The down time between the tours allowed Ray Davies , lead singer and songwriter of the group , to develop the band 's next single , " Lola " .
The Kinks returned to England to start work on their new LP in spring 1970 . The group used Morgan Studios , an independent studio in Willesden , London , which was a change for them . They would continue recording their albums there until Preservation , when they switched to their newly purchased studio , Konk . Recording began in late April / early May . Some of the first songs recorded were " Lola " , the outtake " The Good Life " , " Powerman " and " Got to Be Free " . The sessions for " Lola " were especially long , and the recording continued into late May . Davies would recall later how he achieved the signature clangy sound at the beginning of the track :
The National Steel would play an integral part in many Kinks projects after that . In the 1972 song " Supersonic Rocket Ship " , Ray Davies would use the guitar to create a Caribbean feel for the record . Davies would play it on numerous Top of The Pops appearances , and it would be featured in several music videos the Kinks made in the future , including " Scattered " in 1992 .
Keyboardist John Gosling was added to the Kinks ' lineup in May . He auditioned on the final backing master track for " Lola " , and was hired soon after . He was initially taken on solely for their upcoming US tour , but his post evolved into a more permanent position soon after . Gosling would remain with the band until 1977 , departing after the release of Sleepwalker . Dubbing for " Lola " was finished in June . Recording for the LP was completed by October , and it was mixed throughout the remainder of the month . Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One was released on 27 November 1970 .
For " Lola " , Ray Davies overdubed the trademarked word " Coca @-@ Cola " with the generic " cherry @-@ cola " for the mono single release , as product placement rules meant the BBC ( being a public service broadcaster ) would not have played it . The lyrics in the gatefold sleeve of the original LP use the " cherry @-@ cola " line , though the album track contains the original stereo " Coca @-@ Cola " version . A similar situation was encountered with the song " Apeman " , concerning the line " the air pollution is a @-@ foggin ' up my eyes " . " Fogging " was mistaken for " fucking " , and consequently Ray Davies had to re @-@ record this line prior to its single release .
= = Release = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Lola Versus Powerman was well @-@ received throughout the British music press . A review in New Musical Express called " [ Ray ] Davies ... one of the finest writers in contemporary rock , " and praised the record 's British styles and originality . Melody Maker 's interpretation of Lola Versus Powerman was Davies " taking a cheeky nibble " at the pop music business ; they continued that " The music 's pure Kinks simplicity — but it works . "
The album received generally positive reviews in the US . Rolling Stone magazine commented that it was " the best Kinks album yet " . Writing in his " Consumer Guide " column of The Village Voice , Robert Christgau commented that " Lola " had been an " astounding single , " but gave Lola Versus Powerman a mixed review , saying that " the melodies are still there , but in this context they sound corny rather than plaintive . " The single " Lola " received positive reviews , and , due to its success , an interview with Ray Davies by Jonathan Cott was featured as a cover story for Rolling Stone in November 1970 .
= = = = Current opinion = = = =
Modern critical opinion towards Lola Versus Powerman is generally positive but often mixed . Initially given a positive review by the magazine in 1971 , Rolling Stone rated it 31 / 2 out of 5 stars in its 1992 printing — however , the fourth edition ( published in 2004 ) ranked it at only 2 stars . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic gave the album a positive review , writing that " Davies never really delivers a cohesive story , but the record holds together because it 's one of his strongest sets of songs . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One went virtually unnoticed by the record @-@ buying public in the UK and failed to chart , despite the success of its lead single , " Lola " , which topped the New Musical Express charts in the UK , and reached # 2 on Melody Maker . " Lola " became the Kinks ' biggest success since " Sunny Afternoon " in 1966 ; the group would never again have another single reach this position in the UK . " Lola " was also successful in the US market , charting at # 9 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart , staying on the charts for 14 weeks . It also peaked at # 7 on the Record World charts . Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One reached # 35 on Billboard , and on the Record World charts it peaked at # 22 , making it their most successful album since the mid @-@ 60s .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
The success of the singles and album allowed the Kinks to negotiate a new contract with RCA Records , construct their own London Studio , which they named Konk , and assume more creative and managerial control . The record also proved influential : Tom Petty told Rolling Stone that he " especially liked " it , and cited the album as an influence on The Last DJ , another album critical of the music industry .
Tracks from Lola Versus Powerman have been featured in multiple films across several languages . One of the most notable uses of songs from the album was when " This Time Tomorrow " , " Strangers " , and " Powerman " were featured in the 2007 Wes Anderson film The Darjeeling Limited ; these tracks were later included on the accompanying soundtrack album . In France , " This Time Tomorrow " appeared in the 2005 Philippe Garrel film Les amants réguliers . " Apeman " has been featured in multiple films , including Mondovino ( 2004 ) and Harold Ramis ' Club Paradise ( 1986 ) .
= = Themes = =
The album is a satirical look at the various facets of the music industry , including song publishers ( " Denmark Street " ) , unions ( " Get Back in Line " ) , the press and the hit @-@ making machine ( " Top of the Pops " ) , accountants and business managers ( " The Moneygoround " ) and the road ( " This Time Tomorrow " ) . Musically , Lola Versus Powerman is varied , contrasting gentle ballads like " Get Back in Line " and " A Long Way From Home " against hard rock songs like " Rats " and " Powerman " , with " Denmark Street " and " The Moneygoround " paying homage to the English music hall tradition .
= = Part Two = =
Before the release of Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One the band discussed the possibility of it being released as a double album . According to Doug Hinman 's book , The Kinks : All Day and All of the Night , a sequel album was planned for release sometime in 1971 , but was ultimately scrapped and the band opted to record Muswell Hillbillies instead . Due to the fact that an official title to the follow @-@ up album was never revealed , Hinman refers to the album as " Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part Two " and suggests that preliminary sessions may have occurred in late 1970 / early 1971 . It is unclear what songs would have appeared on this album , and it is unknown if any songs were even recorded , with the possible exception of some unreleased backing tracks . Almost certainly no songs were completed or mastered .
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
All positions sourced to except where noted .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Ray Davies except where noted .
The 2014 Deluxe edition included the Kinks ' following album Percy as a second disc , also with bonus tracks . The 2 @-@ disc set is titled Lola versus Powerman and The Moneygoround and Percy .
= = Personnel = =
Ray Davies – lead vocals , guitar , harmonica , keyboards , resonator guitar
Dave Davies – lead guitar , banjo , backing vocals , lead vocals on " Strangers " and " Rats " , co @-@ lead vocal on " Powerman "
Mick Avory – drums , percussion
John Dalton – bass guitar , backing vocals
John Gosling – keyboards , piano , organ
= Georgia Institute of Technology =
The Georgia Institute of Technology ( commonly referred to as Georgia Tech , Tech , or GT ) is a public research university in Atlanta , Georgia , in the United States . It is a part of the University System of Georgia and has satellite campuses in Savannah , Georgia ; Metz , France ; Athlone , Ireland ; Shanghai , China ; and Singapore .
The educational institution was founded in 1885 as the Georgia School of Technology as part of Reconstruction plans to build an industrial economy in the post @-@ Civil War Southern United States . Initially , it offered only a degree in mechanical engineering . By 1901 , its curriculum had expanded to include electrical , civil , and chemical engineering . In 1948 , the school changed its name to reflect its evolution from a trade school to a larger and more capable technical institute and research university .
Today , Georgia Tech is organized into six colleges and contains about 31 departments / units , with emphasis on science and technology . It is well recognized for its degree programs in engineering , computing , business administration , the sciences , design , and liberal arts . Georgia Tech is ranked 7th among all public national universities in the United States and 36th among all colleges and universities U.S. News & World Report rankings , and Georgia Tech is also highly regarded internationally for its engineering and business programs .
Georgia Tech 's main campus occupies part of Midtown Atlanta , bordered by 10th Street to the north and by North Avenue to the south , placing it well in sight of the Atlanta skyline . The campus was the site of the athletes ' village and a venue for a number of athletic events for the 1996 Summer Olympics . The construction of the Olympic village , along with subsequent gentrification of the surrounding areas , enhanced the campus .
Student athletics , both organized and intramural , are a part of student and alumni life . The school 's intercollegiate competitive sports teams , the four @-@ time football national champion Yellow Jackets , and the nationally recognized fight song " Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech " , have helped keep Georgia Tech in the national spotlight . Georgia Tech fields eight men 's and seven women 's teams that compete in the NCAA Division I athletics and the Football Bowl Subdivision . Georgia Tech is a member of the Coastal Division in the Atlantic Coast Conference .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
The idea of a technology school in Georgia was introduced in 1865 during the Reconstruction period . Two former Confederate officers , Major John Fletcher Hanson ( an industrialist ) and Nathaniel Edwin Harris ( a politician and eventually Governor of Georgia ) , who had become prominent citizens in the town of Macon , Georgia after the Civil War , strongly believed that the South needed to improve its technology to compete with the industrial revolution that was occurring throughout the North . However , because the American South of that era was mainly populated by agricultural workers and few technical developments were occurring , a technology school was needed .
In 1882 , the Georgia State Legislature authorized a committee , led by Harris , to visit the Northeast to see firsthand how technology schools worked . They were impressed by the polytechnic educational models developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Worcester County Free Institute of Industrial Science ( now Worcester Polytechnic Institute ) . The committee recommended adapting the Worcester model , which stressed a combination of " theory and practice " , the " practice " component including student employment and production of consumer items to generate revenue for the school .
On October 13 , 1885 , Georgia Governor Henry D. McDaniel signed the bill to create and fund the new school . In 1887 , Atlanta pioneer Richard Peters donated to the state 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) of the site of a failed garden suburb called Peters Park . The site was bounded on the south by North Avenue , and on the west by Cherry Street . He then sold five adjoining acres of land to the state for US $ 10 @,@ 000 , ( equivalent to $ 260 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . This land was located near the northern city limits of Atlanta at the time of its founding , although the city has now expanded several miles beyond it . A historical marker on the large hill in Central Campus notes that the site occupied by the school 's first buildings once held fortifications built to protect Atlanta during the Atlanta Campaign of the American Civil War . The surrender of the city took place on the southwestern boundary of the modern Georgia Tech campus in 1864 .
= = = Early years = = =
The Georgia School of Technology opened its doors in the fall of 1888 with two buildings . One building ( now Tech Tower , an administrative headquarters ) had classrooms to teach students ; The second building featured a shop and had a foundry , forge , boiler room , and engine room . It was designed specifically for students to work and produce goods to sell and fund the school . The two buildings were equal in size to show the importance of teaching both the mind and the hands , though , at the time , there was some disagreement to whether the machine shop should have been used to turn a profit .
On October 20 , 1905 , U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt visited the Georgia Tech campus . On the steps of Tech Tower , Roosevelt delivered a speech about the importance of technological education . He then shook hands with every student .
Georgia Tech 's Evening School of Commerce began holding classes in 1912 . The evening school admitted its first female student in 1917 , although the state legislature did not officially authorize attendance by women until 1920 . Annie T. Wise became the first female graduate in 1919 and went on to become Georgia Tech 's first female faculty member the following year . Rena Faye Smith , appointed as a research assistant in the School of Physics in 1969 by Dr. Ray Young , in X @-@ Ray Diffraction , became the first female faculty member ( research ) in the School of Physics . She went on to earn a Ph.D. at Georgia State University and taught physics and instructional technology at Black Hills State University - 1997 @-@ 2005 as Rena Faye Norby . She served as a Fulbright Scholar in Russia 2004 @-@ 2005 . In 1931 , the Board of Regents transferred control of the Evening School of Commerce to the University of Georgia ( UGA ) and moved the civil and electrical engineering courses at UGA to Tech . Tech replaced the commerce school with what later became the College of Business . The commerce school would later split from UGA and eventually become Georgia State University . In 1934 , the Engineering Experiment Station ( later known as the Georgia Tech Research Institute ) was founded by W. Harry Vaughan with an initial budget of $ 5 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 88 @,@ 445 in 2015 ) and 13 part @-@ time faculty .
= = = Modern history = = =
Founded as the Georgia School of Technology , Georgia Tech assumed its present name in 1948 to reflect a growing focus on advanced technological and scientific research . Unlike most similarly named universities ( such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the California Institute of Technology ) , the Georgia Institute of Technology is a public institution .
Tech first admitted female students to regular classes in 1952 , although women could not enroll in all programs at Tech until 1968 . Industrial Management was the last program to open to women . The first women 's dorm , Fulmer Hall , opened in 1969 . Women constituted 30 @.@ 3 % of the undergraduates and 25 @.@ 3 % of the graduate students enrolled in Spring 2009 .
In 1959 , a meeting of 2 @,@ 741 students voted by an overwhelming majority to endorse integration of qualified applicants , regardless of race . Three years after the meeting , and one year after the University of Georgia 's violent integration , Georgia Tech became the first university in the Deep South to desegregate without a court order . There was little reaction to this by Tech students ; like the city of Atlanta described by former Mayor William Hartsfield , they seemed " too busy to hate " .
In 1965 the university bought the former Pickrick Restaurant , a site of confrontation in the Civil Rights movement , which it first used as a placement center . Later , it was known as the Ajax Building . The building was razed in 2009 .
Similarly , there was little student reaction at Georgia Tech to the Vietnam War and United States involvement in the Cambodian Civil War . The student council defeated a resolution supporting the Vietnam Moratorium , and the extent of the Tech community 's response to the Kent State shooting was limited to a student @-@ organized memorial service , though the Institute was ordered closed for two days , along with all other University System of Georgia schools .
In 1988 , President John Patrick Crecine pushed through a restructuring of the university . The Institute at that point had three colleges : the College of Engineering , the College of Management , and the catch @-@ all COSALS , the College of Sciences and Liberal Arts . Crecine reorganized the latter two into the College of Computing , the College of Sciences , and the Ivan Allen College of Management , Policy , and International Affairs . Crecine never asked for input regarding the changes and , consequently , many faculty members disliked his top @-@ down management style ; despite this , the changes passed by a slim margin . Crecine was also instrumental in securing the 1996 Summer Olympics for Atlanta . A large amount of construction occurred , creating most of what is now considered " West Campus " for Tech to serve as the Olympic Village , and significantly gentrifying Midtown Atlanta . The Undergraduate Living Center , Fourth Street Apartments , Sixth Street Apartments , Eighth Street Apartments , Hemphill Apartments , and Center Street Apartments housed athletes and journalists . The Georgia Tech Aquatic Center was built for swimming events , and the Alexander Memorial Coliseum was renovated . The Institute also erected the Kessler Campanile and fountain to serve as a landmark and symbol of the Institute on television broadcasts .
In 1994 , G. Wayne Clough became the first Tech alumnus to serve as the president of the Institute ; he was in office during the 1996 Summer Olympics . In 1998 , he separated the Ivan Allen College of Management , Policy , and International Affairs into the Ivan Allen College of Liberal Arts and returned the College of Management to " College " status ( Crecine , the previous president , had demoted Management from " College " to " School " status as part of a controversial 1990 reorganization plan ) . His tenure focused on a dramatic expansion of the Institute , a revamped Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program , and the creation of an International Plan . On March 15 , 2008 , he was appointed secretary of the Smithsonian Institution , effective July 1 , 2008 . Dr. Gary Schuster , Tech 's provost and executive vice president for Academic Affairs , was named interim president , effective July 1 , 2008 .
On April 1 , 2009 , G. P. " Bud " Peterson , previously the chancellor of the University of Colorado at Boulder , became the 11th president of Georgia Tech . On April 20 , 2010 , Georgia Tech was invited to join the Association of American Universities , the first new member institution in nine years . In 2014 , Georgia Tech launched the first " massive online open degree " in computer science by partnering with Udacity and AT & T ; a complete degree through that program costs students $ 7 @,@ 000 .
= = Campuses = =
The Georgia Tech campus is located in Midtown , an area north of downtown Atlanta . Although a number of skyscrapers — most visibly the headquarters of AT & T , The Coca @-@ Cola Company , and Bank of America — are visible from all points on campus , the campus itself has few buildings over four stories and has a great deal of greenery . This gives it a distinctly suburban atmosphere quite different from other Atlanta campuses such as that of Georgia State University .
The campus is organized into four main parts : West Campus , East Campus , Central Campus , and Technology Square . West Campus and East Campus are both occupied primarily by student living complexes , while Central Campus is reserved primarily for teaching and research buildings .
= = = West Campus = = =
West Campus is occupied primarily by apartments and coed undergraduate dormitories . Apartments include Crecine , Center Street , 6th Street , Maulding , Undergraduate Living Center ( ULC ) , and Eighth Street Apartments , while dorms include Freeman , Montag , Fitten , Folk , Caldwell , Armstrong , Hefner , Fulmer , and Woodruff Suites . The Campus Recreation Center ( formerly the Student Athletic Complex ) ; a volleyball court ; a large , low natural green area known as the Burger Bowl ; and a flat artificial green area known as the CRC ( formerly SAC ) Fields are all located on the western side of the campus .
West Campus was formerly home to Under the Couch , which relocated to the Student Center in the fall of 2010 . Also within walking distance of West Campus are several late @-@ night eateries and Engineer 's Bookstore , an economical alternative to Georgia Tech 's official bookstore . West campus is home to a convenience store , West Side Market . Due to limited space , all auto travel proceeds via a network of one @-@ way streets which connects West Campus to Ferst Drive , the main road of the campus . Woodruff Dining Hall , or " Woody 's " , is the West Campus Dining Hall . It connects the Woodruff North and Woodruff South undergraduate dorms .
= = = East Campus = = =
East Campus houses all of the fraternities and sororities as well as most of the undergraduate freshman dormitories . East Campus abuts the Downtown Connector , granting residences quick access to Midtown and its businesses ( for example , The Varsity ) via a number of bridges over the highway . Georgia Tech football 's home , Bobby Dodd Stadium is located on East Campus , as well as Georgia Tech basketball 's home , McCamish Pavilion ( formerly Alexander Memorial Coliseum ) .
Brittain Dining Hall is the main dining hall for East Campus . It is modeled after a medieval church , complete with carved columns and stained glass windows showing symbolic figures . The main road leading from East Campus to Central Campus is a steep ascending incline commonly known as " Freshman Hill " ( in reference to the large number of freshman dorms near its foot ) . On March 8 , 2007 , the former Georgia State University Village apartments were transferred to Georgia Tech . Renamed North Avenue Apartments by the institute , they began housing students in the fall semester of 2007 .
= = = Central Campus = = =
Central Campus is home to the majority of the academic , research , and administrative buildings . The Central Campus includes , among others : the Howey Physics Building ; the Boggs Chemistry Building ; the College of Computing Building ; the Klaus Advanced Computing Building ; the College of Design Building ; the Skiles Classroom Building , which houses the School of Mathematics and the School of Literature , Media and Culture ; the D. M. Smith Building , which houses the School of Public Policy ; and the Ford Environmental Science & Technology Building . In 2005 , the School of Modern Languages returned to the Swann Building , a 100 @-@ year @-@ old former dormitory that now houses some of the most technology @-@ equipped classrooms on campus . Intermingled with these are a variety of research facilities , such as the Centennial Research Building , the Microelectronics Research Center , the Neely Nuclear Research Center , the Nanotechnology Research Center , and the Petit Biotechnology Building .
Tech 's administrative buildings , such as Tech Tower , and the Bursar 's Office , are also located on the Central Campus , in the recently renovated Georgia Tech Historic District . The campus library , the Fred B. Wenn Student Center , and the Student Services Building ( " Flag Building " ) are also located on Central Campus . The Student Center provides a variety of recreational and social functions for students including : a computer lab , a game room ( " Tech Rec " ) , the Student Post Office , a music venue , a movie theater , the Food Court , plus meeting rooms for various clubs and organizations . Adjacent to the eastern entrance of the Student Center is the Kessler Campanile ( which is referred to by students as " The Shaft " ) . The former Hightower Textile Engineering building was demolished in 2002 to create Yellow Jacket Park . More greenspace now occupies the area around the Kessler Campanile for a more aesthetically pleasing look , in accordance with the official Campus Master Plan . In August 2011 , the G. Wayne Clough Undergraduate Learning Commons opened next to the library and occupies part of the Yellow Jacket Park area .
= = = Technology Square = = =
Technology Square , also known as " Tech Square " , is located across the Downtown Connector and embedded in the city east of East Campus . Opened in August 2003 at a cost of $ 179 million , the district was built over run @-@ down neighborhoods and has sparked a revitalization of the entire Midtown area . Connected by the recently renovated Fifth Street Bridge , it is a pedestrian @-@ friendly area comprising Georgia Tech facilities and retail locations . One complex contains the College of Business Building , holding classrooms and office space for the Scheller College of Business , as well as the Georgia Tech Hotel and Conference Center and the Georgia Tech Global Learning Center . The Scheller College of Business is also home to three large glass chandeliers made by Dale Chihuly . This is one of the few locations of Chihuly 's works found in the state of Georgia .
Another part of Tech Square , the privately owned Centergy One complex , contains the Technology Square Research Building ( TSRB ) , holding faculty and graduate student offices for the College of Computing and the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering , as well as the GVU Center , a multidisciplinary technology research center . The Advanced Technology Development Center ( ATDC ) is a science and business incubator , run by the Georgia Institute of Technology , and is also headquartered in Technology Square 's Centergy One complex .
Other Georgia Tech @-@ affiliated buildings in the area host the Center for Quality Growth and Regional Development , the Georgia Tech Enterprise Innovation Institute , the Advanced Technology Development Center , VentureLab , and the Georgia Electronics Design Center . Technology Square also hosts a variety of restaurants and businesses , including the headquarters of notable consulting companies like Accenture and also including the official Institute bookstore , a Barnes & Noble bookstore , and a Georgia Tech @-@ themed Waffle House .
= = = Satellite campuses = = =
In 1999 , Georgia Tech began offering local degree programs to engineering students in Southeast Georgia , and in 2003 established a physical campus in Savannah , Georgia . Until 2013 , Georgia Tech Savannah offered undergraduate and graduate programs in engineering in conjunction with Georgia Southern University , South Georgia College , Armstrong Atlantic State University , and Savannah State University . The university further collaborated with the National University of Singapore to set up The Logistics Institute – Asia Pacific in Singapore . The campus now serves the institute 's hub for professional and continuing education and is home to the regional offices of the Georgia Tech Enterprise Innovation Institute , the Savannah Advanced Technology Development Center , and the Georgia Logistics Innovation Center .
Georgia Tech also operates a campus in Metz , in northeastern France , known as Georgia Tech Lorraine . It was opened in October 1990 , it offers master 's @-@ level courses in Electrical and Computer Engineering , Computer Science and Mechanical Engineering and Ph.D. coursework in Electrical and Computer Engineering and Mechanical Engineering . Georgia Tech Lorraine was the defendant in a lawsuit pertaining to the language used in advertisements , which was a violation of the Toubon Law .
The College of Design ( formerly College of Architecture ) maintains a small permanent presence in Paris in affiliation with the École d 'architecture de Paris @-@ La Villette and the College of Computing has a similar program with the Barcelona School of Informatics at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia in Barcelona , Spain . There are additional programs in Athlone , Ireland , Shanghai , China , and Singapore . Georgia Tech will set up two campuses for research and graduate education in the cities of Visakhapatnam and Hyderabad , Telangana , India by the year 2010 .
= = = Campus services = = =
Georgia Tech Cable Network , or GTCN , is the college 's branded cable source . Most non @-@ original programming is obtained from Dish Network . GTCN currently has 100 standard @-@ definition channels and 23 high @-@ definition channels .
The Office of Information Technology , or OIT , manages most of the Institute 's computing resources ( and some related services such as campus telephones ) . With the exception of a few computer labs maintained by individual colleges , OIT is responsible for most of the computing facilities on campus . Student , faculty , and staff e @-@ mail accounts are among its services . Georgia Tech 's ResNet provides free technical support to all students and guests living in Georgia Tech 's on @-@ campus housing ( excluding fraternities and sororities ) . ResNet is responsible for network , telephone , and television service , and most support is provided by part @-@ time student employees .
= = Organization and administration = =
Georgia Tech 's undergraduate and graduate programs are divided into six colleges . Collaboration among the colleges is frequent , as mandated by a number of interdisciplinary degree programs and research centers . Georgia Tech has sought to strengthen its undergraduate and graduate offerings in less technical fields , primarily those under the Ivan Allen College of Liberal Arts . That particular College has seen a 20 % increase in admissions . Also , even in the Ivan Allen College , the Institute does not offer a Bachelor of Arts degree , only a Bachelor of Science .
= = Academics = =
= = = Demographics = = =
The student body consists of more than 25 @,@ 000 graduate and undergraduate students ( Fall 2015 ) and around 1 @,@ 140 full @-@ time academic faculty ( Fall 2015 ) . The student body at Georgia Tech is 65 % male and 35 % female ( Fall 2015 ) . Female enrollment has historically been low ; however , this is slowly changing due to the university 's growing liberal arts programs and outreach programs to encourage more female high school students to consider careers in science and engineering as well as changes in the admissions process . These include the " Women In Engineering " program and sponsorship of a chapter of The Society of Women Engineers . For the fall of 2014 , over 40 % of incoming freshmen were female students .
Around 50 – 55 % of all Georgia Tech students are residents of the state of Georgia , around 20 % come from overseas , and 25 – 30 % are residents of other U.S. states or territories . The top states of origin for all non @-@ Georgia US students are Florida , Texas , California , North Carolina , Virginia , New Jersey , and Maryland . Students at Tech represent 114 countries and all 50 states .
= = = Funding = = =
The Georgia Institute of Technology is a public institution that receives funds from the State of Georgia , tuition , fees , research grants , and alumni contributions . In 2014 , the Institute 's revenue amounted to about $ 1 @.@ 422 billion . Fifteen percent came from state appropriations and grants while 20 % originated from tuition and fees . Grants and contracts accounted for 55 % of all revenue . Expenditures were about $ 1 @.@ 36 billion . Forty @-@ eight percent went to research and 19 % went to instruction . The Georgia Tech Foundation runs the university 's endowment and was incorporated in 1932 . It includes several wholly owned subsidiaries that own land on campus or in Midtown and lease the land back to the Georgia Board of Regents and other companies and organizations . Assets totaled $ 1 @.@ 882 billion and liabilities totaled $ 0 @.@ 478 billion in 2014 . Georgia Tech has the most generous alumni donor base , percentage wise , of any public university ranked in the top 50 .
= = = Rankings = = =
Georgia Tech is consistently ranked among the best universities in the United States and the world . For over a decade , Georgia Tech has remained in the top ten public universities in the United States , and is currently listed as the smartest public college in the United States . In 2012 , The Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked Georgia Tech 19th in the United States and 25th in the world ; its engineering program was ranked 9th in the world . As of 2015 , Tech 's undergraduate engineering program is ranked 4th and its graduate engineering program is ranked 6th by U.S. News & World Report . Tech 's undergraduate engineering programs include Aerospace ( 2nd ) , Biomedical ( 2nd ) , Chemical ( 6th ) , Civil ( 3rd ) , Computer ( 6th ) , Electrical ( 5th ) , Environmental ( 3rd ) , Industrial ( 1st ) , Materials ( 4th ) , and Mechanical ( 3rd ) . Tech 's graduate engineering programs include Aerospace ( 5th ) , Biomedical / Bioengineering ( 2nd ) , Chemical ( 9th ) , Civil ( 5th ) , Computer ( 7th ) , Electrical ( 6th ) , Environmental ( 4th ) , Industrial ( 1st ) , Materials ( 9th ) , Mechanical ( 5th ) , and Nuclear ( 8th ) .
In 2010 , Georgia Tech 's College of Business rose from 31st to 28th , continuing its rapid upward trend . Diverse Issues in Higher Education has ranked Tech No. 1 at the bachelor 's level , No. 2 at the master 's level , and No. 1 at the doctoral level in terms of producing African American engineering graduates . In 2010 , U.S. News & World Report ranked Tech as the No. 28 MBA program . Tech also boasts the No. 29 Physics program in the nation , specializing in Nonlinear Dynamics ( in which it ranks 5th nationwide ) and Condensed Matter Physics . U.S. News & World Report ranked the graduate chemistry program at No. 26 overall with the Physical Chemistry specialty ranked at No. 14 . The Math department is ranked at No. 30 overall and at No. 8 in Discrete Math and Combinatorics . Georgia Tech ranks # 9 among " Best Engineering Colleges By Salary Potential " in the United States . In 2015 , Georgia Tech was ranked 2nd among public universities and 8th among all universities in the United States for students ' return on investment .
= = Research = =
Georgia Tech is classified by The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as a university with very high research activity . Much of this research is funded by large corporations or governmental organizations . Research is organizationally under the Executive Vice President for Research , Stephen E. Cross , who reports directly to the institute president . Nine " interdisciplinary research institutes " report to him , with all research centers , laboratories and interdisciplinary research activities at Georgia Tech reporting through one of those institutes .
The oldest of those research institutes is a nonprofit research organization referred to as the Georgia Tech Research Institute ( GTRI ) . GTRI provides sponsored research in a variety of technical specialties including radar , electro @-@ optics , and materials engineering . Around forty percent ( by award value ) of Georgia Tech 's research , especially government @-@ funded classified work , is conducted through this counterpart organization . GTRI employs over 1 @,@ 700 people and had $ 305 million in revenue in fiscal year 2014 . The other institutes include : the Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering & Bioscience , the Georgia Tech Institute for Electronics and Nanotechnology , the Georgia Tech Strategic Energy Institute , the Brook Byers Institute for Sustainable Systems , the Georgia Tech Manufacturing Institute , the Institute of Paper Science and Technology , Institute for Materials and the Institute for People and Technology .
Many startup companies are produced through research conducted at Georgia Tech , with the Advanced Technology Development Center and VentureLab ready to assist Georgia Tech 's researchers and entrepreneurs in organization and commercialization . The Georgia Tech Research Corporation serves as Georgia Tech 's contract and technology licensing agency . Georgia Tech is ranked fourth for startup companies , eighth in patents , and eleventh in technology transfer by the Milken Institute . Georgia Tech and GTRI devote 1 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 square feet ( 180 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space to research purposes , including the new $ 90 million Marcus Nanotechnology Building , one of the largest nanotechnology research facilities in the Southeastern United States with over 30 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m2 ) of clean room space .
Georgia Tech encourages undergraduates to participate in research alongside graduate students and faculty . The Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program awards scholarships each semester to undergraduates who pursue research activities . These scholarships , called the President 's Undergraduate Research Awards , take the form of student salaries or help cover travel expenses when students present their work at professional meetings . Additionally , undergraduates may participate in research and write a thesis to earn a " Research Option " credit on their transcripts . An undergraduate research journal , The Tower , was established in 2007 to provide undergraduates with a venue for disseminating their research and a chance to become familiar with the academic publishing process .
Recent developments include a proposed graphene antenna .
Georgia Tech and Emory University have a strong research partnership and jointly administer the Emory @-@ Georgia Tech Predictive Health Institute . They also , along with Peking University , administer the Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering . In 2015 , Georgia Tech and Emory were awarded an $ 8 @.@ 3 million grant by the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) to establish a National Exposure Assessment Laboratory . In July 2015 , Georgia Tech , Emory , and Children 's Healthcare of Atlanta were awarded a four @-@ year , 1 @.@ 8 million dollar grant by the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation in order to expand the Atlanta Cystic Fibrosis Research and Development Program . In 2015 , the two universities received a five @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 9 million grant from the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) to create new bachelor 's , master 's , and doctoral degree programs and concentrations in healthcare robotics , which will be the first program of its kind in the Southeastern United States .
The Georgia Tech Panama Logistics Innovation & Research Center is an initiative between the H. Milton Stewart School of Industrial and Systems Engineering , the Ecuador National Secretariat of Science and Technology , and the government of Panama that aims to enhance Panama 's logistics capabilities and performance through a number of research and education initiatives . The center is creating models of country level logistics capabilities that will support the decision @-@ making process for future investments and trade opportunities in the growing region and has established dual degree programs in the University of Panama and other Panamanian universities with Georgia Tech . A similar center in Singapore , The Centre for Next Generation Logistics , was established in 2015 and is a collaboration between Georgia Tech and the National University of Singapore . The Center will work closely with government agencies and the industry to perform research in logistics and supply chain systems for translation into innovations and commercialization to achieve transformative economic and societal impact .
= = = Industry connections = = =
Georgia Tech maintains close ties to the industrial world . Many of these connections are made through Georgia Tech 's cooperative education and internship programs . Georgia Tech 's Division of Professional Practice ( DoPP ) , established in 1912 as the Georgia Institute of Technology Cooperative Division , operates the largest and fourth @-@ oldest cooperative education program in the United States , and is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Cooperative Education . The DoPP is charged with providing opportunities for students to gain real @-@ world employment experience through four programs , each targeting a different body of students . The Undergraduate Cooperative Education Program is a five @-@ year program in which undergraduate students alternate between semesters of formal instruction at Georgia Tech and semesters of full @-@ time employment with their employers .
The Graduate Cooperative Education Program , established in 1983 , is the largest such program in the United States . It allows graduate students pursuing master 's degrees or doctorates in any field to spend a maximum of two consecutive semesters working full- or part @-@ time with employers . The Undergraduate Professional Internship Program enables undergraduate students — typically juniors or seniors — to complete a one- or two @-@ semester internship with employers . The Work Abroad Program hosts a variety of cooperative education and internship experiences for upperclassmen and graduate students seeking international employment and cross @-@ cultural experiences . While all four programs are voluntary , they consistently attract high numbers of students — more than 3 @,@ 000 at last count . Around 1 @,@ 000 businesses and organizations hire these students , who collectively earn $ 20 million per year .
Georgia Tech 's cooperative education and internship programs have been externally recognized for their strengths . The Undergraduate Cooperative Education was recognized by U.S. News & World Report as one of the top 10 " Programs that Really Work " for five consecutive years . U.S. News & World Report additionally ranked Georgia Tech 's internship and cooperative education programs among 14 " Academic Programs to Look For " in 2006 and 2007 . On June 4 , 2007 , the University of Cincinnati inducted Georgia Tech into its Cooperative Education Hall of Honor .
= = Student life = =
Georgia Tech students benefit from many Institute @-@ sponsored or -related events on campus , as well as a wide selection of cultural options in the surrounding district of Midtown Atlanta , " Atlanta 's Heart of the Arts " . Just off campus , students can choose from several restaurants , including a half @-@ dozen in Technology Square alone . Home Park , a neighborhood that borders the north end of campus , is a popular living area for Tech students and recent graduates .
= = = Traditions = = =
Georgia Tech has a number of legends and traditions , some of which have persisted for decades . Some are well @-@ known ; for example , the most notable of these is the popular but rare tradition of stealing the ' T ' from Tech Tower . Tech Tower , Tech 's historic primary administrative building , has the letters " TECH " hanging atop it on each of its four sides . There have been several attempts by students to orchestrate complex plans to steal the huge symbolic letter T , and on occasion they have carried this act out successfully . One of the cherished holdovers from Tech 's early years , a steam whistle blows five minutes before the hour , every hour from 7 : 55 a.m. to 5 : 55 p.m. The faculty newspaper is named The Whistle .
Georgia Tech students hold a heated , long and ongoing rivalry with the University of Georgia , known as Clean , Old @-@ Fashioned Hate . The first known hostilities between the two institutions trace back to 1891 . The University of Georgia 's literary magazine proclaimed UGA 's colors to be " old gold , black , and crimson " . Dr. Charles H. Herty , then President of the University of Georgia , felt that old gold was too similar to yellow and that it " symbolized cowardice " . After the 1893 football game against Tech , Herty removed old gold as an official color . Tech would first use old gold for their uniforms , as a proverbial slap in the face to UGA , in their first unofficial football game against Auburn in 1891 . Georgia Tech 's school colors would henceforth be old gold and white .
= = = Housing = = =
Georgia Tech Housing is subject to a clear geographic division of campus into eastern and western areas that contain the vast majority of housing . East Campus is largely populated by freshmen and is served by Brittain Dining Hall . West Campus houses some freshmen , transfer , and returning students ( upperclassmen ) , and is served by Woodruff Dining Hall . Graduate students typically live off @-@ campus ( for example , in Home Park ) or on @-@ campus in the Graduate Living Center or 10th and Home .
The Institute 's administration has implemented programs in an effort to reduce the levels of stress and anxiety felt by Tech students . The Familiarization and Adaptation to the Surroundings and Environs of Tech ( FASET ) Orientation and Freshman Experience ( a freshman @-@ only dorm life program to " encourage friendships and a feeling of social involvement " ) programs , which seek to help acclimate new students to their surroundings and foster a greater sense of community . As a result , the Institute 's retention rates improved .
In recent years as of 2011 , Georgia Tech Housing has been at or over capacity . In Fall 2006 , many dorms housed " triples " , which was a project that put three residents into a two @-@ person room . Certain pieces of furniture were not provided to the third resident as to accommodate a third bed . When spaces became available in other parts of campus , the third resident was moved elsewhere . In 2013 , Georgia Tech provided housing for 9 @,@ 553 students , and housing was 98 % occupied .
In the fall of 2007 , the North Avenue Apartments were opened to Tech students . Originally built for the 1996 Olympics and belonging to Georgia State University , the buildings were given to Georgia Tech and have been used to accommodate Tech 's expanding population . Georgia Tech freshmen students were the first to inhabit the dormitories in the Winter and Spring 1996 quarters , while much of East Campus was under renovation for the Olympics . The North Avenue Apartments ( commonly known as " North Ave " ) are also noted as the first Georgia Tech buildings to rise above the top of Tech Tower . Open to second @-@ year undergraduate students and above , the buildings are located on East Campus , across North Avenue and near Bobby Dodd Stadium , putting more upperclassmen on East Campus . Currently , the North Avenue Apartments East and North buildings are undergoing extensive renovation to the façade . During their construction , the bricks were not properly secured and thus were a safety hazard to pedestrians and vehicles on the Downtown Connector below .
Two programs on campus as well have houses on East Campus : the International House ( commonly referred to as the I @-@ House ) ; and Women , Science , and Technology . The I @-@ House is housed in 4th Street East and Hayes . Women , Science , and Technology is housed in Goldin and Stein . The I @-@ House hosts an International Coffee Hour every Monday night that class is in session from 6 to 7 pm , hosting both residents and their guests for discussions .
Single graduate students may live in the Graduate Living Center ( GLC ) or at 10th and Home . 10th and Home is the designated family housing unit of Georgia Tech . Residents are zoned to Atlanta Public Schools . Residents are zoned to Centennial Place Elementary , Inman Middle School , and Grady High School .
= = = Student clubs and activities = = =
Several extracurricular activities are available to students , including over 350 student organizations overseen by the Office of Student Involvement . The Student Government Association ( SGA ) , Georgia Tech 's student government , has separate executive , legislative , and judicial branches for undergraduate and graduate students . One of the SGA 's primary duties is the disbursement of funds to student organizations in need of financial assistance . These funds are derived from the Student Activity Fee that all Georgia Tech students must pay , currently $ 123 per semester . The ANAK Society , a secret society and honor society established at Georgia Tech in 1908 , claims responsibility for founding many of Georgia Tech 's earliest traditions and oldest student organizations , including the SGA .
= = = Arts = = =
Georgia Tech 's Music Department was established as part of the school 's General College in 1963 under the leadership of Ben Logan Sisk . In 1976 , the Music Department was assigned to the College of Sciences & Liberal Studies , and in 1991 it was relocated to its current home in the College of Design . In 2009 , it was reorganized into the School of Music . The Georgia Tech Glee Club , founded in 1906 , is one of the oldest student organizations on campus , and still operates today as part of the School of Music . The Glee Club was among the first collegiate choral groups to release a recording of their songs . The group has toured extensively and appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show twice , providing worldwide exposure to " Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech " . Today , the modern Glee Club performs dozens of times each semester for many different events , including official Georgia Tech ceremonies , banquets , and sporting events . It consists of 50 to 70 members and requires no audition or previous choral experience .
The Georgia Tech Band Program , also in the School of Music , represents Georgia Tech at athletic events and provides Tech students with a musical outlet . It was founded in 1908 by 14 students and Robert " Biddy " Bidez . The marching band consistently fields over 300 members and invites students from other Atlanta universities who do not have football programs ( Emory , Agnes Scott , Kennesaw State , etc . ) to participate . Members of the marching band travel to every football game .
The School of Music is also home to a number of ensembles , such as the 80 @-@ to @-@ 90 @-@ member Symphony Orchestra , Jazz Ensemble , Concert Band , and Percussion and MIDI Ensembles . Students also can opt to form their own small Chamber Ensembles , either for course credit or independently . The contemporary Sonic Generator group , backed by the GVU and in collaboration with the Center for Music Technology , performs a diverse lineup of music featuring new technologies and recent composers .
Georgia Tech also has a music scene that is made up of groups that operate independently from the Music Department . These groups include three student @-@ led a cappella groups : Nothin ' but Treble , Sympathetic Vibrations , and Infinite Harmony . Musician 's Network , another student @-@ led group , operates Under the Couch , a live music venue and recording facility that was formerly located beneath the Couch Building on West Campus and is now located in the Student Center .
Many music , theatre , dance , and opera performances are held in the Ferst Center for the Arts . DramaTech is the campus ' student @-@ run theater . The theater has been entertaining Georgia Tech and the surrounding community since 1947 . They are also home to Let 's Try This ! ( the campus improv troupe ) and VarietyTech ( a song and dance troupe ) . Momocon is an annual anime / gaming / comics convention held on campus in March hosted by Anime O @-@ Tekku , the Georgia Tech anime club . The convention has free admission and was held in the Student Center , Instructional Center , and surrounding outdoor areas until 2010 . Beginning in 2011 , the convention moved its venue to locations in Technology Square .
= = = Student media = = =
WREK is Georgia Tech 's student run radio station . Broadcast at 91 @.@ 1 MHz on the FM band the station is known as " Wrek Radio " . The studio is on the second floor of the Student Center Commons . Broadcasting with 100 kW ERP , WREK is among the nation 's most powerful college radio stations . WREK is a student operated and run radio station . In April 2007 , a debate was held regarding the future of the radio station . The prospective purchasers were GPB and NPR . WREK maintained its independence after dismissing the notion with approval from the Radio Communications Board of Georgia Tech . The Georgia Tech Amateur Radio Club , founded in 1912 , is among the oldest collegiate amateur radio clubs in the nation . The club provided emergency radio communications during several disasters including numerous hurricanes and the 1985 Mexican Earthquake .
The Technique , also known as the " ' Nique " , is Tech 's official student newspaper . It is distributed weekly during the Fall and Spring semesters ( on Fridays ) , and biweekly during the Summer semester ( with certain exceptions ) . It was established on November 17 , 1911 . Blueprint is Tech 's yearbook , established in 1908 . Other student publications include The North Avenue Review , Tech 's " free @-@ speech magazine " , Erato , Tech 's literary magazine , The Tower , Tech 's undergraduate research journal and T @-@ Book , the student handbook detailing Tech traditions . The offices of all student publications are located in the Student Services Building .
= = = Greek life = = =
Greek life at Georgia Tech includes over 50 active chapters of social fraternities and sororities . All of the groups are chapters of national organizations , including members of the North @-@ American Interfraternity Conference , National Panhellenic Conference , and National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council . The first fraternity to establish a chapter at Georgia Tech was Alpha Tau Omega in 1888 , before the school held its first classes . The first sorority to establish a chapter was Alpha Xi Delta in 1954 . Students with Greek affiliation make up around 26 percent of the undergraduate student body .
= = = Student stress = = =
Georgia Tech carries a strong reputation for being difficult . In 2001 , The Princeton Review placed Tech among the 10 toughest colleges and universities in the United States and later reported that Tech 's heavy workload led to " overly stressed " students with " minimal time for social functions " . In 2010 , The Daily Beast included Tech on its list of the 50 most stressful colleges and universities in the U.S. However , in 2010 , the Daily Beast also listed Tech among the 100 happiest colleges indicating that student stress does not necessarily prevent student happiness . Among students , it is widely believed that a sacrifice of sleep , studying , or a social life defines " the Tech lifestyle " . For these reasons , students commonly refer to graduation from Tech as " getting out " .
= = Athletics = =
Georgia Tech teams are variously known as the Yellow Jackets , the Ramblin ' Wreck and the Engineers ; but the official nickname is Yellow Jackets . They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I level ( Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) sub @-@ level for football ) , primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) for all sports since the 1979 @-@ 80 season ( a year after they officially joined the conference before beginning conference play ) , Coastal Division in any sports split into a divisional format since the 2005 @-@ 06 season . The Yellow Jackets previously competed as a charter member of the Metro Conference from 1975 @-@ 76 to 1977 @-@ 78 , as a charter member of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) from 1932 @-@ 33 to 1963 @-@ 64 , as a charter of the Southern Conference ( SoCon ) from 1921 @-@ 22 to 1931 @-@ 32 , and as a charter member of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) from 1895 @-@ 96 to 1920 @-@ 21 . They also competed as an Independent from 1964 @-@ 65 to 1974 @-@ 75 and on the 1978 @-@ 79 season . Men 's sports include baseball , basketball , cross country , football , golf , swimming & diving , tennis and track & field ; while women 's sports include basketball , cross country , softball , swimming and diving , tennis , track & field and volleyball .
The Institute mascots are Buzz and the Ramblin ' Wreck . The Institute 's traditional football rival is the University of Georgia ; the rivalry is considered one of the fiercest in college football . The rivalry is commonly referred to as Clean , Old @-@ Fashioned Hate , which is also the title of a book about the subject . Tech has seventeen varsity sports : football , women 's and men 's basketball , baseball , softball , volleyball , golf , men 's and women 's tennis , men 's and women 's swimming and diving , men 's and women 's track and field , and men 's and women 's cross country . Four Georgia Tech football teams were selected as national champions in news polls : 1917 , 1928 , 1952 , and 1990 . In May 2007 , the women 's tennis team won the NCAA National Championship with a 4 – 2 victory over UCLA , the first ever national title granted by the NCAA to Tech .
= = = Fight songs = = =
Tech 's fight song " I 'm a Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech " is known worldwide . First published in the 1908 Blue Print , it was adapted from an old drinking song ( " Son of a Gambolier " ) and embellished with trumpet flourishes by Frank Roman . Then @-@ Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev sang the song together when they met in Moscow in 1958 to reduce the tension between them . As the story goes , Nixon did not know any Russian songs , but Khrushchev knew that one American one as it had been sung on The Ed Sullivan Show .
" I 'm a Ramblin ' Wreck " has had many other notable moments in its history . It is reportedly the first school song to have been played in space . Gregory Peck sang the song while strumming a ukulele in the movie The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit . John Wayne whistled it in The High and the Mighty . Tim Holt 's character sings a few bars of it in the movie His Kind of Woman . There are numerous stories of commanding officers in Higgins boats crossing the English Channel on the morning of D @-@ Day leading their men in the song to calm their nerves . It is played after every Georgia Tech score in a football game .
Another popular fight song is " Up With the White and Gold " , which is usually played by the band preceding " Ramblin ' Wreck " . First published in 1919 , " Up with the White and Gold " was also written by Frank Roman . The song 's title refers to Georgia Tech 's school colors and its lyrics contain the phrase , " Down with the Red and Black " , an explicit reference to the school colors of the University of Georgia and the then @-@ budding Georgia Tech – UGA rivalry .
= = = Club sports = = =
Georgia Tech participates in many non @-@ NCAA sanctioned club sports , including airsoft , crew , cricket , cycling ( winning three consecutive Dirty South Collegiate Cycling Conference mountain bike championships ) , disc golf , equestrian , fencing , field hockey , gymnastics , ice hockey , kayaking , lacrosse , paintball , roller hockey , soccer , rugby union , sailing , skydiving , table tennis , triathlon , ultimate , water polo , water ski , and wrestling . Many club sports take place at the Georgia Tech Aquatic Center , where swimming , diving , water polo , and the swimming portion of the modern pentathlon competitions for the 1996 Summer Olympics were held .
= = Alumni = =
There are many notable graduates , non @-@ graduate former students and current students of Georgia Tech . Georgia Tech alumni are known as Yellow Jackets . According to the Georgia Tech Alumni Association :
[ the status of " alumni " ] is open to all graduates of Georgia Tech , all former students of Georgia Tech who regularly matriculated and left Georgia Tech in good standing , active and retired members of the faculty and administration staff , and those who have rendered some special and conspicuous service to Georgia Tech or to [ the alumni association ] .
The first class of 95 students entered Georgia Tech in 1888 , and the first two graduates received their degrees in 1890 . Since then , the institute has greatly expanded , with an enrollment of 14 @,@ 558 undergraduates and 6 @,@ 913 postgraduate students as of Fall 2013 .
Many distinguished individuals once called Georgia Tech home , the most notable being Jimmy Carter , former President of the United States and Nobel Peace Prize winner , who briefly attended Georgia Tech in the early 1940s before matriculating at and graduating from the United States Naval Academy . Juan Carlos Varela , a 1985 industrial engineering graduate , was elected president of Panama in May 2014 . Another Georgia Tech graduate and Nobel Prize winner , Kary Mullis , received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993 . A large number of businesspeople ( including but not limited to prominent CEOs and directors ) began their careers at Georgia Tech . Some of the most successful of these are Charles " Garry " Betty ( CEO Earthlink ) , David Dorman ( CEO AT & T Corporation ) , Mike Duke ( CEO Wal @-@ Mart ) , and James D. Robinson III ( CEO American Express and later director of The Coca @-@ Cola Company ) .
Tech graduates have been deeply influential in politics , military service , and activism . Atlanta mayor Ivan Allen , Jr. and former United States Senator Sam Nunn have both made significant changes from within their elected offices . Former Georgia Tech president G. Wayne Clough was also a Tech graduate , the first Tech alumnus to serve in that position . Many notable military commanders are alumni ; James A. Winnefeld , Jr. who currently serves as the ninth Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , Philip M. Breedlove who currently serves as the Commander , U.S. Air Forces in Europe , William L. Ball was the 67th Secretary of the Navy , John M. Brown III is the Commander of the United States Army Pacific Command , and Leonard Wood was Chief of Staff of the Army and a Medal of Honor recipient for helping capture of the Apache chief Geronimo . Wood was also Tech 's first football coach and ( simultaneously ) the team captain , and was instrumental in Tech 's first @-@ ever football victory in a game against the University of Georgia . Thomas McGuire was the second @-@ highest scoring American ace during World War II and a Medal of Honor recipient .
Numerous astronauts and National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) administrators spent time at Tech ; most notably , Retired Vice Admiral Richard H. Truly was the eighth administrator of NASA , and later served as the president of the Georgia Tech Research Institute . John Young walked on the moon as the commander of Apollo 16 , first commander of the space shuttle and is the only person to have piloted four different classes of spacecraft . Georgia Tech has its fair share of noteworthy engineers , scientists , and inventors . Nobel Laureate Kary Mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction , Herbert Saffir developed the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and W. Jason Morgan made significant contributions to the theory of plate tectonics and geodynamics . In computer science , Krishna Bharat developed Google News , and D. Richard Hipp developed SQLite . Architect Michael Arad designed the World Trade Center Memorial in New York City .
Despite their highly technical backgrounds , Tech graduates are no strangers to the arts or athletic competition . Among them , comedian / actor Jeff Foxworthy of Blue Collar Comedy Tour fame and Randolph Scott both called Tech home . Several famous athletes have , as well ; about 150 Tech students have gone into the National Football League ( NFL ) , with many others going into the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) or Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Well @-@ known American football athletes include all @-@ time greats such as Joe Hamilton , Pat Swilling , Billy Shaw , and Joe Guyon , former Tech head football coaches Pepper Rodgers and Bill Fulcher , and recent students
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; 12 mph ) .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of four 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns in two twin gun turrets . This was augmented by a heavy secondary battery of eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in four wing turrets . The tertiary battery consisted of twenty 10 cm L / 50 guns in casemated single mounts , two 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) landing guns , four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 85 in ) L / 44 and one 47 mm L / 33 quick @-@ firing guns . Three 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were also carried , two on the beams and one in the stern .
= = Service history = =
= = = Pre @-@ war = = =
One of Radetzky 's first duties was to attend the British Coronation Review for King George V in Spithead in June 1911 . Following her return to the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , she conducted several training cruises in the eastern Mediterranean with her two sisters in 1912 . Later that year , Radetzky and her sisters , under the command of Vice Admiral Maximilian Njegovan , took part in an international fleet demonstration in the Ionian Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Among the ships from other navies were the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Italian pre @-@ dreadnought Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the French armored cruiser Edgar Quinet , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The combined flotilla , under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , proceeded to blockade the Montenegrin coast to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari .
During the operation , the first seaplanes to be used in combat were operated from Radetzky and her two sisters . This proved unsatisfactory , however , because the ships lacked cranes with which to lift the planes onto the deck , as well as the fact that the deck was too small to accommodate the aircraft . As a result of the pressure from the international blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from Scutari , which was then occupied by a joint Allied ground force . By 1913 , the new dreadnoughts of the Tegetthoff class were coming into active service , and so Radetzky and her sisters were shifted from the 1st Division to the 2nd Division of the 1st Battle Squadron .
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the German battlecruisers Goeben and Breslau were coaling in Messina ; British warships had begun to assemble outside the port in an attempt to trap the German ships . The German navy called upon its Austro @-@ Hungarian allies to come to their aid ; the Austro @-@ Hungarian high command was initially hesitant , as they wished to avoid initiating hostilities with the British . However , when the Germans made clear they wanted the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet to steam only as far as Brindisi , the high command relented and sent the portion of the fleet that had by that time been mobilized , which included Radetzky , on the operation . The fleet sailed to the designated latitude , under strict orders to only actively assist the German ships while they were in Austro @-@ Hungarian waters . After the German ships successfully broke out into the Mediterranean , the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet returned to port .
In October 1914 , the French army established artillery batteries on Mount Lovčen to support the Army of Montenegro against the Austrian army at Cattaro . By the time they were operational , on 15 October , the Austro @-@ Hungarians were ready with the pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the Monarch class . However , their 24 cm guns were insufficient to dislodge the French artillery batteries , and so Radetzky was sent to assist them . On 21 October , the ship arrived , and the gunfire from her 30 @.@ 5 cm guns forced the French to abandon the position .
On 23 May 1915 , between two and four hours after the Italian declaration of war reached the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , Radetzky and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the Italian and Montenegrin coast . Their focus was on the important naval base at Ancona , and later the coast of Montenegro . The bombardment of Montenegro was part of the larger Austro @-@ Hungarian campaign against the Kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia , who were members of the Entente , during the first half of 1915 . During the attack on Ancona and the surrounding coastline , Radetzky , as well as the cruisers SMS Admiral Spaun and SMS Helgoland , and the destroyers SMS Orjen , SMS Lika Csepel , and SMS Tátra traveled south to cover the ships attacking Ancona . Upon finding no enemy ships in the region , the group bombarded the Termiti Islands , Viests , Manfredonia , and Barletta . After leaving the Gulf of Manfredonia Radetzky and the rest of the ships accompanying her sighted the first enemy ships of the day , two Italian destroyers . During the encounter , one Italian destroyer managed to escape the Austrian ships but the other , Turbine , was severely damaged . Only when a larger Italian force appeared did Radetzky and her accompanying ships abandon their attempts to capture the damaged destroyer .
Aside from the encounter with Turbine , Radetzky managed to destroy a railroad bridge near the town of Fermo , severely hampering the movement of troops and supplies in the region . Sixty @-@ three Italian civilians and military personnel were killed in the bombardment . By the time Italian ships from Taranto and Brindisi arrived on the scene , the Austro @-@ Hungarians were safely back in Pola .
The attack on Ancona was an immense success , and the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were largely unopposed during the entire operation . The objective of the bombardment was to delay the Italian Army from deploying its forces along the border with Austria @-@ Hungary by destroying critical transportation systems . The surprise attack on Ancona succeeded in delaying the Italian deployment to the Alps for two weeks . This delay gave Austria @-@ Hungary valuable time to strengthen its Italian border and re @-@ deploy some of its troops from the Eastern and Balkan fronts .
Aside from the attack on Ancona , the Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships were confined to Pola for the duration of the war . Their operations were limited by Admiral Anton Haus , the commander of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , who believed that he would need to husband his ships to counter any Italian attempt to seize the Dalmatian coast . Since coal was diverted to the newer Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , the remainder of the war saw Radetzky and the rest of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy acting as a fleet in being . This resulted in the Allied blockade of the Otranto Strait . With his fleet blockaded in the Adriatic Sea , and facing a shortage of coal , Haus attempted to use mines and submarines , rather than battleships , to reduce the numerical superiority of the Allied navies .
= = = End of the war = = =
By October 1918 , Austria prepared to transfer her entire fleet to the newly created State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs ( later to become the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in order to keep it out of Italian hands . On 10 November 1918 , one day before the Allied Armistice with Germany , and six days after the Austrians and Italians agreed to the Armistice of Villa Giusti , Yugoslav officers with scratch crews sailed Radetzky and Zrínyi out of Pola . Once outside Pola , the ships spotted heavy units of the Italian fleet ; the two battleships hoisted American flags and sailed south to escape . A squadron of US Navy submarine chasers operating off the city of Spalato accepted the surrender of Radetzky and Zrínyi . However , under the subsequent peace treaty , the Allied powers ignored the transfer of the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships to the Yugoslav navy which had already taken place ; instead , the ships were ceded to Italy . Radetzky was broken up in Italy between 1920 and 1921 .
= Batman ( 1989 film ) =
Batman is a 1989 American superhero film directed by Tim Burton and produced by Jon Peters , based on the DC Comics character of the same name . It is the first installment of Warner Bros. ' initial Batman film series . The film stars Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne / Batman , alongside Jack Nicholson , Kim Basinger , Robert Wuhl , Pat Hingle , Billy Dee Williams , Michael Gough , and Jack Palance . In the film , Batman is widely believed to be an urban legend until he actively goes to war with a rising criminal mastermind known as " the Joker " .
After Burton was hired as director in 1986 , Steve Englehart and Julie Hickson wrote film treatments before Sam Hamm wrote the first screenplay . Batman was not greenlit until after the success of Burton 's Beetlejuice ( 1988 ) . Numerous A @-@ list actors were considered for the role of Batman before Keaton was cast . Keaton 's casting caused a controversy since , by 1988 , he had become typecast as a comedic actor and many observers doubted he could portray a serious role . Nicholson accepted the role of the Joker under strict conditions that dictated a high salary , a portion of the box office profits and his shooting schedule . The tone and themes of the film were influenced in part by Alan Moore and Brian Bolland 's The Killing Joke and Frank Miller 's The Dark Knight Returns . The film notably invents a unique origin story for the Joker , presenting him as an organised criminal named Jack Napier . Filming took place at Pinewood Studios from October 1988 to January 1989 . The budget escalated from $ 30 million to $ 48 million , while the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike forced Hamm to drop out . Uncredited rewrites were performed by Warren Skaaren , Charles McKeown and Jonathan Gems .
Batman was a critical and financial success , earning over $ 400 million in box office totals . It was the fifth @-@ highest grossing film in history at the time of its release . The film received several Saturn Award nominations and a Golden Globe nomination , and won an Academy Award . It also inspired the equally successful Batman : The Animated Series , paving the way for the DC animated universe , and has influenced Hollywood 's modern marketing and development techniques of the superhero film genre .
= = Plot = =
The mayor of Gotham City , Mayor Borg ( Lee Wallace ) orders District Attorney Harvey Dent ( Billy Dee Williams ) and Police Commissioner James " Jim " Gordon ( Pat Hingle ) to increase police activity and combat crime in preparation for the city 's bicentennial . Reporter Alexander Knox ( Robert Wuhl ) and photojournalist Vicki Vale ( Kim Basinger ) begin to investigate reports of a vigilante nicknamed " Batman " , who is targeting the city 's criminals .
Mob boss Carl Grissom ( Jack Palance ) , who has already been targeted by Dent , discovers his mistress Alicia ( Jerry Hall ) involved with his second @-@ in @-@ command , Jack Napier ( Jack Nicholson ) . With the help of corrupt police lieutenant Max Eckhardt ( William Hootkins ) , Grissom sets up Napier to be murdered during a raid at the Axis Chemicals plant . During the ensuing shootout , Napier kills Eckhardt , after which Batman suddenly appears . The two struggle , and Napier is accidentally knocked into a vat of chemical waste . Batman flees , and Napier is presumed dead .
Batman is , in actuality , Bruce Wayne ( Michael Keaton ) , a billionaire industrialist who , as a child , witnessed his parents ' murder at the hands of a young psychopathic mugger . Bruce meets and falls for Vicki at a fundraiser , and the two begin a relationship . Meanwhile , Napier survives the accident , but is horribly disfigured with chalk @-@ white skin , emerald @-@ green hair and a permanent ruby @-@ red grin . Driven insane by his reflection , Napier becomes " The Joker " , kills Grissom in revenge for his set @-@ up , and usurps his criminal empire . In addition , the Joker seeks retaliation against Batman , whom he blames for his disfigurement . During his research for information about Batman , the Joker himself also falls for Vicki .
The Joker begins to terrorize the city , first by lacing hygiene products with a deadly chemical known as " Smilex " , which causes victims to laugh to death when used in certain combinations . The Joker then sets a trap at the Gotham Museum of Art for Vicki , and he and his henchmen vandalize works of art . Batman arrives and rescues Vicki , and the pair escape in the Batmobile . Batman gives information about Smilex to Vicki so she can warn the city via Gotham newspapers about the poisoned products .
Bruce meets with Vicki at her apartment , prepared to tell her that he is Batman . They are interrupted by the Joker , who asks Bruce , " Have you ever danced with the devil by the pale moonlight ? " before shooting him . Bruce , who was wearing body armour , escapes , and recollects that the young mugger who killed his parents had asked him the same question ; he realizes that the mugger was none other than the Joker himself . Vicki suddenly appears in the Batcave , having been let in by Bruce 's butler , Alfred Pennyworth ( Michael Gough ) . After avouching himself to Vicki , Bruce — as Batman — leaves to destroy the Axis Chemical plant . Meanwhile , the Joker lures the townspeople to a night time parade with a promise to give away $ 20 million in cash . After doing so , however , he attacks them with Smilex gas , spewing it from his giant parade balloons . Batman arrives on the scene and saves Gotham City from the attack using the Batwing . In his frustration , Joker kills his henchman Bob , then takes out a grenade launcher ( disguised as a clown gun ) and shoots at the Batwing , causing it to crash .
The Joker kidnaps Vicki and takes her to the top of a cathedral , where he forces her to dance with him . Batman , having survived the accident , pursues the two , and at the top of the dusty edifice , he and the Joker confront each other in single combat . When the Joker attempts an escape via a helicopter , Batman grapples the Joker 's leg to a heavy stone sculpture , causing him to fall to his death .
Commissioner Gordon unveils the Bat @-@ Signal along with a note from Batman read by Harvey Dent , promising to defend Gotham whenever crime strikes again . Vicki is escorted to the Wayne Manor by Alfred , who informs her that Bruce will be late , and she responds that she isn 't surprised . The movie ends with Batman staring at the bat @-@ signal .
= = Cast = =
= = Themes = =
When discussing the central theme of Batman , director Tim Burton explained , " the whole film and mythology of the character is a complete duel of the freaks . It 's a fight between two disturbed people " , adding that " The Joker is such a great character because there 's a complete freedom to him . Any character who operates on the outside of society and is deemed a freak and an outcast then has the freedom to do what they want ... They are the darker sides of freedom . Insanity is in some scary way the most freedom you can have , because you 're not bound by the laws of society " .
Burton saw Bruce Wayne as the bearer of a double identity , exposing one while hiding the reality from the world . Burton biographer Ken Hanke wrote that Bruce Wayne , struggling with his alter @-@ ego as Batman , is depicted as an antihero . Hanke felt that Batman has to push the boundaries of civil justice to deal with certain criminals , such as the Joker . Kim Newman theorized that " Burton and the writers saw Batman and the Joker as a dramatic antithesis , and the film deals with their intertwined origins and fates to an even greater extent " .
A visual motif is present in the scene of Batman 's first major act of vigilantism at Axis Chemicals , wherein he is carefully framed so that the single word AXIS , in gigantic red neon letters , looms over him , comparing his acts to those of the totalitarian governments of World War II and thus implying that the dangers of these actions include the transformation of Jack Napier into the Joker . Batman also conveys trademarks found in 1930s pulp magazines , notably the design of Gotham City stylized with Art Deco design . Richard Corliss , writing for Time , observed that Gotham 's design was a reference to films such as Metropolis ( 1927 ) and The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari ( 1920 ) . " Gotham City , despite being shot on a studio backlot " , he continued , " is literally another character in the script . It has the demeaning presence of German Expressionism and fascist architecture , staring down at the citizens . " Hanke further addressed the notions of Batman being a period piece , in that " The citizens , cops , people and the black @-@ and @-@ white television looks like it takes place in 1939 " ; but later said : " Had the filmmakers made Vicki Vale a femme fatale rather than a damsel in distress , this could have made Batman as a homage and tribute to classic film noir . " Portions of the climax pay homage to Vertigo .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In the late 1970s , Batman 's popularity was waning . CBS was interested in producing a Batman in Outer Space film . Producers Michael Uslan and Benjamin Melniker purchased the film rights of Batman from DC Comics on October 3 , 1979 . It was Uslan 's wish " to make the definitive , dark , serious version of Batman , the way Bob Kane and Bill Finger had envisioned him in 1939 . A creature of the night ; stalking criminals in the shadows . " Richard Maibaum was approached to write a script with Guy Hamilton to direct , but the two turned down the offer . Uslan was unsuccessful with pitching Batman to various movie studios because they wanted the film to be similar to the campy 1960s TV series . Columbia Pictures and United Artists were among those to turn down the film .
A disappointed Uslan then wrote a script titled Return of the Batman to give the film industry a better idea of his vision for the film . Uslan later compared its dark tone to that of The Dark Knight Returns , which his script pre @-@ dated by six years . In November 1979 , producers Jon Peters and Peter Guber joined the project . The four producers felt it was best to pattern the film 's development after that of Superman ( 1978 ) . Uslan , Melniker and Guber pitched Batman to Universal Pictures , but the studio turned it down . Though no movie studios were yet involved , the project was publicly announced with a budget of $ 15 million in July 1980 at the Comic Art Convention in New York . Warner Bros. decided to accept Batman .
Tom Mankiewicz completed a script titled The Batman in June 1983 , focusing on Batman and Dick Grayson 's origins , with the Joker and Rupert Thorne as villains , and Silver St. Cloud as the romantic interest . Mankiewicz took inspiration from the limited series Batman : Strange Apparitions ( ISBN 1 @-@ 56389 @-@ 500 @-@ 5 ) , written by Steve Englehart . Comic book artist Marshall Rogers , who worked with Englehart on Strange Apparitions , was hired for concept art . The Batman was then announced in late 1983 for a mid @-@ 1985 release date on a budget of $ 20 million . Originally , Mankiewicz had wanted an unknown actor for Batman , William Holden for James Gordon , David Niven as Alfred Pennyworth , and Peter O 'Toole as the Penguin , whom Mankiewicz wanted to portray as a mobster with low body temperature . Holden died in 1981 and Niven in 1983 , so this would never come to pass . A number of filmmakers were attached to Mankiewicz ' script , including Ivan Reitman and Joe Dante . Reitman wanted to cast Bill Murray as Batman and Eddie Murphy as Robin . Nine rewrites were performed by nine separate writers . Most of them were based on Strange Apparitions . However , it was Mankiewicz 's script that was still being used to guide the project .
After the financial success of Pee @-@ wee 's Big Adventure ( 1985 ) , Warner Bros. hired Tim Burton to direct Batman . Burton had then @-@ girlfriend Julie Hickson write a new 30 @-@ page film treatment , feeling the previous script by Mankiewicz was campy . The success of The Dark Knight Returns and Batman : The Killing Joke rekindled Warner Bros. ' interest in a film adaptation . Burton was initially not a comic book fan , but he was impressed by the dark and serious tone found in both The Dark Knight Returns and The Killing Joke . Warner Bros. enlisted the aid of Steve Englehart to write a new treatment in March 1986 . It included the Joker and Rupert Thorne as the main villains , with a cameo appearance by the Penguin . Silver St. Cloud and Dick Grayson were key supporting roles . It followed the similar storyline from Englehart 's own Strange Apparitions ( ISBN 1 @-@ 56389 @-@ 500 @-@ 5 ) . Warner Bros. was impressed , but Englehart felt there were too many characters . He removed the Penguin and Dick Grayson in his second treatment , finishing in May 1986 .
Burton approached Sam Hamm , a comic book fan , to write the screenplay . Hamm decided not to use an origin story , feeling that flashbacks would be more suitable and that " unlocking the mystery " would become part of the storyline . He reasoned , " You totally destroy your credibility if you show the literal process by which Bruce Wayne becomes Batman . " Hamm replaced Silver St. Cloud with Vicki Vale and Rupert Thorne with his own creation , Carl Grissom . He completed his script in October 1986 , which demoted Dick Grayson to a cameo rather than a supporting character . One scene in Hamm 's script had a young James Gordon on duty the night of the murder of Bruce Wayne 's parents . When Hamm 's script was rewritten , the scene was deleted reducing it in an only photo in the Gotham Globe but retaken to Batman Begins .
Warner Bros. was less willing to move forward on development , despite their enthusiasm for Hamm 's script , which Batman co @-@ creator Bob Kane greeted with positive feedback . Hamm 's script was then bootlegged at various comic book stores in the United States . Batman was finally given the greenlight to commence pre @-@ production in April 1988 , after the success of Burton 's Beetlejuice ( 1988 ) . When comic book fans found out about Burton directing the film with Michael Keaton starring in the lead role , controversy arose over the tone and direction Batman was going in . Hamm explained , " They hear Tim Burton 's name and they think of Pee @-@ wee 's Big Adventure . They hear Keaton 's name and they think of any number of Michael Keaton comedies . You think of the 1960s version of Batman , and it was the complete opposite of our film . We tried to market it with a typical dark and serious tone , but the fans didn 't believe us . " To combat negative reports on the film 's production , Kane was hired as creative consultant .
= = = Casting = = =
Parallel to the Superman casting , a who 's who of Hollywood top stars were considered for the role of Batman , including Mel Gibson , Kevin Costner , Charlie Sheen , Tom Selleck , Bill Murray , Harrison Ford and Dennis Quaid . Burton was pressured by Warner Bros. to cast an obvious action movie star , and had approached Pierce Brosnan , but he had no interest in playing a comic book character . Burton was originally interested in casting an unknown actor , and offered Ray Liotta a chance to audition after having completed Something Wild , but Liotta declined , a decision he regrets . Willem Dafoe , who was falsely reported to be considered for the Joker , had actually been considered for Batman early in development . Producer Jon Peters suggested Michael Keaton , arguing he had the right " edgy , tormented quality " after having seen his dramatic performance in Clean and Sober . Having directed Keaton in Beetlejuice , Burton agreed .
Keaton 's casting caused a controversy among comic book fans , with 50 @,@ 000 protest letters sent to Warner Bros. offices . Bob Kane , Sam Hamm and Michael Uslan also heavily questioned the casting . " Obviously there was a negative response from the comic book people . I think they thought we were going to make it like the 1960s TV series , and make it campy , because they thought of Michael Keaton from Mr. Mom and Night Shift and stuff like that . " Keaton studied The Dark Knight Returns for inspiration .
Brad Dourif , Tim Curry , David Bowie , John Lithgow and James Woods were considered for the Joker . Burton wanted to cast Brad Dourif , but the studio refused . Robin Williams lobbied hard for the part . Jack Nicholson had been producer Michael Uslan 's and Bob Kane 's choice since 1980 . Peters approached Nicholson as far back as 1986 , during filming of The Witches of Eastwick . Nicholson had what was known as an " off @-@ the @-@ clock " agreement . His contract specified the number of hours he was entitled to have off each day , from the time he left the set to the time he reported back for filming , as well as being off for Los Angeles Lakers home games . Nicholson demanded to have all of his scenes shot in a three @-@ week block , but the schedule lapsed into 106 days . He received a $ 6 million salary , as well as a large percentage of the box office gross estimated between $ 60 million to $ 90 million .
Sean Young was originally cast as Vicki Vale , but was injured in a horse @-@ riding accident prior to commencement of filming . Young 's departure necessitated an urgent search for an actress who , besides being right for the part , could commit to the film at very short notice . Peters suggested Kim Basinger : she was able to join the production immediately and was cast . As a fan of Michael Gough 's work in various Hammer Film Productions , Burton cast Gough as Bruce Wayne 's butler , Alfred Pennyworth . Robert Wuhl was cast as reporter Alexander Knox . His character was originally supposed to die by the Joker 's poison gas in the climax , but the filmmakers " liked [ my ] character so much , " Wuhl said , " that they decided to let me live . " Burton chose Billy Dee Williams as Harvey Dent because he wanted to include the villain Two @-@ Face in a future film using the concept of an African @-@ American Two @-@ Face for the black and white concept , but Tommy Lee Jones was later cast in the role for Batman Forever , which disappointed Williams . Nicholson convinced the filmmakers to cast Tracey Walter as the Joker 's henchman , Bob ; in real life , Nicholson and Walter are close friends . Kiefer Sutherland was considered as Robin before the character was deleted from the shooting script . The rest of the cast included Pat Hingle as Commissioner Gordon , Jerry Hall as Alicia Hunt , Lee Wallace as Mayor Borg , William Hootkins as Lt. Max Eckhardt , and Jack Palance as crime boss Carl Grissom .
= = = Filming = = =
The filmmakers considered filming Batman entirely on the Warner Bros. backlot in Burbank , California , but media interest in the film made them change the location . It was shot at Pinewood Studios in England from October 1988 to January 1989 . 18 sound stages were used , almost the entirety of Pinewood 's 95 @-@ acre backlot . Locations included Knebworth House and Hatfield House doubling for Wayne Manor , plus Acton Lane Power Station and Little Barford Power Station . The original production budget escalated from $ 30 million to $ 48 million . Filming was highly secretive . The unit publicist was offered and refused £ 10 @,@ 000 for the first pictures of Jack Nicholson as the Joker . The police were later called in when two reels of footage ( about 20 minutes ' worth ) were stolen . With various problems during filming , Burton called it " torture . The worst period of my life ! "
Hamm was not allowed to perform rewrites during the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike . Jonathan Gems , Warren Skaaren and Charles McKeown rewrote the script during filming . Hamm criticized the rewrites , but blamed the changes on Warner Bros. Burton explained , " I don 't understand why that became such a problem . We started out with a script that everyone liked , although we recognized it needed a little work . " Dick Grayson appeared in the shooting script but was deleted , as the filmmakers felt he was irrelevant to the plot . Bob Kane supported this decision .
Keaton , who called himself a " logic freak " , was concerned that Batman 's secret identity would in reality be fairly easy to uncover , and discussed ideas with Burton to better disguise the character , including the use of contact lenses . Ultimately , Keaton decided to perform Batman 's voice at a lower register than when he was portraying Bruce Wayne , which became a hallmark of the film version of the character , with Christian Bale later using the same technique .
Originally in the climax , the Joker was to kill Vicki Vale , sending Batman into a vengeful fury . Jon Peters reworked the climax without telling Burton and commissioned production designer Anton Furst to create a 38 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) model of the cathedral . This cost $ 100 @,@ 000 when the film was already well over budget . Burton disliked the idea , having no clue how the scene would end : " Here were Jack Nicholson and Kim Basinger walking up this cathedral , and halfway up Jack turns around and says , ' Why am I walking up all these stairs ? Where am I going ? ' ' We 'll talk about it when you get to the top ! ' I had to tell him that I didn 't know . "
= = = Design = = =
Burton was impressed with Anton Furst 's designs in The Company of Wolves , and previously failed to hire Furst as production designer for Beetlejuice . Furst had been too committed on High Spirits , a choice he later regretted . Furst enjoyed working with Burton . " I don 't think I 've ever felt so naturally in tune with a director " , he said . " Conceptually , spiritually , visually , or artistically . There was never any problem because we never fought over anything . Texture , attitude and feelings are what Burton is a master at . "
Furst and the art department deliberately mixed clashing architectural styles to " make Gotham City the ugliest and bleakest metropolis imaginable " . Furst continued , " [ W ] e imagined what New York City might have become without a planning commission . A city run by crime , with a riot of architectural styles . An essay in ugliness . As if hell erupted through the pavement and kept on going " . The 1985 film Brazil by Terry Gilliam was also a notable influence upon the film 's production design , as both Burton and Furst studied it as a reference . Derek Meddings served as the visual effects supervisor , while Keith Short helped construct the newly created 1989 Batmobile , adding two Browning machine guns . On designing the Batmobile , Furst explained , " We looked at jet aircraft components , we looked at war machines , we looked at all sorts of things . In the end , we went into pure expressionism , taking the Salt Flat Racers of the 30s and the Sting Ray macho machines of the 50s " . The car was built upon a Chevrolet Impala when previous development with a Jaguar and Ford Mustang failed .
Costume designer Bob Ringwood turned down the chance to work on Licence to Kill in favor of Batman . Ringwood found it difficult designing the Batsuit because " the image of Batman in the comics is this huge , big six @-@ foot @-@ four hunk with a dimpled chin . Michael Keaton is a guy with average build " , he stated . " The problem was to make somebody who was average @-@ sized and ordinary @-@ looking into this bigger @-@ than @-@ life creature . " Burton commented , " Michael is a bit claustrophobic , which made it worse for him . The costume put him in a dark , Batman @-@ like mood though , so he was able to use it to his advantage " . Burton 's idea was to use an all @-@ black suit , and was met with positive feedback by Bob Kane . Jon Peters wanted to use a Nike product placement with the Batsuit . Ringwood studied over 200 comic book issues for inspiration . 28 sculpted latex designs were created ; 25 different cape looks and 6 different heads were made , accumulating a total cost of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Comic book fans initially expressed negative feedback against the Batsuit . Burton opted not to use tights , spandex , or underpants as seen in the comic book , feeling it was not intimidating . Prosthetic makeup designer Nick Dudman used acrylic @-@ based makeup paint called PAX for Nicholson 's chalk @-@ white face . Part of Nicholson 's contract was approval over the makeup designer .
= = = Music = = =
Burton hired Danny Elfman , his collaborator on Pee @-@ wee 's Big Adventure and Beetlejuice , to compose the music score . For inspiration , Elfman was given The Dark Knight Returns . Elfman was worried , as he had never worked on a production this large in budget and scale . In addition , producer Jon Peters was skeptical of hiring Elfman , but was later convinced when he heard the opening number . Peters and Peter Guber wanted Prince to write music for the Joker and Michael Jackson to do the romance songs . Elfman would then combine the style of Prince and Jackson 's songs together for the entire film score .
Burton protested the ideas , citing " my movies aren 't commercial like Top Gun . " Elfman enlisted the help of Oingo Boingo lead guitarist Steve Bartek and Shirley Walker to arrange the compositions for the orchestra . Elfman was later displeased with the audio mixing of his film score . " Batman was done in England by technicians who didn 't care , and the non @-@ caring showed , " he stated . " I 'm not putting down England because they 've done gorgeous dubs there , but this particular crew elected not to . " Batman was one of the first films to spawn two soundtracks . One of them featured songs written by Prince while the other showcased Elfman 's score . Both were successful , and compilations of Elfman 's opening credits were used in the title sequence theme for Batman : The Animated Series , also composed by Shirley Walker .
= = Marketing = =
Production designer Anton Furst designed the poster , which he called " evocative but ubiquitous . Only featuring the Bat @-@ Symbol . Not too much and not too little " . Earlier designs " had the word ' Batman ' spelled in RoboCop or Conan the Barbarian @-@ type font " . Jon Peters unified all the film 's tie @-@ ins , even turning down $ 6 million from General Motors to build the Batmobile because the car company would not relinquish creative control .
During production , Peters read in The Wall Street Journal that comic book fans were unsatisfied with the casting of Michael Keaton . In response , Peters rushed the first film trailer that played in thousands of theaters during Christmas . It was simply an assemblage of scenes without music , but happened to create enormous anticipation for the film . DC Comics allowed screenwriter Sam Hamm to write his own comic book miniseries . Hamm 's stories were collected in the graphic novel Batman : Blind Justice ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1563890475 ) . Denys Cowan and Dick Giordano illustrated the artwork . Blind Justice tells the story of Bruce Wayne trying to solve a series of murders connected to Wayne Enterprises . It also marks the first appearance of Henri Ducard , who was later used in the rebooted Batman Begins , albeit as an alias for the more notable Ra 's al Ghul .
In the months pre @-@ dating Batman 's release in June 1989 , a popular culture phenomenon rose known as " Batmania " . Over $ 750 million worth of merchandise was sold . Cult filmmaker and comic book writer Kevin Smith remembered : " That summer was huge . You couldn 't turn around without seeing the Bat @-@ Signal somewhere . People were cutting it into their fucking heads . It was just the summer of Batman and if you were a comic book fan it was pretty hot . " Hachette Book Group USA published a novelization , Batman written by Craig Shaw Gardner . It remained on the New York Times Best Seller list throughout June 1989 . Burton admitted he was annoyed by the publicity . David Handelman of The New York Observer categorized Batman as a high concept film . He believed " it is less movie than a corporate behemoth " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Batman opened on June 23 , 1989 , grossing $ 43 @.@ 6 million in 2 @,@ 194 theaters during its opening weekend . This broke the opening weekend record , set by Ghostbusters II one week earlier , with $ 29 @.@ 4 million . Batman would eventually gross $ 251 @.@ 2 million in North America and $ 160 @.@ 15 million internationally , totaling $ 411 @.@ 35 million . Batman was the first film to earn $ 100 million in its first ten days of release , and was the highest grossing film based on a DC comic book until 2008 's The Dark Knight . The film 's gross is the 66th highest ever in North American ranks . Although Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade made the most money worldwide in 1989 , Batman was able to beat The Last Crusade in North America , and made a further $ 150 million in home video sales . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold more than 60 million tickets in the US .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Batman was criticized in some quarters for being too dark and too violent , but nonetheless received positive reviews . Many observed that Burton was more interested in the Joker and the art and set production design than Batman or anything else in terms of characterization and screentime . Comic book fans reacted negatively over the Joker murdering Thomas and Martha Wayne ; in the comic book , Joe Chill is responsible . Writer Sam Hamm said it was Burton 's idea to have the Joker murder Wayne 's parents . " The Writer 's Strike was going on , " Hamm said , " and Tim had the other writers do that . I also hold innocent to Alfred letting Vicki Vale into the Batcave . Fans were ticked off with that , and I agree . That would have been Alfred 's last day of employment at Wayne Manor . "
The songs written by Prince were criticized for being " too out of place " . While Burton has stated he had no problem with the Prince songs , he was less enthusiastic with their use in the film . On the film , Burton remarked , " I liked parts of it , but the whole movie is mainly boring to me . It 's OK , but it was more of a cultural phenomenon than a great movie . " Nonetheless , it received acclaim . Based on 67 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 72 % of reviewers reacted positively to Batman . Metacritic gives an aggregated score of 66 , based on 17 reviews , indicating " generally favorable " .
Despite initial negative reactions from comics fans prior to the film 's release , Keaton 's portrayal of Batman was generally praised . James Berardinelli called the film entertaining , with the highlight being the production design
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the Law of Free Birth on 28 September 1871 , under which all children born to slave women after that date were considered free @-@ born .
= = = To Europe and North Africa = = =
On 25 May 1871 Pedro II and his wife traveled to Europe . He had long desired to vacation abroad . When news arrived that his younger daughter , the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Leopoldina , had died in Vienna of typhoid fever on 7 February , he finally had a pressing reason to venture outside the Empire . Upon arriving in Lisbon , Portugal , he immediately went to the Janelas Verdes palace , where he met with his stepmother Amélie of Leuchtenberg . The two had not seen each other in forty years , and the meeting was emotional . Pedro II remarked in his journal : " I cried from happiness and also from sorrow seeing my Mother so affectionate toward me but so aged and so sick . "
The Emperor proceeded to visit Spain , Great Britain , Belgium , Germany , Austria , Italy , Egypt , Greece , Switzerland and France . In Coburg he visited his daughter 's tomb . He found this to be " a time of release and freedom " . He traveled under the assumed name " Dom Pedro de Alcântara " , insisting upon being treated informally and staying only in hotels . He spent his days sightseeing and conversing with scientists and other intellectuals with whom he shared interests . The European sojourn proved to be a success , and his demeanor and curiosity won respectful notices in the nations which he visited . The prestige of both Brazil and Pedro II were further enhanced during the tour when news came from Brazil that the Law of Free Birth , abolishing the last source of enslavement , had been ratified . The imperial party returned to Brazil in triumph on 31 March 1872 .
= = = Religious Question = = =
Soon after returning to Brazil , Pedro II was faced with an unexpected crisis . The Brazilian clergy had long been understaffed , undisciplined and poorly educated , leading to a great loss of respect for the Catholic Church . The imperial government had embarked upon a program of reform to address these deficiencies . As Catholicism was the state religion , the government exercised a great deal of control over Church affairs , paying clerical salaries , appointing parish priests , nominating bishops , ratifying papal bulls and overseeing seminaries . In pursuing reform , the government selected bishops who satisfied its criteria for education , support for reform and moral fitness . However , as more capable men began to fill the clerical ranks , resentment of government control over the Church increased .
The bishops of Olinda and Belém ( in the provinces of Pernambuco and Pará , respectively ) were two of the new generation of educated , zealous Brazilian clerics . They had been influenced by the Ultramontanism which spread among Catholics in this period . In 1872 they ordered Freemasons expelled from lay brotherhoods . While European Masonry often tended towards atheism and anti @-@ clericalism , things were much different in Brazil where membership in Masonic orders was common — although Pedro II himself was not a Freemason . The government headed by the Viscount of Rio Branco tried on two separate occasions to persuade the bishops to repeal , but they refused . This led to their trial and conviction by the Superior Court of Justice . In 1874 they were sentenced four years at hard labor , although the Emperor commuted this to imprisonment only .
Pedro II played a decisive role by unequivocally backing the government 's actions . He was a conscientious adherent of Catholicism , which he viewed as advancing important civilizing and civic values . While he avoided anything that could be considered unorthodox , he felt free to think and behave independently . The Emperor accepted new ideas , such as Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution , of which he remarked that " the laws that he [ Darwin ] has discovered glorify the Creator " . He was moderate in his religious beliefs , but could not accept disrespect to civil law and government authority . As he told his son @-@ in @-@ law : " [ The government ] has to ensure that the constitution is obeyed . In these proceedings there is no desire to protect masonry ; but rather the goal of upholding the rights of the civilian power . " The crisis was resolved in September 1875 after the Emperor grudgingly agreed to grant full amnesty to the bishops and the Holy See annulled the interdicts .
= = = To the U.S. , Europe and Mideast = = =
Once again the Emperor traveled abroad , this time going to the United States . He was accompanied by his faithful servant Rafael , who had raised him from childhood . Pedro II arrived in New York City on 15 April 1876 , and set out from there to travel throughout the country ; going as far as San Francisco in the west , New Orleans in the south , Washington , D.C. , and north to Toronto , Canada . The trip was " an unalloyed triumph " , Pedro II making a deep impression on the American people with his simplicity and kindness . He then crossed the Atlantic , where he visited Denmark , Sweden , Finland , Russia , Ottoman Empire , Greece , the Holy Land , Egypt , Italy , Austria , Germany , France , Britain , Netherlands , Switzerland and Portugal . He returned to Brazil on 22 September 1877 .
Pedro II 's trips abroad made a deep psychological impact . While traveling , he was largely freed of the restrictions imposed by his office . Under the pseudonym " Pedro de Alcântara " , he enjoyed moving about as an ordinary person , even taking a train journey solely with his wife . Only while touring abroad could the Emperor shake off the formal existence and demands of the life he knew in Brazil . It became more difficult to reacclimate to his routine as head of state upon returning . Upon his sons ' early deaths , the Emperor 's faith in the monarchy 's future had evaporated . His trips abroad now made him resentful of the burden destiny had placed upon his shoulders when only a child of five . If he previously had no interest in securing the throne for the next generation , he now had no desire to keep it going during his own lifetime .
= = Decline and fall = =
= = = Decadence = = =
During the 1880s , Brazil continued to prosper and social diversity increased markedly , including the first organized push for women 's rights . On the other hand , letters written by Pedro II reveal a man grown world @-@ weary with age and having an increasingly alienated and pessimistic outlook . He remained respectful of his duty and was meticulous in performing the tasks demanded of the imperial office , albeit often without enthusiasm . Because of his increasing " indifference towards the fate of the regime " and his lack of action in support of the imperial system once it was challenged , historians have attributed the " prime , perhaps sole , responsibility " for the dissolution of the monarchy to the Emperor himself .
After their experience of the perils and obstacles of government , the political figures who had arisen during the 1830s saw the Emperor as providing a fundamental source of authority essential for governing and for national survival . These elder statesmen began to die off or retire from government until , by the 1880s , they had almost entirely been replaced by a younger generation of politicians who had no experience of the early years of Pedro II 's reign , when internal and external dangers threatened the nation 's existence . They had only known a stable administration and prosperity . In sharp contrast to those of the previous era , the young politicians saw no reason to uphold and defend the imperial office as a unifying force beneficial to the nation .
To those younger politicians Pedro II was merely an old and increasingly sick man who had steadily eroded his position by taking an active role in politics for decades . Before he had been above criticism , but now his every action and inaction prompted meticulous scrutiny and open criticism . Many young politicians had become apathetic toward the monarchic regime and , when the time came , they would do nothing to defend it . Pedro II 's role in achieving an era of national unity , stability and good government now went unremembered and unconsidered by the ruling elites . By his very success , the Emperor had made his position seem unnecessary .
The lack of an heir who could feasibly provide a new direction for the nation also diminished the long @-@ term prospects of the Brazilian monarchy . The Emperor loved his daughter Isabel , but he considered the idea of a female successor as antithetical to the role required of Brazil 's ruler . He viewed the death of his two sons as being a sign that the Empire was destined to be supplanted . Resistance to accepting a female ruler was also shared by the political establishment . Even though the Constitution allowed female succession to the throne , Brazil was still very traditional , and only a male successor was thought capable as head of state .
= = = Slavery abolition and coup d 'état = = =
By June 1887 , the Emperor 's health had considerably worsened and his personal doctors suggested going to Europe for medical treatment . While in Milan he passed two weeks between life and death , even being anointed . While on a bed recovering , on 22 May 1888 he received news that slavery had been abolished in Brazil . With a weak voice and tears in his eyes , he said , " Great people ! Great people ! " Pedro II returned to Brazil and disembarked in Rio de Janeiro in August 1888 . The " whole country welcomed him with an enthusiasm never seen before . From the capital , from the provinces , from everywhere , arrived proofs of affection and veneration . " With the devotion expressed by Brazilians upon the return of the Emperor and the Empress from Europe , the monarchy seemed to enjoy unshakable support and to be at the height of its popularity .
The nation enjoyed great international prestige during the final years of the Empire , and it had become an emerging power within the international arena . Predictions of economic and labor disruption caused by the abolition of slavery failed to materialize and the 1888 coffee harvest was successful . The end of slavery had resulted in an explicit shift of support to republicanism by rich and powerful coffee farmers who held great political , economic and social power in the country . Republicanism was an elitist creed which never flourished in Brazil , with little support in the provinces . The combination of republican ideas and the dissemination of Positivism among the army 's lower and medium officer ranks led to indiscipline among the corps and became a serious threat to the monarchy . They dreamed of a dictatorial republic , which they believed would be superior to the monarchy .
Although there was no desire in Brazil among the majority of the population to change the form of government , the civilian republicans began pressuring army officers to overthrow the monarchy . They launched a coup d 'état , arrested Prime Minister Afonso Celso , Viscount of Ouro Preto and instituted the republic on 15 November 1889 . The few people who witnessed what occurred did not realize that it was a rebellion . Historian Lídia Besouchet noted that " [ r ] arely has a revolution been so minor . " During the ordeal Pedro II showed no emotion , as if unconcerned about the outcome . He dismissed all suggestions for quelling the rebellion that politicians and military leaders put forward . When he heard the news of his deposition he simply commented : " If it is so , it will be my retirement . I have worked too hard and I am tired . I will go rest then . " He and his family were sent into exile in Europe on 17 November .
= = Exile and legacy = =
= = = Last years = = =
Teresa Cristina died three weeks after their arrival in Europe , and Isabel and her family moved to another place while Pedro settled first in Cannes and later in Paris . Pedro 's last couple of years were lonely and melancholic , as he lived in modest hotels without money and writing in his journal of dreams in which he was allowed to return to Brazil . He never supported a restoration of the monarchy , once stating that he had no desire " to return to the position which I occupied , especially not by means of conspiracy of any sort . " One day he caught an infection that progressed quickly into pneumonia . Pedro rapidly declined and died at 00 : 35 on 5 December 1891 surrounded by his family . His last words were " May God grant me these last wishes — peace and prosperity for Brazil " . While the body was being prepared , a sealed package in the room was found , and next to it a message written by the Emperor himself : " It is soil from my country , I wish it to be placed in my coffin in case I die away from my fatherland . "
Isabel wished to hold a discreet and private burial ceremony , but she eventually agreed to the French government 's request for a state funeral . On 9 December , thousands of mourners attended the ceremony at La Madeleine . Aside from Pedro 's family , these included : Francesco II , former king of the Two Sicilies ; Isabel II , former queen of Spain ; Philippe , comte de Paris ; and other members of European royalty . Also present were General Joseph Brugère , representing President Sadi Carnot ; the presidents of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies as well as their members ; diplomats ; and other representatives of the French government . Nearly all members of the Institut de France were in attendance . Other governments from the Americas and Europe sent representatives , as did distant countries such as Ottoman Turkey , China , Japan and Persia . Following the services , the coffin was taken in procession to the train station to begin its trip to Portugal . Around 300 @,@ 000 people lined the route under incessant rain and cold . The journey continued on to the Church of São Vicente de Fora near Lisbon , where the body of Pedro was interred in the Royal Pantheon of the House of Braganza on 12 December .
The Brazilian republican government , " fearful of a backlash resulting from the death of the Emperor " , banned any official reaction . Nevertheless , the Brazilians were far from indifferent to Pedro 's demise , and " repercussions in Brazil were also immense , despite the government 's effort to suppress . There were demonstrations of sorrow throughout the country : shuttered business activity , flags displayed at half @-@ staff , black armbands on clothes , death knells , religious ceremonies . " Masses were held in memory of Pedro throughout Brazil , and he and the monarchy were praised in the eulogies that followed .
= = = Legacy = = =
After his fall , Brazilians remained attached to the former Emperor , who was still a popular and highly praised figure . This view was even stronger among those of African descent , who equated the monarchy with freedom because of his and his daughter Isabel 's part in the abolition of slavery . The continued support for the deposed monarch is largely credited to a generally held and unextinguished belief that he was a truly " wise , benevolent , austere and honest ruler " , said historian Ricardo Salles . The positive view of Pedro II , and nostalgia for his reign , only grew as the nation quickly fell into a series of economic and political crises which Brazilians attributed to the Emperor 's overthrow .
Strong feelings of guilt manifested among republicans , and these became increasingly evident upon the Emperor 's death in exile . They praised Pedro II , who was seen as a model of republican ideals , and the imperial era , which they believed should be regarded as an example to be followed by the young republic . In Brazil , the news of the Emperor 's death " aroused a genuine sense of regret among those who , without sympathy for a restoration , acknowledged both the merits and the achievements of their deceased ruler . " His remains , as well as those of his wife , were returned to Brazil in 1921 in time for the centenary of the Brazilian independence . The government granted Pedro II dignities befitting a head of state . A national holiday was declared and the return of the Emperor as a national hero was celebrated throughout the country . Thousands attended the main ceremony in Rio de Janeiro where , according to historian Pedro Calmon , the " elderly people cried . Many knelt down . All clapped hands . There was no distinction between republicans and monarchists . They were all Brazilians . " This homage marked the reconciliation of Republican Brazil with its monarchical past .
Historians have expressed high regard for Pedro II and his reign . The scholarly literature dealing with him is vast and , with the exception of the period immediately after his ouster , overwhelmingly positive , and even laudatory . He has been regarded by several historians in Brazil as the greatest Brazilian . In a manner similar to methods which were used by republicans , historians point to the Emperor 's virtues as an example to be followed , although none go so far as to advocate a restoration of the monarchy . Historian Richard Graham noted that " [ m ] ost twentieth @-@ century historians , moreover , have looked back on the period [ of Pedro II 's reign ] nostalgically , using their descriptions of the Empire to criticize — sometimes subtly , sometimes not — Brazil 's subsequent republican or dictatorial regimes . "
= = Titles and honors = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
2 December 1825 – 7 April 1831 : His Imperial Highness The Prince Imperial
7 April 1831 – 15 November 1889 : His Imperial Majesty The Emperor
The Emperor 's full style and title were " His Imperial Majesty Dom Pedro II , Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil " .
= = = Honors = = =
Emperor Pedro II was Grand Master of the following Brazilian Orders :
Order of Christ
Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz
Order of Saint James of the Sword
Order of the Southern Cross
Order of Pedro I
Order of the Rose
He was a recipient of the following foreign honors :
Grand Cross of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Order of Saint Stephen
Grand Cordon of the Belgian Order of Leopold
Grand Cross of the Romanian Order of the Star
Knight of the Danish Order of the Elephant
Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Januarius of the Two Sicilies
Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Ferdinand and of Merit of the Two Sicilies
Grand Cross of the French Légion d 'honneur
Grand Cross of the Greek Order of the Redeemer
Grand Cross of the Dutch Order of the Netherlands Lion
Knight of the Spanish Order of the Golden Fleece
Stranger Knight of the British Order of the Garter
Grand Cross of the Order of Malta
Grand Cross of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre
Grand Cross of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George
Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa
Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Tower and Sword
Grand Cross of the Prussian Order of the Black Eagle
Grand Cross of all Russian orders of chivalry
Knight of the Italian Order of the Most Holy Annunciation
Grand Cross of the Swedish Royal Order of the Seraphim
Grand Cross of the Swedish Order of the Polar Star
Grand Cross ( First Class ) of the Turkish Order of the Medjidie
= = Genealogy = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
The ancestry of Emperor Pedro II :
= = = Issue = = =
= = Endnotes = =
= HD 40307 d =
HD 40307 d is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star HD 40307 , located 42 light @-@ years from Earth in the direction of the southern constellation Pictor . The planet was discovered by the radial velocity method , using the HARPS apparatus in June 2008 . It is the most massive of the six proposed planets in the system . The planet is of interest as this star has relatively low metallicity , supporting a hypothesis that different metallicities in protostars determine what kind of planets they will form .
= = Discovery = =
HD 40307 d was discovered through the Doppler spectroscopy method , which functions by measuring the variations in radial velocity in a star produced by the gravitational effect of orbiting exoplanets . The radial velocities were measured by the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher spectrography system ( HARPS ) at the La Silla Observatory in Chile 's Atacama Desert . The other less massive planets orbiting HD 40307 were discovered in the same way : HD 40307 b and HD 40307 c first , and then HD 40307 e , HD 40307 f , and HD 40307 g . The discovery of HD 40307 d and the former two was announced at the astrophysics conference that took place on June 16 – 18 , 2008 in Nantes , France .
= = Orbit and mass = =
HD 40307 d has a mass of at least 9 @.@ 2 times Earth 's ; assuming that all planets in the system have coplanar orbits , it is the most massive planet known in the system . The planet orbits approximately 0 @.@ 135 astronomical units from its primary star , as compared to Earth 's orbit at approximately one astronomical unit away from the Sun . As a result , one year on HD 40307 d constitutes approximately 20 @.@ 45 Earth days . The eccentricity of the planet 's orbit was found to not differ significantly from zero , meaning that there is insufficient data to distinguish the orbit from an entirely circular one .
The star around which HD 40307 d orbits has an unusually low metallicity compared to that of other planet @-@ bearing stars . This supports a hypothesis concerning the possibility that the metallicity of stars during their births may determine whether a protostar 's accretion disk forms gas giants or terrestrial planets .
= = Characteristics = =
The planet has not been found to transit and , further , it is not likely to . It has also not been imaged . More specific physical characteristics such as radius , composition , and average surface temperature cannot be observed .
A dynamical study of planets b , c , and d showed tidal effects at least on b and c , to the extent that b had to be a sub @-@ Neptune . All the planets from b to at least f must have migrated inward . That study implied that d was a sub @-@ Neptune as well .
As such strong tidal forces often result in the destruction of larger natural satellites in planets orbiting close to a star , it is unlikely that HD 40307 d hosts any satellites .
= Phallus hadriani =
Phallus hadriani , commonly known as the dune stinkhorn , is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae ( stinkhorn ) family . It is a widely distributed species , and is native to Asia , Europe , and North America . In Australia , it is probably an introduced species . The stalk of the fruit body reaches up to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and is spongy , fragile , and hollow . At the top of the stem is a ridged and pitted , thimble @-@ like cap over which is spread olive @-@ colored spore slime ( gleba ) . Shortly after emerging , the gleba liquefies and releases a fetid odor that attracts insects , which help disperse the spores . Said to be edible in its immature egg @-@ like stage , it typically grows in public lawns , yards and gardens , usually in sandy soils . Phallus hadriani may be distinguished from the similar P. impudicus ( the common stinkhorn ) by the presence of a pink or violet @-@ colored volva at the base of the stem , and by differences in odor .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described scientifically by the French botanist Étienne Pierre Ventenat in 1798 , and sanctioned by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon under that name in his 1801 Synopsis Methodica Fungorum . Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck called the species Hymenophallus hadriani in 1817 ; this name is a synonym . According to the taxonomical database Index Fungorum , additional synonyms include : Phallus iosmus , named by Berkeley in 1836 ; Phallus imperialis , Schulzer , 1873 ; Ithyphallus impudicus var. imperialis and Ithyphallus impudicus var. iosmos , De Toni , date unknown .
The specific epithet hadriani is named after the Dutch botanist Hadrianus Junius ( 1512 – 1575 ) , who wrote a pamphlet on stinkhorn mushrooms in 1564 ( Phalli , ex fungorum genere , in Hollandiae ) .
= = Description = =
The immature fruiting bodies of P. hadriani in the egg stage have dimensions of 4 to 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) by 3 to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) , and are colored rosy @-@ pink to violet . They typically have rhizomorphs ( aggregations of mycelium that resemble plant roots ) at the base . The eggs are enclosed in a tough covering and a gelatinous layer that breaks down as the stinkhorn emerges . Mature fruiting bodies , which may be 10 to 20 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 3 to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , have a white- or cream @-@ colored hollow stipe that is spongy and honeycombed . The head is reticulate , ridged and pitted , and covered with olive green glebal mass . The volva is cuplike , and typically retains its pink color although it may turn brownish with age . Fruit bodies are short @-@ lived , typically lasting only one or two days .
Although the odor of P. hadriani has been described by some authors as faint and pleasant or like violets , others describe the smell as fetid or putrid . The gleba is known to attract insects , including flies , bees , and beetles , some of which consume the spore @-@ containing slime . It is thought that long @-@ distance spore dispersal is facilitated by these insects , who may deposit in their feces intact spores that survive the passage through the digestive tract .
The spores are cylindrical , smooth , and hyaline ( translucent ) , with dimensions of 3 – 4 by 1 – 2 µm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are cylindrical , with dimensions of 20 – 25 by 3 – 4 µm . They have eight sterigmata ( slender extensions that attach to the spores ) , as well as a clamp at their base .
= = = Edibility = = =
Like many other stinkhorns , this species is thought to be edible when in its egg form . Central Europeans and the Chinese consider the eggs a delicacy . Regarding the edibility of mature specimens , one author commented on the genus in general , " No one with his sense of smell developed would think of eating the members of this group . "
= = = Similar species = = =
Phallus impudicus has the same overall appearance as P. hadriani , but is distinguished by its white volva . Another similar stinkhorn , P. ravenelii has a smooth , not reticulate head .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Phallus hadriani is known to be in Australia ( where it is thought to be an introduced species imported on woodchip mulch used in gardening and landscaping ) , North America , Europe ( including Denmark , Ireland , Latvia , The Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Slovakia , Sweden , Ukraine , and Wales ) Turkey ( Iğdır Province ) , Japan , and China ( Jilin Province ) .
Phallus hadriani is a saprobic species , and thus obtains nutrients by decomposing organic matter . In North America , it is commonly associated with tree stumps , or roots of stumps that are decomposing in the ground . In Great Britain , its distribution is more or less restricted to coastal dunes , while in Poland , it has been noted to avoid humid and humic forest soils , and live in symbiosis with xerophilous grasses and the black locust tree , Robinia pseudoacacia . The mushroom is one of three species protected by the Red Data Book of Latvia .
= John Paciorek =
John Francis Paciorek ( / pəˈtʃɔːrᵻk / ; born February 11 , 1945 ) is an American former baseball player . He attended high school in Michigan , and was signed by the Houston Colt .45s while playing for the school 's baseball team . After a season in the minor leagues , he was promoted to the Colt .45 's active roster , and played in one game at the end of the 1963 Houston Colt .45s season . In that game , he had three hits and two walks . However , injuries cut his career short ; he missed most of 1964 and 1965 due to surgery , and retired after playing parts of four more seasons in the minors . He returned to school , graduated from the University of Houston , and became a physical education teacher after retiring .
Paciorek is rare among Major League Baseball players in having a perfect batting average of 1 @.@ 000 . He is the only one as yet to achieve this distinction with more than two turns at @-@ bat .
= = Early life = =
Paciorek was born in Detroit on February 11 , 1945 . His father was a factory worker in Plymouth , Michigan . He was the oldest of eight children ; two of his brothers , Tom and Jim , went on to have MLB careers as well . He attended St. Ladislaus High School in Hamtramck , Michigan , and was named to the varsity baseball team as a freshman . During his high school career , he focused on strength building to achieve his dream of being a baseball player . By the time he graduated , he went from 119 pounds ( 54 kg ) to 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) , and was an all @-@ state three @-@ sport star in baseball , football , and basketball . Paciorek also played on Detroit 's team in the National Amateur Baseball Federation ; he was named most valuable player during the annual tournament in 1962 . While he was still in high school , Houston general manager Paul Richards convinced Paciorek to sign with the Colt .45s ; the two agreed to a $ 45 @,@ 000 contract .
= = Baseball career = =
In late 1962 , Paciorek attended an instructional league put on by Houston , which led to him becoming part of the team 's spring training roster as one of 63 invited players . During exhibition play , he " hit everything in sight " , and had a batting average of over .300 . After spring training ended , he began his professional career with the Modesto Colts of the California League and played in 78 games for the team with a .219 batting average and 15 doubles . Late in the season , he injured his back and shoulder ; he was diagnosed with a sciatic nerve injury , and was told to rest . Shortly afterward , however , Houston brought Paciorek and seven other rookies onto the major league roster to play in the season finale on September 29 .
Paciorek , who was the starting right fielder , began the day with a walk in the second inning . He then had a single in the fourth inning , which drove in Rusty Staub and Bob Aspromonte . After singling and again bringing home Aspromonte in the fifth , Paciorek had a walk in the sixth , and ended the day with a leadoff single in the eighth . In total , he went to the plate five times and hit three singles and had two walks , scoring four runs en route to a 12 – 4 Houston victory over the New York Mets . He had a perfect major league career batting average and on @-@ base percentage of 1 @.@ 000 as a result of his performance that day , something no one else with as many plate appearances as Paciorek has done .
Thanks in part to his performance in the final game of Houston 's season , Paciorek was invited to spring training for Houston in 1964 . His performances included a bases @-@ loaded triple against the Mets . However , his poor play on both offense and defense late in spring training led to him being cut despite being nearly a lock to make the roster . He spent part of the year on the Durham Bulls and Statesville Colts , where he had a .135 batting average in 49 combined games . Partway through the year , he had spinal fusion surgery , which caused Paciorek to miss the rest of the 1964 season , as well as all of 1965 .
Paciorek returned to the Houston organization in 1966 , and split the season with the Batavia Trojans and Salisbury Astros , where he hit .193 in 77 combined games . The following year , he played for the Asheville Tourists and Cocoa Astros , had a .104 average in 32 games , and was released at season 's end . He was given a second chance to return to the major leagues when the Cleveland Indians , who were scouting his brother Tom at the University of Houston , signed him to a minor league contract with a spring training invitation . He spent 1968 with the Single @-@ A Reno Silver Sox and the Rock Hill Indians , and hit .268 with 20 home runs in 95 total games ; his 17 home runs with Reno led the team . Paciorek was promoted the following year to the Double @-@ A Waterbury Indians and played in 29 games with them , but tore his achilles tendon during warm @-@ ups , which led to his release and the end of his professional career .
= = Post @-@ baseball career = =
After his baseball career ended , Paciorek returned to school and earned a degree in physical education from the University of Houston , a degree that he began to pursue while recovering from back surgery . While acquiring his degree , he became a Christian Scientist and married Linda Cupp . After graduating from college , he spent several years as an instructor at a Jewish community center , then became a physical education teacher after inquiring about a Christian Science Monitor advertisement for a teaching position at Clairbourn School in San Gabriel , California . Linda died of breast cancer in 1987 , and Paciorek married Karen Purdy two years later . Paciorek has four sons and four daughters . His nephew , Joey Paciorek , played in the Milwaukee Brewers minor league organization , and his sons , Pete and Mack , had minor league careers as well . While watching his son in training camp , Paciorek became an author after watching what he felt was improper instruction given to the players . He has since written two books , Plato & Socrates , Baseball 's Wisest Fans and The Principle of Baseball , and All There is to Know About Hitting .
= Suillus bovinus =
Suillus bovinus , also known as the Jersey cow mushroom or bovine bolete , is a pored mushroom of the genus Suillus in the family Suillaceae . A common fungus native to Europe and Asia , it has been introduced to North America and Australia . It was initially described as Boletus bovinus by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 , and given its current binomial name by Henri François Anne de Roussel in 1806 . It is an edible mushroom , though not highly regarded .
The fungus grows in coniferous forests in its native range , and pine plantations in countries where it has become naturalised . It forms symbiotic ectomycorrhizal associations with living trees by enveloping the tree 's underground roots with sheaths of fungal tissue , and is sometimes parasitised by the related mushroom Gomphidius roseus . Suillus bovinus produces spore @-@ bearing fruit bodies , often in large numbers , above ground . The mushroom has a convex grey @-@ yellow or ochre cap reaching up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) in diameter , which flattens with age . Like other boletes , it has tubes extending downward from the underside of the cap , rather than gills ; spores escape at maturity through the tube openings , or pores . The pore surface is yellow . The stipe , more slender than those of other Suillus boletes , lacks a ring .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Suillus bovinus was one of the many species first described in 1753 by the " father of taxonomy " Carl Linnaeus , who , in the second volume of his Species Plantarum , gave it the name Boletus bovinus . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word bos , meaning " cattle " . The fungus was reclassified in ( and became the type species of ) the genus Suillus by French naturalist Henri François Anne de Roussel in 1796 . Suillus is an ancient term for fungi , and is derived from the word " swine " . Lucien Quélet classified it as Viscipellis bovina in 1886 .
In works published before 1987 , the species was written fully as Suillus bovinus ( L. : Fr . ) Kuntze , as the description by Linnaeus had been name sanctioned in 1821 by the " father of mycology " , Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries . The starting date for all the mycota had been set by general agreement as 1 January 1821 , the date of Fries 's work . Furthermore , as Roussel 's description of Suillus predated this as well , the authority for the genus was assigned to Otto Kuntze . The 1987 edition of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi , and names can now be considered valid as far back as 1 May 1753 , the date of publication of Linnaeus 's work .
Common names include Jersey cow mushroom , bovine bolete , and euro cow bolete . One proposed origin for the scientific name is that medieval knights — who revered Tricholoma equestre — considered this mushroom fit only for cattle @-@ drovers as it was not highly valued .
A limited genetic sampling of species in a 1996 study by Annette Kretzer and colleagues showed Suillus bovinus was related to a lineage that diverged to S. punctipes , S. variegatus and S. tomentosus . A 2001 study found it was not closely related to other European species , and that all populations tested were more closer to each other than any other and hence it was a cohesive species .
Czech mycologist Josef Šutara circumscribed the genus Mariaella in 1987 , assigning Mariaella bovina as the type species . Mariaella contained Suillus species in section Fungosi . Molecular studies do not support the existence of Mariaella , and so it is considered synonymous with Suillus . Older synonyms for S. bovinus include those resulting from generic transfers to Agaricus by Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck in 1783 , and the now @-@ obsolete Ixocomus by Lucien Quélet in 1888 .
In 1951 , Arthur Anselm Pearson described the variety Boletus bovinus var. viridocaerulescens , which was later transferred to Suillus by Rolf Singer in 1961 . This variant , collected in Western Cape Province , South Africa , differs from the main form by the staining reaction of the cap flesh , which turns dark or light greenish @-@ blue upon injury . Index Fungorum does not , however , recognise the variety as having independent taxonomic significance .
Chemical analysis of pigments and chromogens showed that Suillus was more closely related to Gomphidius and Rhizopogon than to other boletes , and hence Suillus bovinus and its allies were transferred from the Boletaceae to the newly circumscribed family Suillaceae in 1997 . Molecular studies have reinforced how distantly related these fungi are from Boletus edulis and its allies .
= = Description = =
The fruit body — colloquially called a mushroom — of Suillus bovinus is smaller and daintier than most other boletes . The cap is initially convex , then flat with a wavy margin and a grey @-@ yellow or ochre with pink tinge in some specimens . It ranges from 3 – 10 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 4 – 4 in ) in diameter and has a sticky skin . The flesh is whitish , yellowish or clay @-@ coloured and has a fruity smell . Sometimes turning a pink tinge when bruised , the flesh is spongy and rubbery . Like other boletes , it has pores instead of gills that make up the hymenophore on the underside of the cap . Suillus bovinus has a characteristic compound pore layer , consisting of an outer layer of coarse , angular pores overlaying an inner layer of finer pores . The pores are grey- to olive @-@ yellow and generally decurrent , comprising yellow to
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to grow , as 18 @,@ 000 arrivals were recorded by 2010 . Director of the Split Port Authority is Joško Berket Bakota .
= = Transport facilities = =
The Port of Split is located on the Adriatic Sea coast in a bay protected by the Split peninsula and a string of islands . Its facilities include terminals and other structures in Split , Solin and Kaštela , all located on approximately 15 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 3 miles ) of coast . The port is connected by the International E @-@ road network routes E65 and E71 carried by the Croatian A1 motorway and the D1 state road . The port is also connected with Zagreb by an electrified single @-@ track railway , which runs through Knin and Karlovac .
The port comprises several terminals :
The Port of Split - handles yachts , fishing vessels , passenger ships , navigation safety craft , sailing ships , tugboats , seaplanes and ferries ; contains a passenger terminal and a rail link , 28 berths and accommodates vessels up to 250 meters ( 820 feet ) long with draught up to 7 @.@ 9 meters ( 26 feet )
Resnik @-@ Divulje passenger terminal - designed to facilitate transfer of ship passengers to the Split Airport , located just 950 metres ( 3 @,@ 120 feet ) away ; The terminal consists of a single berth accommodating craft up to 40 meters ( 130 feet ) long with draught up to 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 15 feet )
Vranjic @-@ Solin basin - used as a container cargo terminal , comprising 5 berths , a roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off ramp , 8 storage warehouses , including refrigerated storage and open storage area ; the terminal accommodates ships up to 198 meters ( 650 feet ) long with draught up to 10 @.@ 2 meters ( 33 feet ) ; The facility is located in Vranjic area north of the city of Split , connected by railway and its own truck terminal . The terminal comprises a Free Zone , allowing tax breaks for transshipment of cargo and processing of goods . The terminal encompasses a 19 @.@ 8 @-@ hectare ( 49 @-@ acre ) area .
Kaštela basin A - reserved for mooring of ships under instructions by the port authority
Kaštela basin B - cargo terminal used by the secondary concessionaires ( other than Luka d.d. Split ) , generally for their own transport needs , accommodating ships with draught up to 8 @.@ 2 meters ( 27 feet )
Kaštela basin C - mooring for laid @-@ up vessels , pest control , fishing boats etc . ; the terminal accommodates craft with draught up to 11 @.@ 6 meters ( 38 feet )
= = Airlines and destinations = =
= = History = =
The first trading post at the site of the Port of Split was Aspalathos , established by Greek settlers from the island of Vis in the 4th century BC . Position of the trading post was selected because of its location in a natural harbor and its proximity to numerous Adriatic Sea islands and extensive hinterland populated by Illyrians , most notably in Salona . The area subsequently became a part of the Roman Empire , and after its Decline of the Roman Empire , the coast was brought under rule of the Byzantine Empire , until the area was absorbed into the Kingdom of Croatia in the beginning of the 10th century . In 1102 , Croatia and Kingdom of Hungary were joined in a personal union . By the 12th century , Split had developed trading routes with its hinterland and maritime trade throughout the Adriatic Sea and the Mediterranean . The Republic of Venice of gained full control of Dalmatia and the city of Split by 1428 . In the 16th century , Split was the central maritime trade outlet of the Balkans , where goods were transported from the Ottoman Empire , India and Persia to the Venetian Republic and vice versa . After the fall of Venice , Split was briefly ruled by the Habsburg Monarchy and Austrian Empire between 1797 and 1806 , and the First French Empire until 1813 when Austrian rule was restored . In that period , trade routes shifted to other Adriatic ports , especially the Port of Rijeka , causing a downturn in the city 's economy .
In the second half of the 19th century , the economy of the city of Split and its surrounding area started to recover and Split soon became hub of the central Dalmatia , connecting the hinterland and the neighboring islands . This spurred development of the city port and its transport connections , including construction of a new breakwater and the Split – Knin railway . In 1925 , the railway was linked to the Rijeka – Zagreb railway via Gospić , allowing development of a modern port . Since 1957 , cargo terminals of the Port of Split were relocated from the city centre to industrial zones in Solin and Kaštela areas , while passenger traffic still uses the centrally positioned harbor .
= = = Future expansion = = =
As of 2011 , the Port of Split facilities are intended to be modernized to specialize in domestic and international passenger traffic . Consequently , St. Nicholas pier is planned to be extended and summer seasonal berths are scheduled to be added by 2015 . The Resnik @-@ Divulje passenger terminal is planned to be expanded within the framework of the second construction stage entailing two additional berths by the end of 2014 . The expansions of the two passenger terminals are aimed at achieving passenger transport capacity of 7 million passengers per year . Two new berths capable of accommodating 300 @-@ metre ( 980 ft ) long cruise ships are also planned , and is expected to cost 100 million kuna ( 13 @.@ 3 million euro ) to construct . The container terminal in Vranjic @-@ Solin basin is also expected to be modernized and its infrastructure is planned to be upgraded . Other segments of the port are scheduled to undergo comparably minor repairs as well .
= In da Club =
" In da Club " is a hip hop song performed by American rapper 50 Cent from his debut studio album Get Rich or Die Tryin ' ( 2003 ) . The song was written by 50 Cent , Dr. Dre , and Mike Elizondo and produced by Dr. Dre with co @-@ production credit from Elizondo . The track was released in January 2003 as the album 's lead single and was praised by music critics .
" In da Club " peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming 50 Cent 's first number one single on that chart . At the 46th Grammy Awards , it was nominated for Best Male Rap Solo Performance and Best Rap Song . The song 's music video won Best Rap Video and Best New Artist at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards . In 2009 , the single was listed at number 24 in Billboard 's Hot 100 Songs of the Decade . It was listed at number 13 in Rolling Stone 's " Best Songs of the Decade " . In 2010 , it was ranked 448th in Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list .
= = Background = =
After 50 Cent was discovered by rapper Eminem in 2002 , he flew to Los Angeles where he was introduced to record producer Dr. Dre . " In da Club " was the first of seven tracks he recorded in five days with Dr. Dre . 50 Cent described the studio sessions , saying :
Dre , he 'll play dope beats ... [ He 'll say ] , ' These are the hits , 50 . So pick one of these and make a couple of singles or something . ' The very first time he heard [ me rap on ] ' In Da Club ' he said , ' Yo , I didn 't think you was going to go there with it , but , you know , it works . ' He was probably thinking of going in a different direction with that song . Then he expanded it into a hit record .
The production was originally given to the hip hop group D12 , but was passed on to 50 Cent because the group did not know how to approach the song . He recorded the track with only the drum beat present . Since much of the content on Get Rich or Die Tryin ' was " dark " , he wanted to write material that was " the exact opposite " . He called the song a " celebration of life . Every day it 's relevant all over ' cause every day is someone 's birthday . "
= = Critical reception = =
" In da Club " was lauded by music critics . AllMusic described it as " a tailor @-@ made mass @-@ market good @-@ time single " . The Source called the song a " guaranteed party starter " with its " blaring horns , funky organs , guitar riffs and sparse hand claps " . The BBC also wrote that the song is " a spectacular party anthem " that " highlights 50 Cent 's ability to twist his words effortlessly " . Entertainment Weekly noted that 50 Cent " boasts unashamedly of his career objectives and newly flush bank account " with lyrics such as " I 'm feelin ' focus , man , my money on my mind / Got a mil out the deal and I 'm still on the grind . "
Rolling Stone wrote that the song sports " a spare yet irresistible synth hook augmented by a tongue @-@ twisting refrain " .The Guardian called the track " irresistible " due to its " sparse orchestral samples and snaking chorus " , and Pitchfork Media said , " the bounce on ' In da Club ' is straight @-@ up irresistible , Dre at both his minimalist best and most deceptively infectious . " Splendid magazine called the song an " insanely catchy " single with its " stanky , horn @-@ addled thump " . The track was listed at number ten on Blender magazine 's " The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born " . In 2008 , it was ranked at number 18 on VH1 's " 100 Greatest Hip Hop Songs " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Before my album Get Rich or Die Tryin ' came out , there was a big debate about what the first single should be . Jimmy Iovine thought it should be the one that Dr. Dre produced , ' If I Can 't ' . But Em wanted ' In Da Club ' . In the end they were deadlocked , so they asked me and I told them , real quiet , ' In Da Club ' . The rest was history . " – 50 Cent
" In da Club " became 50 's first number one . It peaked at # 1 for 9 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 and remained on the chart for 30 weeks . The track also reached # 1 on the Top 40 Tracks , Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , and Hot Rap Tracks charts . In March 2003 , it broke a Billboard record as the " most listened @-@ to " song in radio history within a week . Billboard also ranked it as the No. 1 song for 2003 . The Recording Industry Association of America certified the track Gold .
Nominated for Best Male Rap Solo Performance and Best Rap Song at the 2004 Grammy Awards , it lost to Eminem 's " Lose Yourself " .
Across Europe , it reached number one in Denmark , Germany , Ireland , Switzerland , Austria , Belgium , Finland , Greece , Norway , Sweden , and the Netherlands , and number three in United Kingdom . In Australia , the single peaked at number one , was certified two times Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , and on the 2003 year @-@ end chart , it was listed at number five .
= = Music video = =
Phillip Atwell directed the music video on December 10 – 11 , 2002 . Almost all the film footage was used in the video except for a scene where 50 Cent raps in a glass box . The video is set in a fictional hip hop boot camp known as the Shady / Aftermath Artist Development Center . It begins with a black Hummer driving to the facility at an unknown location . Video clips from Eminem 's single " Without Me " are seen playing in the entrance on flat screen TVs . We see Eminem & Dr. Dre looking down at the lab from a lab balcony with windows . 50 Cent is introduced by hanging upside down from the roof of a gym . Atwell commented , " I think I could have done better with it , but I really liked the way that it turned out " . The video also contains a shooting range , which Atwell felt was appropriate because 50 Cent had been shot nine times . He said , " creatively , I felt like we were able to put guns in a video and have it play . And I like it when you are able to play within the standards and still give the artist something symbolic of what they are going for . "
The video ends with the camera zooming out of the club to reveal a two @-@ way mirror with Eminem and Dr. Dre in white lab uniforms , observing 50 Cent and taking notes . Atwell stated that " seeing 50 with Dre and Em having his back is as big a visual statement as it is a musical statement " and the shot was significant because it made clear the club was inside the center and not unrelated performance footage . On January 27 , 2003 , the video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live at number nine and stayed on the chart for fifty days . It also reached number one on the MuchMusic video charts . At the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , the video was awarded Best Rap Video and Best New Artist and was nominated for Video of the Year , Best Male Video , and Viewer 's Choice . Cameos include : Dr. Dre , Eminem , D12 , Lloyd Banks , Tony Yayo , Game ( in his first cameo appearance ) , Bang ' Em Smurf , Young Buck , Xzibit and DJ Whoo Kid .
= = Lawsuit = =
In January 2006 , 50 Cent was sued for copyright infringement by former 2 Live Crew manager Joseph Weinberger , who owns the rights to the rap group 's catalog . He claimed that 50 Cent plagiarized the lines " it 's your birthday " from the eponymous second track of former 2 Live Crew frontman Luther Campbell 's 1994 album Freak for Life 6996 ( also known simply as Freak for Life ) . The lawsuit was dismissed by U.S. District Judge Paul Huck , who ruled that the phrase was a " common , unoriginal and noncopyrightable element of the song " .
= = Remixes = =
Many remixes for the song have been made by artists including Beyoncé , Mary J. Blige , P. Diddy , Lil Wayne and many others who rapped their own verses over the song 's instrumentals .
= = = " Sexy Lil Thug " = = =
In 2003 , American recording artist Beyoncé recorded a remix version of " In da Club " titled " Sexy Lil Thug " . Her version sampled the original 's instrumental and melody with the singer singing her own , newly added verses . In the song , she references Jimmy Choo shoes , Marilyn Monroe , Marc Jacobs , and Bailey Bank and Biddle . Makkada B. Selah of The Village Voice said , " Her version of ' In da Club ' outed 50 Cent as a singing @-@ ass rapper with lines like ' Don 't wanna be your girl / I ain 't lookin ' for no love / So come give me a hug / You a sexy little thug . ' " Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle coined Beyoncé 's cover version as a " female spin " on the original . The song was officially released on Beyoncé 's mixtape Speak My Mind . According to Guerra of the Houston Chronicle , the song was never an official single , likely because of permission issues . Beyoncé 's version of the song charted for 7 weeks and peaked at number 67 on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . In 2013 , Mike Wass of the website Idolator put " Sexy Lil Thug " at number six on his list of " Beyonce 's 10 Best Unreleased And Rare Tracks " . He described it as a " radio staple " in 2003 , adding that it " remains something of a lost gem " and concluded " Queen Bey spit iconic lyrics like ' I ’ m that classy mami with the Marilyn Monroe body ' " . An unauthorised mashup popular in Britain combined 50 Cent 's vocals with the theme tune to Thomas the Tank Engine .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Information taken from the liner notes of Get Rich or Die Tryin ' .
Producer : Dr. Dre
Co @-@ producer : Mike Elizondo
Audio mixing : Dr. Dre
Recording engineers : Mauricio " Veto " Iragorri , Sha Money XL
Assistant engineers : James " Flea " McCrone , Francis Forde , Ruben Rivera
Keyboards , guitars , bass : Mike Elizondo
Percussion : DJ Quik
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Master Chief ( Halo ) =
MCPON John @-@ 117 , or " Master Chief " , is a fictional character and the protagonist of the Halo fictional universe created by Bungie . Master Chief is a playable character in the series of science fiction first @-@ person shooter video games Halo : Combat Evolved , Halo 2 , Halo 3 , Halo 4 , and Halo 5 : Guardians . Outside video games , the character appears in books and graphic novels — Halo : The Fall of Reach , Halo : The Flood , Halo : First Strike , and Halo : Uprising — and has cameos in other Halo media , including Halo : Reach , Halo : Ghosts of Onyx , The Halo Graphic Novel , Halo Legends and Halo 4 : Forward Unto Dawn .
The Master Chief is a towering and faceless biochemically and cybernetically @-@ enhanced supersoldier , raised and trained from an early age to be a weapon ; he is almost never seen without his green @-@ colored armor and helmet . He is commonly referred to by his naval rank , rather than his given birth @-@ name or serial @-@ designation . The character is voiced by Steve Downes , a Chicago disc jockey , in the video games in which he appears . Downes based his personification of the Chief on an initial character sketch which called for a Clint Eastwood @-@ type character of few words .
The Master Chief is a video game icon , a relative newcomer among more established franchise characters , such as Mario , Sonic the Hedgehog and Lara Croft . The character has received a mostly positive reception . While some have described the Chief 's silent and faceless nature as a weakness of the character , other publications have suggested these attributes better allows players to assume his role .
= = Character design = =
The task of developing Master Chief for the character 's first appearance in Halo : Combat Evolved fell on Rob McLees and the project 's art director , Marcus Lehto . Eventually , Shi Kai Wang was hired for conceptual art . One of Wang 's sketches was accepted and became the basis for the Master Chief ; however , after Wang 's version was converted to a 3 @-@ D model , it was decided the character looked too slender , " almost effeminate " . The Master Chief was subsequently bulked up to the version currently found in the games . Similarly , the Chief 's armor went through various changes , such as the addition of an antenna , which was removed later in development , and a green tint .
In an interview on creating believable video game characters , Bungie 's Joseph Staten noted that , " Master Chief is really what kicked off the creativity , " he said , " in terms of how people react to him . He 's a space Marine in really cool green armor . " The character 's perspective changed as the game itself changed from a real @-@ time strategy game to a first @-@ person shooter , but the Chief was always intended to be a soldier in the last part of a long and bitter war . For much of the game 's development , the character had no name . The developers spent time considering what rank and branch of the armed forces the Chief would belong to — naval ranks grabbed them as " different " from ones the developers had heard of before . " Master Chief " was intended to be a placeholder while a real name was finalized , but the moniker stuck .
Downes , who voices the Master Chief , is a disc jockey and voice actor who had never played video games before Halo . Downes only previous experience with video game voice work was a small part for Septerra Core : Legacy of the Creator . During production of Halo , Martin O 'Donnell , Bungie 's music director , recommended Downes for the part of the Chief based on his experience working on Septerra . Downes never interviewed for the part , describing his acceptance as " a phone call " . For years Downes never appeared at Bungie or Microsoft events and believed that the Master Chief is left masked because " [ the character 's identity ] is really in the eye of the player " .
= = Attributes = =
= = = Personality = = =
Downes said that his voicing for Master Chief was based entirely on Bungie 's written character description provided , which specified a character similar to Clint Eastwood and of few words . In a podcast interview , the actor noted that , during the recording , he was given a fair amount of creative leeway to develop the Chief 's personality . In the games , Master Chief never speaks during player @-@ controlled gameplay , making him an almost silent protagonist . Even during cut scenes , the character generally speaks sparingly . Bungie Studios ' Frank O 'Connor has described the Chief as " so quiet and so invisible , literally , that the player gets to pretend they 're the Chief . The player gets to inhabit those shoes [ and ] apply their own personality . " Bungie concept artist Eddie Smith described Master Chief as " pretty much the consummate professional . He does his job , walks off , doesn 't even get the girl , he 's that cool he doesn 't need her . " Although the Master Chief is usually depicted as calm , quiet , and wryly cynical , some reviewers stated that Eric Nylund 's portrayal of the character in Halo : The Fall of Reach deviates significantly from the treatment found in the games and other media . Alternatively , William C. Dietz 's portrayal of the Chief in Halo : The Flood was occasionally blasted by fans as too radical a departure from Nylund 's template .
Initially , the very existence of the SPARTAN project and thus John 's existence , was categorised as classified information . Many within the United Nations Space Command ( UNSC ) , who were aware of this information , were strongly opinionated against the project , as the SPARTAN unit 's proven versatility elevated them into direct competition with role @-@ dedicated , established units . Since John emerged as the most exemplary Spartan from among the unit , he became the natural target of their sentiments . Antonio Silva , an officer from one such unit ( ODSTs ) , exemplifies this attitude , and considers the Master Chief the freak product of an experiment that should never be repeated . Although the Chief resents Silva 's dishonor to his fallen comrades ' memory , he is also loyal to the chain of command , and remains quiet . Following the partial declassification of the SPARTAN project , John 's heroic achievements caused the overall sentiment to lean in his favor . Despite these explorations of the character 's personality , O 'Connor said in an interview that revealing the face of the Chief is not as important as revealing the events going on around the character .
The Master Chief has a close relationship with the artificial intelligence construct Cortana , whom he meets just prior to the fall of the human colony Reach before the events of Combat Evolved . Cortana was created as a game design requirement to guide the character as Master Chief throughout the game world , but she became an important aspect of revealing the Chief 's humanity . " Over time , Cortana became a fully realized character — a friend and companion to the Chief , not to mention the only person to poke revealing holes in his tough @-@ guy exterior , " Staten recalled . The game designers also crafted the player experience of the first game to focus on abandonment and loneliness in many levels , as it reinforced the plot point that many of the Chief 's friends were killed before the game began .
= = = Outward appearance = = =
In the video games , the Master Chief is rarely seen without his armor . In @-@ game cutscenes tease the character 's face , but never reveal it ; for example , at the end of Halo : Combat Evolved , the Chief removes his helmet , but camera movement hides his head . Bungie says this helps the gamer fully assume his character . At the end of Halo 4 , Master Chief 's eyes are briefly shown when he removes his armor and helmet . One physical description of the adult Master Chief comes from the novels . During a briefing scene in Halo : The Flood , the Chief is described as tall with short hair , serious eyes , and strong features . His skin is " too white " , a consequence of spending most of his time in his armor . The Master Chief stands about seven feet ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) tall and weighs 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) in armor ; without it , he stands six feet , seven inches ( 2 m ) tall and weighs 287 pounds ( 130 kg ) .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Halo : The Fall of Reach = = =
The Master Chief 's backstory is never explained in the games . A prequel of Halo : Combat Evolved , the 2001 novel The Fall of Reach , reveals much of the character 's history and was released as a companion to the game . Master Chief , originally named John , was born in 2511 and first lived with his family on the human colony planet Eridanus II . Large for his six years of age , and approximately a foot above his school peers , he is described as a typical boy with brown hair , freckles and a gap between his two front teeth . In 2517 , John and dozens of children his age are covertly taken from their homes and replaced with clones to hide the kidnapping . The original children are brought to the planet Reach , one of the UNSC 's bastions , to begin intense physical and psychological training to become " Spartan @-@ II " supersoldiers . They are assigned new identification numbers instead of last names ; John becomes known as John @-@ 117 . Approximately eight years later , John and the other children are biologically and cybernetically augmented and enhanced . These procedures have substantial risks ; only John and thirty @-@ two other Spartans survive .
After the Spartans ' first successful operation , John @-@ 117 is briefed on the threat posed by the Covenant , a theocratic alliance of alien races , and witnesses the utter devastation wrought by a single ship . In 2552 , the Chief and Spartans return to Reach , where the UNSC High Command has developed a last @-@ ditch plan to capture a Covenant High Prophet , who they hope could be used in order to barter a truce . The Master Chief 's armor is upgraded , and he first encounters the artificial intelligence ( AI ) Cortana during a training mission . The Covenant arrive and invade , despite the best efforts of the Spartans and other UNSC forces . Aboard the spaceship Pillar of Autumn , Cortana plots a random course of escape . Seemingly the last Spartan alive , the Master Chief enters cryonic sleep along with the Pillar of Autumn 's crew .
= = = Halo : Combat Evolved = = =
Master Chief first appears in the games as the protagonist of Halo : Combat Evolved and the 2003 novelization , Halo : The Flood . During the opening cinematic of Halo : Combat Evolved , the Chief is awakened from cryonic sleep . Upon exiting slipspace , the Pillar of Autumn is attacked by the Covenant and crash lands on Halo , a ring @-@ shaped megastructure . Master Chief escapes the ship via an escape pod . Upon landing on Halo , his first task is to find other survivors . While fighting the Covenant , Master Chief and Cortana learn that Halo was created by an ancient race , the Forerunners , as a last line of defense against an alien parasite called the Flood . The Covenant accidentally release the Flood , which begins to spread across the ring . At the request of the installation 's resident AI 343 Guilty Spark , Master Chief retrieves the Index , a device used to activate Halo 's defenses and eliminate the Flood . However , Guilty Spark neglects to inform the Master Chief that Halo would accomplish this by destroying all sentient life in a vast radius , essentially starving the Flood to death . Cortana intervenes to prevent the activation of Halo . She and the Master Chief destroy it by detonating the Pillar of Autumn 's fusion reactor core . The Master Chief and Cortana escape in a Longsword spacecraft , believing they are the only survivors .
= = = First Strike and Halo 2 = = =
Halo : First Strike , the 2003 novel by Eric Nylund , follows the Master Chief after the events of Halo : Combat Evolved and bridges the events of Halo and Halo 2 . Floating in Halo 's debris field , Cortana and the Chief discover that there are in fact other human survivors . The Master Chief and these soldiers capture the Covenant flagship Ascendant Justice , and return to Reach to save any UNSC survivors on the planet . At Reach , the Master Chief discovers that the Covenant had not destroyed the planet 's biosphere in the usual manner , and that a few other Spartans survive . The Chief retrieves Dr. Catherine Elizabeth Halsey , the creative genius behind the SPARTAN @-@ II Project , and his fellow soldiers . The Spartans then attack a massive Covenant command station , the Unyielding Hierophant , thus delaying a Covenant assault on Earth .
The Master Chief returns as one of two playable characters in Halo 2 , the 2004 sequel to Halo : Combat Evolved . Returning to Earth with heavily damaged armor , the Master Chief receives an upgrade . Aboard Cairo Station in space , he attends a brief awards ceremony , which is interrupted by a Covenant invasion . Master Chief is commanded to protect the station . The Covenant is repelled , and the Master Chief joins the ship In Amber Clad to fight the Covenant on Earth 's surface , in New Mombasa . As the Covenant departs via slipspace , the In Amber Clad follows them to Installation 05 , another Halo . The Master Chief lands on this Halo and subsequently assassinates the Covenant High Prophet of Regret . Emerging from a structure , the Master Chief is attacked by orbiting Covenant forces , but is rescued by the Gravemind , an intelligence of Flood origin . The Gravemind sends him to High Charity to search for Delta Halo 's Index . Subsequently , the Master Chief boards a Forerunner ship bound for Earth , intending to " finish the fight " .
= = = Uprising and Halo 3 = = =
Back on Earth , the Master Chief helps to repel hostile Covenant forces from Mombasa , Kenya and Voi . With the Arbiter ( a Covenant Elite who has sided with humanity ) and fellow allies , the Chief leads the assault on a Forerunner artifact that the Covenant Prophet of Truth is attempting to activate . Soon after Truth escapes Earth through the slipspace portal opened by the artifact , the Flood lands on Earth . After helping to control the infestation , the Master Chief follows Truth to the Ark , an immense constructed world more than 262 @,@ 144 light @-@ years from the center of the Milky Way galaxy and well beyond the range of any Halo . There , all the Halos can be remotely activated , thus killing all sentient life that could be infested by the Flood . It is discovered that a new Halo is being constructed to replace the one that the Master Chief destroyed in Halo : Combat Evolved . The Flood follow the Chief to the Ark , bringing High Charity through the slipspace portal to escape the range of the six original Halos . The allied Elites and humans decide to activate the new Halo in order to kill the Flood outside the galaxy , and thus preserve life there . 343 Guilty Spark opposes the premature activation of the incomplete installation and attempts to stop it . Master Chief destroys him , activates the ring , and escapes with Cortana and the Arbiter on the UNSC frigate Forward Unto Dawn . During the escape , the collapsing slipspace portal severs the Dawn in two , stranding Cortana and the Master Chief deep in space . While the Arbiter returns to Earth , Cortana activates a distress beacon , knowing that rescue could take years ; the Master Chief enters cryonic sleep , telling Cortana , " Wake me , when you need me . " If the player finishes the last level on Legendary difficulty , a cutscene shows the severed half of the ship floating near an unknown planet .
= = = Halo 4 = = =
Master Chief awakens from the cryo @-@ pod he entered at the end of Halo 3 within the Forward Unto Dawn . The Covenant are invading the ship and Master Chief fights his way outside as the frigate crash lands on a Forerunner shield world . He survives the fall and awakens inside the shield world without serious injury . There , while fighting the shield world 's defensive AI which Cortana identifies as " Prometheans " , he encounters the Didact , an antagonistic Forerunner who plans on using a Forerunner artifact called The Composer to turn humanity into digital data . Master Chief manages to foil his plans by delivering a HAVOK nuclear warhead inside the Didact 's ship and detonating it , while the increasingly rampant Cortana protects him with a hard light barrier before fading away leaving the Chief mourning her loss .
= = = Halo 5 : Guardians = = =
During the events between Halo 4 and Halo 5 , Master Chief has reunited with and taken command of Blue Team , the last remaining known survivors of the SPARTAN @-@ II program since Halo : First Strike . By the events of Halo 5 , Master Chief has been known to execute countless military operations non @-@ stop without rest alongside Blue Team . Blue Team 's latest operation entailed the attempted retaking of an Office of Naval Intelligence facility on Argent Moon from Jul M 'Dama 's Covenant remnant forces . During the operation , Master Chief comes into contact with what he believes to be Cortana , directed to go to Meridian . After sharing his findings with both Blue Team and the UNSC flagship Infinity after scuttling the station , Master Chief goes AWOL to investigate Meridian , with Blue Team following out of their lifelong loyalty to their team leader . Blue Team 's rogue actions attract the attention of Fireteam Osiris , a team of SPARTAN @-@ IV operatives led by Jameson Locke assigned with the purpose of returning them to custody .
Blue Team finds a dormant Guardian , an autonomous Forerunner ship . After a brief fight with Locke , Blue Team boards the ship and is transported to the Forerunner World of Genesis . Upon reaching Genesis , Blue Team learns that Cortana did not perish , but came across the Domain , a Forerunner computer network that serves as " the fountain of youth " for artificial intelligence . Suspicious about Cortana 's nature and aware of the damage Cortana had caused , Blue Team attempts to meet with Cortana in an attempt to return her back to the UNSC . Fireteam Osiris reaches Blue Team 's location and attempts to assist them , only for the two SPARTAN fireteams to get separated . After fighting through scores of Promethean forces , Master Chief attempts to negotiate with Cortana and asks her to return to the UNSC , only for Cortana to refuse and imprison Blue Team in a Forerunner prison called the Cryptum with the intent of preserving them while Cortana enforces a forced peace across the galaxy . Fireteam Osiris narrowly releases Blue Team from Cortana 's captivity , and reunites Blue Team with Dr. Catherine Halsey , the creator and surrogate mother of the SPARTAN @-@ IIs .
= = Other appearances = =
The Master Chief has appeared or has been referenced several times in non @-@ canon media . He is mentioned several times in Rooster Teeth Productions ' Halo @-@ based machinima parody series Red vs. Blue . In the first episode of the series , Grif , talking to teammate Simmons , says , " I signed up to fight some aliens . Next thing I know , Master Chief blows up the whole Covenant Armada , and I 'm stuck in the middle of nowhere , fighting a bunch of blue guys . " In the Halo Zune exclusive video titled " Turn On , Tune In , Zune Out " , Doc has a segment on his radio broadcast called " You 're not Master Chief , and that 's okay " . Team Ninja approached Bungie Studios and asked to use the Master Chief in their 2006 video game Dead or Alive 4 . Although the Chief could not be used due to storyline restrictions , Bungie 's interest in the idea resulted in the development of Nicole ( Spartan @-@ 458 ) .
Marketing for Halo 3 focused heavily on the character of the Master Chief , including " The Museum " , and appears in the subsequent video as part of a special advertisement series for Halo 3 entitled " Believe in a Hero " . The character appears outside Halo fandom and associated works ; a medieval variation of the Master Chief 's MJOLNIR armour appears in Fable II , as the suit of armour worn by a legendary hero named " Hal " . Hal 's Armour only appears as downloadable content .
Peter David 's graphic novel Helljumpers contains a cameo by the Master Chief " before he actually was [ the Chief ] . " The Master Chief appears as a main character in Marvel 's limited series Halo : Uprising , which ties together the events of Halo 2 and Halo 3 . The Master Chief appears in four episodes of the 2010 anime collection Halo Legends : " The Package " , " Origins " , " Homecoming " and " Odd One Out " .
Master Chief can be seen briefly at the end of the Halo : Reach campaign . When moving the right analog stick at the proper time during a cutscene , he can be seen in his cryo @-@ tube , ready to be revived at the beginning of Combat Evolved .
In 2008 , Neill Blomkamp , director of the delayed Halo film , said the film would have depicted the character as " the most important supporting cast member " because of his faceless nature . Instead , " other characters around him [ ... ] did most of the emotional heavy lifting " , with their story exploring their perception of the Chief .
= = Influences and analysis = =
IGN saw in the Master Chief elements of Jon 6725416 , a character in Christopher Rowley 's novel Starhammer . Other reviewers have suggested that the name John @-@ 117 could be a Biblical reference . Michael Nitsche of the Georgia Institute of Technology found similarity to Gordon Freeman , the protagonist of Valve Corporation 's Half @-@ Life series of FPS video games : " [ Both characters ] are the independent , individualistic , and often lonely heroes that gain admiration by constantly proving their superiority ... in technology @-@ driven , hostile , often closed spaces " .
Roger Travis , associate professor of classics at the University of Connecticut , compared the Master Chief to the epic hero Aeneas , in that both superhuman characters save a civilization by defeating strong enemies in a martial setting . The audience is intended to identify with the protagonist similarly in both stories . Matthew Stover compared Halo to the Iliad , saying that both stories share the meta @-@ theme that " war is the crucible of character " . As military science fiction , Halo further raises the issue of being human . Stover argued that , since players are to imagine themselves as the Master Chief , the character is correctly presented as a cyborg , neither a flawless machine nor fully human . Players would be unable to empathize with the former , and the latter would be too specifically developed . This immersion has facilitated the use of the Halo series ' multiplayer mode for live digital puppetry , as in Chris Burke 's machinima talk show This Spartan Life .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
BusinessWeek listed the Master Chief among several video game characters who have been branded beyond their respective video games , " helping them transcend the very medium in the process " . The Master Chief has been used in marketing on a variety of
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products , from 7 @-@ Eleven Slurpees to T @-@ shirts , Xbox 360 controllers , and Mountain Dew .
Several action figures of the character have been created to market of the Halo series ; the most recent were manufactured by McFarlane . One2One collectibles produced 1 : 2 scale busts of the Master Chief . These actions have been called necessary to the game franchise ; Ed Ventura , director of Xbox 's worldwide marketing , said , " We want to be in the hearts and minds of our fans as much as we can . "
= = = Reception = = =
In an article in Time , Lev Grossman stated that the Master Chief represents a " new kind of celebrity for a new and profoundly weird millennium " and is a symbol of the increasing legitimacy of video games as an art form . Asher Moses of The Sydney Morning Herald simply described the Chief as " iconic " . Electronic Gaming Monthly and Empire wrote that the Master Chief had become the de facto symbol for the Xbox and for a new generation of gamers to boot . The recognition of the Master Chief has spread to mainstream culture ; Madame Tussauds in Las Vegas has developed a wax sculpture of the Chief . At the ceremony , Pete Wentz of Fall Out Boy said that " the Master Chief is as much of a hero today as characters like Spider @-@ Man , Frodo , and Luke Skywalker were for previous generations . " Downes only realized his character was such a huge hit after children lined up around the block for his autograph about a year after the game shipped .
Reaction to the Master Chief as a character is mixed . Some reviewers see the character 's silent nature as a strength ; others have said that this quality leaves him insufficiently developed and not believable . UGO ranked the Master Chief at number eight on its 2007 list of top heroes of all time " , ahead of fellow video game characters Samus Aran , Link , and Gordon Freeman . In 2009 , GameDaily listed the " strong and silent type " among top 25 video game archetypes , using Master Chief as an example . Master Chief was also ranked number eight in Empire 's list of the greatest video game characters . In 2009 , GamesRadar included him among the 25 best new characters of the decade . UGO listed Master Chief 's " trademark " helmet in its 2011 list of the coolest helmets and headgear in video games . In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked him as the eight " most memorable , influential , and badass " protagonist in games , commenting : " Chief isn 't the strongest or most crafty hero , and he isn 't particularly charismatic or intelligent or playful . But when civilization is on the line and all other options have been exhausted , Chief is the guy who 's going to get you through . " In 2013 , Complex ranked him as the second greatest soldier in video games .
Conversely , in listing the top ten choices for most overrated video game characters , IGN placed the Master Chief first , suggesting that the real appeal of the games was not their protagonists but the multiplayer mode . In another listing of the top ten video game characters that needed to die , IGN suggested that the dramatic death of the character could be one of the most powerful events in gaming . Cheat Code Central featured him in the 2011 list of top ten most overrated video game characters for being " rather bland . "
= The Allman Brothers Band =
The Allman Brothers Band was an American rock band formed in Jacksonville , Florida in 1969 by brothers Duane Allman ( slide guitar and lead guitar ) and Gregg Allman ( vocals , keyboards , songwriting ) , as well as Dickey Betts ( lead guitar , vocals , songwriting ) , Berry Oakley ( bass guitar ) , Butch Trucks ( drums ) , and Jai Johanny " Jaimoe " Johanson ( drums ) . While the band has been called the principal architects of southern rock , they also incorporate elements of blues , jazz , and country music , and their live shows have jam band @-@ style improvisation and instrumentals .
The group 's first two studio releases stalled commercially , but their 1971 live release , At Fillmore East , represented an artistic and commercial breakthrough . The album features extended renderings of their songs " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " and " Whipping Post " , and is often considered among the best live albums ever made . Group leader Duane Allman was killed in a motorcycle accident later that year , and the band dedicated Eat a Peach ( 1972 ) in his memory , a dual studio / live album that cemented the band 's popularity . Following the motorcycle death of bassist Berry Oakley later that year , the group recruited keyboardist Chuck Leavell and bassist Lamar Williams for 1973 's Brothers and Sisters , which , combined with the hit single , " Ramblin ' Man " , placed the group at the forefront of 1970s rock music . Internal turmoil overtook the band soon after ; the group dissolved in 1976 , re @-@ formed briefly at the end of the decade with additional personnel changes , and dissolved again in 1982 .
The band re @-@ formed once more in 1989 , releasing a string of new albums and touring heavily . A series of personnel changes in the late 1990s was capped by the departure of Betts . The group found stability during the 2000s with bassist Oteil Burbridge and guitarists Warren Haynes and Derek Trucks ( the nephew of their drummer ) , and became renowned for their month @-@ long string of shows at New York City 's Beacon Theater each spring . The band retired in 2014 with the departure of the aforementioned members . The band has been awarded eleven gold and five platinum albums , and was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995 . Rolling Stone ranked them 52nd on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time in 2004 .
= = History = =
= = = Roots and formation ( 1965 – 69 ) = = =
Duane Allman , and his younger brother , Gregg , grew up in Daytona Beach , Florida . Gregg was first to pick up the guitar , but his brother soon surpassed him , dropping out of high school to practice constantly . The duo formed their first band , the Escorts , which evolved into the Allman Joys in the mid @-@ 1960s . When an African @-@ American friend introduced Gregg to R & B and soul music , they began to incorporate it into their sound . By 1967 , the group spent time in St. Louis , where a Los Angeles @-@ based recording executive discovered them ; they consequently moved out West and were renamed the Hour Glass , cutting two unsuccessful albums for Liberty Records . Duane moved back to pursue a career as a session musician in Muscle Shoals , Alabama , while Gregg stayed behind in Hollywood bound by contractual obligations with Liberty , who believed he could hold a solo career . The two were apart for the first time for a year , but managed to reconvene in Miami , producing an album @-@ length demo with the 31st of February , a group that included drummer Butch Trucks .
At FAME Studios in Muscle Shoals , Duane Allman became the primary session guitarist , recording with artists such as Aretha Franklin and King Curtis . Duane suggested to Wilson Pickett they record a cover of " Hey Jude " by the Beatles ; the single went to number 23 on the national charts . FAME signed Duane to a five @-@ year recording contract , and he put together a group , including Johnny Sandlin and Paul Hornsby . Duane recruited Jai Johanny Johanson ( Jaimoe ) after hearing his drumming on a songwriting demo of Jackie Avery , and the two moved into his home on the Tennessee River . Allman invited bassist Berry Oakley to jam with the new group ; the pair had met in a Jacksonville , Florida club some time earlier , and became quick friends . The group had immediate chemistry , and Duane 's vision for a " different " band — one with two lead guitarists and two drummers — began evolving . Meanwhile , Phil Walden , the manager of the late Otis Redding and several other R & B acts , was looking to expand into rock acts . FAME owner Hall became frustrated with the group ’ s recording methods , and offered the tracks recorded and their contract to Walden and Jerry Wexler of Atlantic Records , who purchased them for $ 10 @,@ 000 . Walden intended the upcoming group to be the centerpiece of his new Atlantic @-@ distributed label , Capricorn .
Duane and Jaimoe moved to Jacksonville in early March 1969 , as Duane had become frustrated with being a " robot " of those at FAME . He invited anyone who wanted to join to the jam sessions that birthed the Allman Brothers Band . Dickey Betts , leader of Oakley ’ s previous band , the Second Coming , became the group ’ s second lead guitarist , while Butch Trucks , with whom Duane and Gregg had cut a demo less than a year prior , became the new group 's second drummer . The Second Coming 's Reese Wynans played keyboards , and Duane , Oakley , and Betts all shared vocal duties . The unnamed group began to perform free shows in Willow Branch Park in Jacksonville , with an ever @-@ changing , rotating cast of musicians . Duane felt strongly his brother should be the vocalist of the new group ( which effectively eliminated Wynans ' position , as Gregg also played keyboards ) . Gregg left LA and entered rehearsal on March 26 , 1969 , when the group was rehearsing Muddy Waters ' " Trouble No More " Although Gregg was initially intimidated by the musicians , Duane pressured his brother into " singing [ his ] guts out . " Four days later , the group made their debut at the Jacksonville Armory . Although many names were kicked around , including Beelzebub , the six @-@ piece eventually decided on the Allman Brothers Band .
= = = Debut and early years ( 1969 – 70 ) = = =
The group moved to Macon , Georgia by May 1 , where Walden was establishing Capricorn Records . Mike Callahan and Joseph " Red Dog " Campbell became the band ’ s early crew members . " Red Dog " was a disabled Vietnam veteran who donated his monthly disability checks to the band 's cause . In Macon , the group stayed at friend Twiggs Lyndon 's apartment on 309 College Street , which became known as the communal home of the band and crew , nicknamed the Hippie Crash Pad . " There were five or six occupied apartments in the building with the Hippie Crash Pad and you would expect they would call the police on us because we were constantly raising hell at three or four in the morning , but they all just moved out , " said Trucks . Living meagerly , they found a friend in " Mama Louise " Hudson , cook and proprietor of the H & H Soul Food Restaurant , who ran a tab when they were short of funds , early on made good with proceeds from Duane 's recording sessions on the side . The band 's image was radical in the just barely integrated Macon : " A lot of the white folk around here did not approve of them long @-@ haired boys , or of them always having a black guy with them , " said Hudson . The band performed locally , as well as eighty miles north in Atlanta 's Piedmont Park , and practiced at the newly minted Capricorn nearly each day .
The group forged a strong brotherhood , spending countless hours rehearsing , consuming psychedelic drugs , and hanging out in Rose Hill Cemetery , where they would write songs . Their first performances outside the South came on May 30 and 31 in Boston , opening for The Velvet Underground . In need of more material , the group remade old blues numbers like " Trouble No More " and " One Way Out " , in addition to improvised jams such as " Mountain Jam " . Gregg , who had struggled to write in the past , became the band 's sole songwriter , composing songs such as " Whipping Post " and " Black @-@ Hearted Woman . " The band was originally set to record their first album in Miami with Cream and John Coltrane producer Tom Dowd , who proved unavailable . Instead , they headed off for New York City in August 1969 to work with Atlantic house engineer Adrian Barber in his first producer credit . The Allman Brothers Band was recorded and mixed in two weeks , and proved a positive experience for the ensemble . New York became regarded within the group as their " second home . " The Allman Brothers Band saw release in November 1969 through Atco and Capricorn Records , but received a poor commercial response , selling less than 35 @,@ 000 copies upon initial release .
Executives suggested to Walden that he relocate the band to New York or Los Angeles to " acclimate " them to the industry . " They wanted us to act ' like a rock band ' and we just told them to fuck themselves , " remembered Trucks . For their part , the members of the band remained optimistic , electing to stay in the South . " Everyone told us we 'd fall by the wayside down there , " said Gregg Allman , but the collaboration between the band and Capricorn Records " transformed Macon from this sleepy little town into a very hip , wild and crazy place filled with bikers and rockers " . The band rented a $ 165 @-@ a @-@ month farmhouse on a lake outside of Macon , the busy comings and goings at which reminded them of New York City 's Idlewild Airport . Idlewild South was the home of rehearsals and parties , and was " where the brotherhood came to pass , " according to roadie Kim Payne ; " There was a pact made out there around a campfire — all for one and one for all ... Everybody believed [ in the band ] 100 percent . " Much of the material presented on the band 's second album , Idlewild South , originated at the cabin . Oakley 's wife rented a large Victorian home on 2321 Vineville Avenue in Macon and the band moved into what they dubbed " the Big House " in March 1970 .
= = = Live reputation , At Fillmore East and breakthrough ( 1970 – 71 ) = = =
The band played continuously in 1970 , performing over 300 dates on the road traveling in a Ford Econoline van and later , a Winnebago , nicknamed the Wind Bag . Walden doubted the band ’ s future , worrying whether they would ever catch on , but word of mouth spread due to the band 's relentless touring schedule , and crowds got larger . The close proximity of the Winnebago brought about heavy drug use within the group , and all in the group , with the exception of the brothers , were struggling to make a living . In one instance , touring member Twiggs Lyndon stabbed and killed a promoter for not paying the band ; he later claimed temporary insanity . Later that year , Duane accidentally overdosed on opium after a show . Idlewild South , produced by Tom Dowd , was recorded gradually over a period of five months in various cities , including New York , Miami , and Macon , and contained two of the band 's best @-@ known songs , " Midnight Rider " ( later a hit for various artists ) and " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " , which became one of the band 's famous concert numbers .
Idlewild South was issued by Atco and Capricorn Records in September 1970 , less than a year after their debut . The album sold only " marginally better than its predecessor , though the band had a growing national reputation and the album included songs that would become staples of the band 's repertoire — and eventually of rock radio . " Shortly after completing recording , Dowd put Duane in contact with guitarist Eric Clapton , who invited him to contribute to his new project , Derek and the Dominos . Allman was a huge fan of Clapton 's work with Cream , and Clapton had been blown away by Allman 's session work on Wilson Pickett 's " Hey Jude " some years prior . They met after a show one night in Miami and jammed together until the next afternoon , with the two guitarists regarding one another as " instant soulmates . " Clapton invited Duane to join Derek and the Dominos , and by several accounts he considered it ; in the end , he declined the offer and rejoined the Allman Brothers Band , returning after missing a string of several shows . The sessions were collected on Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs , issued that November .
Their fortunes began to change over the course of 1971 , where the band 's average earnings doubled . " We realized that the audience was a big part of what we did , which couldn ’ t be duplicated in a studio . A lightbulb finally went off ; we needed to make a live album , " said Gregg Allman . At Fillmore East was recorded over three nights — March 11 , 12 , and 13 , 1971 — at the Fillmore East in New York , for which the band was paid a nightly $ 1 @,@ 250 . At Fillmore East was released in July 1971 by Capricorn Records as a double album , " people @-@ priced " for the cost of a single LP . While previous albums by the band had taken months to hit the charts ( often near the bottom of the top 200 ) , the record started to climb the charts after a matter of days . At Fillmore East peaked at number thirteen on Billboard 's Top Pop Albums chart , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America that October , becoming their commercial and artistic breakthrough . The album is considered among the best live albums of all time , and in 2004 was one of the albums selected for preservation in the Library of Congress , deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically important " by the National Recording Registry .
= = = Eat a Peach and Duane Allman and Berry Oakley 's deaths ( 1971 – 72 ) = = =
Although suddenly very wealthy and successful , much of the band and its entourage now struggled with heroin addiction . Four individuals — group leader Duane Allman , bassist Berry Oakley , and roadies Robert Payne and Joseph " Red Dog " Campbell — checked into the Linwood @-@ Bryant Hospital for rehabilitation in October 1971 . On October 29 , 1971 , Duane Allman , then 24 , was killed in a motorcycle accident one day after returning to Macon . Allman was riding his motorcycle at a high speed at the intersection of Hillcrest Avenue and Bartlett Street as a flatbed truck carrying a lumber crane approached . The truck stopped suddenly in the intersection , forcing Allman to swerve his Harley @-@ Davidson Sportster motorcycle sharply to the left to avoid a collision . As he was doing so , he struck either the back of the truck or the ball on the lumber crane and was immediately thrown from the motorcycle . The motorcycle bounced into the air , landed on Allman and skidded another 90 feet with Allman pinned underneath , crushing his internal organs . Though he was alive when he arrived at the hospital , despite immediate emergency surgery , he died several hours later from massive internal injuries .
After Duane 's death , the band held a meeting on their future ; it was clear all wanted to continue , and after a short period , the band returned to the road . " We all had this thing in us and Duane put it there . He was the teacher and he gave something to us — his disciples — that we had to play out , " said drummer Butch Trucks . The band returned to Miami in December to complete work on their third studio album . Completing the recording of Eat a Peach raised each member 's spirits ; " The music brought life back to us all , and it was simultaneously realized by every one of us . We found strength , vitality , newness , reason , and belonging as we worked on finishing Eat a Peach , " said Allman . " Those last three songs [ ... ] just kinda floated right on out of us [ ... ] The music was still good , it was still rich , and it still had that energy — it was still the Allman Brothers Band . " Released in February 1972 , Eat a Peach was the band 's second hit album , shipping gold and peaking at number four on Billboard 's Top 200 Pop Albums chart . " We 'd been through hell , but somehow we were rolling bigger than ever , " said Gregg Allman .
The band performed nearly 90 shows in the following year , touring as a five @-@ piece . The band also purchased 432 acres of land in Juliette , Georgia for $ 160 @,@ 000 and nicknamed it " the Farm " ; it soon became a group hangout and fulfilled bassist Berry Oakley 's communal dreams . Oakley , however , was visibly suffering from the death of his friend : he excessively drank and consumed drugs , and was losing weight quickly . According to friends and family , he appeared to have lost " all hope , his heart , his drive , his ambition , [ and ] his direction " following Duane ’ s death . " Everything Berry had envisioned for everybody — including the crew , the women and children — was shattered on the day Duane died , and he didn ’ t care after that , " said roadie Kim Payne . Oakley repeatedly wished to " get high , be high , and stay high , " causing quiet concern from all those around him . On November 11 , 1972 , slightly inebriated and overjoyed at the prospect of leading a jam session later that night , Oakley crashed his motorcycle into the side of a bus , just three blocks from where Duane had been killed in a bike accident . He declined hospital treatment and went home , but gradually grew delirious . He was taken to the hospital shortly thereafter and died of cerebral swelling caused by a fractured skull . Oakley was buried directly beside Duane at Rose Hill Cemetery in Macon , Georgia .
= = = Brothers and Sisters , celebrity , and inner turmoil ( 1973 – 74 ) = = =
The band unanimously decided to carry on and arrange auditions for new bassists , with a renewed fervor and determination . Several bassists auditioned , but the band picked Lamar Williams , an old friend of drummer Jai Johanny Johanson 's from Gulfport , Mississippi , two years removed from an Army stint in Vietnam . Chuck Leavell was asked to play piano for Allman ’ s solo album , Laid Back ( 1973 ) , and gradually found himself contributing to the Allman Brothers as well . Dickey Betts became the group 's de facto leader during the recording process . " It 's not like Dickey came in and said , ' I 'm taking over . I 'm the boss . Do this and that . ' It wasn 't overt ; it was still supposedly a democracy but Dickey started doing more and more of the songwriting , " said road manager Willie Perkins . Brothers and Sisters was an enormous success , peaking at number one , resulting in the band becoming " the most popular band in the country . " " Ramblin ' Man " , Betts ' country @-@ infused number , received interest from radio stations immediately , and it rose to number two on the Billboard Hot 100 .
The Allman Brothers Band returned to touring , playing larger venues , receiving more profit and dealing with less friendship , miscommunication and spiraling drug problems . This culminated in a backstage brawl when the band played with the Grateful Dead at Washington 's RFK Stadium in June 1973 , which resulted in the firing of three of the band 's longtime roadies . The band played arenas and stadiums almost solely as their drug use escalated . In 1974 , the band was regularly making $ 100 @,@ 000 per show , and was renting the Starship , a customized Boeing 720B used by Led Zeppelin and the Rolling Stones . " When [ we ] got that goddamn plane , it was the beginning of the end , " said Allman . Both Allman and Betts released top 20 solo albums in 1974 ( The Gregg Allman Tour and Highway Call ) . The sessions that produced 1975 's Win , Lose or Draw , the last album by the original Allman Brothers Band , were disjointed and inconsistent ; Gregg Allman was largely living in Los Angeles and dating pop star Cher , and was , according to biographer Alan Paul , " [ becoming ] more famous for being famous than for his music . " His vocals were recorded there , as he could not be bothered to return to Macon much . Upon its release , it was considered subpar and sold less than its predecessor ; the band later remarked that they were " embarrassed " about the album .
From August 1975 to May 1976 , the Allman Brothers Band played 41 shows to some of the biggest crowds of their career . Gradually , the members of the band grew apart during these tours , with sound checks and rehearsals " [ becoming ] a thing of the past . " Allman later pointed to a benefit for presidential candidate Jimmy Carter as the only real " high point " in an otherwise " rough , rough tour . " The shows were considered lackluster and the members were excessive in their drug use . The " breaking point " came when Gregg Allman testified in the trial of security man Scooter Herring . Bandmates considered him a " snitch , " and he received death threats , leading to law @-@ enforcement protection . Herring was convicted on five counts of conspiracy to distribute cocaine and received a 75 @-@ year prison sentence , which was later reduced . For his part , Allman always maintained that Herring had told him to take the deal to turn state 's evidence and that he ( Herring ) would take the fall ; nevertheless , the band refused to communicate with Allman after the incident . As a result , the band finally broke up ; Leavell , Williams , and Jaimoe continued playing together in Sea Level , Betts formed Great Southern , and Allman founded the Gregg Allman Band . The 1976 live album Wipe the Windows , Check the Oil , Dollar Gas was seen as " the last gasp of a dying band , " which was unfortunate for the now @-@ foundering Capricorn Records , which desperately needed the band together to stay afloat .
= = = First reunion , subsequent break @-@ up , and interim years ( 1979 – 88 ) = = =
In 1978 , Allman and Walden first approached Betts with the idea of a reunion . Their first public appearance together came at a Great Southern show in New York 's Central Park that summer , when Allman , Trucks , and Jaimoe joined the band for a few songs . Williams and Leavall declined to leave Sea Level , so the Allman Brothers Band hired two new members : guitarist Dan Toler and bassist David Goldflies . The band reunited with Tom Dowd at Criteria Studios in Miami to cut their reunion album , which was released in February 1979 as Enlightened Rogues , a term Duane had used to describe the band . While the band " tried to make it happen , " they later concluded that the chemistry was not there ; the album was a minor commercial success , which was credited to the production work from Dowd . Betts filed a lawsuit against Walden for nonpayment of record and publishing royalties , and Betts 's lawyer , Steve Massarsky , began managing the group . Betts won the lawsuit , and the rest of the band filed suit while Capricorn declared bankruptcy that October . Massarsky led the successful effort to sign the band with Arista , which pushed the band to " modernize " their sound . " [ Arista founder ] Clive Davis destroyed any hope that we had that we could make the thing work again , " said Trucks later . " He wanted us to be a Southern American version of Led Zeppelin and brought in outside producers and it just kept getting worse . "
Their first Arista effort , Reach for the Sky ( 1980 ) , was produced by Nashville songwriters Mike Lawler and Johnny Cobb . Bonnie Bramlett , who toured with the band near the end of the decade , sang lead on one song . Lawler soon became a part of the band 's touring ensemble , incorporating center @-@ stage keytar solos " that most fans consider the band 's nadir . " Drugs remained a problem with the band , particularly among Betts and Allman . Although the album was made with the intention of creating a hit single , the genre of southern rock was waning considerably in the mainstream . The band again grew apart , firing longtime roadie " Red Dog " and replacing Jaimoe with Toler 's brother Frankie , who had been a member of Great Southern . The main point of contention was Jaimoe 's insistence that his wife and manager , Candace Oakley ( Berry 's sister ) , handle his business affairs . " One of the real blights on the history of the Allman Brothers Band was that Jaimoe , this gentle man , was fired from this organization , " said Allman later . Not long after , " the band changed managers , hiring the promoter John Scher after Massarsky eased himself out , reportedly saying , ' It ’ s a million @-@ dollar headache and a quarter @-@ million @-@ dollar job . ' "
For their second and final album with Arista , Brothers of the Road , they collaborated with a " name producer " ( John Ryan , of Styx and the Doobie Brothers ) , who pushed the band even harder to change their sound . " Straight from the Heart " was the album 's single , which became a minor hit but heralded the group 's last appearance on the top 40 charts . The band , considering their post @-@ reunion albums " embarrassing , " subsequently broke up in 1982 after clashing with Clive Davis , who rejected every producer the band suggested for a possible third album , including Tom Dowd and Johnny Sandlin . " We broke up in ' 82 because we decided we better just back out or we would ruin what was left of the band ’ s image , " said Betts . The band 's final performance came on Saturday Night Live in January 1982 , where they performed " Southbound " and " Leavin ' . " The members regrouped occasionally in the intervening years ; in 1986 , Betts and Allman toured together , with each opening for one another and collaborating for a set . Allman 's solo career began looking up when he released his first solo album in over a decade in 1987 , I 'm No Angel . The title track became a surprise hit on radio , garnering heavy airplay .
= = = Second reunion and heavy touring ( 1989 – 96 ) = = =
The Allman Brothers Band celebrated its twentieth anniversary in 1989 , and the band reunited for a summer tour , with Jaimoe once again on drums . In addition , they featured guitarist Warren Haynes and pianist Johnny Neel , both from the Dickey Betts Band , and bassist Allen Woody , who was hired after open auditions held at Trucks 's Florida studio . The classic rock radio format had given the band 's catalog songs new relevance , as did a multi @-@ CD retrospective box set , Dreams . Epic , who had worked with Allman on his solo career , signed the band . Danny Goldberg became the band 's manager ; he had previously worked with acts such as Led Zeppelin and Bonnie Raitt . The group were initially reluctant to tour , but found they performed solidly ; in addition , former roadies such as " Red Dog " returned . The band returned to the studio with longtime producer Tom Dowd for 1990 's Seven Turns , which was considered a return to form . " Good Clean Fun " and " Seven Turns " each became big hits on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . The addition of Haynes and Woody had " reenergized " the ensemble . Neel left the group in 1990 , and the band added percussionist Marc Quiñones , formerly of Spyro Gyra , the following year .
The band performed 87 shows in 1991 , and 77 the following year . The band did not renew Goldberg 's contract as manager , and as a result , their tour manager , Bert Holman , became the band 's full @-@ time manager in 1991 and remained so for the rest of their career . Their next studio effort , Shades of Two Worlds ( 1992 ) , produced the crowd favorite " Nobody Knows " . The band also released a live album , An Evening with the Allman Brothers Band : First Set , recorded at their 1992 residency at New York 's Beacon Theater . The band performed ten consecutive shows there ( establishing themselves as a " New York rite of spring , " according to biographer Alan Paul ) , which set the stage for their return nearly every year afterward . The band grew contentious over a 1993 tour , in which Betts was arrested when he shoved two police officers . Struggling to find a replacement guitarist , they brought in David Grissom ( then touring with John Mellencamp ) , and also Jack Pearson , a Nashville @-@ based friend of Haynes ( the original replacement , Zakk Wylde , filled in for a show but his onstage antics did not fit with the band ) . Haynes was both opening with his own band and headlining with the Allman Brothers , and began to consider leaving the group , due to their increasing lack of communication .
Despite the growing tension , Haynes remained a member and Betts returned . Their third post @-@ reunion record , Where It All Begins ( 1994 ) , was recorded entirely live . " The Allman Brothers was a year @-@ by @-@ year thing . There was no indication that it was capable of staying together for years to come . We all looked at it as each tour could be the last one , and there was no reason to think otherwise , " said Haynes . The band continued to tour with greater frequency , attracting younger generations with their headlining of the H.O.R.D.E. Festival . The group were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in January 1995 ; Allman was severely inebriated and could not make it through his acceptance speech . Seeing the ceremony broadcast on television later , Allman was mortified , providing a catalyst for his final , successful attempt to quit alcohol and substance abuse . During the 1996 run at the Beacon , turmoil came to a breaking point between Allman and Betts , nearly causing a cancellation of a show and causing another band breakup . " We were upstairs in our dressing rooms [ ... ] I ’ m sitting there thinking , ' This is it . This is how it finally ends , ' " said Trucks . Haynes and Woody left to focus on Gov 't Mule , feeling as though a break was imminent with the Allman Brothers Band .
= = = Later years ( 1997 – 2014 ) = = =
The group recruited Oteil Burbridge of the Aquarium Rescue Unit to replace Woody on bass , and Jack Pearson on guitar . Concerns arose over the increasing loudness of Allman Brothers shows , which were largely centered on Betts . Pearson , struggling with tinnitus , left as a result following the 1999 Beacon run . Trucks phoned his nephew , Derek Trucks , to join the band for their thirtieth anniversary tour . Trucks was very young , at age 20 , and younger than any of the original members when the band formed . " It was an honor to be part of such a great institution from the start , " said Derek Trucks . " When I first got the gig , I was just trying to maintain the spirit of the whole thing while hopefully bringing some fire to it , hoping to hold up my end while also expressing my own voice . " The Beacon run in 2000 , captured on Peakin ' at the Beacon , was ironically considered among the band 's worst performances ; an eight @-@ show spring tour led to even more strained relations in the group . " It had ceased to be a band — everything had to be based around what Dickey was playing , " said Allman . Anger boiled over within the group towards Betts , which led to all original members sending him a letter , informing him of their intentions to tour without him for the summer .
All involved contend that the break was temporary , but Betts responded by hiring a lawyer and suing the group , which led to a permanent divorce . " I had no idea that I would be snapped out of the picture . I thought it was cruel and impersonal , " said Betts . Allman was finally sober and felt more miserable shows with Betts would be a waste of time . Betts later received a cash settlement , which is subject to a confidentiality agreement ; he went on to record new music with a new band . Jimmy Herring joined the band for the summer tour , where the band fought negative press ; fans contended that attending shows by an Allman Brothers Band without Betts was pointless . Herring exited shortly after the tour , as he felt guilty that he would replace Betts . That August , former bassist Allen Woody was found dead in a hotel room in New York . Warren Haynes set up a benefit show for his former bandmate , which featured the Allman Brothers Band . With Derek Trucks unavailable , he sat in for the set . In 2001 , Haynes rejoined the band for their Beacon run : " It was my first time with the band in four years and it was very comfortable , " he remarked .
This incarnation of the Allman Brothers Band was well @-@ regarded among fans and the general public , and remained stable and productive . " This band is the greatest one since Duane and Berry , and why shouldn 't it be ? " said Jaimoe . The band released their final studio recording , Hittin ' the Note ( 2003 ) , to critical acclaim . The record was the first to feature Derek Trucks and the only Allman Brothers album to not feature Betts . The band continued to tour throughout the 2000s , remaining a top touring act , regularly attracting more than 20 @,@ 000 fans . The decade closed with a successful run at the Beacon Theater , in celebration of the band 's fortieth anniversary . " That [ 2009 run ] was the most fun I 've ever had in that building , " said Allman , and it was universally regarded within the band as a career highlight . The run featured numerous special guests , including Eric Clapton , whom all in the band regarded as the most " special " guest , due to his association with Duane . Allman had a liver transplant in 2010 , and suffered health setbacks for the following two years . He went to rehab in 2012 for addiction following his medical treatments . In 2012 the Allman Brothers started their own music festival , The Peach , which features many associated acts and many genres in addition to two Allman Brothers performances . They played a run at the Beacon in 2013 per tradition and after continued to tour . In 2014 , Haynes and Derek Trucks announced their intention to depart the group at the end of the year . The group intended their 2014 run of Beacon shows to be their last , but the residency was cut short when Allman developed bronchitis .
The Allman Brothers Band performed its final show on October 28 , 2014 at the Beacon Theater . The show was the 238th straight sellout for the band at the Beacon . The concert consisted of three sets , comprising mostly music from their first five records , with no guest musicians sitting in ( " We had a band meeting and decided no guest sit @-@ ins . We 're going out with just the band , " Allman told reporters ) . Following the sets , which ran into the early morning hours , the band joined together center stage and took a bow , with Allman recalling the group 's first rehearsal 45 years prior . " I was called to come and meet these guys in Jacksonville , Florida , [ ... ] on March 26 , 1969 . Now , we 're gonna do the first song we ever played . " Following this , the band performed " Trouble No More " by Muddy Waters . During the night 's intermissions , a video screen displayed a message : " The road indeed goes on forever . So stay calm , eat a peach and carry on ... "
= = Musical style and influences = =
The Allman Brothers Band have generally been considered one of the pioneering bands in southern rock , although the group distanced themselves from the term . Guitarist Dickey Betts was most vocal about this classification , which he considered unfair : " I think it ’ s limiting . I ’ d rather just be known as a progressive rock band from the South . I ’ m damned proud of who I am and where I ’ m from , but I hate the term ‘ Southern rock . ’ I think calling us that pigeonholed us and forced people to expect certain types of music from us that I don ’ t think are
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they have submitted to an investigation .
= = = = Neonicotinoids banned by European Union = = = =
Early in 2013 , the European Food Safety Authority issued a declaration that three specific neonicotinoid pesticides pose an acute risk to honey bees , and the European Commission ( EC ) proposed a two @-@ year ban on them . David Goulson , who led one of the key 2012 studies at the University of Stirling , said the decision " begs the question of what was going on when these chemicals were first approved . " The chemical manufacturer Bayer said it was " ready to work with " the EC and member states . In April 2013 , the European Union voted for a two @-@ year restriction on neonicotinoid insecticides . The ban will restrict the use of imidacloprid , clothianidin , and thiamethoxam for use on crops that are attractive to bees . Eight nations voted against the motion , including the British government , which argued that the science was incomplete . The ban can be seen as an application of the " precautionary principle " , established at the 1992 Rio Conference on the Environment and Development , which advocates that " lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost @-@ effective measures to prevent environmental degradation . "
= = = = Initiatives to ban neonicotinoids in the United States = = = =
In March 2013 , professional beekeepers and environmentalists jointly filed a lawsuit against the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) for continuing to allow the use of neonicotinoids in the United States . The suit specifically asks for suspension of clothianidin and thiamethoxam . The lawsuit follows a dramatic die off of bees in the United States , with some beekeepers losing 50 % of their hives . The EPA responded to the suit by issuing a report blaming the Varroa mite for the decline in bees and claiming the role of neonicotinoids in bee extinction has been overstated .
Also in 2013 , the Save America 's Pollinators Act of 2013 ( H.R. 2692 ) was introduced in Congress . The proposed act asks that neonicotinoids be suspended until a full review of their impacts has occurred . The bill was reintroduced on 4 March 2015 as the Saving America 's Pollinators Act ( H.R. 1284 ) , where it is currently being debated by the House Subcommittee on Biotechnology , Horticulture , and Research .
= = = Pathogens and immunodeficiency theories = = =
Early researchers commented that the pathway of propagation functions in the manner of a contagious disease ; however , some sentiment existed that the disorder may involve an immunosuppressive mechanism , potentially linked to " stress " leading to a weakened immune system . Specifically , according to research done in 2007 at the Pennsylvania State University : " The magnitude of detected infectious agents in the adult bees suggests some type of immunosuppression " . These researchers initially suggested a connection between Varroa destructor mite infestation and CCD , suggesting that a combination of these bee mites , deformed wing virus ( which the mites transmit ) and bacteria work together to suppress immunity and may be one cause of CCD . Parasites , such as varroa mites ( Varroa destructor ) , honey bee tracheal mites ( Acarapis woodi ) , fungal , bacterial and viral diseases , and kleptoparasites such as small hive beetles ( Aethina tumida ) , are all problems that have been introduced within the last 20 years in the continental U.S. , and are faced by beekeepers .
When a colony is dying , for whatever cause , and other healthy colonies are nearby ( as is typical in a bee yard ) , those healthy colonies often enter the dying colony and rob its provisions for their own use . If the dying colony 's provisions were contaminated ( by natural or man @-@ made toxins ) , the resulting pattern ( of healthy colonies becoming sick when in proximity to a dying colony ) might suggest to an observer that a contagious disease is involved . However , it is typical in CCD cases that provisions of dying colonies are not being robbed , suggesting that at least this particular mechanism ( toxins being spread via robbing , thereby mimicking a disease ) is not involved in CCD . Additional evidence that CCD is an infectious disease came from the following observations : the hives of colonies that had died from CCD could be reused with a healthy colony only if they were first treated with DNA @-@ destroying radiation , and the CCD Working Group report in 2010 indicated that CCD @-@ exhibiting hives tended to occur in proximity to one another within apiaries .
Coumaphos , an organophosphate , is lipophilic , and so accumulates in wax . Increased levels of compound in wax have been shown to decrease survivorship of developing queens .
= = = = Varroa mites = = = =
According to a 2007 article , the mite Varroa destructor remains the world 's most destructive honey bee killer , due in part to the viruses it carries , including deformed wing virus and acute bee paralysis virus , which have both been implicated in CCD . Affliction with Varroa mites also tends to weaken the immune system of the bees . Dr. Enesto Guzman , an entomological researcher at the University of Guelph in Canada , studied 413 Ontario bee colonies in 2007 – 08 . About 27 % of hives did not survive the winter , and the Varroa mite was identified as the cause in 85 % of the cases . Varroa mites also affect the queen 's ability to reproduce which is detrimental to the survival of the hive . As such , Varroa mites have been considered as a possible cause of CCD , though not all dying colonies contain these mites .
= = = = Israeli acute paralysis virus = = = =
In 2004 , Israeli acute paralysis virus ( IAPV ) , was discovered in Israel and at one time it was considered the cause of CCD . It was named after the place it was first identified ; its place of origin is unknown . In September 2007 , results of a large @-@ scale statistical RNA sequencing study of afflicted and unafflicted colonies were reported . RNA from all organisms in a colony was sequenced and compared with sequence databases to detect the presence of pathogens . All colonies were found to be infected with numerous pathogens , but only the IAPV virus showed a significant association with CCD : the virus was found in 25 of the 30 tested CCD colonies , and only in one of the 21 tested non @-@ CCD colonies .
Research in 2009 has found that an indicator for an impaired protein production is common among all bees affected by CCD , a pattern consistent with IAPV infection . It is conjectured that Dicistroviridae , like the IAPV , cause degradation of the ribosomes , which are responsible for protein production of cells , and that this reduced ribosomal function weakens the bees , making them more vulnerable to factors that might not otherwise be lethal .
= = = = Nosema = = = =
Some have suggested the syndrome may be an inability by beekeepers to correctly identify known diseases such as European foulbrood or the microsporidian fungus Nosema apis . The testing and diagnosis of samples from affected colonies ( already performed ) makes this highly unlikely , as the symptoms are fairly well known and differ from what is classified as CCD . A high rate of Nosema infection was reported in samples of bees from Pennsylvania , but this pattern was not reported from samples elsewhere .
When healthy bees are fed pollen filled with fungicides , insecticides and other agriculture chemicals , they are more likely to be infected by Nosema ceranae , a parasitic microsporidian fungus associated with widespread death of honey bees . Hives of western honey bees infected with Nosema ceranae are wiped out within eight days indicating that CCD may be caused by N. ceranae . A research team claim to have ruled out many other potential causes , however , a 2009 survey of US CCD @-@ affected bee populations found only about half of the colonies sampled , both in CCD and control populations , were infected with N. ceranae .
The primary antifungal agent used against Nosema is fumagillin , which has been used in a German research project to reduce the microsporidian 's impact , and is mentioned as a possible remedy by the CCDWG . Higes also claims to have successfully cured colonies with fumagillin . A review of these results described these results as promising , but cautioned " N. ceranae may not be to blame for all cases of colony collapse " . Various areas in Europe have reported this fungus , but no direct link to CCD has yet been established .
In 2007 , N. ceranae was reported in a few hives in California . The researcher did not , however , believe this was conclusive evidence of a link to CCD ; " We don 't want to give anybody the impression that this thing has been solved " . A USDA bee scientist has similarly stated , " while the parasite Nosema ceranae may be a factor , it cannot be the sole cause . The fungus has been seen before , sometimes in colonies that were healthy " .
N. ceranae has been detected in honey bees from several states using PCR of the 16S gene . In New York , N. ceranae was detected in 49 counties , and of the 1 @,@ 200 honey bee samples collected , 528 ( 44 % ) were positive for Nosema , from which , PCR analysis of 371 spore positive samples revealed 96 % were N. ceranae , 3 % had both N. ceranae and N. apis , and 1 % had N. apis only .
= = = = Viral and fungal combination = = = =
A University of Montana and Montana State University team of scientists headed by Jerry Bromenshenk and working with the US Army 's Edgewood Chemical Biological Center published a paper in October 2010 saying that a new DNA virus , invertebrate iridescent virus or IIV6 , and the fungus Nosema ceranae were found in every killed colony the group studied . In their study , they found neither agent alone seemed deadly , but a combination of the virus and N. ceranae was always 100 % fatal . Information about the study was released to the public in a front page article in The New York Times . A few days later , an article was published in Fortune Magazine with the title , " What a scientist didn 't tell the New York Times about his study on bee deaths " . Professor of entomology at Penn State University James Frazier , who is currently researching the sublethal impact of pesticides on bees , said that while Bromenshenk 's study generated some useful data , Bromenshenk has a conflict of interest as CEO of a company developing scanners to diagnose bee diseases . A few months later , the methods used to interpret the mass spectrometry data in the Bromenshenk study were called into question , raising doubts as to whether IIV6 was ever correctly identified in any of the samples examined .
= = = Fungicides = = =
In 2013 , researchers collected pollen from hives and fed it to healthy bees . The pollen had an average of nine different pesticides and fungicides . Further , the researchers discovered that bees that ate pollen with fungicides were three times more likely to be infected by parasites . Their study shows that fungicides , thought harmless to bees , may actually play a significant role in CCD . Their research also showed that spraying practices may need to be reviewed because the bees sampled by the authors foraged not from crops , but almost exclusively from weeds and wildflowers , suggesting that bees are more widely exposed to pesticides than thought .
Dennis vanEngelsdorp , an entomologist at the University of Maryland , has been quoted as saying " Fungicides , which we didn 't expect to harm insects , seem to have a sub @-@ lethal effect on bee health " . He went on further to state this is important because fungicides are not heavily regulated .
= = = Antibiotics and miticides = = =
Most beekeepers affected by CCD report that they use antibiotics and miticides in their colonies , though the lack of uniformity as to which particular chemicals are used makes it seem unlikely that any single such chemical is involved . However , it is possible that not all such chemicals in use have been tested for possible effects on honey bees , and could therefore potentially be contributing to the CCD phenomenon .
= = = = Fluvalinate / coumaphos = = = =
In 2008 high levels of the pesticides fluvalinate and coumaphos were found in samples of wax from hives , as well as lower levels of 70 other pesticides . These chemicals have been used to try to eradicate varroa mites , a bee pest that itself has been thought to be a cause of CCD . A 2009 study confirmed high levels of pesticide residue in hive wax and found an association between the pesticide and reduced bee longevity . Nosema ceranae , was found in high concentrations in the majority of the bees tested , even after administering large doses of the antibiotic fumagillin . Maryann Frazier commented , " Pesticides alone have not shown they are the cause of CCD . We believe that it is a combination of a variety of factors , possibly including mites , viruses and pesticides . "
= = = Climate Change = = =
Studies in Europe and North America have shown dramatic declines in bee colonies . The U.S. has lost 59 % of its bee colonies since 1947 , and Europe has lost over 25 % since 1985 . Determining the causes of bee colony collapse is crucial to the global economy , as bee pollination assists with 9 @.@ 5 % of the global agricultural production worth billions of dollars .
Through ecological modeling and retrospective studies , research has shown a link between bee colony collapse and climate change . Although the shifting weather conditions themselves negatively affect bees , the link between colony collapse and climate change is also closely tied to the interaction between bees ’ climatic niches and food @-@ plant reductions . Climate change affects the floral environment by stunting flower development and nectar production , which in turn directly impacts colonies ’ abilities to collect pollen and sustain themselves .
As weather conditions shift due to climate change , bees change their behaviors . When it rains , bees do not go out and during extremely hot weather they try to gather water to keep the colony cool . Climatologists have predicted that the occurrence of extreme weather events ( such as intense rainy seasons and prolonged drought ) will increase as the climate continues to change . Additionally , in regions that experience increasingly more rain , pollen will be washed away more easily making it more difficult for bees to provide for their colonies . Meanwhile , in environments experiencing prolonged drought , flower environments may dwindle with dry weather . These patterns lead to less suitable and viable environments in which bees can thrive . A British journal published projections of plant diversity loss against spatial sensitivity ; the researchers found major species loss in the southern part of the UK forcing bee colonies further north .
Since it can take decades of studying climate change and tracking bee colonies to find correlations between them , many researchers have turned to ecological modeling . In a Brazilian study , researchers investigated the impact that climate change will have on ten endemic bee species in various future climatic scenarios . It is known that moderate temperatures and high relative humidity impacts flight activity and foraging behavior in bee species such as Melipona and Centris . As a result , the scientists predict that in scenarios where temperatures continue to increase and humidity continues to decrease the only suitable climates for bees in Brazil will be in the more mountainous environments . The most optimistic scenario estimated climate change would still lead to a five percent reduction in these species ’ populations . While this may not seem like a large change , bees are very sensitive to the effects of small population size ; small populations can lead to reduced genetic variability and decreased fitness . As a result of this sensitivity , fragmented habitat are less likely to support a viable population and may lead to additional colony collapse .
From these models , researchers also predict that bee populations will start declining most significantly in the southern latitudes with lagging range expansion in the north . Kerr and his colleagues found that as the climate has shifted and bumblebees have been forced to operate outside of their thermal ranges , causing range losses along the species ’ southern limits . However , the study also found that while other flora and fauna have expanded their northerly ranges to account for the climate shifts , bumblebees have not expanded farther north . The most important findings in this study came from statistical models built to study whether or not these range shifts were due to confounding factors such as pesticide use or changes in land cover . The researchers found that climate change had the most meaningful impact on range shifts and bee distributions . To support these findings , the scientists note that failure for the bumblebee to respond to thermal changes and expand their northern range underscores the idea that bumblebees are susceptible to climate change .
One of the most significant studies on climate change and bees examined the species , B. Disinguendus and B. sylvarum between 2000 and 2006 in the UK . The study showed that as the climate of western Europe warmed , these two bee species experienced range declines and narrower climatic niches pushing them to the fringes of their environments . Geographically and climatically we expect this , as climate change continues bees will move and abandon areas of drought and migrate towards the fringes , as this has already been seen within desert oases . Europe has done significant work in tracking bee colony changes within the regions . Additional longitudinal surveillance needs to be conducted in other regions of the globe among a wider array bee species in order to build the body of research surrounding the impact of climate change on bees .
= = = Bee rentals and migratory beekeeping = = =
Since U.S. beekeeper Nephi Miller first began moving his hives to different areas of the country for the winter of 1908 , migratory beekeeping has become widespread in America . Bee rental for pollination is a crucial element of U.S. agriculture , which could not produce anywhere near its current levels with native pollinators alone . U.S. beekeepers collectively earn much more from renting their bees out for pollination than they do from honey production .
Researchers are concerned that trucking colonies around the country to pollinate crops , where they intermingle with other bees from all over , helps spread viruses and mites among colonies . Additionally , such continuous movement and re @-@ settlement is considered by some a strain and disruption for the entire hive , possibly rendering it less resistant to all sorts of systemic disorder .
= = = Selective commercial breeding and lost genetic diversity in industrial apiculture = = =
Most of the focus on CCD has been toward environmental factors . CCD is a condition recognised for greatest impact in regions of ' industrial ' or agricultural use of commercially bred bee colonies . Natural breeding and colony reproduction of wild bees is a complex and highly selective process , leading to a diverse genetic makeup in large populations of bees , both within and between colonies . Genetic diversity through sexual reproduction is a significant evolutionary factor in resistance to parasites and infectious diseases . Many artificially bred species , especially domestic and agricultural species , suffer from lack of genetic variation. resulting in increased risk of hereditable diseases , loss of vitality or vigour , and heightened uniform susceptibility to infectious diseases . There may be an analogy in artificially introduced invasive ants , which displace native species by their ecological release and supercolonies ( a manifestation of genetic homogeneity ) , only to suffer collapse of colonies attributed to lack of genetic diversity . Displaced indigenous species rebounded from residual populations .
Industrial apiculture has adopted simple breeding programs for uniform desired traits , and seasonal transportation of colonies over vast distances causes increased infectious exposures from mixing of these domestic and residual displaced wild populations . Brood incubation conditions may be stressful with respect to deficient nutrition , temperature and other basics . This combination of ecological factors , especially the host factor of loss of genetic variation and hybrid vigor , may account for the apparent multifactorial environmental ' causes ' of CCD including concurrent infections .
= = = Malnutrition = = =
In 2007 , one of the patterns reported by the CCD Study Group at Pennsylvania State was that all producers in a preliminary survey noted a period of " extraordinary stress " affecting the colonies in question prior to their die @-@ off , most commonly involving poor nutrition and / or drought . This was the only factor that all of the cases of CCD had in common in the report ; accordingly , there appeared to be at least some significant possibility that the phenomenon was correlated to nutritional stress that may not manifest in healthy , well @-@ nourished colonies . This was similar to the findings of another independent survey done in 2007 in which small @-@ scale beekeeping operations ( up to 500 colonies ) in several states reported their belief that malnutrition and / or weak colonies was the factor responsible for their bees dying in over 50 % of the cases , whether the losses were believed to be due to CCD or not .
Some researchers have attributed the syndrome to the practice of feeding high @-@ fructose corn syrup ( HFCS ) to supplement winter stores . The variability of HFCS may be relevant to the apparent inconsistencies of results . One European writer has suggested a possible connection with HFCS produced from genetically modified corn .
Other researchers state that colony collapse disorder is mainly a problem of feeding the bees a monoculture diet when they should receive food from a variety of sources / plants . In winter , these bees are given a single food source such as corn syrup ( high @-@ fructose or other ) , sugar and pollen substitute . In summer , they may only pollinate a single crop ( e.g. , almonds , cherries , or apples ) . The monoculture diet is attributed to bee rentals and migratory bee keeping . Honey bees are only being introduced to select commercial crops such as corn . These single pollen diets are greatly inferior to mixed pollen diets . However , there are a few pollens that are acceptable for honey bees to be introduced to exclusively , including sweet clover and mustard .
A study published in 2010 found that bees that were fed pollen from a variety of different plant species showed signs of having a healthier immune system than those eating pollen from a single species . Bees fed pollen from five species had higher levels of glucose oxidase than bees fed pollen from one species , even if the pollen had a higher protein content . The authors hypothesised that CCD may be linked to a loss of plant diversity . Researches found a proper diet that does lead to a healthy honey bee population . " The authors recommended a diet containing 1000 ppm potassium , 500 ppm calcium , 300 ppm magnesium and 50 ppm each of sodium , zinc , manganese , iron and copper . "
The lack of variance in plant pollen does not appear to affect a healthy colony of honey bees however . Once a fungus or parasite invades a colony , research has proven that honey bees introduced to a wider variety of pollen are much more likely to survive longer due to receiving key nutrients and alkaloids like zinc .
A 2013 study found that p @-@ Coumaric acid , which is normally present in honey , assists bees in detoxifying certain pesticides . Its absence in artificial nutrients fed to bees may therefore contribute to CCD .
= = = Electromagnetic radiation = = =
A study on the non @-@ thermal effects of radio frequency ( RF ) on honey bees ( Apis mellifera carnica ) reported there were no changes in behavior due to RF exposure from DECT cordless phone base stations operating at 1 @,@ 880 – 1 @,@ 900 MHz however , a later study established that close @-@ range electromagnetic field ( EMF ) may reduce the ability of bees to return to their hive . In the course of their study , one half of their colonies broke down , including some of their controls which did not have DECT base stations embedded in them . In April 2007 , news of this study appeared in various media outlets , beginning with an article in The Independent , which stated that the subject of the study included mobile phones and had related them to CCD . Though cellular phones were implicated by other media reports at the time , they were not covered in the study . Researchers involved have since stated that their research did not include findings on cell phones , or their relationship to CCD , and indicated that the Independent article had misinterpreted their results and created " a horror story " .
A review of 919 peer @-@ reviewed scientific studies investigating the effects of EMF on wildlife , humans and plants included seven studies involving honey bees ; six of these reported negative effects from exposure to EMF radiation , but none specifically demonstrated any link to CCD . The review noted that according to one study , when active mobile phones were kept inside beehives , worker bees stopped coming to the hives after 10 days . The same study also found drastic decrease in the egg production of queen bees in these colonies and stated " electromagnetic radiation exposure provides a better explanation for Colony Collapse Disorder ( CCD ) than other theories " . The review authors concluded : " existing literature shows that the EMRs are interfering with the biological systems in more ways than one " and recommended recognising EMF as a pollutant . However , they also noted that " these studies are not representative of the real life situations or natural levels of EMF exposure . More studies need to be taken up to scientifically establish the link , if any , between the observed abnormalities and disorders in bee hives such as Colony Collapse Disorder ( CCD ) " .
= = = Parasitic phorid fly = = =
In 2012 , a parasitic fly ( Apocephalus borealis ) larva , known to prey on bumble bees and wasps , was found in a test tube containing a dead honey bee believed to have been affected by CCD , possibly indicating the phorid fly may be one cause of CCD . The mature fly lays eggs in the bee 's abdomen , which feed on the bee after hatching . Infected bees behave abnormally , foraging at night and gathering around lights like moths . Eventually the bee leaves the colony to die . The phorid fly larvae then emerge from the neck of the bee .
= = = Genetically modified crops = = =
In 2008 a meta @-@ analysis of 25 independent studies assessing effects of Bt Cry proteins on honeybee survival ( mortality ) showed that Bt proteins used in commercialized GE crops to control lepidopteran and coleopteran pests do not negatively impact the survival of honeybee larvae or adults . Additionally , larvae consume only a small percent of their protein from pollen , and there is also a lack of geographic correlation between GM crop locations and regions where CCD occurs .
= = Management = =
As of 1 March 2007 , the Mid @-@ Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium ( MAAREC ) offered the following tentative recommendations for beekeepers noticing the symptoms of CCD :
Do not combine collapsing colonies with strong colonies .
When a collapsed colony is found , store the equipment where you can use preventive measures to ensure that bees will not have access to it .
If you feed your bees sugar syrup , use Fumagillin .
If you are experiencing colony collapse and see a secondary infection , such as European Foulbrood , treat the colonies with oxytetracycline , not tylosin .
Another proposed remedy for farmers of pollinated crops is simply to switch from using beekeepers to the use of native bees , such as bumble bees and mason bees . Native bees can be helped to establish themselves by providing suitable nesting locations and some additional crops the bees could use to feed from ( e.g. when the pollination season of the commercial crops on the farm has ended ) .
A British beekeeper successfully developed a strain of bees that are resistant to varroa mites . Russian honey bees also resist infestations of varroa mites but are still susceptible to other factors associated with colony collapse disorder , and have detrimental traits that limit their relevance in commercial apiculture .
In the United Kingdom , a national bee database was set up in March 2009 to monitor colony collapse as a result of a 15 % reduction in the bee population that had taken place over the previous two years . In particular , the register , funded by the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs and administered by the National Bee Unit , will be used to monitor health trends and help establish whether the honey industry is under threat from supposed colony collapse disorder . Britain 's 20 @,@ 000 beekeepers have been invited to participate . In October 2010 , David Aston of the British Beekeepers ’ Association stated , " We still do not believe CCD is a cause of colony losses in the UK , however we are continuing to experience colony losses , many if not most of which can be explained . The approach being taken in UK beekeeping is to raise the profile of integrated bee health management , in other words identifying and trying to eliminate factors which reduce the health status of a colony . This incorporates increasing the skill level of beekeepers through training and education , raising the profile of habitat destruction and its effect of forage ( nectar and pollen ) availability , and of course research on the incidence and distribution of diseases and conditions in the UK together with more applied research and development on providing solutions . "
= = Economic and ecological impact = =
Honey bees are not native to the Americas , therefore their necessity as pollinators in the U.S. and other regions in the Western Hemisphere is limited to strictly agricultural / ornamental uses , as no native plants require honey bee pollination , except where concentrated in monoculture situations — where the pollination need is so great at bloom time that pollinators must be concentrated beyond the capacity of native bees ( with current technology ) .
The phenomenon is particularly important for crops such as almond growing in California , where honey bees are the predominant pollinator and the crop value in 2011 was $ 3 @.@ 6 billion . In 2000 , the total U.S. crop value that was wholly dependent on honey bee pollination was estimated to exceed $ 15 billion . Because of such high demand in pollinators , the cost of renting honey bees has increased significantly , and California 's almond industry rents approximately 1 @.@ 6 million honey bee colonies during the spring to pollinate their crop . Worldwide , honeybees yield roughly $ 200 billion in pollination services .
They are responsible for pollination of approximately one third of the United States ' crop species , including such species as almonds , peaches , apples , pears , cherries , raspberries , blackberries , cranberries , watermelons , cantaloupes , cucumbers , and strawberries . Many , but not all , of these plants can be ( and often are ) pollinated by other insects in the U.S. , including other kinds of bees ( e.g. , squash bees on cucurbits ) , but typically not on a commercial scale . While some farmers of a few kinds of native crops do bring in honey bees to help pollinate , none specifically need them , and when honey bees are absent from a region , there is a presumption that native pollinators may reclaim the niche , typically being better adapted to serve those plants ( assuming that the plants normally occur in that specific area ) .
However , even though on a per @-@ individual basis , many other species are actually more efficient at pollinating , on the 30 % of crop types where honey bees are used , most native pollinators cannot be mass @-@ utilized as easily or as effectively as honey bees — in many instances they will not visit the plants at all . Beehives can be moved from crop to crop as needed , and the bees will visit many plants in large numbers , compensating via saturation pollination for what they lack in efficiency . The commercial viability of these crops is therefore strongly tied to the beekeeping industry . In China , hand pollination of apple orchards is labor @-@ intensive , time consuming , and costly .
In regions of the Old World where they are indigenous , honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) are among the most important pollinators , vital to sustain natural habitats there in addition to their value for human societies ( to sustain food resources ) . Where honeybee populations decline , there is also a decline in plant populations . In agriculture , some plants are completely dependent on honeybees to pollinate them to produce fruit , while other plants are only dependent on honeybees to enhance their capacity to produce better and healthier fruits . Honeybees also help plants to reduce time between flowering and fruit set , which reduces risk from harmful factors such as pests , diseases , chemicals , weather , etc . Specialist plants that require honeybees will be at more risk if honeybees decline , whereas generalist plants that use other animals as pollinators ( or wind pollinating or self @-@ pollinating ) will suffer less because they have other sources of pollination .
With that said , honeybees perform some level of pollination of nearly 75 % of all plant species directly used for human food worldwide . Catastrophic loss of honeybees could have significant impact , therefore ; it is estimated that seven out of the 60 major agricultural crops in North American economy would be lost , and this is only for one region of the world . Farms that have intensive systems ( high density of crops ) will be impacted the most compared to non @-@ intensive systems ( small local gardens that depend on wild bees ) because of dependence on honeybees . These types of farms have a high demand for honeybee pollination services , which in the U.S. alone costs $ 1 @.@ 25 billion annually . This cost is offset , however , as honeybees as pollinators generate 22 @.@ 8 to 57 billion Euros globally .
= = Media = =
Silence of the Bees ( October 2007 ) is a part of the Nature television series and covers several recent investigative discoveries .
The 2009 documentary Vanishing of the Bees pointed to neonicotinoid pesticides as being the most likely culprit , though the experts interviewed concede that no firm data yet exists .
The 2010 feature @-@ length documentary Queen of the Sun : What are the bees telling us ? features interviews with beekeepers , scientists , farmers , and philosophers .
The 2012 documentary , Nicotine Bees , argues that neonicotinoid pesticides are principally responsible for Colony Collapse Disorder .
More than Honey , a 2012 documentary , examines the relationship between humans and bees and explores the possible causes of CCD .
= Reginald Fitz Jocelin =
Reginald fitz Jocelin ( sometimes Reginald Italus , Richard the Lombard , or Reginald Lombardus ; died 26 December 1191 ) was a medieval Bishop of Bath and an Archbishop of Canterbury @-@ elect in England . A member of an Anglo @-@ Norman noble family , he was the son of a bishop , and was educated in Italy . He was a household clerk for Thomas Becket , but by 1167 he was serving King Henry II of England . He was also a favourite of King Louis VII of France , who had him appointed abbot of the Abbey of Corbeil . After Reginald angered Becket while attempting to help negotiate a settlement between Becket and the king , Becket called him " that offspring of fornication , that enemy to the peace of the Church , that traitor . " When he was elected as a bishop , the election was challenged by King Henry 's eldest son , Henry the Young King , and Reginald was forced to go to Rome to be confirmed by Pope Alexander III . He attended the Third Lateran Council in 1179 , and spent much of his time administering his diocese . He was elected Archbishop of Canterbury in 1191 , but died before he could be installed .
= = Early life = =
Reginald was the son of Josceline de Bohon , the Bishop of Salisbury , although he was possibly born before his father became a priest . Reginald was a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Humphrey de Bohun , one of the companions of William the Conqueror . Some sources say that he was born while his father was studying law in Italy . His uncle Richard de Bohon was Bishop of Coutances from 1151 to 1180 . He was also related to Robert , Earl of Gloucester . Savaric FitzGeldewin , Reginald 's successor at Bath , was Reginald 's father 's second cousin . Reginald 's mother may have a member of the family of the counts of Maurienne . He was born and brought up in Italy , which led to him sometimes being referred to as Reginald Italus , Reginald Lombardus or Reginald the Lombard . He was appointed Archdeacon of Wiltshire by his father before 8 December 1161 , when he first signed a document as archdeacon . He served in Thomas Becket 's household after Becket became archbishop , and by June 1164 was serving Becket 's interests in France at both the court of the French King Louis VII and the papal Curia . It was probably in November 1164 that Louis named Reginald abbot of the Abbey of Corbeil .
Reginald probably studied at Paris sometime during 1163 or 1164 , as he had a letter of introduction from Pope Alexander III to Hugues de Champfleury , Bishop of Soissons , the chancellor of Louis VII . Reginald did not complete his studies for the title of master , however , as he was in service with the King of England by 1167 . He served King Henry II as a royal messenger to Rome during the crisis with Becket in 1167 . For the next four years , Reginald would be embroiled in the dispute and with trying to find a diplomatic solution to it . While serving Henry , Reginald incurred Becket 's displeasure enough that Becket called Reginald " that offspring of fornication , that enemy to the peace of the Church , that traitor . " However , John of Salisbury always maintained friendly relations with both Reginald and his father , even though John was a partisan of Becket 's .
Reginald took part in the negotiations in August and September 1169 that attempted to reach a settlement between Henry and Becket . These negotiations included papal nuncios and most of the Norman bishops and prominent abbots , as well as the royal clerks . However , the negotiations came to nothing , and led to Becket 's castigation of Reginald . Reginald was one of the main clerics working for King Henry during the dispute with Becket , along with John of Oxford , Richard of Ilchester , and Geoffrey Ridel . Henry 's plans to reward the four with bishoprics in late 1170 probably precipitated the final crisis that led to Becket 's murder .
= = Bishop of Bath = =
Reginald was elected Bishop of Bath in late April 1173 , and was consecrated 23 June 1174 . However , Henry the Young King challenged the election , on the grounds of illegitimacy and an uncanonical election . Reginald went to Rome in the company of Richard of Dover , who had just been elected Archbishop of Canterbury and was facing a challenge from the Young King to his election . Reginald was confirmed by Pope Alexander III on 18 April 1174 with Walter Map alleging bribery as the only reason the election was confirmed . Ralph de Diceto , however , states that Reginald swore an oath that he was uninvolved in the death of Becket and that his birth took place before his father became a priest . During the dispute , Reginald 's friend Peter of Blois wrote him a letter , which is still extant , encouraging him to persevere .
As a bishop , Reginald was kept busy attending the king 's councils and the royal court , but also took part in the 1178 mission to Toulouse , led by Cardinal Pierre of San Crisogono , which attempted to deal with the Cathar heretics there . He attended the Third Lateran Council in 1179 . During the 1180s , he was more active in the affairs of his diocese , and appears less often in the secular affairs of the kingdom , but in 1189 he took part in the coronation of King Richard I of England . In April 1191 he was one of the persons selected to arbitrate between the chancellor William Longchamp and Prince John of England . He also attended the trial of William Longchamp on 5 October 1191 at Loddon Bridge between Reading and Windsor that dismissed Longchamp from his offices . He may have been an unsuccessful candidate for the chancellorship of England . He was active as a bishop : some 122 acta from his time as bishop survive . He built the hospital of St. John in Bath , as well as building extensively at Wells Cathedral and starting the construction of the Bishop 's Palace . He also issued a confirmation of the status of the town of Wells .
= = Archbishop of Canterbury = =
Baldwin of Forde , the archbishop of Canterbury , died in 1190 , while on Crusade in Palestine . Early in 1191 , King Richard wrote to the cathedral chapter of Canterbury , which was composed of monks , not regular clergy , to recommend the election of William , who was Archbishop of Monreale , but this idea was not acted upon by the monks . In the autumn , William Longchamp , the chancellor , was driven from the kingdom by Walter de Coutances , who had been sent by the king to deal with the issue of Longchamp 's misgovernment , and Prince John . Walter then turned to the issue of the vacant see of Canterbury , and ordered an election to take place on 2 December , and several bishops as well as Prince John and Walter arrived early at Canterbury . But Reginald was elected to the Archbishopric of Canterbury on 27 November 1191 , by the monks . His election was an attempt by the monks to prevent a candidate unacceptable to them being forced on them , and his election was contested by Walter , who appealed to the papacy , and the monks counterappealed . Reginald 's death on 26 December 1191 stopped the controversy and appeals . Reginald was probably chosen by the monks because he had supported the monks of Canterbury against their archbishop Baldwin of Forde in their dispute over the foundation of a church dedicated to Saint Thomas Becket . He died at Dogmersfield , Hampshire , and was buried at Bath . Before his death , he was admitted as a confrater of Christ Church Priory , Canterbury , and was buried in the habit of a Benedictine monk . According to a monk of Eynsham Abbey , after Reginald 's death " he performed miraculous cures for certain weak and sick people . " The same source claimed Reginald wore a hair shirt under his episcopal vestments .
= Walt Disney Animation Studios =
Walt Disney Animation Studios , headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank , California , is an American animation studio that creates animated feature films , short films , and television specials for The Walt Disney Company . Founded on October 16 , 1923 , it is a division of The Walt Disney Studios . The studio has produced 55 feature films , from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) to Zootopia ( 2016 ) .
Originally founded as Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio in 1923 and incorporated as Walt Disney Productions in 1929 , the studio was exclusively dedicated to producing short films until it expanded into feature production in 1934 . In 1983 , Walt Disney Productions named its live @-@ action film studio Walt Disney Pictures . During a corporate restructuring in 1986 , Walt Disney Productions was renamed The Walt Disney Company and the animation division , renamed Walt Disney Feature Animation , became a subsidiary of its film division , The Walt Disney Studios . In 2006 , Walt Disney Feature Animation took on its current name , Walt Disney Animation Studios after Pixar Animation Studios was acquired by Disney in the same year .
For much of its existence , the studio was recognized as the premier American animation studio ; it developed many of the techniques , concepts , and principles that became standard practices of traditional animation . The studio also pioneered the art of storyboarding , which is now a standard technique used in both animated and live @-@ action filmmaking . The studio 's catalog of animated features is among Disney 's most notable assets , with the stars of its animated shorts – Mickey Mouse , Donald Duck , Goofy , and Pluto – becoming recognizable figures in popular culture and mascots for The Walt Disney Company as a whole .
Walt Disney Animation Studios , today managed by Edwin Catmull and John Lasseter ( who also manage Pixar ) , continues to produce films using both traditional animation and computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) .
= = History = =
= = = 1923 – 29 : Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio = = =
Kansas City , Missouri , natives Walt Disney and Roy O. Disney founded the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio in Los Angeles in 1923 , and got their start producing a series of silent Alice Comedies short films featuring a live @-@ action child actress in an animated world . The Alice Comedies were distributed by Margaret J. Winkler 's Winkler Pictures , which later also distributed a second Disney short subject series , the all @-@ animated Oswald the Lucky Rabbit , through Universal Pictures starting in 1927 . Upon relocating to California , the Disney brothers initially started working in their uncle Robert Disney 's garage at 4406 Kingswell Avenue in the Los Feliz neighborhood of Los Angeles , then in October 1923 formally launched their studio in a small office on the rear side of a real estate agency 's office at 4651 Kingswell Avenue . In February 1924 , the studio moved next door to office space of its own at 4649 Kingswell Avenue . In 1925 , Disney put down a deposit on a new location at 2719 Hyperion Avenue in the nearby Silver Lake neighborhood , which came to be known as the Hyperion Studio to distinguish it from the studio 's other locations , and in January 1926 the studio moved there and took on the name the Walt Disney Studio .
Meanwhile , after the first year 's worth of Oswalds , Walt Disney attempted to renew his contract with Winkler Pictures , but Charles Mintz , who had taken over Margaret Winkler 's business after marrying her , wanted to force Disney to accept a lower advance payment for each Oswald short . Disney refused , and as Universal owned the rights to Oswald rather than Disney , Mintz set up his own animation studio to produce Oswald cartoons . Most of Disney 's staff was hired away by Mintz to move over , once Disney 's Oswald contract was done in mid @-@ 1928 .
Working in secret while the rest of the staff finished the remaining Oswalds on contract , Disney and his head animator Ub Iwerks led a small handful of loyal staffers in producing cartoons starring a new character named Mickey Mouse . The first two Mickey Mouse cartoons , Plane Crazy and The Galloping Gaucho , were previewed in limited engagements during the summer of 1928 . For the third Mickey cartoon , however , Disney produced a soundtrack , collaborating with musician Carl Stalling and businessman Pat Powers , who provided Disney with his bootlegged " Cinephone " sound @-@ on @-@ film process . Subsequently , the third Mickey Mouse cartoon , Steamboat Willie , became Disney 's first cartoon with synchronized sound , and was a major success upon its November 1928 debut at the West 57th Theatre in New York City . The Mickey Mouse series of sound cartoons , distributed by Powers through Celebrity Productions , quickly became the most popular cartoon series in the United States . A second Disney series of sound cartoons , the Silly Symphonies , debuted in 1929 with The Skeleton Dance .
= = = 1929 – 40 : Reincorporation , Silly Symphonies and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs = = =
In 1930 , disputes over finances between Disney and Powers led to Disney 's studio , reincorporated on December 16 , 1929 , as Walt Disney Productions , signing a new distribution contract with Columbia Pictures . Powers in return signed away Ub Iwerks , who began producing cartoons at his own studio .
Columbia distributed Disney 's shorts for two years before the Disney studio entered a new distribution deal with United Artists in 1932 . The same year , Disney signed a two @-@ year exclusive deal with Technicolor to utilize its new 3 @-@ strip color film process , which allowed for fuller @-@ color reproduction where previous color film processors could not . The result was the Silly Symphony Flowers and Trees , the first film commercially released in full Technicolor . Flowers and Trees was a major success , and all Silly Symphonies were subsequently produced in Technicolor .
By the early 1930s , Walt Disney had realized that the success of animated films depended upon telling emotionally gripping stories that would grab the audience and not let go , and this realization led him to create a separate " story department " with storyboard artists dedicated to story development . With well @-@ developed characters and an interesting story , the 1933 Technicolor Silly Symphony Three Little Pigs became a major box office and pop culture success , with its theme song " Who 's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf ? " becoming a popular chart hit .
In 1934 , Walt Disney gathered several key staff members and announced his plans to make his first feature animated film . Despite derision from most of the film industry , who dubbed the production " Disney 's Folly , " Disney proceeded undaunted into the production of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , which would become the first animated feature in English and Technicolor . Considerable training and development went into the production of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , and the studio greatly expanded with established animators , artists from other fields , and recent college graduates joining the studio to work on the film . The training classes , supervised by the head animators such as Les Clark , Norm Ferguson , and Art Babbit and taught by Donald W. Graham , an art teacher from the nearby Chouinard Art Institute , had begun at the studio in 1932 and were greatly expanded into orientation training and continuing education classes . In the course of teaching the classes , Graham and the animators created or formalized many of the techniques and processes that became the key tenets and principles of traditional animation . Silly Symphonies such as The Goddess of Spring ( 19
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in the New Age ( 1944 ) and Education in the New Age ( 1954 ) .
Between the 1930s and 1960s a small number of groups and individuals became preoccupied with the concept of a coming " New Age " and prominently used the term accordingly . The term had thus become a recurring motif in the esoteric spirituality milieu . Sutcliffe therefore expressed the view that while the term " New Age " had originally been an " apocalyptic emblem " , it would only be later that it became " a tag or codeword for a ' spiritual ' idiom " .
= = History = =
= = = Antecedents = = =
According to scholar Nevill Drury , the New Age has a " tangible history " , although Hanegraaff expressed the view that most New Agers were " surprisingly ignorant about the actual historical roots of their beliefs " . As a form of Western esotericism , the New Age has antecedents that stretch back to southern Europe in Late Antiquity . Following the Age of Enlightenment in 18th century Europe , new esoteric ideas developed in response to the development of scientific rationality . This new esoteric trend is termed occultism by scholars , and it was this occultism which would be a key factor in the development of the worldview from which the New Age emerged .
One of the earliest influences on the New Age was the Swedish 18th century Christian mystic Emanuel Swedenborg , who professed the ability to communicate with angels , demons , and spirits . Swedenborg 's attempt to unite science and religion and his prediction of a coming era in particular have been cited as ways in which he prefigured the New Age movement . Another early influence was the late 17th and early 18th century German physician and hypnotist Franz Mesmer , who claimed the existence of a force known as " animal magnetism " running through the human body . The establishment of Spiritualism , an occult religion influenced by both Swedenborgianism and Mesmerism , in the U.S. during the 1840s has also been identified as a precursor to the New Age movement , in particular through its rejection of established Christianity , its claims to representing a scientific approach to religion , and its emphasis on channeling spirit entities .
A further major influence on the New Age was the Theosophical Society , an occult group co @-@ founded by the Russian Helena Blavatsky in the late 19th century . In her books Isis Unveiled ( 1877 ) and The Secret Doctrine ( 1888 ) , Blavatsky claimed that her Society was conveying the essence of all world religions , and it thus emphasized a focus on comparative religion . Another was New Thought , which developed in late nineteenth century New England as a Christian @-@ oriented healing movement before spreading throughout the United States . Drury also identified as an important influence upon the New Age movement the Indian Swami Vivekananda , an adherent of the philosophy of Vedanta who first brought Hinduism to the West in the late 19th century .
Popularisation behind these ideas has roots in the work of early 20th century writers such as D. H. Lawrence and William Butler Yeats . In the early- to mid @-@ 1900s , American mystic , theologian , and founder of the Association for Research and Enlightenment Edgar Cayce was a seminal influence on what later would be termed the New Age movement ; he was known in particular for the practice some refer to as channeling . Another prominent influence was the psychologist Carl Jung , who was a proponent of the concept of the Age of Aquarius .
Hanegraaff believed that the New Age movement 's direct antecedents could be found in the UFO religions of the 1950s , which he termed a " proto @-@ New Age movement " . Many of these new religious movements had strong apocalyptic beliefs regarding a coming new age , which they typically asserted would be brought about by contact with extraterrestrials . Examples of such groups included the Aetherius Society , founded in the UK in 1955 , and the Heralds of the New Age , established in New Zealand in 1956 .
From a historical perspective , the New Age phenomenon is rooted in the counterculture of the 1960s . Although not common throughout the counterculture , usage of the terms " New Age " and " Age of Aquarius " – used in reference to a coming era – were found within it , for instance appearing on adverts for the Woodstock festival of 1969 , and in the lyrics of " Aquarius " , the opening song of the 1967 musical Hair : The American Tribal Love @-@ Rock Musical . This decade also witnessed the emergence of a variety of new religious movements and newly established religions in the United States , creating a spiritual milieu from which the New Age drew upon ; these included the San Francisco Zen Center , Transcendental Meditation , Soka Gakkai , the Inner Peace Movement , the Church of All Worlds , and the Church of Satan . Although there had been an established interest in Asian religious ideas in the U.S. from at least the eighteenth @-@ century , many of these new developments were variants of Hinduism , Buddhism , and Sufism which had been imported to the West from Asia following the U.S. government 's decision to rescind the Asian Exclusion Act in 1965 . In 1962 the Esalen Institute was established in Big Sur , California . It was from Esalen and other similar personal growth centers which had developed links to humanistic psychology that the human potential movement emerged , which would also come to exert a strong influence on the New Age movement .
In Britain , a number of small religious groups that came to be identified as the " light " movement had begun declaring the existence of a coming new age , influenced strongly by the Theosophical ideas of Blavatsky and Bailey . The most prominent of these groups was the Findhorn Foundation which founded the Findhorn Ecovillage in the Scottish area of Findhorn , Moray in 1962 . Although its founders were from an older generation , Findhorn attracted increasing numbers of countercultural baby boomers during the 1960s , to the extent that its population had grown sixfold to circa 120 residents by 1972 . In October 1965 , the founder of Findhorn , Peter Caddy , attended a meeting of various prominent figures within Britain 's esoteric milieu ; titled " The Significance of the Group in the New Age " , it was held at Attingham Park over the course of a weekend .
All of these groups would create the backdrop from which the New Age movement emerged ; as James R. Lewis and J. Gordon Melton point out , the New Age phenomenon represents " a synthesis of many different preexisting movements and strands of thought " . Nevertheless , York asserted that while the New Age bore many similarities with both earlier forms of Western esotericism and Asian religion , it remained " distinct from its predecessors in its own self @-@ consciousness as a new way of thinking " .
= = = Emergence and development : c . 1970 – 2000 = = =
Sutcliffe argued that between circa 1967 and 1974 , the " emblem " of the " New Age " came to be passed from the " subcultural pioneers " of alternative spirituality groups such as that at Findhorn to the wider array of " countercultural baby boomers " , and that as that happened , there was a " fundamental transformation in meaning " of the term " New Age " ; whereas it had once referred specifically to a coming era , at this point it came to be used in a wider sense to refer to a variety of humanistic activities and practices . The counterculture of the 1960s had rapidly declined by the start of the 1970s , in large part due to the collapse of the commune movement , but it would be many former members of the counter @-@ culture and hippy subculture who subsequently became early adherents of the New Age movement . The exact origins of the New Age movement remain an issue of debate ; Melton asserted that it emerged in the early 1970s , whereas Hanegraaff instead traced its emergence to the latter 1970s , adding that it then entered its full development in the 1980s . This early form of the movement was based largely in Britain and exhibited a strong influence from Theosophy and Anthroposophy . Hanegraaff termed this early core of the movement the New Age sensu stricto , or " New Age in the strict sense " .
In the latter part of the 1970s , the New Age movement expanded to cover a wide variety of alternative spiritual and religious beliefs and practices , not all of which explicitly held to the belief in the Age of Aquarius , but which were nevertheless widely recognised as being broadly similar in their search for " alternatives " to mainstream society . In doing so , the " New Age " became a banner under which to bring together the wider " cultic milieu " of American society . Hanegraaff terms this development the New Age sensu lato , or " New Age in the wider sense " . Stores that came to be known as " New Age shops " opened up , selling related books , magazines , jewellery , and crystals , and they were typified by the playing of New Age music and the smell of incense.This probably influenced several thousand small metaphysical book- and gift @-@ stores that increasingly defined themselves as " New Age bookstores " , while New Age titles came to be increasingly available from mainstream bookstores and then websites like Amazon.com.
Not everyone who came to be associated with the New Age phenomenon openly embraced the term " New Age " , although it was popularised in books like David Spangler 's 1977 work Revelation : The Birth of a New Age and Mark Satin 's 1979 book New Age Politics : Healing Self and Society . Other terms that were employed synonymously with " New Age " in this milieu included " Green " , " Holistic " , " Alternative " , and " Spiritual " .
1971 witnessed the foundation of est by Werner H. Erhard , a transformational training course which became a prominent part of the early movement . Melton suggested that the 1970s witnessed the growth of a relationship between the New Age movement and the older New Thought movement , as evidenced by the widespread use of Helen Schucman 's A Course in Miracles ( 1975 ) , New Age music , and crystal healing in New Thought churches . Some figures in the New Thought movement were sceptical , challenging the compatibility of New Age and New Thought perspectives . During these decades , Findhorn had become a site of pilgrimage for many New Agers , and greatly expanded in size as people joined the community , with workshops and conferences being held there that brought together New Age thinkers from across the world .
Several key events occurred , which raised public awareness of the New Age subculture : publication of Linda Goodman 's best @-@ selling astrology books Sun Signs ( 1968 ) and Love Signs ( 1978 ) ; the release of Shirley MacLaine 's book Out on a Limb ( 1983 ) , later adapted into a television mini @-@ series with the same name ( 1987 ) ; and the " Harmonic Convergence " planetary alignment on August 16 and 17 , 1987 , organized by José Argüelles in Sedona , Arizona . The Convergence attracted more people to the movement than any other single event . Heelas suggested that the movement was influenced by the " enterprise culture " encouraged by the U.S. and U.K. governments during the 1980s onward , with its emphasis on initiative and self @-@ reliance resonating with any New Age ideas .
The claims of channelers Jane Roberts ( Seth Material ) , Helen Schucman ( A Course in Miracles ) , J. Z. Knight ( Ramtha ) , Neale Donald Walsch ( Conversations with God ) ( note that Walsch denies being a " channeler " and his books make it obvious that he is not one , though the text emerged through a dialogue with a deeper part of himself in a process comparable to automatic writing ) contributed to the movement 's growth . The first significant exponent of the New Age movement in the U.S. has been cited as Ram Dass . Core works in the propagating New Age ideas included Jane Roberts 's Seth series , published from 1972 onward , Helen Schucman 's 1975 publication A Course in Miracles , and James Redfield 's 1993 work The Celestine Prophecy . A variety of these books were best sellers , with the Seth book series for instance selling over a million copies . Supplementing these books were videos , audiotapes , compact discs and websites . The development of the internet in particular further popularized New Age ideas and made them more widely accessible .
New Age ideas influenced the development of rave culture in the late 1980s and 1990s . In Britain during the 1980s , the term " New Age Travellers " came into use , while the term " New Age " came to be used increasingly widely by the popular media in the 1990s .
= = Beliefs and practices = =
Although there is great diversity among the beliefs and practices found within the New Age movement , according to York it is united by a shared " vision of radical mystical transformation on both the personal and collective levels " . The movement aims to create " a spirituality without borders or confining dogmas " that is inclusive and pluralistic .
The eclecticism of the New Age has resulted in the common jibe that it represents " supermarket spirituality " .
= = = Theology , cosmogony , and cosmology = = =
Hanegraaff noted that the existence of divinity was " mostly an integral and necessary part of New Age ideas " . However , he added that within the movement , such ideas regarding the nature of divinity " reflect a marked aversion to rigid , doctrinal definitions " , with New Age theology exhibiting an inclusivist and universalistic approach which accepts all personal perspectives on the divine as being equally valid . This intentional vagueness as to the nature of divinity also reflects the New Age idea that divinity cannot be comprehended by the human mind or language . There are nevertheless a number of traits that are repeatedly associated with divinity in New Age literature , the first of which is the idea that it is holistic , thus frequently being described with such terms as an " Ocean of Oneness " , " Infinite Spirit " , " Primal Stream " , " One Essence " , and " Universal Principle " . A second common trait is the characterisation of divinity as " Mind " , " Consciousness " , and " Intelligence " , while a third is the description of divinity as a form of " energy " . A fourth trait is the characterisation of divinity as a " life force " , the essence of which is creativity , while a fifth is the concept that divinity consists of love .
Most New Age groups subscribe to the view that there is an Ultimate Source from which all things originate , which is usually conflated with the divine . Various creation myths have been articulated in New Age publications outlining how this Ultimate Source came to create the universe and everything in it . In contrast , some other New Agers have emphasised the idea of a universal inter @-@ relatedness that is not always emanating from a single source . The New Age worldview emphasises holism and the idea that everything in existence is intricately connected as part of a single whole , in doing so rejecting both the dualism of Judeo @-@ Christian thought and the reductionism of Cartesian science . A number of New Agers have linked this holistic interpretation of the universe to the Gaia hypothesis of James Lovelock . The idea of holistic divinity results in a common New Age belief that humans themselves are divine in essence , a concept described using such terms as " droplet of divinity " , " inner Godhead " , and " divine self " . Influenced by Theosophical and Anthroposophical ideas regarding ' subtle bodies ' , a common New Age idea holds to the existence of a " Higher Self " which is a part of the human but which connects with the divine essence of the universe , and which can advise the human mind through intuition .
Cosmogonical creation stories are common in New Age sources , with these accounts reflecting the movement 's holistic framework by describing an original , primal oneness from which all things in the universe emanated . An additional common theme is that human souls – once living in a spiritual world – then descended into a world of matter . The New Age movement typically views the material universe as a meaningful illusion , which humans should try to use constructively rather than focus on escaping into other spiritual realms . This physical world is hence seen as " a domain for learning and growth " after which the human soul might pass on to higher levels of existence . There is thus a widespread belief that reality is engaged in an ongoing process of evolution ; rather than Darwinian evolution , this is typically seen as either a teleological evolution which assumes a process headed to a specific goal , or an open @-@ ended , creative evolution .
Within the New Age movement , it is often unclear how divine beings are divided from those entities which are believed to exist between divinity and humanity . In the literature , there is much talk of non @-@ human beings who are benevolently interested in the spiritual development of humanity , and which are variously referred to under such names as angels , guardian angels , personal guides , masters , teachers , and contacts . New Age angelology is nevertheless unsystematic , reflecting the idiosyncrasies of individual authors . The figure of Jesus Christ is often mentioned within New Age literature as a mediating principle between divinity and humanity , as well as an exemplar of a spiritually advanced human being .
= = = Self @-@ spirituality and channeling = = =
The New Age movement exhibits a strong emphasis on the idea that the individual and their own experiences are the primary source of authority on spiritual matters . Thus , it exhibits what Heelas termed " unmediated individualism " , and reflects a world @-@ view which is " radically democratic " . As a result , there is a strong emphasis on the freedom of the individual in the movement . This emphasis has led to some ethical disagreements ; while some New Age participants stress the need to help others because all are part of the unitary holistic universe , others have disagreed , refusing to aid others because it is believed that it will result in their dependency on others and thus conflicts with the self @-@ as @-@ authority ethic . Nevertheless , within the movement , there are differences in the role accorded to voices of authority outside of the self .
Although not present in every New Age group , a core belief of the movement is in channeling . This is the idea that humans beings , sometimes ( although not always ) in a state of trance , can act " as a channel of information from sources other than their normal selves " . These sources are varyingly described as being God , gods and goddesses , ascended masters , spirit guides , extraterrestrials , angels , devas , historical figures , the collective unconscious , elementals , or nature spirits . Hanegraaff described channeling as a form of " articulated revelation " , and identified four forms : trance channeling , automatisms , clairaudient channeling , and open channeling .
Prominent examples of channeling in the New Age movement include Jane Roberts ' claims that she was contacted by an entity called Seth , and Helen Schucman 's claims to have channeled Jesus Christ . The academic Suzanne Riordan examined a variety of these New Age channeled messages , and noted that they typically " echoed each other in tone and content " , offering an analysis of the human condition and giving instructions or advice for how humanity can discover its true destiny .
For many New Agers , these channeled messages rival the scriptures of the main world religions as sources of spiritual authority , although often New Agers describe historical religious revelations as forms of " channeling " as well , thus attempting to legitimate and authenticate their own contemporary practices . Although the concept of channeling from discarnate spirit entities has links to Spiritualism and psychical research , in the New Age movement the Spiritualist emphasis on proving the existence of life after death is absent , as is the psychical research focus of testing mediums for consistency .
= = = Astrological cycles and the Age of Aquarius = = =
New Age thought typically envisions the world as developing through a series of large astronomical cycles which can be identified astrologically . Although the concept of distinct ages has older roots in Western esoteric thought , the New Age movement adopted it from Theosophy , despite the fact that such New Age conceptions of ages are often looser and more eclectic than those in Theosophical doctrine . New Age literature often claims that humanity once lived in an age of spiritual wisdom . In the writings of New Agers like Edgar Cayce , the ancient period of spiritual wisdom is associated with concepts of supremely @-@ advanced societies living on lost continents such as Atlantis , Lemuria , and Mu , as well as the idea that ancient societies like those of Ancient Egypt were far more technologically advanced than modern scholarship accepts . New Age literature often posits that the ancient period of spiritual wisdom ultimately gave way to an age of spiritual decline , sometimes termed the Age of Pisces . Although characterised as being a negative period for humanity , New Age literature views the Age of Pisces as an important learning experience for the species . Hanegraaff stated that New Age perceptions of history were " extremely sketchy " in their use of description , reflecting little interest in historiography and conflating history with myth . He also noted that they were highly ethnocentric in placing Western civilization at the centre of historical development .
A common belief among the New Age movement is that humanity has entered , or is coming to enter , a new age known as the Age of Aquarius , which Melton has characterised as a " New Age of love , joy , peace , abundance , and harmony [ ... ] the Golden Age heretofore only dreamed about " . In accepting this belief in a coming new age , the movement has been described as " highly positive , celebratory , [ and ] utopian " , and has also been cited as an apocalyptic movement . Opinions about the nature of the coming New Age differ among New Agers . There are for instance differences in belief about its commencement , with New Age author David Spangler claiming that it began in 1967 , while various practitioners placed its beginning with the Harmonic Convergence of 1987 , with others claiming that it will not begin until several centuries into the third millennium .
There are also differences in how this new age is envisioned . Those adhering to what Hanegraaff termed the " moderate " perspective believed that it would be marked by an improvement to current society , which affected both New Age concerns – through the convergence of science and mysticism and the global embrace of alternative medicine – to more general concerns , including an end to violence , crime and war , a healthier environment , and international co @-@ operation . Other New Agers adopt a fully utopian vision , believing that the world will be wholly transformed into an " Age of Light " , with humans evolving into totally spiritual beings and experiencing unlimited love , bliss , and happiness .
The Age of Aquarius is not viewed as eternal , but it is instead believed that it will last for around two thousand years , before being replaced by a further age . There are various beliefs within the movement as to how this new age will come about , but most emphasise the idea that it will be established through human agency ; others assert that it will be established with the aid of non @-@ human forces such as spirits or extraterrastrials . Participants in the movement typically express the view that their own spiritual actions are helping to bring about the Age of Aquarius , with a common belief also being that there are higher powers in the universe that are helping to birth the new age .
= = = Healing and alternative medicine = = =
Another core factor of the New Age movement is its emphasis on healing and the use of alternative medicine . The general ethos within the movement is that health is the natural state for the human being and that illness is a disruption of that natural balance . Hence , New Age therapies seek to heal " illness " as a general concept which includes physical , mental , and spiritual aspects ; in doing so it critiques mainstream Western medicine for simply attempting to cure disease , and thus has an affinity with most forms of traditional medicine found around the world . The concept of " personal growth " is also greatly emphasised within the healing aspects of the New Age movement . The movement 's focus of self @-@ spirituality has led to the emphasis of self @-@ healing , although also present in the movement are ideas that focus on both healing others and healing the Earth itself .
The healing elements of the movement are difficult to classify given that a variety of terms are used , with some New Age authors using different terms to refer to the same trends , while others use the same term to refer to different things . However , Hanegraaff developed a set of categories into which the forms of New Age healing could be roughly categorised . The first of these was the Human Potential Movement , which argues that contemporary Western society suppresses much human potential , and which accordingly professes to offer a path through which individuals can access those parts of themselves that they have alienated and suppressed , thus enabling them to reach their full potential and live a meaningful life . Hanegraaff described transpersonal psychology as the " theoretical wing " of this Human Potential Movement ; in contrast to other schools of psychological thought , transpersonal psychology takes religious and mystical experiences seriously by exploring the uses of altered states of consciousness . Closely connected to this is the shamanic consciousness current , which argues that the shaman was a specialist in altered states of consciousness and which seeks to adopt and imitate traditional shamanic techniques as a form of personal healing and growth .
Hanegraaff identified the second main healing current in the New Age movement as being holistic health . This emerged in the 1970s out of the free clinic movement of the 1960s , and has various connections with the Human Potential Movement . It emphasises the idea that the human individual is a holistic , interdependent relationship between mind , body , and spirit , and that healing is a process in which an individual becomes whole by integrating with the powers of the universe . A very wide array of methods are utilised within the holistic health movement , with some of the most common including acupuncture , biofeedback , chiropractic , yoga , kinesiology , homeopathy , iridology , massage and other forms of bodywork , meditation and visualisation , nutritional therapy , psychic healing , herbal medicine , healing using crystals , metals , music , chromotherapy , and reincarnation therapy . The use of crystal healing has become a particularly prominent visual trope in the movement . The mainstreaming of the Holistic Health movement in the UK is discussed by Maria Tighe . The inter @-@ relation of holistic health with the New Age movement is illustrated in Jenny Butler 's ethnographic description of " Angel therapy " in Ireland .
= = = " New Age science " = = =
According to Drury , the New Age movement attempts to create " a worldview that includes both science and spirituality " . Although it typically rejects rationalism , the scientific method , and the academic establishment , at times those active in the movement employ terminology and concepts borrowed from science and particularly from the New Physics . Moreover , a number of prominent influences on New Age movement , such as David Bohm and Ilya Prigogine , came from backgrounds as professional scientists . Instead it typically expresses the view that its own understandings of the universe will come to replace those of the academic establishment in a paradigm shift .
However , most of the academic and scientific establishments dismiss " New Age science " as pseudo @-@ science , or at best existing in part on the fringes of genuine scientific research . Hanegraaff identified " New Age science " as a form of Naturphilosophie . In this , the movement is interested in developing unified world views to discover the nature of the divine and establish a scientific basis for religious belief . Richard H. Jones has presented strong arguments challenging New Age thinkers ' treatment of both science and mysticism .
Figures in the New Age movement – most notably Fritjof Capra in his The Tao of Physics ( 1975 ) – have drawn parallels between theories in the New Physics and traditional forms of mysticism , thus arguing that ancient religious ideas are now being proven by contemporary science . Many New Agers have adopted James Lovelock 's Gaia hypothesis that the Earth acts akin to a single living organism , although have expanded this idea to include the idea that the Earth has consciousness and intelligence .
= = = Ethics and afterlife = = =
There is no ethical cohesion within the New Age phenomenon , although Hanegraaff argued that the central ethical tenet of the New Age movement is to cultivate one 's own divine potential . Given that the movement 's holistic interpretation of the universe prohibits a belief in a dualistic good and evil , negative events that happen are interpreted not as the result of evil but as lessons designed to teach an individual and enable them to advance spiritually . It rejects the Christian emphasis on sin and guilt , believing that these generate fear and thus negativity , which then hinder spiritual evolution . It also typically criticises the blaming and judging of others for their actions , believing that if an individual adopts these negative attitudes it harms their own spiritual evolution . Instead the movement emphasizes positive thinking , although beliefs regarding the power behind such thoughts vary within New Age literature . Common New Age examples of how to generate such positive thinking include the repeated recitation of mantras and statements carrying positive messages , and the visualisation of a white light .
According to Hanegraaff , the question of death and afterlife is not a " pressing problem requiring an answer " in the New Age movement . A belief in reincarnation is very common , being viewed as part of humanity 's " progressive spiritual evolution " . In New Age literature the reality of reincarnation is usually treated as self @-@ evident , with no explanation as to why practitioners embrace this afterlife belief over others , although New Agers endorse it in the belief that it ensures cosmic justice . Many New Agers adopt a belief in karma , treating it as a law of cause and effect which assures cosmic balance , although in some cases they stress that it is not a system that enforces punishment for past actions . In much New Age literature discussing reincarnation , there is the claim that part of the human soul , that which carries the personality , perishes with the death of the body , while the Higher Self – that which connects with divinity – survives in order to be reborn into another body . It is believed that the Higher Self chooses the body and circumstances into which it will be born , in order to use it as a vessel through which to learn new lessons and thus advance its own spiritual evolution . Some prominent New Age writers such as Shakti Gawain and Louise Hay have thus expressed the view that humans are therefore totally responsible for the events that happen to them during their life , an idea that many New Agers characterise as empowering . At times , past life regression are employed within the New Age movement in order to reveal a Higher Soul 's previous incarnations , usually with an explicit healing purpose .
= = Lifestyle = =
New Age spirituality has led to a wide array of literature on the subject and an active niche market , with books , music , crafts , and services in alternative medicine available at New Age stores , fairs , and festivals . New Age fairs – sometimes known as " Mind , Body , Spirit fairs " , " psychic fairs " , or " alternative health fairs " – are spaces in which a variety of goods and services are displayed by different vendors , including forms of alternative medicine and esoteric practices such as palmistry or tarot card reading . A prominent example is the Mind Body Spirit Festival , held annually in the United Kingdom , at which – the religious studies scholar Christopher Partridge noted – one could encounter " a wide range of beliefs and practices from crystal healing to ... Kirlian photography to psychic art , from angels to past @-@ life therapy , from Theosophy to UFO religion , and from New Age music to the vegetarianism of Suma Chign Hai . "
A number of New Age proponents have emphasised the use of spiritual techniques as a tool for attaining financial prosperity , thus moving the movement away from its counter @-@ cultural origins . Embracing this attitude , various books have been published espousing such an ethos , established New Age centres have held spiritual retreats and classes aimed specifically at business people , and New Age groups have developed specialised training for businesses . During the 1980s , many prominent U.S. corporations – among them IBM , AT & T , and General Motors – embraced New Age seminars , hoping that they could increase productivity and efficiency among their work force , although in several cases this resulted in employees bringing legal action against their employers , claiming that such seminars had infringed on their religious beliefs or damaged their psychological health . However , the use of spiritual techniques as a method for attaining profit has been an issue of major dispute within the wider New Age movement , with prominent New Agers such as Spangler and Michael Fox criticising what they see as trends within the community that are narcissistic and lack a social conscience . In particular , the movement 's commercial elements have caused problems given that they often conflict with its general economically @-@ egalitarian ethos ; as York highlighted , " a tension exists in New Age between socialistic egalitarianism and capitalistic private enterprise " .
Given that it encourages individuals to choose spiritual practices on the grounds of personal preference and thus encourages them to behave as a consumer , the New Age has been considered to be well suited to modern society .
= = = Demographics = = =
Sociological studies of the demographics of New Age practitioners have established that certain sectors of society are more likely to get involved in the movement than others . Sutcliffe noted that although most of the influential New Age figureheads were male , approximately two thirds of its participants were female . The movement is strongly gendered ; sociologist Ciara O 'Connor argues that it shows a tension between commodification and women 's empowerment . It also a primarily middle @-@ class phenomenon .
In the mid @-@ 1990s , it was asserted that the New Age movement was primarily found in the United States and Canada , Western Europe , and Australia and New Zealand . It is problematic ascertaining the number of New Agers because many individuals involved in the movement don 't explicitly identify themselves as such . While some individuals self @-@ identify as a New Ager , others who participate in New Age practices instead may identify as Jewish , Christian , Buddhist or atheist . Heelas highlighted the range of attempts to establish the number of New Age participants in the U.S. during this period , noting that estimates ranged from 20 @,@ 000 to 6 million ; he believed that the higher ranges of these estimates were greatly inflated by , for instance , an erroneous assumption that all Americans who believed in reincarnation were part of the movement . He nevertheless suggested that over 10 million people in the U.S. had had some contact with New Age practices or ideas .
Sutcliffe described the " typical " participant in the New Age milieu as being " a religious individualist , mixing and matching cultural resources in an animated spiritual quest " . Susan Lee Brown noted that in the U.S. , the movement was first embraced by the baby boomer generation ( those born between 1946 and 1964 ) , " through which it was incubated and transmitted to other parts of American society " . Heelas asserted that the movement was " strongly associated " with members of the middle and upper @-@ middle classes of Western society . He added that within that broad demographic , the movement had nevertheless attracted a diverse clientele . He typified the typical New Ager as someone who was well @-@ educated yet disenchanted with mainstream society , thus arguing that the movement catered to those who believe that modernity is in crisis . He suggested that the movement appealed to many former practitioners of the 1960s counter @-@ culture because while they came to feel that they were unable to change society , they were nonetheless interested in changing the self . He believed that many individuals had been " culturally primed for what the New Age has to offer " , with the New Age attracting " expressive " people who were already comfortable with the ideals and outlooks of the movement 's self @-@ spirituality focus . It could be particularly appealing because the New Age suited the needs of the individual , whereas traditional religious options that are available primarily catered for the needs of a community . He believed that although the adoption of New Age beliefs and practices by some fitted the model of religious conversion , others who adopted some of its practices could not easily be considered to have converted to the religion .
He highlighted that those involved in the movement did so to varying degrees . Heelas argued that those involved in the movement could be divided into three broad groups ; the first comprised those who were completely dedicated to it and its ideals , often working in professions that furthered those goals . The second consisted of " serious part @-@ timers " who worked in unrelated fields but who nevertheless spent much of their free time involved in movement activities . The third was that of " casual part @-@ timers " who occasionally involved themselves in New Age activities but for whom the movement was not a central aspect of their life . Many New Age practices have filtered into wider Western society , with a 2000 poll for instance revealing that 39 % of the UK population had tried alternative therapies .
People who practice New Age spirituality or who embrace its lifestyle are included in the Lifestyle of Health and Sustainability ( LOHAS ) demographic market segment , figures rising , related to sustainable living , green ecological initiatives , and generally composed of a relatively affluent and well @-@ educated segment . The LOHAS market segment in 2006 was estimated at USD $ 300 billion , approximately 30 percent of the United States consumer market . According to The New York Times , a study by the Natural Marketing Institute showed that in 2000 , 68 million Americans were included within the LOHAS demographic . The sociologist Paul H. Ray , who coined the term cultural creatives in his book The Cultural Creatives : How 50 Million People Are Changing the World ( 2000 ) , states , " What you 're seeing is a demand for products of equal quality that are also virtuous . "
= = = Community = = =
Some New Agers advocate living in a simple and sustainable manner to reduce humanity 's impact on the natural resources of Earth ; and they shun consumerism . The New Age movement has been centered around rebuilding a sense of community to counter social disintegration ; this has been attempted through the formation of intentional communities , where individuals come together to live and work in a communal lifestyle .
New Age centres have been set up in various parts of the world , representing an institutionalised form of the movement . Notable examples include the Naropa Institute in Boulder , Colorado , Holly Hock Farm near to Vancouver , the Wrekin Trust in West Malvern , Worcestershire , and the Skyros Centre in Skyros .
Criticising mainstream Western education as counterproductive to the ethos of the movement , many New Age groups have established their own schools for the education of children , although in other cases such groups have sought to introduce New Age spiritual techniques into pre @-@ existing establishments .
= = = Music = = =
The term " New @-@ age music " is applied , often in a derogative manner , to forms of ambient music , a genre which developed in the 1960s and was popularised in the 1970s , particularly with the work of Brian Eno . The genre 's relaxing nature resulted in it becoming popular within New Age circles , with some forms of the genre having a specifically New Age orientation . Studies have determined that new @-@ age music can be an effective component of stress management .
The style began in the 1970s with the works of free @-@ form jazz groups recording on the ECM label ; such as Oregon , the Paul Winter Consort , and other pre @-@ ambient bands ; as well as ambient music performer Brian Eno and classical avant @-@ garde musician Daniel Kobialka . In the early 1970s , it was mostly instrumental with both acoustic and electronic styles . New @-@ age music evolved to include a wide range of styles from electronic space music using synthesizers and acoustic instrumentals using Native American flutes and drums , singing bowls , Australian didgeredoos and world music sounds to spiritual chanting from other cultures .
= = Reception = =
= = = Academia = = =
The earliest academic studies of the New Age movement were performed by specialists in the study of new religious movements , such as Robert Ellwood . However , this research was often scanty because many scholars of alternative spirituality thought of the New Age movement as an insignificant cultural fad . Alternately , much of it was largely negative and critical of New Age groups , as it was influenced by the U.S. anti @-@ cult movement . In 1996 , Wouter Hanegraaff published New Age Religion and Western Culture , a historical analysis of New Age texts . That same year , Paul Heelas published a study of the movement which focused on its manifestation in Britain . Most of these early studies were based on a textual analysis of New Age publications , rather than on an ethnographic analysis of its practitioners .
In the 2003 book A Culture of Conspiracy : Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America written by Michael Barkun , professor emeritus of political science at the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs Barkun argues New Age beliefs have been greatly facilitated by the advent of the internet which has exposed people to beliefs once consigned to the outermost fringe of political and religious life . He identifies two trends which he terms , " the rise of improvisational millennialism " and " the popularity of stigmatized knowledge " . He voices concern that these trends could lead to mass hysteria and could have a devastating effect on American political life .
= = = Christian perspectives = = =
The majority of published criticism of the New Age movement has come from Christians , in particular those on the religion 's fundamentalist wing . In the United States , the New Age movement became a major concern of evangelical Christian groups in the 1980s , an attitude that gradually also influenced British evangelical groups . During that decade , evangelical writers such as Constance Cumbey , Dave Hunt , Gary North , and Douglas Groothuis published books criticising the New Age movement from their Christian perspective ; a number of them have been characterised as propagating conspiracy theories regarding the origin and purpose of the movement . The most successful such publication however was Frank E. Peretti 's 1986 novel This Present Darkness , which sold over a million copies ; it depicted the New Age movement as being in league with feminism and secular education to overthrow Christianity . This criticism has been sustained since ; in 2003 Richard Land of the Southern Baptist Convention stated that there 's " widespread agreement " by Baptists who regard New Age ideas as contrary to Christian tradition and doctrine .
In his 1989 book , Le Nouvel Age , French scholar and Cathoic priest Jean Vernette criticised the New Age movement , which he described as an Anglo Saxon movement which was beginning to invade France . He asked if it represented the coming of the Anti @-@ Christ , a Jewish conspiracy , or a project for a global government . He also noted its parallels with Nazism and said that Christians should be discerning towards it .
The Roman Catholic Church published A Christian reflection on the New Age in 2003 , following a six @-@ year study ; the 90 @-@ page document criticizes New Age practices such as yoga , meditation , feng shui , and crystal healing . According to the Vatican , euphoric states attained through New Age practices should not be confused with prayer or viewed as signs of God 's presence . Cardinal Paul Poupard , then @-@ president of the Pontifical Council for Culture , said the " New Age is a misleading answer to the oldest hopes of man " . Monsignor Michael Fitzgerald , then @-@ president of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue , stated at the Vatican conference on the document : the " Church avoids any concept that is close to those of the New Age " . The report also advised Christians to respect the sincerity of New Age persons ' spiritual searches , and to witness to them about the Gospel
= = = Contemporary Pagan perspectives = = =
An issue of academic debate has been regarding the connection between the New Age movement and contemporary Paganism , or Neo @-@ Paganism , with the two often being confused . Religious studies scholar Sarah Pike asserted that that there was a " significant overlap " between the two religious movements , while Aidan A. Kelly stated that Paganism " parallels the New Age movement in some ways , differs sharply from it in others , and overlaps it in some minor ways " . Ethan Doyle White stated that while the Pagan and New Age movements " do share commonalities and overlap " , they were nevertheless " largely distinct phenomena . " Hanegraaff suggested that whereas various forms of contemporary Paganism were not part of the New Age movement – particularly those who pre @-@ dated the movement – other Pagan religions and practices could be identified as New Age . Partridge portrayed both Paganism and the New Age as different streams of occulture that merge at points .
Various differences between the two movements have been highlighted ; the New Age movement focuses on an improved future , whereas the focus of Paganism is on the pre @-@ Christian past . Similarly , the New Age movement typically propounds a universalist message which sees all religions as fundamentally the same , whereas Paganism stresses the difference between monotheistic religions and those embracing a polytheistic or animistic theology . While the New Age emphasises a light @-@ centred image , Paganism acknowledges both light and dark , life and death , and recognises the savage side of the natural world . Further , the New Age movement shows little interest in magic and witchcraft , which are conversely core interests of many Pagan religions , such as Wicca . Many Pagans have sought to distance themselves from the New Age movement , even using " New Age " as an insult within their community , while conversely many involved in the New Age have expressed criticism of Paganism for emphasizing the material world over the spiritual . Many Pagans have expressed criticism of the high fees charged by New Age teachers , something not typically present in the Pagan movement , which some Pagans pronouncing the word " newage " to rhyme with " sewage " .
= = = Native American and other indigenous responses = = =
The New Age movement has also been accused of cultural imperialism , misappropriating the sacred ceremonies , intellectual and cultural property of indigenous peoples . Indigenous American spiritual leaders , such as Elders councils of the Lakota , Cheyenne , Navajo , Creek , Hopi , Chippewa , and Haudenosaunee have denounced New Age misappropriation of their sacred ceremonies and other intellectual property , stating that " [ t ] he value of these instructions and ceremonies [ when led by unauthorized people ] are questionable , maybe meaningless , and hurtful to the individual carrying false messages " . Traditional leaders of the Lakota , Dakota , and Nakota peoples have reached consensus to reject " the expropriation of [ their ] ceremonial ways by non @-@ Indians " . They see the New Age movement as either not fully understanding , deliberately trivializing , or distorting their way of life , and have declared war on all such " plastic medicine people " who are appropriating their spiritual ways . The United Nations General Assembly has issued a declaration protecting ceremonies as part of the cultural and intellectual property of their respective Indigenous nations :
Article 31 1 . " Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain , control , protect and develop their cultural heritage , traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions , as well as the manifestations of their sciences , technologies and cultures , including human and genetic resources , seeds , medicines , knowledge of the properties of fauna and flora , oral traditions , literatures , designs , sports and traditional games and visual and performing arts . They also have the right to maintain , control , protect and develop their intellectual property over such cultural heritage , traditional knowledge , and traditional cultural expressions . " ― Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
Indigenous leaders have spoken out against individuals from within their own communities who may go out into the world to become a " white man 's shaman , " and any " who are prostituting our spiritual ways for their own selfish gain , with no regard for the spiritual well @-@ being of the people as a whole " . The term " plastic shaman " or " plastic medicine people " has been applied to outsiders who identify themselves as shamans , holy people , or other traditional spiritual leaders , but who have no genuine connection to the traditions or cultures they claim to represent .
= = Social and political movement = =
While many commentators have focused on the personal aspects of the New Age movement , it also has a social and political component . The New Age political movement became visible in the 1970s , peaked in the 1980s , and continued into the 1990s . In the 21st century , the political movement evolved in new directions .
= = = Late 20th century = = =
After the political turmoil of the 1960s , many activists in North America and Europe became disillusioned with traditional reformist and revolutionary political ideologies . Some began searching for a new politics that gave special weight to such topics as consciousness , ecology , personal and spiritual development , community empowerment , and global unity . An outpouring of books from New Age thinkers acknowledged that search and attempted to articulate that in politics .
According to some observers , the first was Mark Satin 's New Age Politics ( 1978 ) . It originally appeared in Canada in 1976 . Other books that have been described as New Age political include Theodore Roszak 's Person / Planet ( 1978 ) , Marilyn Ferguson 's The Aquarian Conspiracy ( 1980 ) , Alvin Toffler and Heidi Toffler 's The Third Wave ( 1980 ) , Hazel Henderson 's The Politics of the Solar Age ( 1981 ) , Fritjof Capra 's The Turning Point ( 1982 ) , Robert Muller 's New Genesis ( 1982 ) , John Naisbitt 's Megatrends ( 1982 ) , Willis Harman 's Global Mind Change ( 1988 ) , James Redfield 's The Celestine Prophecy ( 1993 ) , and Corinne McLaughlin and Gordon Davidson 's Spiritual Politics ( 1994 ) .
All these books were issued by major publishers . Some became international bestsellers . By the 1980s , New Age political ideas were being discussed in big @-@ city newspapers and established political magazines . In addition , some of the New Age 's own periodicals were regularly addressing social and political issues . In the U.S. , observers pointed to Leading Edge Bulletin , New Age Journal , New Options Newsletter , and Utne Reader . Other such periodicals included New Humanity ( England ) , Alterna ( Denmark ) , Odyssey ( South Africa ) , and World Union from the Sri Aurobindo Ashram ( India ) .
As with any political movement , organizations sprang up to generate popular support for New Age political ideas and policy positions . In the U.S. , commentators identified the New Age Caucus of California , the New World Alliance , Planetary Citizens , and California State legislator John Vasconcellos 's Self @-@ Determination : A Personal / Political Network as New Age political organizations . So , on occasion , did their own spokespeople . There may have been more New Age political organizing outside the U.S. ; writer @-@ activists pointed to the Future in Our Hands movement in Norway ( which claimed 20 @,@ 000 adherents out of a population of four million ) , the early European Green movements , and the Values Party of New Zealand .
Although these books , periodicals , and organizations did not speak with one voice , commentators found that many of them sounded common themes :
Our world does not reflect who we at our best can be .
All our most significant social and political problems go back at least 300 years .
The political system therefore needs to be transformed , not just reformed , with the help of a new political theory appropriate to our time .
Holism — seeing everything as connected — is the first step on the way to creating that new political theory .
Doing away with the categories of " left " and " right " is another essential part of that task .
Significant social change requires deep changes in consciousness ; institutional change is not enough .
Above all , consciousness needs to become more ecologically aware , more feminist , and more oriented to compassionate global unity .
Desirable values include nonviolence , diversity , a sense of community , and a sense of enoughness .
Human growth and development , not economic growth , should be the overarching goal of New Age society .
Ownership and control of institutions is important . But the size of institutions is at least as important . We must move away from big governments , big corporations , and other large institutions to the extent it enhances our lives .
We can begin this process by interlacing hierarchical structures with horizontal networks .
Global unification is a key goal , but is probably best accomplished by networking at many levels rather than establishing a centralized world state .
The agent of political change is no longer the working class , or any economic class . Instead , it is all those who are developing themselves personally and spiritually — all who aspire to live lives of dignity and service .
Evolution is to be preferred to revolution . However , the forces of evolutionary change need not be a statistical majority . A " critical mass " of informed , committed , and spiritually aware people can move a nation forward .
Over time , these themes began to cohere . By the 1980s , observers in both North America and Europe were acknowledging the emergence of a New Age political " ideology " .
= = = Political objections at century ’ s end = = =
Toward the end of the 20th century , criticisms were being directed at the New Age political project from many quarters , but especially from the liberal left and religious right .
On the left , scholars argued that New Age politics is an oxymoron : that personal growth has little or nothing to do with political change . One political scientist said New Age politics fails to recognize the " realities " of economic and political power ; another faulted it for not being opposed to the capitalist system , or to liberal individualism . Antinuclear activist Harvey Wasserman argued that New Age politics is too averse to social conflict to be effective politically .
On the right , some worried that the drive to come up with a new consciousness and new values would topple time @-@ tested old values . Others worried that the celebration of diversity would leave no strong viewpoint in place to guide society .
Neither left nor right was impressed with the New Age 's ability to organize itself politically . Many explanations were offered for the New Age 's practical political weakness . Some said that the New Age political thinkers and activists of the 1970s and 1980s were simply too far in advance of their time . Others suggested that New Age activists ' commitment to the often frustrating process of consensus decision @-@ making was at fault . After it dissolved , New World Alliance co @-@ founder Marc Sarkady told an interviewer that the Alliance had been too " New Age counter @-@ cultural " to appeal to a broad public .
= = = New political directions in the 21st century = = =
In the 21st century , writers and activists continue to pursue a political project with New Age roots . However , it differs from the project that had come before .
The principal difference was anticipated in texts like New Age Politics author Mark Satin 's essay " Twenty @-@ eight Ways of Looking at Terrorism " ( 1991 ) , human potential movement historian Walter Truett Anderson 's essay " Four Different Ways to Be Absolutely Right " ( 1995 ) , and mediator Mark Gerzon 's book A House Divided ( 1996 ) . In these texts , the New Age political perspective is recognized as legitimate . But it is presented as merely one among many , with strong points and blind spots just like all the rest . The result was to alter the nature of the New Age political project . If every political perspective had unique strengths and significant weaknesses , then it no longer made sense to try to convert everyone to the New Age political perspective , as had been attempted in the 1970s and 1980s . It made more sense to try to construct a higher political synthesis that took every political perspective into account , including that of the New Age .
Another difference between the two eras of political thought is that , in the 21st century , few political actors use the term New Age or post @-@ New Age to describe themselves or their work . Some observers attribute this to the negative connotations that the term " New Age " had acquired . Instead , other terms are employed that connote a similar sense of personal and political development proceeding together over time . For example , according to an anthology from three political scientists , many writers and academics use the term " transformational " as a substitute for such terms as New Age and new paradigm . Ken Wilber has popularized use of the term " integral " , Carter Phipps emphasizes the term " evolutionary " , and both terms can be found in some authors ' book titles .
= Ohio State Route 11 =
State Route 11 ( SR 11 ) is a north – south freeway in the eastern portion of the U.S. state of Ohio . Its southern terminus is at U.S. Route 30 ( US 30 ) in East Liverpool at the West Virginia state line on the Jennings Randolph Bridge over the Ohio River ; its northern terminus is at SR 531 in Ashtabula . The route is concurrent with US 30 through East Liverpool and with Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) near Youngstown . The first section of the route to be completed , from Canfield to Austintown , opened in 1969 . The entire current route was complete in 1972 , and upgraded to a divided highway by 1980 .
= = Route description = =
All of SR 11 is included as a part of the National Highway System , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation . The highest traffic count is at I @-@ 80 near Austintown , where 38 @,@ 360 vehicles travel the highway on average each day . The lowest traffic count is near US 6 , where 5 @,@ 550 vehicles travel the highway on average each day .
SR 11 starts at Jennings Randolph Bridge , and becomes concurrent with US 30 and SR 39 as it turns southwest . The concurrency bends around East Liverpool , SR 39 leaves the concurrency , and SR 7 joins it . The route finally turns north and leaves East Liverpool . It turns northwest , near the southern terminus of SR 170 . It intersects the concurrency termini of SR 7 and US 30 in these three miles . SR 11 travels through forests , passes by Lisbon , only connecting with SR 154 at an interchange . The highway travels north to near Leetonia , where it meets SR 344 at a diamond interchange . The forests slowly change into farmland , as it passes under SR 14 and into Mahoning County .
In Mahoning County , the route becomes part of the eastern city limits of Canfield , meeting US 224 at a parclo interchange . The highway crosses over the Ohio Turnpike , and becomes concurrent with I @-@ 80 few miles later . Here , most of the route is surrounded by urban areas . The interchange with I @-@ 80 and I @-@ 680 is incomplete , with ramps from I @-@ 680 west to I @-@ 80 east and I @-@ 80 west to I @-@ 680 east missing . I @-@ 80 and SR 11 travel northeast , leaves Mahoning County , and enters Trumbull County . SR 11 and I @-@ 80 split at the interchange at SR 711 , east of Girard . This interchange is also incomplete , with ramps from I @-@ 80 east to SR 711 south and SR 711 to I @-@ 80 west missing .
SR 11 continues north toward Ashtabula , meeting interchanges for SR 82 and an access road to the Youngstown @-@ Warren Regional Airport . Urban areas transition back into rural areas here . It later intersects SR 305 and SR 5 at diamond interchanges near Cortland . The route then enters Ashtabula County , and travels in a straight line , passing through US 322 , a rest area , US 6 , and SR 307 . Mostly forests and fields are between the highway . The route slowly bends northwest , and meets I @-@ 90 at a cloverleaf interchange . The route crosses over Ashtabula River , and bypasses Ashtabula . It ends at SR 531 , part of the Lake Erie Circle Tour , at a stop sign .
= = History = =
SR 11 was designated between 1967 – 1969 as a connector between Canfield and Austintown . Two years later , it was extended north to I @-@ 80 , and south to SR 7 , five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of East Liverpool . A section from SR 531 to SR 307 was also completed . Those two sections were later connected . By 1972 , all parts of the route were complete . SR 11 was upgraded to a limited access highway , from SR 82 to SR 307 , between 1972 and 1981 . In 2000 , construction began for the King Graves Road interchange , which opened a year later . On October 24 , 2005 , the interchange at SR 711 and I @-@ 80 / SR 11 opened , after it was modified to connect SR 711 . The only rest area on SR 11 received turn lanes in 2011 .
SR 11 was designated as the " Lake to River highway " on September 28 , 1973 . The section in Ashtabula County was also designated as the " Marine Private Henry Kalinowski Memorial Highway " on April 7 , 2009 . Around 2002 , the section in East Liverpool , starting from Newell Street , and ending at the state line , was designated as the " Lou Holtz Highway " .
= = = Chemical spills = = =
There have been three chemical spills on SR 11 . The first one happened on November 30 , 1984 . A tanker truck leaked Titanium tetrachloride at the I @-@ 80 / SR 11 interchange at Girard . About 200 residents who lived near the highway were evacuated . No injuries were reported , and the chemicals were soon contained . A spill was reported on July 7 , 1996 . A tanker truck spilled methyl alcohol onto SR 11 northbound , in Fairfield Township . The spill was contained , and charges were filed against the driver . The third and most recent one , happened on September 9 , 2003 . A tanker spilled one US gallon ( 3 @.@ 8 L ) of a flammable solvent between SR 344 and SR 154 . There were no evacuations .
= = Exit list = =
= Arthur F. Devereux =
Arthur Forrester Devereux ( April 27 , 1838 – February 13 , 1906 ) was a captain in the Massachusetts Volunteer Militia prior to the Civil War and a colonel in the Union Army during the Civil War . He is notable for his expertise and proficiency in the instruction of military drill . During the Battle of Gettysburg , the 19th Massachusetts Infantry , under his command , played an important role in filling a breach in the Union lines during Pickett 's Charge . After his active service had concluded , Devereux was awarded the honorary rank of brevet brigadier general , United States Volunteers , by appointment of President Andrew Johnson on February 21 , 1866 to rank from March 13 , 1865 , and confirmation by the U.S. Senate on April 10 , 1866 .
= = Early career = =
Born in Salem , Massachusetts , Devereux attended Harvard College and the United States Military Academy at West Point . His father was George H. Devereux who had served as adjutant general of Massachusetts from 1848 – 1851 . His father 's interest in military matters likely influenced Arthur Devereux 's career . Devereux did not graduate West Point , however , and instead moved to Chicago , Illinois to pursue a career in business in 1854 , when he was 15 or 16 years old .
= = = Chicago = = =
Soon after moving to Chicago , Devereux became business partners with a young man of his own age , Elmer E. Ellsworth . In business they were unsuccessful . Before long , Ellsworth would move on to a career in law and Devereux would move back to Massachusetts . However , as peace @-@ time militia soldiers , they were both highly successful . Both Devereux and Ellsworth became involved in the Illinois National Guard . Devereux became adjutant to Illinois National Guard Maj. Simon Bolivar Buckner , later a Confederate general during the Civil War and eventually a governor of Kentucky . Both Devereux and Ellsworth were acutely interested in the Zouave method of drill , inspired by the French Army units of the same name which fought in North Africa and wore elaborate uniforms influenced by Algerian fashions . Zouave militia units in the United States wore similar uniforms to their French counterparts and emphasized precision and showmanship in their drill . Ellsworth formed a Zouave company known as the Chicago Cadets which was placed under Adjutant Devereux 's supervision . The two men frequently consulted with each other on the practice of precision Zouave drill . Later , during the Civil War , Ellsworth would command the 11th New York Infantry , a Zouave regiment . Ellsworth famously became one of the first Union Army officers killed in the war .
= = = Salem Light Infantry company = = =
Returning to Massachusetts in 1855 , Devereux was eventually elected captain of the Salem Light Infantry company in 1859 . The Salem Light Infantry company was a prestigious Massachusetts militia unit with a long history , having been established in 1805 . Inspired by Ellsworth 's Chicago Cadets , Devereux enhanced the Salem company 's prestige by transforming it into a Zouave unit and training its members in precision drill . In 1860 , the company gave an exhibition drill for Massachusetts Gov. John Andrew and a large crowd of distinguished guests . The Salem Light Infantry was declared " a marvel of precision and exactness . "
= = Civil War = =
= = = 8th Massachusetts = = =
After the Battle of Fort Sumter on April 12 , 1861 , the Salem Light Infantry company was assigned to the 8th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry for three months of service . The regiment arrived in Annapolis , Maryland on April 21 . Almost immediately after their arrival , the Salem Light Infantry , designated Company J of the 8th Massachusetts , was ordered aboard the USS Constitution to protect the vessel from attack by Confederate sympathizers . At the time , the Constitution was serving as a training ship at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis . As one of the original six frigates of the U.S. Navy , the warship was an important national symbol . The Navy soon towed the Constitution , with Devereux 's Salem company on board , to New York City where she would be less vulnerable . Returning to Maryland , Devereux and his company rejoined the 8th Massachusetts , aiding in repairing railroads and serving guard duty outside of Baltimore . The 8th Massachusetts was mustered out of service on August 1 , 1861 .
= = = 19th Massachusetts = = =
Having completed his first term of service , Devereux immediately sought involvement with a new regiment . On August 22 , 1861 , he was commissioned lieutenant colonel of the 19th Massachusetts . The commanding officer of the regiment , Col. Edward Winslow Hinks had great respect for Devereux 's expertise in military drill . He therefore placed the training of the 19th Massachusetts under Devereux 's supervision . To prepare the regiment for action , Devereux enlisted the aid of several members of the Salem Light Infantry company to serve as drill masters .
After their first winter of service on picket duty in the vicinity of Washington , D.C. , the 19th Massachusetts was attached to
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99 , " Viva Ned Flanders " received an 11 @.@ 6 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 11 @.@ 5 million viewers . The same year , the episode was nominated for an Emmy award in the category of animated programming less than one hour , but it ultimately lost to the King of the Hill episode " And They Call It Bobby Love " . On August 7 , 2007 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Tenth Season DVD set .
Following its home video release , " Viva Ned Flanders " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Ian Jane of DVD Talk wrote that the episode is a " classic " , and Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News found it to be one of the better episodes of the season . Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide wrote that even though he found Ned being 60 years old " absurd " , the episode " musters plenty of fine laughs " . He especially liked Homer 's escapades , as well as the scenes in Vegas . He concluded his review by writing that " now it ’ s Marge ’ s time to shine ! " is one of his favorite lines of the series .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , were also positive , commenting that the episode is " one of the fastest paced episodes ever " , and " moves at breathless speed " . They added that it is " enormous fun with more bizarre moments than you can shake a stick at " , particularly praising a scene involving " a hysterical Joan Rivers " . Mac MacEntire of DVD Verdict wrote that the establishing shots in Vegas were the episode 's highlights . Aaron Roxby of Collider thought negatively of the episode however , writing that , even though the episode has " some decent gags " , it is overall " one of the weaker Flanders based episodes " .
Similarities have been noted on multiple occasions between this episode and the 2009 film The Hangover , particularly in the inclusion of plot devices such as intoxicated , unexpected marriage and the protagonists meeting an iconic Boxer , as well as featuring a massive suite at Caesar 's Palace ( or " Nero 's Palace " in The Simpsons ) . Amber and Ginger would re @-@ appear in later episodes of the series . They first returned in the season 13 episode " Brawl in the Family " , in which they track down Homer and Ned . In the DVD commentary for said episode , current show runner Al Jean praised " Viva Ned Flanders " , but stated that he thought the ending was " loose " . He said , " Usually , like , if you leave a wife like , in Vegas , they track you down " . " Brawl in the Family " was produced to " resolve " the ending to " Viva Ned Flanders " . In the season 18 episode " Jazzy and the Pussycats " , the Simpson family attend Amber 's funeral , after it is revealed that she has died of a drug overdose while waiting in line to ride a rollercoaster .
= Mavis Wilton =
Mavis Wilton ( née Riley ) is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera Coronation Street , played by Thelma Barlow . A long @-@ running series regular , Mavis appeared in the show for 26 years from 1971 to 1997 . Introduced for a one @-@ off cameo appearance , she proved popular with producers and viewers and subsequently became a regular .
Mavis was portrayed as moralising , repressed , and dithering , and often appeared in comic scenes with her boss Rita Sullivan or her husband Derek Wilton . She was generally well received by critics , described as a national institution and one of Coronation Street 's best loved characters , an old @-@ fashioned spinster . Barlow has been praised for her portrayal of Mavis , a character notably spoofed by impressionist Les Dennis during the 1980s .
Barlow decided to leave Coronation Street in 1997 ; her character left to run a guest house in Cartmel following the death of her husband . Barlow has said that the producers of Coronation Street repeatedly asked her to return as Mavis , but she declined .
= = Storylines = =
Born in Weatherfield , Mavis was brought up in Grange @-@ over @-@ Sands where her parents , despite being teetotal , ran an off @-@ licence . Mavis first appears in Coronation Street in 1971 at Emily Nugent ( Eileen Derbyshire ) and Ernest Bishop 's ( Stephen Hancock ) engagement party , as a friend / colleague of Emily 's from the mail order warehouse and is invited to be a bridesmaid at the wedding . She is initially employed as a receptionist at the local vet and then as an assistant in the corner shop , but takes a job offered by Rita Littlewood ( Barbara Knox ) at The Kabin newsagents , 14 Rosamund Street . Mavis and Rita are complete opposites – Rita sexy and self @-@ assured , Mavis mouse @-@ like and dowdy – but they get on well and become friends . Rita often despairs at Mavis 's choices in life , particularly when it comes to men . Rita 's dominance over Mavis seems like bullying to outsiders , but she is only thinking of Mavis 's best interests .
In 1973 , Mavis starts dating the equally shy Jerry Booth ( Graham Haberfield ) , but it remains platonic . Jerry dies of a heart attack in 1975 before being able to express his romantic intentions . She meets salesman Derek Wilton ( Peter Baldwin ) the following year . They date , but the relationship is strained by Derek 's interfering mother , who believes that Mavis is not good enough for her son . The relationship remains non @-@ committal until 1983 , when another man competes for Mavis 's hand , the artistic Victor Pendlebury ( Christopher Coll ) . Mavis is torn as she likes both but chooses Derek in the end . On their wedding day in 1984 Mavis has second thoughts about marrying Derek and jilts him at the altar . Her guilt turns to indignation when she learns that Derek – feeling the same way she does – did not attend the ceremony either . Derek goes on to an unhappy marriage with Angela Hawthorne ( Diane Fletcher ) , but in 1986 he begins wooing Mavis again , realizing he made a mistake when he let her go . Mavis eventually decides Derek is the man for her and the couple marry in September 1988 . The other residents of Coronation Street consider Mavis and Derek something of a joke , but neither care as they are genuinely in love . They spend evenings reading aloud to each other and discussing the events of the day . They remain happy despite the occasional problem , but their happiness is cut short in 1997 when Derek dies suddenly of a heart attack after a road rage incident . Devastated , at his funeral Mavis chastises those who mocked her marriage over the years .
Living in Weatherfield without Derek proves too difficult for Mavis . She surprises Rita when she suggests that they should move away and go into business together . They discuss the possibility of running a guest house in Cartmel , a village in the Lake District . Rita considers it but both realize that a partnership would not work . Mavis goes without her , buying a guest house and leaving Weatherfield in October 1997 . She and Rita bid each other an emotional farewell , ending a partnership of 25 years .
= = Creation and development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Mavis Riley 's 1971 cameo appearance proved to be a hit with viewers , persuading the producers of Coronation Street to make her a regular character . It has been reported that Barlow based her portrayal of Mavis on a woman she had seen working in Granada studios ( where Coronation Street is filmed ) as well as " dozens of northern women she had seen battered into submission by worry " . Discussing the woman who inspired Mavis 's characterisation , Barlow said , " She had a strong core , but didn 't show it . She was desperate to be liked but she didn 't want to appear pushy . "
Discussing her character , Barlow described Mavis as a " soppy thing " , adding " she had great integrity , and she was a very loyal person . She would stick by her morality . She was a mouse to begin with , and then she met [ her future husband ] Derek and ... she learnt to be quite tough . " In Daran Little 's book The Coronation Street Story Mavis is described as a " very creative person " . She often met men through her creative endeavours , but her status as a spinster often led to feelings of bitterness , and she resented that her friend Emily had married two men before she had married once . Her lack of male attention led Mavis to be labelled the " eternal virgin " of Coronation Street . The serial 's New Zealand broadcaster TVNZ described her as " flighty and romantic " .
The character has been discussed in a variety of publications . Hilary Kingsley in her book Soapbox discusses Mavis 's reticent and moralistic personality as seen in her drinking habits : Mavis drinks fruit juices , but on special occasions sweet sherry : " two for Mavis is one too many " says Kingsley . In a 1983 issue of New Statesman magazine , Mavis is described as having a face that is " never quite sure of its own shape " . The author describes the storyline featuring Mavis facing the prospect of a trial marriage or losing her boyfriend as an example of the " either @-@ or situations " into which soap opera is " forever ensnaring its characters " . An article in the Evening Standard said Mavis was " meek and mild " and " would not say boo to a budgie " . In the same newspaper Mark Walton @-@ Cook discusses Mavis 's style , stating : " I keep picturing Corrie 's Mavis Riley twittering and clutching at the high neck of a securely fastened polyester blouse with a tasteful cameo brooch " .
Mavis was frequently used to provide comic relief ; she has been dubbed one of Coronation Street 's comedy stars , well known for her catchphrase , " ooh , I don 't really know " . Susan Purdie writes that Mavis 's storylines and persona often " hover between pathos and comedy " . The critic David Meade agrees , noting that Mavis was " a permanent mourner @-@ in @-@ waiting " . Sean @-@ Day Lewis describes Mavis as " muddled and mousy " , while Dennis Joseph Enright calls her a moralistic shop assistant who " no one takes very seriously " . She was often spoofed by comedian Les Dennis in the 1980s ; the character featured along with Dustin Gee 's impression of Vera Duckworth in a variety of sketch shows .
= = = Comedy partnerships = = =
The producers of the show decided to pair Mavis with Rita Fairclough ( Barbara Knox ) by giving her a job in Rita 's corner shop ; the characters ' relationship has been described as a chalk and cheese comedy partnership . Christine Geraghty has cited Mavis and Rita 's friendship as an example of a soap opera portraying an important , stable , intimate female relationship : " Rita is Mavis 's boss , but she is also one of her closest friends " .
A spinster for many years , Mavis resisted the advances of men , often too shy to allow dating to progress beyond the initial stages of courtship . Ian Randall comments that " Many a man has been smitten with Mavis Riley , but unfortunately she always seemed to attract the drippier of the male species " . In 1976 a love interest was introduced for Mavis in the form of Derek Wilton ( Peter Baldwin ) , but it was more than a decade before the couple finally married in 1988 , after simultaneously jilting each other four years earlier . Barbara Knox , who plays Rita , said , " She [ Mavis ] was quite a tough little character . You know , a lot of girls would have gone through with [ the wedding ] , and she stuck to her guns and said ' No , no this isn 't right . ' Again , dithering and weepy , but she was tough enough to do it . That scene [ where Rita supports her decision to jilt Derek ] is reflective of the two of them . That was the essence of the friendship , they stuck up for each other and [ were ] great friends , all the way through . "
Richard Dyer perceives the Mavis and Derek characters to be as " shy physically " as one another , whereas Kathryn Hone , writing in The Sunday Times , considers Derek " even more dithering than Mavis " . Nevertheless the on @-@ screen relationship between the couple progresses quickly , despite the interference of Derek 's mother . Actors Thelma Barlow and Peter Baldwin had worked together before their casting as Derek and Mavis , and the two became close friends .
Derek and Mavis have been described by What 's on TV as " an old @-@ fashioned pair who were made for each other " , and were typically featured in comic storylines , such as one in 1995 that saw their garden gnome kidnapped and transported around the world ; Derek and Mavis received pictures of the gnome in various exotic locations , sent to them with ransom notes . It transpired that the kidnapper was Derek 's friend Norris Cole ( Malcolm Hebden ) . The Daily Record labelled this storyline one of " Coronation Street 's Classic Comic Moments " in 2008 .
Marilyn J. Matelski cites Mavis and Derek Wilton as examples of clever naming , in that the serial had created a fitting image of the characters before viewers even saw them together .
= = = Departure = = =
Barlow decided to leave the role of Mavis in 1997 , having played it for 26 years . It was reported that she had quit following the axing of Peter Baldwin , who played her screen husband Derek Wilton . At the time Coronation Street was undergoing off @-@ screen changes following the introduction of a new executive producer , Brian Park , dubbed " the axeman " in the press after he culled many characters from the regular cast . The actress Jean Alexander , who played the character of Hilda Ogden in the serial , went to the press in protest at the news . She wrote : " Peter Baldwin and Thelma Barlow were a wonderfully funny couple , but they 've killed off Derek and now Mavis is about to leave . Even all the humour has been taken out of scenes between Mavis and Rita . " Park suggested that when he took over as head producer there was a general feeling among the programme @-@ makers that " Derek and Mavis had had their day " . Barlow has stated her belief that the producers killed off Derek as a result of her own desire to leave . She said : " It was sort of cruel , really ; I mean , they could have killed Mavis off . It was a new director and a new producer , and they wanted to make a big news splash . It was very hard for Peter [ who played Derek ] . " The village of Cartmel , near Grange @-@ over @-@ Sands , enjoyed a boost in tourism attributed to the exposure given to it by Mavis 's storyline .
In 2002 producers asked Barlow to return as Mavis , but she was too busy . In 2006 Barlow claimed that she had again been asked to return to Coronation Street , but had refused as she felt the storylines were not good enough for Mavis . Barlow stated in 2007 that she is unlikely to return , because she would be unable to cope with the accelerated production schedule of one more episode a week since her last appearance in 1997 . Executive producer Kim Crowther said in 2009 that she would have liked Mavis to return to the serial .
= = Reception = =
Brian Meade of the Daily Mirror has suggested that Mavis was a " national institution " who enriched the life of millions . In the Scottish newspaper The Herald Alison Kerr listed Mavis as one of the female characters that in her opinion have been " the real pivot " in the serial , " ever ready with a sympathetic word " . An article in the Huddersfield Daily Examiner said that Mavis was one of Coronation Street 's best @-@ loved characters , describing her as timid and " clad in sensible cardigan and shoes " . Jules Stenson writing in The People said that Mavis was much like the previous character Minnie Caldwell ( Margot Bryant ) : they were both " easily bullied " and , like Minnie , Mavis seemed to be " on the shelf for life " until her marriage to Derek .
In Meade 's opinion , Mavis gave a name to and represented a certain type of woman : " A 1940s spinster with a 1940s head who 's looked 50 since birth . A Woman 's Realm made flesh . And you have a name for her . She 's a Mavis ... Mavis Riley was a masterpiece of observation " . His opinion was shared by Gerlinde Frey @-@ Vor and Julia Hallam , who consider Mavis to be a " model for a spinsterly type of woman " . Brian Meade suggested that Barlow had " honed a comic gem until it cut into the national consciousness " in her characterisation of Mavis , likening her to other successful TV characters like Basil Fawlty , Del Boy Trotter and Alf Garnett . Meade applauded Barlow for staying true to Mavis 's character for 26 years , " sustaining the most timid , world @-@ weary of women with remarkable consistency . Try to recall her great lines and you are stumped . Every sentence she whimpered seemed to begin with ' Ooh Derek ' and end with : ' Well , I don 't really know ' " , but he suggested that she had graced some of Coronation Street 's " finest scenes " , pointing to Mavis and Rita 's spoof of a Laurel and Hardy act as one example .
The character received various accolades over the years . At the TV Times " Corrie Awards " , Mavis and Derek were nominated for " Best Couple " , and Susannah Clapp listed Mavis in The Observer 's " 10 best Coronation Street characters " list . Clapp said " Thelma Barlow played [ Mavis ] , with exceptional delicacy , in a variety of pastel pinnies , for 26 years . " She concluded that she had a " tumultuous relationship with her soulmate , Derek " . When Barlow quit the role as Mavis in 1997 , various Coronation Street stars praised her contribution : Sherrie Hewson ( who played Maureen Holdsworth ) said " Thelma 's a wonderful lady and a superb actress . We 'll miss her " ; Michael Le Vell ( Kevin Webster ) said " Thelma 's quality as an actress shone through for everyone to see after the death of Derek " ; Peter Baldwin ( Derek ) said " It has made a difference to the programme and the departure of Derek and now Mavis is going to upset a lot of viewers " .
Mavis has been praised for providing Coronation Street with much comic relief via her partnerships with Rita and Derek . Reflecting on Mavis and Derek 's partnership in 2010 , Paul Vallely of The Independent said that they were an example of a " great double act " , but he noted that they could not survive in the serial after it became focused on " dramatic storylines " .
Mavis has remained a popular and well @-@ loved character . In 2010 , thirteen years after her departure , Darren Fitzgerald wrote in The Sentinel ( Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent ) that he wanted to see Mavis return to the serial and that he would have written out half of the cast and brought her back as a replacement . But Mavis has also been criticised : Jack Kibble @-@ White , writing for MSN , called Mavis and Derek a " pathetic couple " , suggesting that their gnome plot was one of the serial 's most bizarre .
= Siege of Patras ( 805 or 807 ) =
The Siege of Patras in 805 or 807 was undertaken by the local Slavic tribes of the Peloponnese , reportedly with aid from an Arab fleet . The siege 's failure , attributed to the miraculous intervention of the city 's patron , Saint Andrew , marked the consolidation of Byzantine control over the Peloponnese peninsula after two centuries of Slavic rule over its western half . It also marked the beginning of the ascendancy of the Metropolis of Patras in the peninsula 's ecclesiastical affairs .
= = Background = =
The Byzantine Empire 's military position in the Balkans collapsed in the early 7th century as a result of disastrous military ventures against the Persians and then the Arabs in the East , which forced the effective abandonment of the Danube limes and opened the way for large @-@ scale penetration and settlement of the Balkan hinterland by various Slavic tribes . The Slavs raided as far as southern Greece and the coasts of Asia Minor . Most of the region 's cities were sacked or abandoned and only a few , including Thessalonica , remained occupied and in imperial hands .
In Greece , the eastern coasts of the Peloponnese and Central Greece remained in Byzantine hands as the theme of Hellas , while in the interior , various Slavic groups established themselves . A large native Greek population probably also remained in the land , either mixed with the Slavs or in its own autonomous communities . As elsewhere , a mostly peaceful modus vivendi soon emerged between the Slavs and the remaining Byzantine strongholds , with the mainly agricultural Slavs trading with the Byzantine @-@ held coastal towns . Further north , in the Greek mainland , by the turn of the 7th to 8th century smaller Slavic districts or sclaviniae emerged around the fringes of imperial territory , ruled by their own archons , who received Byzantine titles and recognized some form of imperial suzerainty . Imperial authority across Greece was greatly strengthened by the 783 campaign of the logothete Staurakios , who ventured from Constantinople overland to Thessalonica and from there south to the Peloponnese , subduing the Slavs of those regions .
Patras , on the northwestern coast of the Peloponnese , is claimed by the Chronicle of Monemvasia — a work of highly disputed accuracy and chronology , but an essential source for the period — to have been one of the cities abandoned c . 587 / 8 as a result of the Slavic depredations , its population fleeing to Rhegion in Calabria . This was followed by 218 years of independent Slavic rule in the Peloponnese , until around 804 / 5 . The archaeological record on the other hand shows Patras to have remained in Byzantine control throughout the period , although it is possible that part of the population indeed emigrated to Italy .
= = Siege of Patras = =
According to Chapter 49 of the De administrando imperio of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos ( r . 913 – 959 ) , in the reign of Emperor Nikephoros I ( r . 802 – 811 ) the Slavs of the Peloponnese made war on the Greek population with the aid of " African Saracens " , looted the countryside and laid siege to Patras . The city held out for a while , but as food began growing short , the inhabitants gave thought to surrendering . First , however , they dispatched a rider to the direction of Corinth , the seat of the military governor ( strategos ) , to find out whether he was coming to their aid or not . The envoy had been instructed on his return to give a signal through a flag he carried : if help was on its way , he was to dip the flag , otherwise to hold it erect . The rider found out that the strategos was not coming or was delayed — Constantine VII writes that he arrived three days after the siege had ended — but on his return to the city , his horse slipped and both he and the flag fell down . The inhabitants of Patras interpreted this as a sign that aid was near , and sallied forth against the besieging Slavs , allegedly led by the city 's patron Saint Andrew himself on horseback . The Slavs panicked at the sudden assault and fled , abandoning the siege . As a punishment , Constantine VII records that the Slavs were thereafter obligated to maintain at their own cost all officials or envoys passing through Patras , relieving the local see of this burden .
Constantine VII gives no precise date for the attack , but it has been usually dated to around 805 , when the city of Patras was " re @-@ founded " , according to the Chronicle of Monemvasia , or to 807 , when an Arab ( " Saracen " ) fleet is known to have reached southern Greece , although the Arab participation may well be the result of a later interpolation , mixing the real Slavic revolt with subsequent Arab raids . The Chronicle of Monemvasia on the other hand does not mention any siege of the city . Instead it records that an Armenian strategos at Corinth named Skleros defeated the Peloponnesian Slavs , and that this victory , in the year 804 / 5 or 805 / 6 , marked the end of " 218 years " of Slavic rule in the Peloponnese . Emperor Nikephoros I is then said to have rebuilt Patras by bringing back the descendants of its original inhabitants from Rhegion , and to have engaged in a large @-@ scale resettlement and Christianization program for the peninsula , bringing in Greek colonists from Italy and Asia Minor . Nikephoros ' resettlement program at least is also confirmed by the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor , who puts it slightly later , in 810 / 1 .
Some scholars have tried to reconcile the conflicting accounts of the Chronicle and the De administrando imperio as implying a first recovery of Patras c . 805 as the result of Skleros ' campaign , which was probably concurrent with the establishment of the Peloponnese as a separate theme from Hellas , if this had not been done slightly earlier . According to this interpretation , the Slavic revolt and attack on Patras followed as a reaction a few years later , between 807 and 811 .
= = Aftermath = =
Whatever the exact course of events of the early 9th century , the failure of the Slavic attack on Patras consolidated the recently re @-@ established Byzantine control over the Peloponnese , and Nikephoros I 's policies led to the successful re @-@ Christianization and Hellenization of the peninsula . The defence of Patras also secured the Byzantine Empire 's main maritime road of communication with Italy and the West , as it opened up the shorter route through the Corinthian Gulf , instead of the longer , more dangerous route around the Peloponnese that was exposed to Arab attacks .
According to Constantine VII , the Slavs rose up again in the early 840s , but were defeated by strategos Theoktistos Bryennios . In the south , the two tribes of the Ezeritai and Melingoi held out longer . They were eventually subdued and forced to pay heavy tribute , but retained their autonomy . These two tribes rose up again a century later , in 921 . Again they were quickly subdued , this time by the strategos Krenites Arotras , but managed to remain autonomous and retain their distinct identity until well into Frankish times .
The successful repulsion of the siege through the " intervention " of Saint Andrew also marked the abrupt rise of the see of Patras to prominence : formerly a suffragan of the Metropolis of Corinth , it was raised to a separate metropolis and came to enjoy great political and financial influence . Henceforth the metropolitan of Patras rivalled with his former superior in Corinth over control of the other sees of the Peloponnese .
= Zion National Park =
Zion National Park is located in the Southwestern United States , near Springdale , Utah . A prominent feature of the 229 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 590 km2 ) park is Zion Canyon , which is 15 miles ( 24 km ) long and up to half a mile ( 800 m ) deep , cut through the reddish and tan @-@ colored Navajo Sandstone by the North Fork of the Virgin River . The lowest elevation is 3 @,@ 666 ft ( 1 @,@ 117 m ) at Coalpits Wash and the highest elevation is 8 @,@ 726 ft ( 2 @,@ 660 m ) at Horse Ranch Mountain . Located at the junction of the Colorado Plateau , Great Basin , and Mojave Desert regions , the park 's unique geography and variety of life zones allow for unusual plant and animal diversity . Numerous plant species as well as 289 species of birds , 75 mammals ( including 19 species of bat ) , and 32 reptiles inhabit the park 's four life zones : desert , riparian , woodland , and coniferous forest . Zion National Park includes mountains , canyons , buttes , mesas , monoliths , rivers , slot canyons , and natural arches .
Human habitation of the area started about 8 @,@ 000 years ago with small family groups of Native Americans ; the semi @-@ nomadic Basketmaker Anasazi ( 300 CE ) stem from one of these groups . In turn , the Virgin Anasazi culture ( 500 CE ) developed as the Basketmakers settled in permanent communities . A different group , the Parowan Fremont , lived in the area as well . Both groups moved away by 1300 and were replaced by the Parrusits and several other Southern Paiute subtribes . Mormons came into the area in 1858 and settled there in the early 1860s . In 1909 the President of the United States , William Howard Taft , named the area a National Monument to protect the canyon , under the name of Mukuntuweap National Monument . In 1918 , however , the acting director of the newly created National Park Service changed the park 's name to Zion , the name used by the Mormons . According to historian Hal Rothman : " The name change played to a prevalent bias of the time . Many believed that Spanish and Indian names would deter visitors who , if they could not pronounce the name of a place , might not bother to visit it . The new name , Zion , had greater appeal to an ethnocentric audience . " The United States Congress established the monument as a National Park on November 19 , 1919 . The Kolob section was proclaimed a separate Zion National Monument in 1937 , but was incorporated into the park in 1956 .
The geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area includes nine formations that together represent 150 million years of mostly Mesozoic @-@ aged sedimentation . At various periods in that time warm , shallow seas , streams , ponds and lakes , vast deserts , and dry near @-@ shore environments covered the area . Uplift associated with the creation of the Colorado Plateaus lifted the region 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) starting 13 million years ago .
= = Geography and climate = =
The park is located in southwestern Utah in Washington , Iron and Kane counties . Geomorphically , it is located on the Markagunt and Kolob plateaus , at the intersection of three North American geographic provinces : the Colorado Plateaus , the Great Basin , and the Mojave Desert . The northern part of the park is known as the Kolob Canyons section and is accessible from Interstate 15 , exit 40 .
The 8 @,@ 726 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 660 m ) summit of Horse Ranch Mountain ( photo ) is the highest point in the park ; the lowest point is the 3 @,@ 666 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 117 m ) elevation of Coal Pits Wash , creating a relief of about 5 @,@ 100 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) .
Streams in the area take rectangular paths because they follow jointing planes in the rocks . The stream gradient of the Virgin River , whose North Fork flows through Zion Canyon in the park , ranges from 50 to 80 feet per mile ( 9 @.@ 5 to 15 @.@ 2 m / km ) ( 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 5 % ) — one of the steepest stream gradients in North America .
The road into Zion Canyon is 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) long , ending at the Temple of Sinawava ( " Sinawava " refers to the Coyote God of the Paiute Indians ) . At the Temple the canyon narrows and a foot @-@ trail continues to the mouth of the Zion Narrows , a gorge as narrow as 20 feet ( 6 m ) wide and up to 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) tall . The Zion Canyon road is served by a free shuttle bus from early April to late October and by private vehicles the other months of the year . Other roads in Zion are open to private vehicles year @-@ round .
The east side of the park is served by Zion – Mount Carmel Highway , which passes through the Zion – Mount Carmel Tunnel and ends at Mount Carmel Junction , Utah . On the east side of the park , notable park features include Checkerboard Mesa ( photo ) and the East Temple .
The Kolob Terrace area , west of Zion Canyon features The Subway , a slot canyon hike , and Lava Point , with a panoramic view of the entire area . The Kolob Canyons section , further west near Cedar City , features the world 's second longest arch , Kolob Arch .
Spring weather is unpredictable , with stormy , wet days being common , mixed with occasional warm , sunny weather . Precipitation is normally heaviest in March . Spring wildflowers bloom from April through June , peaking in May . Fall days are usually clear and mild ; nights are often cool . Summer days are hot ( 95 to 110 ° F ; 35 to 43 ° C ) , but overnight lows are usually comfortable ( 65 to 70 ° F ; 18 to 21 ° C ) . Afternoon thunderstorms are common from mid @-@ July through mid @-@ September . Storms may produce waterfalls as well as flash floods . Autumn tree @-@ color displays begin in September in the high country ; in Zion Canyon , autumn colors usually peak in late October . Winter in Zion Canyon is fairly mild . Winter storms bring rain or light snow to Zion Canyon and heavier snow to the higher elevations . Clear days may become quite warm , reaching 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) ; nights are often 20 to 40 ° F ( − 7 to 4 ° C ) . Winter storms can last several days and make roads icy . Zion roads are plowed , except the Kolob Terrace Road which is closed when covered with snow . Winter driving conditions last from November through March .
Notable geographical features of the park include : Virgin River Narrows , Emerald Pools , Hidden Canyon ( photo ) , Angels Landing ( photo ) , The Great White Throne , Checkerboard Mesa ( photo ) , The Three Patriarchs ( photo ) and Kolob Arch .
= = History = =
Archaeologists have divided the long span of Zion 's human history into three cultural periods : the Archaic , Protohistoric and Historic periods . Each period is characterized by distinctive technological and social adaptations .
= = = Archaic period = = =
The first human presence in the region dates to 8 @,@ 000 years ago when family groups camped where they could hunt or collect plants and seeds . About 2 @,@ 000 years ago , some groups began growing corn and other crops , leading to an increasingly sedentary lifestyle . Later groups in this period built permanent villages called pueblos . Archaeologists call this the Archaic period and it lasted until about 500 CE . Baskets , cordage nets , and yucca fiber sandals have been found and dated to this period . The Archaic toolkits included flaked stone knives , drills , and stemmed dart points . The dart points were attached to wooden shafts and propelled by throwing devices called atlatls .
By 300 CE some of the archaic groups developed into an early branch of seminomadic Anasazi , the Basketmakers . Basketmaker sites have grass- or stone @-@ lined storage cists and shallow , partially underground dwellings called pithouses . They were hunters and gatherers who supplemented their diet with limited agriculture . Locally collected pine nuts were important for food and trade .
= = = Protohistoric period = = =
Both the Virgin Anasazi and the Parowan Fremont disappear from the archaeological record of southwestern Utah by about 1300 . Extended droughts in the 11th and 12th centuries , interspersed with catastrophic flooding , may have made horticulture impossible in this arid region .
Tradition and archaeological evidence hold that their replacements were Numic @-@ speaking cousins of the Virgin Anasazi , such as the Southern Paiute and Ute . The newcomers migrated on a seasonal basis up and down valleys in search of wild seeds and game animals . Some , particularly the Southern Paiute , also planted fields of corn , sunflowers , and squash to supplement their diet . These more sedentary groups made brownware vessels that were used for storage and cooking .
= = = Exploration and settlement by Euro @-@ Americans = = =
The Historic period begins in the late 18th century with the exploration of southern Utah by Padres Silvestre Vélez de Escalante and Francisco Atanasio Domínguez . The padres passed near what is now the Kolob Canyons Visitor Center on October 13 , 1776 , becoming the first people of European descent known to visit the area . In 1825 , trapper and trader Jedediah Smith explored some of the downstream areas while under contract with the American Fur Company .
In 1847 , Mormon farmers from the Salt Lake area became the first people of European descent to settle the Virgin River region . In 1851 , the Parowan and Cedar City , Utah areas were settled by Mormons who used the Kolob Canyons area for timber , and for grazing cattle , sheep , and horses . They prospected for mineral deposits , and diverted Kolob water to irrigate crops in the valley below . Mormon settlers named the area Kolob — in Mormon scripture , the heavenly place nearest the residence of God .
Settlements had expanded 30 miles ( 48 km ) south to the lower Virgin River by 1858 . That year , a Southern Paiute guide led young Mormon missionary and interpreter Nephi Johnson into the upper Virgin River area and Zion Canyon . Johnson wrote a favorable report about the agricultural potential of the upper Virgin River basin , and returned later that year to found the town of Virgin . In 1861 or 1862 , Joseph Black made the arduous journey to Zion Canyon and was very impressed by its beauty .
The floor of Zion Canyon was settled in 1863 by Isaac Behunin , who farmed corn , tobacco , and fruit trees . The Behunin family lived in Zion Canyon near the site of today 's Zion Lodge during the summer , and wintered in Springdale . Behunin is credited with naming Zion , a reference to a place of peace mentioned in the Bible . Two more families settled Zion Canyon in the next couple of years , bringing with them cattle and other domesticated animals . The canyon floor was farmed until Zion became a Monument in 1909 .
The Powell Geographic Expedition entered the area in 1869 after their first trip through the Grand Canyon . John Wesley Powell visited Zion Canyon in 1872 and named it Mukuntuweap , under the impression that that was the Paiute name . Powell Survey photographers John K. Hillers and James Fennemore first visited the Zion Canyon and Kolob Plateau region in the spring of 1872 . Hillers returned in April 1873 to add more photographs to the " Virgin River Series " of photographs and stereographs . Hillers described wading the canyon for four days and nearly freezing to death to take his photographs .
= = = Protection and tourism = = =
Paintings of the canyon by Frederick S. Dellenbaugh were exhibited at the Saint Louis World 's Fair in 1904 , followed by a glowing article in Scribner 's Magazine the next year . That , along with previously created photographs , paintings , and reports , led to President William Howard Taft 's proclamation on July 31 , 1909 that created Mukuntuweap National Monument . In 1917 , the acting director of the newly created National Park Service visited the canyon and proposed changing its name from the locally unpopular Mukuntuweap to Zion , a name used by the local Mormon community . The United States Congress added more land and established Zion National Park on November 19 , 1919 . A separate Zion National Monument , the Kolob Canyons area , was proclaimed on January 22 , 1937 , and was incorporated into the park on July 11 , 1956 .
Travel to the area before it was a national park was rare due to its remote location , lack of accommodations , and the absence of real roads in southern Utah . Old wagon roads were upgraded to the first automobile roads starting about 1910 , and the road into Zion Canyon was built in 1917 leading to the Grotto , short of the present road that now ends at the Temple of Sinawava .
Touring cars could reach Zion Canyon by the summer of 1917 . The first visitor lodging in Zion Canyon , called Wylie Camp , was established that same year as a tent camp . The Utah Parks Company , a subsidiary of the Union Pacific Railroad , acquired Wylie Camp in 1923 , and offered ten @-@ day rail / bus tours to Zion , nearby Bryce Canyon , Kaibab , and the North Rim of the Grand Canyon . The Zion Lodge complex was built in 1925 at the site of the Wylie tent camp . Architect Gilbert Stanley Underwood designed the Zion Lodge ( photo ) in the " Rustic Style " and the Utah Parks Company funded the construction .
= = = Infrastructure improvements = = =
Work on the Zion – Mount Carmel Highway started in 1927 to enable reliable access between Springdale and the east side of the park . The road opened in 1930 and park visit and travel in the area greatly increased . The most famous feature of the Zion - Mount Carmel Highway is the 1 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) Zion - Mt . Carmel Tunnel , which has six large windows cut through the massive sandstone cliff .
In 1896 , local rancher John Winder improved the Native American footpath up Echo Canyon , which later became the East Rim Trail . Entrepreneur David Flanigan used this trail in 1900 to build cableworks that lowered lumber into Zion Canyon from Cable Mountain . More than 200 @,@ 000 board feet ( 470 m3 ) of lumber were lowered by 1906 . The auto road was extended to the Temple of Sinawava , and a trail built from there 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the start of the Narrows . Angel 's Landing Trail was constructed in 1926 and two suspension bridges were built over the Virgin River . Other trails were constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps during the 1930s .
= = = More recent history = = =
Zion Canyon Scenic Drive provides access to Zion Canyon . Traffic congestion in the narrow canyon was recognized as a major problem in the 1990s and a public transportation system using propane @-@ powered shuttle buses was instituted in the year 2000 . As part of its shuttle fleet , Zion has two electric trams each holding up to 36 passengers . Usually from early April through late October , the scenic drive in Zion Canyon is closed to private vehicles and visitors ride the shuttle buses .
On April 12 , 1995 , heavy rains triggered a landslide that blocked the Virgin River in Zion Canyon . Over a period of two hours , the river carved away part of the only exit road from the canyon , trapping 450 guests and employees at the Zion Lodge . A one @-@ lane , temporary road was constructed within 24 hours to allow evacuation of the Lodge . A more stable — albeit temporary — road was completed on May 25 , 1995 to allow summer visitors to access the canyon . This road was replaced with a permanent road during the first half of 1996 .
The Zion – Mount Carmel Highway can be travelled year @-@ round . Access for oversized vehicles requires a special permit , and is limited to daytime hours , as traffic through the tunnel must be one way to accommodate large vehicles . The 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) -long Kolob Canyons Road was built to provide access to the Kolob Canyons section of the park . This road often closes in the winter .
In March 2009 , President Barack Obama signed into law the Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009 , which designated and further protected 124 @,@ 406 acres ( 50 @,@ 345 ha ) of park land as the Zion Wilderness .
In September 2015 , flooding trapped a party of seven in Keyhole Canyon , a slot canyon in the park . The flash flood killed all seven members of the group , whose remains were located after a search lasting several days .
= = Geology = =
The nine known exposed geologic formations in Zion National Park are part of a super @-@ sequence of rock units called the Grand Staircase . Together , these formations represent about 150 million years of mostly Mesozoic @-@ aged sedimentation in that part of North America . The formations exposed in the Zion area were deposited as sediment in very different environments :
The warm , shallow ( sometimes advancing or retreating ) sea of the Kaibab and Moenkopi formations ;
Streams , ponds , and lakes of the Chinle , Moenave , and Kayenta formations ;
The vast desert of the Navajo and Temple Cap formations ; and
The dry near @-@ shore environment of the Carmel Formation .
Uplift affected the entire region , known as the Colorado Plateaus , by slowly raising these formations more than 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) higher than where they were deposited . This steepened the stream gradient of the ancestral Virgin and other rivers on the plateau .
The faster @-@ moving streams took advantage of uplift @-@ created joints in the rocks . Eventually , all Cenozoic @-@ aged formations were removed and gorges were cut into the plateaus . Zion Canyon was cut by the North Fork of the Virgin River in this way . During the later part of this process , lava flows and cinder cones covered parts of the area .
High water volume in wet seasons does most of the downcutting in the main canyon . These flood events are responsible for transporting most of the 3 million short tons ( 2 @.@ 7 million metric tons ) of rock and sediment that the Virgin River transports yearly . The Virgin cuts away its canyon faster than its tributaries can cut away their own streambeds , so tributaries end in waterfalls from hanging valleys where they meet the Virgin . The valley between the peaks of the Twin Brothers is a notable example of a hanging valley in the canyon .
Table of formations exposed in Zion National Park
= = Biology = =
The Great Basin , Mojave Desert , and Colorado Plateau converge at Zion and the Kolob canyons . This , along with the varied topography of canyon – mesa country , differing soil types , and uneven water availability , provides diverse habitat for the equally diverse mix of plants and animals that live in the area . The park is home to 289 bird , 79 mammals , 28 reptiles , 7 fish , and 6 amphibian species . These organisms make their homes in one or more of four life zones found in the Park : desert , riparian , woodland , and coniferous forest .
Desert conditions persist on canyon bottoms and rocky ledges away from perennial streams . Sagebrush , prickly pear cactus , and rabbitbrush , along with sacred datura and Indian paintbrush , are common . Utah penstemon and golden aster can also be found . Milkvetch and prince 's plume are found in pockets of selenium @-@ rich soils .
Common daytime animals include mule deer , rock squirrels , pinyon jays , and whiptail and collared lizards ( photo ) . Desert cottontails , jackrabbits , and Merriam 's kangaroo rats come out at night . Cougars , bobcats , coyotes , badgers , gray foxes , and ring @-@ tail cats are the top predators .
Cooler conditions persist at mid @-@ elevation slopes , from 3 @,@ 900 to 5 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 700 m ) . Stunted forests of pinyon pine and juniper coexist here with manzanita shrubs , cliffrose , serviceberry , scrub oak , and yucca . Stands of ponderosa pine , Gambel oak , manzanita and aspen populate the mesas and cliffs above 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) .
Golden eagles , red @-@ tailed hawks , peregrine falcons , and white @-@ throated swifts can be seen in the area.Desert bighorn sheep were reintroduced in the park in 1973 . California condors were reintroduced in the Arizona Strip and in 2014 the first successful breeding of condors in the park was confirmed . Nineteen species of bat also live in the area .
Boxelder , Fremont cottonwood , maple , and willow dominate riparian plant communities . Animals such as bank beavers , flannel @-@ mouth suckers , gnatcatchers , dippers , canyon wrens , the virgin spinedace , and water striders all make their homes in the riparian zones .
= = Activities = =
Guided horseback riding trips , nature walks , and evening programs are available from late March to early November . The Junior Ranger Program for ages 6 to 12 is active from Memorial Day to Labor Day at the Zion Nature Center . Rangers at the Zion Canyon Visitor Center and the smaller Kolob Canyons Visitor Center can help visitors plan their stay . A bookstore attached to the Zion Canyon Visitor Center , run by the Zion Natural History Association , offers books , maps , and souvenirs for sale , with proceeds benefiting the park . The Grotto in Zion Canyon , the Visitor Center , and the viewpoint at the end of Kolob Canyons Road have the only designated picnic sites .
Trails
Seven trails with round @-@ trip times of half an hour ( Weeping Rock ) to 4 hours ( Angels Landing ) are found in Zion Canyon . Two popular trails , Taylor Creek ( 4 hours round trip ) and Kolob Arch ( 8 hours round trip ) , are in the Kolob Canyons section of the park , near Cedar City . Hiking up into The Narrows from the Temple of Sinawava is popular in summer . However , hiking beyond Big Springs requires a permit . The entire Narrows from Chamberlain 's Ranch is a 16 @-@ mile one way trip that typically takes 12 hours of strenuous hiking . A shorter alternative is to enter the Narrows via Orderville Canyon . Both Orderville and the full Narrows require a back country permit . Entrance to the Parunuweap Canyon section of the park downstream of Labyrinth Falls is prohibited . Other often @-@ used backcountry trails include the West Rim and LaVerkin Creek . The more primitive sections of Zion include the Kolob Terrace and the Kolob Canyons .
Zion is a center for rock climbing , with short walls like Touchstone , Moonlight Buttress , Spaceshot , and Prodigal Son being very popular .
Camping and lodging
Lodging in the park is available at Zion Lodge , located halfway through Zion Canyon . Zion Lodge is open year @-@ round and has motel units and cabins , as well as a restaurant , café , and gift shop , but
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caused by group B streptococci , coliforms and S. pneumonia . In adults , too , meningococcal meningitis has a lower mortality ( 3 – 7 % ) than pneumococcal disease .
In children there are several potential disabilities which may result from damage to the nervous system , including sensorineural hearing loss , epilepsy , learning and behavioral difficulties , as well as decreased intelligence . These occur in about 15 % of survivors . Some of the hearing loss may be reversible . In adults , 66 % of all cases emerge without disability . The main problems are deafness ( in 14 % ) and cognitive impairment ( in 10 % ) .
Tuberculous meningitis in children continues to be associated with a significant risk of death even with treatment ( 19 % ) , and a significant proportion of the surviving children have ongoing neurological problems . Just over a third of all cases survives with no problems .
= = Epidemiology = =
Although meningitis is a notifiable disease in many countries , the exact incidence rate is unknown . In 2013 meningitis resulted in 303 @,@ 000 deaths – down from 464 @,@ 000 deaths in 1990 . In 2010 it was estimated that meningitis resulted in 420 @,@ 000 deaths , excluding cryptococcal meningitis .
Bacterial meningitis occurs in about 3 people per 100 @,@ 000 annually in Western countries . Population @-@ wide studies have shown that viral meningitis is more common , at 10 @.@ 9 per 100 @,@ 000 , and occurs more often in the summer . In Brazil , the rate of bacterial meningitis is higher , at 45 @.@ 8 per 100 @,@ 000 annually . Sub @-@ Saharan Africa has been plagued by large epidemics of meningococcal meningitis for over a century , leading to it being labeled the " meningitis belt " . Epidemics typically occur in the dry season ( December to June ) , and an epidemic wave can last two to three years , dying out during the intervening rainy seasons . Attack rates of 100 – 800 cases per 100 @,@ 000 are encountered in this area , which is poorly served by medical care . These cases are predominantly caused by meningococci . The largest epidemic ever recorded in history swept across the entire region in 1996 – 1997 , causing over 250 @,@ 000 cases and 25 @,@ 000 deaths .
Meningococcal disease occurs in epidemics in areas where many people live together for the first time , such as army barracks during mobilization , college campuses and the annual Hajj pilgrimage . Although the pattern of epidemic cycles in Africa is not well understood , several factors have been associated with the development of epidemics in the meningitis belt . They include : medical conditions ( immunological susceptibility of the population ) , demographic conditions ( travel and large population displacements ) , socioeconomic conditions ( overcrowding and poor living conditions ) , climatic conditions ( drought and dust storms ) , and concurrent infections ( acute respiratory infections ) .
There are significant differences in the local distribution of causes for bacterial meningitis . For instance , while N. meningitides groups B and C cause most disease episodes in Europe , group A is found in Asia and continues to predominate in Africa , where it causes most of the major epidemics in the meningitis belt , accounting for about 80 % to 85 % of documented meningococcal meningitis cases .
= = History = =
Some suggest that Hippocrates may have realized the existence of meningitis , and it seems that meningism was known to pre @-@ Renaissance physicians such as Avicenna . The description of tuberculous meningitis , then called " dropsy in the brain " , is often attributed to Edinburgh physician Sir Robert Whytt in a posthumous report that appeared in 1768 , although the link with tuberculosis and its pathogen was not made until the next century .
It appears that epidemic meningitis is a relatively recent phenomenon . The first recorded major outbreak occurred in Geneva in 1805 . Several other epidemics in Europe and the United States were described shortly afterward , and the first report of an epidemic in Africa appeared in 1840 . African epidemics became much more common in the 20th century , starting with a major epidemic sweeping Nigeria and Ghana in 1905 – 1908 .
The first report of bacterial infection underlying meningitis was by the Austrian bacteriologist Anton Weichselbaum , who in 1887 described the meningococcus . Mortality from meningitis was very high ( over 90 % ) in early reports . In 1906 , antiserum was produced in horses ; this was developed further by the American scientist Simon Flexner and markedly decreased mortality from meningococcal disease . In 1944 , penicillin was first reported to be effective in meningitis . The introduction in the late 20th century of Haemophilus vaccines led to a marked fall in cases of meningitis associated with this pathogen , and in 2002 , evidence emerged that treatment with steroids could improve the prognosis of bacterial meningitis .
= Walther Leisler Kiep =
Walther Gottlieb Louis Leisler Kiep ( 5 January 1926 – 9 May 2016 ) was a German politician of the Christian Democratic Union ( CDU ) . He was a member of the Bundestag between 1965 and 1976 and again from 1980 to 1982 . After switching to state @-@ level politics , he served as minister of economy ( 1976 – 77 ) and minister of finance ( 1976 – 80 ) in Lower Saxony under Ernst Albrecht . In 1982 , Kiep was the leading candidate for the CDU in two successive state elections in Hamburg , losing both to incumbent Klaus von Dohnányi . From 1971 until 1992 , he was treasurer of his party at the federal level . In this position , Kiep installed a system of unreported income accounts , leading to the CDU donations scandal in 1999 .
= = Life and family = =
Coming from a liberal family , Kiep was born on 5 January 1926 in Hamburg to Louis Leisler Kiep , a navy captain and business man , and Eugenie Maria Anna vom Rath . Kiep went to school in Hamburg and Istanbul , achieving his Abitur in 1943 before joining the Wehrmacht . On 20 April 1944 , Adolf Hitler 's birthday , he joined the Nazi Party . In the same year his uncle , Otto Carl Kiep , was executed by the Nazis for his membership in the Kreisau Circle . After the war , he started to study history and economics , but did not graduate .
Before moving into politics , he worked for the Insurance Company of North America from 1948 to 1955 . Starting in 1955 , he worked for a company called Gradmann und Holler , an insurance broker company for large businesses . Kiep owned 15 percent of the company in 1982 . His involvement with Gradmann und Holler sparked controversy . When Kiep became minister in Lower Saxony in 1976 , Volkswagen and other local companies went into business with Gradmann und Holler , creating a possible conflict of interest for the minister . Kiep also served on Volkswagen 's board of directors . Kiep denied abusing his power as minister , saying that the deal with Volkswagen had been financially damaging rather than profitable for his company . Due to his successful business ventures , Kiep was considered to be one of the richest politicians in Germany . In an interview , Kiep told Playboy that he could live well just from the interest from his savings .
From 1950 , Kiep was married to Charlotte Kiep , born 1920 , daughter of IG Farben board member and convicted war criminal Fritz ter Meer . They met when Kiep was only thirteen years old . He needed to visit Fritz ter Meer in Landsberg Prison to ask for his daughter 's hand in marriage . They had four children together , sons Walther , Michael and daughters Charlotte and Christiane . Their second son , Michael Jürgen , died in 1975 , aged 24 . The parents started a foundation for young journalists in his name . From a previous marriage of his wife 's , Kiep is stepfather to another son , Edmund .
On 30 November 1974 , an assassination attempt was made on Kiep , during which a man fired three shots at the door of his sauna , though he remained uninjured . The assassin was never found and leads hinting towards involvement of the Red Army Faction proved inconclusive . As the German magazine Der Spiegel wrote a year later , some party colleagues allegedly considered it possible that Kiep had staged the attack himself .
= = Political career = =
= = = Member of parliament = = =
Kiep became a member of the CDU in the fall of 1961 , gaining a seat in the county council of Obertaunus in 1963 . Following the 1965 federal election , he became a member of the Bundestag , winning a mandate in the Obertaunus constituency . He retained his seat in 1969 and 1972 , this time as part of his party 's electoral list in Hessen . In 1972 , Kiep was one of only a few CDU parliamentarians who voted yes to the Basic Treaty ( Grundlagenvertrag ) between West and East Germany . Other supporters of Willy Brandt 's Ostpolitik were Richard von Weizsäcker , Karl Carstens and Olaf von Wrangel . During the 1972 federal elections , Kiep was named as prospective Federal Minister of Economic Cooperation and Development in the shadow cabinet of Rainer Barzel . He left parliament on 24 February 1976 to join the state government in Lower Saxony . During his tenure as minister , he also held a seat in the Landtag of Lower Saxony from 1978 to 1980 . He regained a seat in the Bundestag following the 1980 election , entering through a place on the electoral list for Lower Saxony . In order to concentrate on his role as leading candidate in his home state of Hamburg , he once again left parliament on 26 April 1982 .
= = = Minister in Lower Saxony = = =
1976 saw the state government change in the German Bundesland of Lower Saxony , when the coalition government of the SPD and FDP was unable to agree on a successor to minister @-@ president Alfred Kubel . As a consequence , the CDU used renegade votes from the government camp to elect Ernst Albrecht into office . Albrecht called Kiep into his government , as minister of economy and finance . After the CDU minority government was replaced by a coalition with the FDP in January 1977 , Kiep left his position in the ministry for economy , but continued to lead the ministry of finance until 1980 .
A controversial topic during his tenure as minister was the search for a radioactive waste site in Lower Saxony . In 1975 , three locations had been deemed suitable for further investigation : the salt domes Lutterloh , Lichtenhorst and Wahn . Two years later , however , the state government designated the Gorleben salt dome as a single location for the repository and waste disposal center . In 2011 , a commission of enquiry of the Bundestag investigated the award procedure . Journal entries of Kiep 's had implied that he was the driving force behind the decision to promote Gorleben , putting the idea forward at a meeting with Albrecht and three federal ministers in Hannover on 11 November 1976 . Since he had attended a meeting with delegates from the nuclear power industry on the same day , it was speculated that the lobby had exercised influence on Kiep . Appearing before the committee as a witness , Kiep claimed not to remember the events exactly but said that he considered it " unlikely " that he was the one who proposed Gorleben , because he did not have enough expertise in the matter .
Minister @-@ president Albrecht and Kiep were prominent representatives of the liberal wing of the CDU , who aimed to move their party towards support for the Ostpolitik of the SPD / FDP federal government . In 1976 , they lobbied for their party 's approval of new treaties with Poland , against conservative figures such as Alfred Dregger , Franz Josef Strauß and Hans Filbinger . This was also considered to be part of a plan of CDU chairman Helmut Kohl to bring the liberal FDP back into a coalition with the Christian Democrats ( which was ultimately successful in 1982 ) . That Kiep 's work was popular with the FDP was proven in early 1976 : the party 's Theodor Heuss foundation ( de ) awarded him with their highest award , which Keip refused in deference to his party affiliation .
In 1978 , Kiep served as a special representative for chancellor Helmut Schmidt during a debt crisis in Turkey , mediating between the government of Bülent Ecevit , with whom he developed a friendship , and the International Monetary Fund . Kiep eventually collected 910 million US $ for Turkey from various states .
In the 1980 federal election , Kiep was named as foreign minister in the shadow cabinet of Franz Josef Strauß .
= = = Candidate in Hamburg = = =
In 1982 , Kiep served as the leading candidate for the CDU in two separate state elections in his hometown of Hamburg . The first , regular election in June brought a majority of votes for Kiep and heavy losses for the SPD and incumbent First Mayor Klaus von Dohnányi . Since the Green Party gained enough votes to be represented in the Bürgerschaft , the political situation was at a deadlock . After von Dohnányi proved unsuccessful in forming a minority government tolerated by the Greens , new elections were called for December . Kiep was once again the CDU candidate , but in " an election upset " , the SPD was able to get enough votes to form a government on their own . This was seen as a sign of support of Hamburg 's population for former chancellor Helmut Schmidt ( born in Hamburg ) , who had been replaced in a constructive vote of no confidence by the CDU in October .
= = = Treasurer of the CDU and scandals = = =
Kiep served as federal treasurer of the CDU from 1971 to 1992 . During his tenure , the party was involved in several financial scandals . Shortly after taking over , Kiep brought in economist Uwe Lüthje as general agent and public accountant Horst Weyrauch as a financial consultant . Together , the three started an elaborate system aimed at accumulating funding for the party . The Staatsbürgerliche Vereinigung 1954 e.V. ( de ) was used by major companies to donate money to the CDU anonymously , while the donations were fully tax deductible due to the Vereinigung being considered non @-@ profit . Just in the election year 1972 , 30 million Deutsche Mark are said to have been accumulated in this fashion . Over the course of its existence , the Vereinigung gave 214 million Deutsche Marks to political parties between 1969 and 1980 . The procedure was made public during the uncovering of the Flick affair in the early 1980s . Kiep was ultimately accused of having amassed 18 @.@ 5 million Deutsche Marks in illegal donations for the CDU , evading nine million Deutsche Marks in taxes . For his role , he was sentenced to a payment of 675 @,@ 000 Deutsche Marks in 1991 , but the verdict was revoked a year later by the Federal Court of Justice .
In 1995 , the public prosecution department of the city of Augsburg obtained the calendars of Karlheinz Schreiber , a German arms dealer . With the help of the documents , the persecutors were able to decipher a code of aliases and money movements , leading to Kiep . On 4 November 1999 , the prosecution office issued an arrest warrant against Kiep , charging him with having accepted a payment of one million Deutsche Marks from Schreiber in 1991 without subjecting the money to taxes . After turning himself in a day later , Kiep declared during his interrogation that he had accepted the money , with Horst Weyrauch present , as a donation for the CDU . This started the CDU donations scandal , in which a system of illegal accounts was uncovered . On 30 November , former chancellor Helmut Kohl took full responsibility for the accounts and later admitted to having personally accepted a total sum of up to two million Deutsche Marks from anonymous sponsors , which were not declared . As a consequence of the illegal proceedings , the CDU was sentenced to a payment of 41 million Deutsche Marks by President of the Bundestag Wolfgang Thierse on 15 February 2000 . Kiep was ultimately involved in several lawsuits concerning tax evasion . One was closed in January 2004 , after Kiep paid a monetary condition of 75 @,@ 000 Euro . In another trial in 2001 , he was sentenced to pay 45 @,@ 000 Deutsche Marks . In early 2004 , Kiep accepted a sentence of 40 @,@ 500 Euro for a false statement given at the enquiry commission on the donations scandal .
= = Death = =
Kiep died on 9 May 2016 , surrounded by his family in his home in Kronberg im Taunus in Hesse , at the age of 90 .
= = Awards and memberships = =
= = = Awards = = =
1977 : Cravat man of the year
1994 : Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
1998 : Lower Saxony Order of Merit
= = = Memberships = = =
From 1984 to 2000 , Kiep was chairman of the Atlantik @-@ Brücke . From 1994 to 2000 he served as president of the EBS University of Business and Law . He was a member of the International Advisory Boards of Fuji Bank and Columbia University , as well as a member of the board of Volkswagen and Deutsche Bank .
= The Double ( Seattle Mariners ) =
The Double was a double hit by the Seattle Mariners ' Edgar Martínez in Game 5 of Major League Baseball 's 1995 American League Division Series on October 8 , 1995 . Trailing by one run in the bottom half of the 11th inning , with Joey Cora on third base and Ken Griffey , Jr. on first , Martinez 's hit drove in Cora and Griffey , giving the Mariners a 6 – 5 victory over the New York Yankees to clinch the series , 3 – 2 . The play is held to be the " biggest hit in franchise history . "
Amid rumors that the team would be sold and / or relocated , the Mariners — who had had only two winning seasons ( 1991 and 1993 ) since beginning play in 1977 — mounted a late @-@ season comeback in 1995 to clinch their first postseason appearance in franchise history . They then mounted a series of comebacks in the ALDS , first overcoming a 2 @-@ game series deficit to force a deciding Game 5 , then tying Game 5 in the 8th inning to force extra innings , and finally a one @-@ run 11th inning deficit that was overcome by the Double .
The hit is regarded as the defining moment of Martinez 's 18 @-@ year Major League Baseball career . Mariners broadcaster Dave Niehaus ' call of the play — which is equally memorable to Seattle fans as the play itself — is also regarded as the highlight of his career . The play is also credited with keeping a Major League Baseball team in the city of Seattle , as it helped garner support for a new taxpayer @-@ funded stadium for the Mariners . That stadium , known today as Safeco Field , opened in 1999 , with the Double depicted in a mural as part of the stadium 's art collection .
= = Background = =
= = = Relocation rumors = = =
For several years the Mariners had been dogged by rumors that the team 's ownership group led by Jeff Smulyan had been considering selling and / or relocating the team to a different city . This was primarily due to low attendance and revenue , the team 's losing ways ( prior to 1995 , they only had two seasons with a winning percentage over .500 ) , and the Kingdome 's drab baseball environment .
In 1992 , Smulyan 's ownership group sold the Mariners to the Baseball Club of Seattle , a consortium led by Hiroshi Yamauchi and later Nintendo of America . As of 2014 , they are still the Mariners ' owners . Almost immediately , the new ownership group began campaigning with local and state governments to gain public funding for a new stadium .
In an election held on September 19 , 1995 , the residents of King County voted against a 1 @-@ percentage @-@ point sales tax increase to fund the building of a replacement stadium . As a result , the ownership group set an October 30 deadline for local leadership to come up with a plan to finance a new stadium , or they would put the team up for sale .
= = = Mariners make the postseason = = =
After being as many as 13 games out of first place at the beginning of August , the Mariners mounted a late @-@ season comeback that , coupled with a late @-@ season collapse by the California Angels , forced a tiebreaker between the two teams . The Mariners won the tiebreaker , 9 – 1 , winning their first division title and postseason trip in franchise history .
In the ALDS , the Mariners quickly fell into a 2 – 0 deficit to the Yankees in the best @-@ of @-@ five series . However , the Mariners won the next two games and forced a " winner @-@ takes @-@ all " Game 5 at the Kingdome .
= = The play = =
After the Yankees took a 4 – 2 lead on a Don Mattingly 2 @-@ RBI double in the 6th inning , the Mariners came back to tie the score at 4 in the 8th inning and eventually forced extra innings . In the top of the 11th inning , the Yankees scored a run on an RBI single by Randy Velarde and were three outs from reaching the American League Championship Series .
In the bottom half of the inning , Yankees ace Jack McDowell , who had entered the game in the 9th inning for a rare relief appearance , faced Joey Cora , Ken Griffey , Jr . , and Edgar Martínez — the second , third , and fourth batters in the Mariners ' order , respectively . Second baseman Cora dragged a bunt down the first base line and reached first base safely on an infield hit . Yankees manager Buck Showalter argued the call , believing Cora should have been called out for running off the baselines ; however , the umpires ' ruling stood . Center fielder Griffey singled to short right @-@ center field , allowing Cora to reach third base . Designated hitter Martinez then doubled down the left field line , scoring Cora with the tying run and Griffey with the winning run . The Mariners ' dugout emptied and mobbed Griffey , Martinez , and Cora on the field in celebration of the franchise 's first ever playoff series victory .
= = = Dave Niehaus ' call = = =
Dave Niehaus 's radio call of the Double was as memorable to Seattle fans as the play itself and became one of the hallmarks of Niehaus 's Ford C. Frick Award @-@ winning career :
= = = Brent Musburger 's call = = =
ABC Sports through The Baseball Network broadcast the Double on television . Brent Musburger along with color commentator Jim Kaat and field reporter Jack Arute called Game 5 :
Musberger 's call , dramatic as it was , incorrectly implied that Bernie Williams fielded the double in left . Bernie was playing center field at the time . Gerald Williams was in left field playing the ball and making the late throw back to the infield .
= = Off @-@ field significance and legacy = =
= = = Keeping the Mariners in Seattle = = =
The Mariners ' late season comeback , their first division title in franchise history , and ultimately the Double , brought the Seattle fan base back to life and sparked a desire to keep the team in town . Lou Piniella , the Mariners ' manager from 1993 – 2002 , called Martinez 's hit and the 1995 postseason " the hit , the run , the game , the series and the season that saved baseball in Seattle . " Soon after the events of October 8 , the Washington State Legislature held a special session and approved an alternative funding package to enable the building of a new ballpark , which culminated in the construction of Safeco Field .
= = = Legacy = = =
The Double is regarded by Seattle fans and Martinez himself as the defining moment of Martinez 's 18 @-@ year Major League Baseball career – which was played exclusively with the Mariners – and was one of several highlights of Mariners franchise history in which Martinez played a major role . In 2004 , the city of Seattle renamed a street near Safeco Field " Edgar Martínez Drive " to honor Martinez 's contributions to the Mariners , including his double that " saved baseball in Seattle . " Martinez was inducted into the Mariners Hall of Fame in 2007 .
The image of Griffey at the bottom of the dogpile after scoring the winning run is one of the most memorable images of Griffey 's storied career with the Mariners . In 2007 , when Griffey returned to Seattle for the first time since his 1999 trade to the Cincinnati Reds , that image was included in a photo collage of highlights of Griffey 's Mariners career that was presented to him by former teammates Martinez and Jay Buhner ( both retired by then ) .
The image of Griffey sliding into home plate has been immortalized in a mural at Safeco Field called The Defining Moment .
Griffey 's slide into home plate was also the inspiration behind the title of the 1996 video game Ken Griffey , Jr . ' s Winning Run .
= Cultivar =
A cultivar is a plant or grouping of plants selected for desirable characteristics that can be maintained by propagation . Most cultivars have arisen in cultivation but a few are special selections from the wild . Popular ornamental garden plants like roses , camellias , daffodils , rhododendrons , and azaleas are cultivars produced by careful breeding and selection for flower colour and form . Similarly , the world 's agricultural food crops are almost exclusively cultivars that have been selected for characteristics such as improved yield , flavour , and resistance to disease : very few wild plants are now used as food sources . Trees used in forestry are also special selections grown for their enhanced quality and yield of timber .
Cultivars form a major part of Liberty Hyde Bailey 's broader grouping , the cultigen , defined as a plant whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity . Cultivar was coined by Bailey and it is generally regarded as a portmanteau of " cultivated " and " variety " , but could also be derived from " cultigen " and " variety " . A cultivar is not the same as a botanical variety , and there are differences in the rules for the formation and use of the names of botanical varieties and cultivars . In recent times the naming of cultivars has been complicated by the use of statutory plant patents and plant breeders ' rights names .
The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants ( UPOV – French : Union internationale pour la protection des obtentions végétales ) offers legal protection of plant cultivars to people or organisations who introduce new cultivars to commerce . UPOV requires that a cultivar be distinct , uniform and stable . To be distinct , it must have characteristics that easily distinguish it from any other known cultivar . To be uniform and stable , the cultivar must retain these characteristics under repeated propagation .
The naming of cultivars is an important aspect of cultivated plant taxonomy , and the correct naming of a cultivar is prescribed by the Rules and Recommendations of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants ( the ICNCP , commonly known as the Cultivated Plant Code ) . A cultivar is given a cultivar name , which consists of the scientific Latin botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet . The cultivar epithet is usually in a vernacular language . For example , the full cultivar name of the King Edward potato is Solanum tuberosum ' King Edward ' . The ' King Edward ' part of the name is the cultivar epithet which , according to the Rules of the Cultivated Plant Code , is bounded by single quotation marks .
= = Origin of term = =
The origin of the term " cultivar " arises from the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with characteristics that have arisen in cultivation ( what we now call cultigens ) . This distinction dates back to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus ( 370 – 285 BCE ) , the " Father of Botany " , who was keenly aware of this difference . Botanical historian Alan Morton notes that Theophrastus in his Enquiry into Plants " had an inkling of the limits of culturally induced ( phenotypic ) changes and of the importance of genetic constitution " ( Historia Plantarum III , 2 @,@ 2 and Causa Plantarum I , 9 @,@ 3 ) .
The International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants uses as its starting point for modern botanical nomenclature those Latin names that appeared in Linnaeus ' publications Species Plantarum ( 10th ed . ) and Genera Plantarum ( 5th ed . ) . In Species Plantarum , Linnaeus ( 1707 – 1778 ) listed all the plants known to him , either directly or from his extensive reading . He recognised the rank of varietas ( in English this is the botanical " variety " , a rank below that of species and subspecies ) and he indicated these varieties by using letters of the Greek alphabet such as α , β , λ in front of the variety name , rather than using the abbreviation var . , which is the current convention . Most of the varieties listed by Linnaeus were of " garden " origin rather than being wild plants .
Over time there was an increasing need to distinguish between plants growing in the wild , and those with variations that had been produced in cultivation . In the nineteenth century many " garden @-@ derived " plants were given horticultural names , sometimes in Latin and sometimes in a local language . From about the 1900s , plants produced in cultivation in Europe were recognised in the Scandinavian , Germanic , and Slavic literature through the words stamm or sorte but these words could not be used internationally since , by international agreement , any new terms had to be based in Latin . In the twentieth century an improved international terminology was proposed for the classification and nomenclature of cultivated plants .
The word cultivar was coined in 1923 by Liberty Hyde Bailey of Cornell University , New York State , when he wrote :
The cultigen is a species , or its equivalent , that has appeared under domestication – the plant is cultigenous . I now propose another name , cultivar , for a botanical variety , or for a race subordinate to species , that has originated under cultivation ; it is not necessarily , however , referable to a recognized botanical species . It is essentially the equivalent of the botanical variety except in respect to its origin .
In this paper Bailey used only the rank of species for the cultigen but it was clear to him that many domesticated plants were more like botanical varieties than species , and that appears to have motivated the suggestion of the new classification category cultivar , which is generally assumed to be a contraction of the words cultivated and variety . However , Bailey was never explicit about the etymology of the word , and it has been suggested that it is a contraction of the words cultigen and variety , which seems more appropriate .
The new word cultivar was promoted as " euphonious " and " free from ambiguity " . It serves a purpose . Its use was subsequently recommended by the first Cultivated Plant Code , which was published in 1953 , and by 1960 it had achieved wide international acceptance .
= = = Cultigens = = =
The terms cultigen and cultivar may be confused with each other . A cultigen is any plant deliberately altered or selected for cultivation by humans ; the Cultivated Plant Code states that cultigens are " maintained as recognisable entities solely by continued propagation " . A cultigen or a component of a cultigen , which is recognisable and stable , can be accepted as a cultivar .
Cultigens can have names at any of various ranks , including cultivar names , names in the classification categories of grex and group , binomial Latin species names , variety names , forma names , and they may be plants that have been altered by humans ( including genetically modified plants ) but which have not been given formal names .
= = Formal definition = =
The Cultivated Plant Code notes that the word cultivar is used in two different senses : first , as a " classification category " the cultivar is defined in Article 2 of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants ( 2009 , 8th edition ) as follows : The basic category of cultivated plants whose nomenclature is governed by this Code is the cultivar . There are two other classification categories for cultigens , the grex and the group . The Code then defines a cultivar as a " taxonomic unit within the classification category of cultivar " . This is the sense of cultivar that is most generally understood and which is used as a general definition .
A cultivar is an assemblage of plants that ( a ) has been selected for a particular character or combination of characters , ( b ) is distinct , uniform and stable in those characters , and ( c ) when propagated by appropriate means , retains those characters .
= = Different kinds = =
Which plants are chosen to be named as cultivars is simply a matter of convenience as the category was created to serve the practical needs of horticulture , agriculture , and forestry .
Members of a particular cultivar are not necessarily genetically identical . The Cultivated Plant Code emphasizes that different cultivated plants may be accepted as different cultivars , even if they have the same genome , while cultivated plants with different genomes may be regarded as the same cultivar . The production of cultivars generally entails considerable human involvement although in a few cases it may be as little as simply selecting variation from plants growing in the wild ( whether by collecting growing tissue to propagate from or by gathering seed ) .
Cultivars generally occur as ornamentals and food crops : Malus ' Granny Smith ' and Malus ' Red Delicious ' are cultivars of apples propagated by cuttings or grafting , Lactuca ' Red Sails ' and Lactuca ' Great Lakes ' are lettuce cultivars propagated by seeds . Named cultivars of Hosta and Hemerocallis plants are cultivars produced by micropropagation or division .
= = = Clones = = =
Cultivars that are produced asexually are genetically identical and known as clones ; this includes plants propagated by division , layering , cuttings , grafts , and budding . The propagating material may be taken from a particular part of the plant , such as a lateral branch , or from a particular phase of the life cycle , such as a juvenile leaf , or from aberrant growth as occurs with witch 's broom . Plants whose distinctive characters are derived from the presence of an intracellular organism may also form a cultivar provided the characters are reproduced reliably from generation to generation . Plants of the same chimera ( which have mutant tissues close to normal tissue ) or graft @-@ chimeras ( which have vegetative tissue from different kinds of plants and which originate by grafting ) may also constitute a cultivar .
= = = Seed @-@ produced = = =
Some cultivars " come true from seed " , retaining their distinguishing characteristics when grown from seed . Such plants are termed a " variety " , " selection " or " strain " but these are ambiguous and confusing words that are best avoided . In general , asexually propagated cultivars grown from seeds produce highly variable seedling plants , and should not be labelled with , or sold under , the parent cultivar 's name .
Seed @-@ raised cultivars may be produced by uncontrolled pollination when characteristics that are distinct , uniform and stable are passed from parents to progeny . Some are produced as " lines " that are produced by repeated self @-@ fertilization or inbreeding or " multilines " that are made up of several closely related lines . Sometimes they are F1 hybrids which are the result of a deliberate repeatable single cross between two pure lines . A few F2 hybrid seed cultivars also exist , such as Achillea ' Summer Berries ' .
Some cultivars are agamospermous plants , which retain their genetic composition and characteristics under reproduction . Occasionally cultivars are raised from seed of a specially selected provenance – for example the seed may be taken from plants that are resistant to a particular disease .
= = = Genetically modified = = =
Genetically modified plants with characteristics resulting from the deliberate implantation of genetic material from a different germplasm may form a cultivar . However , the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants notes , " In practice such an assemblage is often marketed from one or more lines or multilines that have been genetically modified . These lines or multilines often remain in a constant state of development which makes the naming of such an assemblage as a cultivar a futile exercise . " However , retired transgenic varieties such as the Fish tomato , which are no longer being developed , do not run into this obstacle and can be given a cultivar name .
Cultivars may be selected because of a change in the ploidy level of a plant which may produce more desirable characteristics .
= = Cultivar names = =
Every unique cultivar has a unique name within its denomination class ( which is almost always the genus ) . Names of cultivars are regulated by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants , and may be registered with an International Cultivar Registration Authority ( ICRA ) . There are sometimes separate registration authorities for different plant types such as roses and camellias . In addition , cultivars may be associated with commercial marketing names referred to in the Cultivated Plant Code as " trade designations " ( see below ) .
= = = Presenting in text = = =
A cultivar name consists of a botanical name ( of a genus , species , infraspecific taxon , interspecific hybrid or intergeneric hybrid ) followed by a cultivar epithet . The cultivar epithet is enclosed by single quotes ; it should not be italicized if the botanical name is italicized ; and each of the words within the epithet is capitalized ( with some permitted exceptions such as conjunctions ) . It is permissible to place a cultivar epithet after a common name provided the common name is botanically unambiguous . Cultivar epithets published before 1 January 1959 were often given a Latin form and can be readily confused with the specific epithets in botanical names ; after that date , newly coined cultivar epithets must be in a modern vernacular language to distinguish them from botanical epithets .
Examples of correct text presentation :
Cryptomeria japonica ' Elegans'
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana ' Aureomarginata ' ( pre @-@ 1959 name , Latin in form )
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana ' Golden Wonder ' ( post @-@ 1959 name , English language )
Pinus densiflora ' Akebono ' ( post @-@ 1959 name , Japanese language )
Apple ' Sundown'
Some incorrect text presentation examples :
Cryptomeria japonica " Elegans " ( double quotes are unacceptable )
Berberis thunbergii cv . ' Crimson Pygmy ' ( this once @-@ common usage is now unacceptable , as it is no longer correct to use " cv . " in this context ; Berberis thunbergii ' Crimson Pygmy ' is correct )
Rosa cv . ' Peace ' ( this is now incorrect for two reasons : firstly , the use of " cv . " ; secondly , " Peace " is a trade designation or " selling name " for the cultivar R. ' Madame A. Meilland ' and should therefore be printed in a different typeface from the rest of the name , without quote marks , for example : Rosa Peace . )
= = Group names = =
Where several very similar cultivars exist they can be associated into a Group ( formerly Cultivar @-@ group ) . As Group names are used with cultivar names it is necessary to understand their way of presentation . Group names are presented in normal type and the first letter of each word capitalised as for cultivars , but they are not placed in single quotes . When used in a name , the first letter of the word " Group " is itself capitalized .
= = = Presenting in text = = =
Brassica oleracea Capitata Group ( the group of cultivars including all typical cabbages )
Brassica oleracea Botrytis Group ( the group of cultivars including all typical cauliflowers )
Hydrangea macrophylla Groupe Hortensia ( in French ) = Hydrangea macrophylla Hortensia Group ( in English )
Where cited with a cultivar name the group should be enclosed in parentheses , as follows :
Hydrangea macrophylla ( Hortensia Group ) ' Ayesha'
= = Legal protection of cultivars and their names = =
Since the 1990s there has been an increasing use of legal protection for newly produced cultivars . Plant breeders expect legal protection for the cultivars they produce . If other growers can immediately propagate and sell these cultivars as soon as they come on the market , the breeder 's benefit is largely lost . Legal protection for cultivars is obtained through the use of Plant breeders ’ rights and plant Patents but the specific legislation and procedures needed to take advantage of this protection vary from country to country .
= = = Controversial use of legal protection for cultivars = = =
The use of legal protection for cultivars can be controversial , particularly for food crops that are staples in developing countries , or for plants selected from the wild and propagated for sale without any additional breeding work ; some people consider this practice unethical .
= = = Trade designations = = =
The formal scientific name of a cultivar , like Solanum tuberosum ‘ King Edward ’ , is a way of uniquely designating a particular kind of plant . This scientific name is in the public domain and cannot be legally protected . Plant retailers wish to maximize their share of the market and one way of doing this is to replace the cumbersome Latin scientific names on plant labels in retail outlets with appealing marketing names that are easy to use , pronounce and remember . Marketing names lie outside the scope of the Cultivated Plant Code which refers to them as " trade designations " . If a retailer or wholesaler has the sole legal rights to a marketing name then that may offer a sales advantage . Plants protected by Plant breeders ’ rights ( PBR ) may have a " true " cultivar name – the recognized scientific name in the public domain , and a " commercial synonym " an additional marketing name that is legally protected : an example would be Rosa Fascination = ' Poulmax ' , the ‘ Poulmax ’ being the true scientific name . Because a name that is attractive in one language may have less appeal in another country , a plant may be given different selling names from country to country . Quoting the original cultivar name allows the correct identification of cultivars around the world . The peak body coordinating Plant breeders rights is the Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants ( Union internationale pour la protection des obtentions végétales , UPOV ) and this organization maintains a database of new cultivars protected by PBR in all countries .
= = International Cultivar Registration Authorities = =
An International Cultivar Registration Authority ( ICRA ) is a voluntary , non @-@ statutory organization appointed by the Commission for Nomenclature and Cultivar Registration of the International Society of Horticultural Science . ICRAs are generally formed by societies and institutions specializing in particular plant genera such as Dahlia or Rhododendron and are currently located in Europe , North America , China , India , Singapore , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and Puerto Rico .
Each ICRA produces an annual report and its reappointment is considered every four years . The main task is to maintain a register of the names within the group of interest and where possible this is published and placed in the public domain . One major aim is to prevent the duplication of cultivar and Group epithets within a genus , as well as ensuring that names are in accord with the latest edition of the Cultivated Plant Code . In this way , over the last 50 years or so , ICRAs have contributed to the stability of cultivated plant nomenclature . In recent times many ICRAs have also recorded trade designations and trademarks used in labelling plant material , to avoid confusion with established names .
New names and other relevant data are collected by and submitted to the ICRA and in most cases there is no cost . The ICRA then checks each new epithet to ensure that it has not been used before and that it conforms with the Cultivated Plant Code . Each ICRA also ensures that new names are formally established ( i.e. published in hard copy , with a description in a dated publication ) . They record details about the plant , such as parentage , the names of those concerned with its development and introduction , and a basic description highlighting its distinctive characters . ICRAs are not responsible for assessing the distinctiveness of the plant in question . Most ICRAs can be contacted electronically and many maintain web sites : for an up @-@ to @-@ date listing .
= Bill Denny =
William Joseph " Bill " Denny , MC ( 6 December 1872 – 2 May 1946 ) was a South Australian journalist , lawyer , politician and decorated soldier who held the South Australian House of Assembly seats of West Adelaide from 1900 to 1902 and then Adelaide from 1902 to 1905 and again from 1906 to 1933 . After an unsuccessful candidacy as a United Labor Party ( ULP ) member in 1899 , he was elected as an " independent liberal " in a by @-@ election in 1900 . He was re @-@ elected in 1902 , but defeated in 1905 . The following year , he was elected as a ULP candidate , and retained his seat for that party ( the Australian Labor Party from 1917 ) until 1931 . Along with the rest of the cabinet , he was ejected from the Australian Labor Party in 1931 , and was a member of the Parliamentary Labor Party until his electoral defeat at the hands of a Lang Labor Party candidate in 1933 .
Denny was the Attorney @-@ General of South Australia and Minister for the Northern Territory in the government led by John Verran ( 1910 – 12 ) . In August 1915 , Denny enlisted in the First Australian Imperial Force to serve in World War I , initially as a trooper in the 9th Light Horse Regiment . After being commissioned in 1916 , he served in the 5th Division Artillery and 1st Divisional Artillery on the Western Front . He was awarded the Military Cross in September 1917 when he was wounded while leading a convoy into forward areas near Ypres , and ended the war as a captain .
He was again Attorney @-@ General in the Labor governments led by John Gunn ( 1924 – 26 ) , Lionel Hill ( 1930 – 33 ) and Robert Richards ( 1933 ) , and held other portfolios in those governments , including housing , irrigation and repatriation . Denny published two memoirs of his military service , and when he died in 1946 aged 73 , he was accorded a state funeral .
= = Early life = =
William Joseph Denny was born in Adelaide , South Australia , on 6 December 1872 , one of three children of Thomas Joseph Denny , a publican , and his wife Annie ( née Dwyer ) . He attended Christian Brothers College , Adelaide , then worked as a weather clerk at the General Post Office , Adelaide under the Postmaster General , Sir Charles Todd . According to a contemporary source , in 1893 he became the editor of the Catholic The Southern Cross newspaper , which published news about and for the Catholic community of South Australia . A more recent source states he commenced as editor of The Southern Cross in 1896 . He replaced James O 'Loghlin , who later became a United Labor Party ( ULP ) senator for South Australia . Denny was a councillor of the Adelaide City Council from 1898 , representing Grey Ward . During his early twenties he was active in the literary and debating societies of Adelaide , was Chairman of the Christian Brothers Old Collegians Association , and captain of two city rowing clubs . He unsuccessfully contested the two @-@ member seat of West Adelaide in the 1899 South Australian colonial election as a ULP candidate , gaining 27 @.@ 7 per cent of the vote .
When a by @-@ election was held for West Adelaide on 17 March 1900 , Denny was elected to the single vacancy created by the resignation of the former Premier of South Australia , Charles Kingston . He ran as an " independent liberal " candidate , gaining 66 @.@ 8 per cent of the vote . Prior to the 1902 state election the electoral district of West Adelaide was abolished . Denny contested the new four @-@ member electoral district of Adelaide , and was elected second in the count with 14 @.@ 3 per cent of the votes cast . He was defeated at the 1905 state election , gaining only 9 @.@ 9 per cent of the votes . The following year , having abandoned his former liberalism , he contested the seat of Adelaide at the state election as a ULP candidate , and was elected first , receiving 19 @.@ 3 per cent of the votes cast . He was again returned first at the 1910 state election , after which the ULP led by John Verran formed the first Labor government of South Australia on 3 June . Having begun studying law at the University of Adelaide in 1903 , Denny was articled to J.R. Anderson KC , and was admitted as a solicitor in the Supreme Court of South Australia in 1908 .
= = Attorney @-@ General = =
Denny was appointed Attorney @-@ General of South Australia and Minister controlling the Northern Territory on 3 June 1910 . After conducting negotiations with the Commonwealth Government , he relinquished his ministerial responsibility for the Northern Territory on 31 December 1910 , when its administration was transferred to the Commonwealth . During his time as Attorney @-@ General , Denny drafted and led several important legislative reforms . These included the Advances for Homes
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– present ) = = =
In 2009 , Doane began working for Dragon Gate USA under his real name . On December 3 , 2009 , it was announced that Doane would be joining recently opened promotion Evolve as Kenn Doane . He debuted at the promotions first show on January 16 , 2010 , in a loss to Jimmy Jacobs .
On March 9 , 2010 , Doane , under his real name , wrestled in a tryout dark match for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling , losing to Homicide . On November 1 , 2010 , Doane announced that he had turned down a chance to wrestle another tryout match for TNA . On November 15 , 2011 , Doane wrestled a dark match for WWE at the SmackDown tapings in Bridgeport , Connecticut , losing to Justin Gabriel .
In October 2011 , Doane took part in the first season tapings of Wrestling Retribution Project ( WRP ) , performing under the ring name " Simply " Stan Shooter .
In September 2014 , Doane took part in Chikara 's 2014 King of Trios tournament , using his Spirit Squad character and teaming with Johnny and Mikey . After a win over Sinn Bodhi and the Odditorium ( Qefka the Quiet and Sir Oliver Grimsly ) on September 19 , the Spirit Squad was eliminated from the tournament in the second round on September 20 by the Golden Trio ( Dasher Hatfield , Icarus , and Mark Angelosetti ) .
= = Other media = =
Doane appeared on Seducing Cindy , a Fox Reality series that follows Cindy Margolis , once the most downloaded woman on the Internet , as she searches for a new love . The program premiered on January 30 , 2010 . Doane made it to the final five , one episode away from the season finale , but was eliminated .
In 2013 , while rehabbing a knee injury , Doane penned his first children 's book entitled Billy 's Bully . The book was released in June 2013 .
= = Personal life = =
Doane was born to Ken and Vickie Doane in Southbridge , Massachusetts . His parents were supportive of his decision in becoming a professional wrestler . He has an older brother named Mike . Doane attended Bay Path Regional Vocational Technical High School in Charlton , Massachusetts .
Doane was formerly engaged to fellow professional wrestler Mickie James .
In 2012 , Doanne enrolled in Nichols College where he started playing football . He plays as a tight end and linebacker .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Doane @-@ Nation ( Diving clothesline )
RK @-@ Doane ( Jumping cutter )
Sky High Leg Drop ( High @-@ angle diving leg drop )
Snap swinging neckbreaker
Signature moves
Arm drag rolled through and followed into multiple short @-@ arm clotheslines
Belly @-@ to @-@ back suplex lifted and dropped into a neckbreaker slam
Elevated neckbreaker
Managers
Kenny Bolin
Victoria
Nicknames
" Simply "
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Television Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Entertainment
World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with The Spirit Squad
Premiere Wrestling Federation Northeast
PWF @-@ NE Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Johnny Curtis
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 123 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in PWI 500 in 2007
= Aucanquilcha =
Aucanquilcha ( pronounced : OW @-@ kahn @-@ KEEL @-@ chuh ) is a massive stratovolcano located in the Antofagasta Region of northern Chile , just west of the border with Bolivia and within the Alto Loa National Reserve . Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes , the stratovolcano has the form of a ridge with a maximum height of 6 @,@ 176 metres ( 20 @,@ 262 ft ) . The volcano is embedded in a larger cluster of volcanoes known as the Aucanquilcha cluster . This cluster of volcanoes was formed in stages over eleven million years of activity with varying magma output , including lava domes and lava flows . Aucanquilcha volcano proper is formed from four units that erupted between 1 @.@ 04 @-@ 0 @.@ 23 million years ago . During the ice ages , both the principal Aucanquilcha complex and the other volcanoes of the cluster were subject to glaciation , resulting in the formation of moraines and cirques .
The cluster has generated lava ranging in composition from andesite to dacite , with the main volcano being exclusively of dacitic composition . Systematic variations in temperature , crystal and biotite content have been recorded during the evolution of the cluster .
At Aucanquilcha volcano there is some fumarolic activity , and sulfur deposits are found at the summit . Several sulfur mines lie in the complex . One mine at an altitude of 5 @,@ 950 metres ( 19 @,@ 520 ft ) was opened in 1913 and remained in use from 1950 to 1992 . It was the world 's highest mine during that period . Originally , sulfur obtained at the mine was transported down with llamas . Subsequently , an aerial cableway was employed to transport the sulfur to the town of Amincha . To bring the sulfur down , a road network to the summit was constructed in 1972 , although it is now impassable .
In 1986 , four men were reported to be living at an altitude of 5 @,@ 900 metres ( 19 @,@ 400 ft ) , making them the highest permanent residents on Earth .
= = Geography and geology = =
= = = Regional setting = = =
Aucanquilcha is part of the Central Volcanic Zone ( CVZ ) of the Andes , a highly silicic volcanic zone in South America . The CVZ generates magmas at a rate of 0 @.@ 11 cubic kilometres per millennium ( 0 @.@ 026 cubic miles per millennium ) , one tenth of the global average of arc magma production , and lies about 135 – 180 kilometres ( 84 – 112 mi ) above the Wadati – Benioff zone . The arc has migrated eastward towards the high Andes from the Pacific Ocean coast since the Jurassic . The arc contains andesitic volcanoes , ignimbrites and compound volcanoes and has generated over 3 @,@ 000 cubic kilometres ( 720 cu mi ) of eruption products over 28 million years .
The Aucanquilcha complex lies northwest of the Altiplano – Puna volcanic complex ( APVC ) , a local large igneous province . The APVC is underpinned below at a depth of 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) by a slow seismic velocity zone that has been linked to the presence of 15 – 25 % of partial melts in the zone . The Aucanquilcha complex is much smaller volumetrically than the APVC ignimbrites , but the duration of activity and the location indicate that Aucanquilcha is a subcomponent of the APVC complex .
The long @-@ term magma output of Aucanquilcha is comparable to the magma output of other long @-@ term active volcanoes in the central Andes such as Ollagüe and Llullaillaco . In all such cases , an early peak in magma output is followed by later lower @-@ volume activity ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 cubic kilometres per millennium ( 0 @.@ 024 – 0 @.@ 048 cubic miles per millennium ) , followed by 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 02 cubic kilometres per millennium ( 0 @.@ 0024 – 0 @.@ 0048 cubic miles per millennium ) ) . Unzen in Japan and Mount Duff and Lassen Peak in California have similar eruption histories . Such decreases may occur because of the lithostatic load imposed by the edifices on the magma chambers and the increased travel distance of the magma through the edifice .
= = = Local setting = = =
Aucanquilcha is part of a cluster of volcanoes located between the Rio Loa and the Chile – Bolivia border . Aucanquilcha sits on top of a 2 @.@ 7 – 3 @.@ 3 mya andesite platform and rises more than 1 @,@ 400 metres ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) over it . The main volcano is composed of an east @-@ west 8 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) long chain of stratovolcanoes and has an estimated volume of 37 cubic kilometres ( 8 @.@ 9 cu mi ) . The maximum slope of the summit area is 25 ° . During the Cumbre Negra stage , a pyroclastic flow occurred on the northwestern side of the volcano . It covered 34 square kilometres ( 13 sq mi ) on a run of 10 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) and now has a volume of 0 @.@ 3 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 072 cu mi ) . It was at first identified as a debris avalanche , but the lack of hummocky topography and the presence of large juvenile blocks identify it as a pyroclastic flow . One block in the flow and the lava dome from which the flow originated have been dated at 0 @.@ 6 mya . Lava flows , mostly from the summit areas , are dark to grey in colour and extend as far as 2 – 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from their vents . It is likely that two small lava domes ( Cerro Cumbre Negra and Summit 5867 ) on the northwest flank occupy flank vents . To the north lies the 3 @.@ 3 mya old andesite Cerro Tres Monos ridge ; to the west lies the east @-@ west Cerro Polan and La Luna ridge .
The volcanic cluster of which Aucanquilcha is a part contains about 19 – 20 volcanoes and has generated about 340 cubic kilometres ( 82 cu mi ) of andesite and dacite over eleven million years . Covering a surface area of 700 square kilometres ( 270 sq mi ) , the cluster is surrounded on its northern , western and eastern sides by salt flats and alluvial deposits . On its southern side lies the Cerro Chela volcano . The cluster lies on a 70 @-@ kilometre ( 43 mi ) thick crust , and arid conditions since the Miocene have preserved its structures . Its volcanoes are arranged in north @-@ south and northwestern alignments , which may indicate a rupture of the crust above shallow magma reservoirs .
Aucanquilcha underwent a northwestward flank collapse , generating a debris avalanche deposit . The debris avalanche descended 2 @,@ 100 metres ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) and ran for 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) with an azimuth of 211 ° , eventually covering an area of 59 square kilometres ( 23 sq mi ) . The flow was channeled between Miño Volcano and Cerro Cumbre Negra ( an eroded lava massif ) towards the dry Rio Loa valley , favouring the preservation of the slide deposit . The proximal parts of the slide are covered by younger eruptive products and also by moraines , indicating that the slide was followed by at least one glacial episode . The slide lacks the hummocky topography usually found on debris avalanches but has radial ridges and grooves . Another landslide occurred during the Redondo stage on the eastern side of the main volcano into the Salar de Carcote . It has the classic hummocky topography of landslides and covers a length of 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) and a surface area of 35 square kilometres ( 14 sq mi ) , roughly half of the surface area of the Mount St Helens avalanche of 1980 and one @-@ third of the surface area of the Ollagüe avalanche . A volume of 0 @.@ 35 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 084 cu mi ) is assumed based on a probable thickness of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) .
Petrographically , the composition of the cluster ranges from andesite to dacite with SiO2 ranging from 62 @.@ 8 % to 65 @.@ 7 % . Andesites appear as lava flows while dacites form lava domes and dome complexes . The rocks from the main Aucanquilcha volcano are uniformly dacitic and show little evidence of temporal variation in their composition . Potassium content ranges from 1 @.@ 5 to 4 % . Plagioclase is the dominant component of the magma . Clinopyroxene + orthopyroxene + amphibole ( hornblende and pargasite ) or amphibole + biotite + minor amounts of pyroxene are subordinate components . Apatite , ilmenite , magnetite and zircon can also be found . There is evidence of magma mixing and mingling .
Rocks have a porphyritic texture . Basaltic andesites typically contain less than 10 % crystals while dacites generally have more than 20 % crystals . The Alconcha group lavas of the first one million years are crystal @-@ poor and lack biotite ; later lavas contain biotite and more crystals . Based on geothermometric data , the highest temperatures occurred during phases of high activity and lower temperatures are associated with low output periods . It is likely that crustal feedback and increased deep crustal influx of mantle @-@ derived basalts drive increased magmatic flux . During the time of the Polan eruption on the west flank , magma output was spatially segregated with the peripheral Miño Volcano generating andesite lavas and the more central volcanos generating dacites .
Various parts of the main volcano have been subjected to hydrothermal alteration . The Azufrera stage edifice was subject to the most alteration ; especially in the summit area and between the Angulo and Azufrera summits lie sulfur rich talus deposits . The central part of the complex is heavily altered by fumarole activity . Hydrothermal alteration may be driven by the formation of a deep magma reservoir and resulting hydrothermal circulation in overlying rocks .
= = = Eruptive history = = =
Eruption rates increased 6 million years ago , coinciding with magmas becoming more uniform in composition and the onset of strong hydrothermal alteration . It is possible that solidification of magmas below the volcano insulated the feeding channels from heat loss and caused the temperatures in the system to increase . Activity waned again 2 million years ago , with magma and included crystals being drawn from depths of 3 – 23 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 – 14 @.@ 3 mi ) and forming the Aucanquilcha volcano proper . The 10 @-@ million @-@ year duration of activity of the Altiplano – Puna volcanic complex systems is comparable to the duration of Aucanquilcha activity . The age of the lava flows ranges from heavily glaciated andesite flows overlying less @-@ eroded ones to possibly postglacial lava flows that may be tens of thousands of years old .
= = = = Aucanquilcha cluster = = = =
The Aucanquilcha cluster formed in four stages , each corresponding to a group . The Alconcha group , with seven volcanoes , is constructed from pyroxene , andesite and dacite and formed 11 – 8 mya . It is constructed from two northern composite cones , Alconcha and Volcan Tuco ( also known as Cerro Garage , dated 10 @.@ 96 @-@ 10 @.@ 51 mya ) , and five lava domes on the northeastern side of the cluster . Alconcha has a large breach on the southern side of its crater that is likely the product of a flank collapse but the avalanche deposit may be buried beneath younger material . Lavas within the breach are dated 10 @.@ 78 – 10 @.@ 43 mya . The centres of Volcan Tuco and Alconcha are heavily eroded , and Alconcha 's lavas and scoria lie on top of Tuco . The Ujina ignimbrite was erupted 9 @.@ 4 mya from an unknown vent and has a volume of 2 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 48 cu mi ) of dacite . While the vent location is unknown , the composition of the ignimbrite , and its dating and distribution , indicate an association with this group . The domes are poorly researched , with the Coscalito dome dated 8 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 7 mya and Cerro Amincha 8 @.@ 01 . The total volume of this group is 46 cubic kilometres ( 11 cu mi ) , indicating a flux rate of 0 @.@ 013 cubic kilometres per millennium ( 0 @.@ 0031 cubic miles per millennium ) .
The Gordo group , which erupted 6 – 4 mya following a probable 2 @-@ million @-@ year hiatus , is located in the southern and western parts of the cluster . Cerro Gordo itself ( 5 @.@ 49 mya ) has a crater that is breached westwards , exposing about twelve radial dykes but with no trace of a debris avalanche . One of the larger centres of the cluster , Gordo is associated with a lava field on its western side that is dated 4 @.@ 9 mya . Cerro Puquíos and Cerro Negro ( 5 @.@ 81 – 5 @.@ 28 mya ) lie on the southern side of the cluster , and glacial cirques cutting their northeastern flanks reveal layers of scoria and lavas . Puquíos has an amphitheatre structure on its western side . Paco Paco ( 4 @.@ 41 – 4 @.@ 27 mya ) is located north of most Gordo group volcanoes . It forms a 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) wide stratocone with a lava @-@ filled crater , and layers of scoria and agglutinated lavas dip from it . Volcan Pabellón ( 4 @.@ 14 – 4 @.@ 12 mya ) sits southwest of the Puquíos @-@ Negro ridge . The Las Bolitas lava field ( 5 @.@ 23 – 5 @.@ 13 mya ) is associated with the Gordo group but the vent locations are unknown . The total volume of this group is 55 cubic kilometres ( 13 cu mi ) , indicating a flux rate of 0 @.@ 027 cubic kilometres per millennium ( 0 @.@ 0065 cubic miles per millennium ) .
The 3 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 3 mya Polan group , with ten dispersed volcanoes including Miño Volcano , is the largest group in the cluster and includes Tres Monos , La Luna , Cerro Polan , Chaihuiri , Miño Volcano and the lavas of the Aucanquilcha platform . Cerro Polan 's ( 3 @.@ 5 – 3 mya ) eastern side is deeply dissected , and the exposed materials are heavily altered in the deeper sections . Lava fields to Polan 's west and southwest ( 2 @.@ 6 mya on one western field ) are associated with it . La Luna ( 2 @.@ 97 – 2 @.@ 57 ) lies just east of Polan ; these two volcanoes were probably one volcano in the past . La Luna has a lava dome surrounded by a glaciated but unaltered lava table . Cerro Tres Monos ( 3 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 78 mya ) forms a northbound 14 @-@ kilometre ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) long ridge with at least six vents . Hydrothermal alteration has affected some lavas and pyroclastics from Tres Monos , and the western side has lateral and terminal moraines . The Aucanquilcha platform ( 3 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 7 mya ) sits underneath the main Aucanquilcha volcano , and its lava mostly flowed north . Its southern side is a 4 @,@ 500 @-@ metre ( 14 @,@ 800 ft ) table with one hill , Cerro Campana , dated to 3 @.@ 3 mya . The platform presumably forms one third of the total volume of the Aucanquilcha cluster and may have originated from a part of the ridge of the La Luna @-@ Polan trend , now buried beneath Aucanquilcha . Chaihuiri ( 2 @.@ 39 mya ) is a lava dome with moraines and two short lava flows ; it is the youngest Polan group volcano . The total volume of this group is 154 cubic kilometres ( 37 cu mi ) , indicating a flux rate of 0 @.@ 077 cubic kilometres per millennium ( 0 @.@ 018 cubic miles per millennium ) .
After the four main phases , some scoria cones of basaltic composition , including Poruñita and Luna de Tierra , formed between Aucanquilcha and Ollagüe .
= = = = Aucanquilcha proper = = = =
The main Aucanquilcha volcano formed in four stages . Between 1 @.@ 04 – 0 @.@ 92 mya the bulk of the volcano formed in the Azufrera stage . One lava flow toward the southwest is unusually long at 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) . A vent at 6 @,@ 116 metres ( 20 @,@ 066 ft ) altitude fed most of this edifice ; a second vent on the northern flank at the 5 @,@ 887 metres ( 19 @,@ 314 ft ) summit generated three lava flows , two shorter ones and a long one to the northwest . The Azufrera stage lavas are blocky dacites with large clasts and flow fronts up to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) high . These flows are moderately altered and have oxidation rinds . There is little evidence of explosive activity , but it may have been obscured by glacial erosion . The total volume is 21 @.@ 1 cubic kilometres ( 5 @.@ 1 cu mi ) , indicating a flux rate of 0 @.@ 16 cubic kilometres per millennium ( 0 @.@ 038 cubic miles per millennium ) . This volcano was probably an isolated cone , but the existence of a previous stage cannot be excluded .
The second stage , named Rodado , lasted from 0 @.@ 95 to 0 @.@ 85 mya . It formed on the eastern slopes of the Azufrera volcano , with one vent at the 6 @,@ 073 metres ( 19 @,@ 925 ft ) summit . Rodado stage lavas are blocky and platy and usually thicker than Azufrera stage lavas . Some of the summit vent lavas are among the most vesicular of this stage . They are also less weathered ( oxidation rinds are c . 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) thick ) and less subject to solfataric alteration . The Cerro Chinchillas lavas are the oldest of this stage ; erupted from an unknown vent , they lack amphiboles . The total volume is 9 @.@ 1 cubic kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 cu mi ) , indicating a flux rate of 0 @.@ 09 cubic kilometres per millennium ( 0 @.@ 022 cubic miles per millennium ) . A flank collapse , possibly triggered by a large earthquake , occurred during this stage .
The third stage is the Cumbre Negra stage , named after the westernmost summit and principal vent of this stage , Cerro Cumbre Negra ( 5 @,@ 670 metres ( 18 @,@ 600 ft ) ) . The time course of its activity is less defined than the previous two stages ; it may have occurred between 1 – 0 @.@ 47 mya , but most likely 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 5 mya based on potassium – argon dating . Four lava flows derived from the main vent , all less than one kilometre long and 40 – 60 metres ( 130 – 200 ft ) thicker than previous stages . They all have hydration rinds but no native sulfur deposits . This stage generated Aucanquilcha 's only pyroclastic flow during a lava dome collapse as occurred on Merapi in Indonesia . The total volume of this stage is 0 @.@ 7 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 17 cu mi ) , indicating a flux rate of 0 @.@ 005 cubic kilometres per millennium ( 0 @.@ 0012 cubic miles per millennium ) .
The youngest stage , known as Angulo , lasted from 0 @.@ 66 to 0 @.@ 24 mya . It was centered between the Azufrera and Rodado stage edifices 0 @.@ 35 – 0 @.@ 23 mya . Most lava flows from this stage originate on a 1 @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) long ridge that includes Aucanquilcha 's highest summit . One crater on the northeast side of the ridge fed lavas to the north . Other than that , most flows extend southwards 4 – 9 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 6 mi ) from the vent , and with the exception of a due south flow 50 metres ( 160 ft ) thick they are thin , with thicknesses of 15 – 20 metres ( 49 – 66 ft ) . One of the oldest flows has been compared in length to the 50 % longer Chao Dacite flow but is much thinner . The flows from this stage are weakly weathered and partially overlie glacial deposits . The total volume is 5 @.@ 8 cubic kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 cu mi ) , indicating a flux rate of 0 @.@ 015 cubic kilometres per millennium ( 0 @.@ 0036 cubic miles per millennium ) .
The volcano has active fumaroles though the low @-@ temperature fumaroles are not visible through short wavelength infrared data from satellites . Fumarole activity was observed in 1962 .
= = Glaciation and hydrology = =
The volcano is currently unglaciated despite its height , due to the aridity of the climate . The Quebrada de Chaigüire valley originates at the foot of Aucanquilcha . The Rio Loa river drains the western and northwestern sides of the volcano ; the eastern side drains into the Salar de Ollagüe salt pan , the northeastern into the Salar de Laguani , and the southeastern into the Salar de Carcote . Most valleys only intermittently transport water , if at all .
The volcanic cluster was modestly glaciated during the Quaternary , as evidenced by glacial striations and moraines at elevations above 4 @,@ 500 metres ( 14 @,@ 800 ft ) . The western Azufrera edifice was heavily glaciated in the past . At least three moraine stages have been mapped on that edifice , and on its southern side is found a modest cirque with glacially polished lavas on the floor . The Rodado stage edifice has several moraine stages on its southern slopes . Another small cirque with a moraine has been found in the northeastern side of the Cerro Cumbre Negra summit next to an Azufrera stage lava flow . A small moraine lies on the south side of the Angulo edifice ; some lavas from that edifice overlie glacial deposits .
= = Human activity and mining = =
A mine at 5 @,@ 950 metres ( 19 @,@ 520 ft ) altitude that yielded ore with 30 % sulfur was opened by Julian B. Carrasco in 1913 , who subsequently established the Compañía Minera y Azufrera Carrasco S.A in 1933 . The sulfur was transported down first with llamas , later through an aerial cableway system and finally by trucks . The sulfur was then transported to Chuquicamata to be converted into sulfuric acid . The mine was active from 1950 to 1992 . The last reported mining activity on the mountain was in 1994 . In 1977 other sulfur mines were present to the west between Cerro Polan and Cerro Gordo and south of the main Aucanquilcha massif . The cableway runs from the mine to a mining camp ( 5 @,@ 300 metres ( 17 @,@ 400 ft ) ) and from there to Amincha ( 3 @,@ 900 metres ( 12 @,@ 800 ft ) ) . The road leading up to the mine is dated 1972 and is now impassable because of rock falls . There is still a relic network of roads leading up to 5 @,@ 900 metres ( 19 @,@ 400 ft ) .
Covellite and other copper sulfides found in the area appear to have formed through postvolcanic epithermal mineralization above deep porphyry copper mineralization . The sulfur itself formed at temperatures of 450 ° C ( 842 ° F ) in a now extinct fumarole .
= = = Altitude and habitation = = =
The sulfur mine is notable for being the highest mine in the world at 5 @,@ 950 metres ( 19 @,@ 520 ft ) and the highest permanently inhabited area . An expedition in 1935 , part of the International High Altitude Expedition , found that miners lived at an altitude of 5 @,@ 300 metres ( 17 @,@ 500 ft ) in the town of Quilcha and reached the higher mine on foot . The expedition found that an even higher abandoned village at 5 @,@ 639 metres ( 18 @,@ 501 ft ) existed , but miners refused to live there . The conclusion taken from the expedition was that 5 @,@ 334 metres ( 17 @,@ 500 ft ) was the highest habitable altitude .
West in 1986 reported that a few miners permanently lived in the mine area . A small group of men , caretakers of the mine , has lived at an altitude of 5 @,@ 900 metres ( 19 @,@ 500 ft ) in a galvanized iron hut . One of them reportedly had spent two years there . These are considered to be the highest human inhabitants on Earth . Research performed on Aymara miners of the Aucanquilcha mine indicates that they are fully acclimatized to the altitude , with less hyperventilation and higher hemoglobin than acclimatized people from lower areas . Their families are born and raised at lower altitudes , however .
= Harold A. Lafount =
Harold Arundel Lafount ( January 5 , 1880 – October 21 , 1952 ) was an American businessman who served on the Federal Radio Commission from 1927 to 1934 . He was the father of Lenore Romney ; the father @-@ in @-@ law of businessman and politician George W. Romney ; and the maternal grandfather of businessman and politician Mitt Romney .
English @-@ born , Lafount moved to the United States as a teenager and grew up in Utah . He managed several local businesses and was active in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints . Appointed to the Federal Radio Commission by President Calvin Coolidge , he was in charge of the zone covering the Western United States . Lafount played an important part in developments and decisions regarding the regulation of the broadcasting industry in the U.S. , favoring perspectives that saw radio broadcasting as a fundamentally commercial enterprise . He was also an early influence in making radio airtime available to political candidates and parties .
Lafount later managed a number of well @-@ known radio stations in the northeastern United States on behalf of Arde Bulova and served as president of the National Independent Broadcasters . A licensing issue regarding a station Lafount co @-@ owned resulted in a protracted regulatory and legal matter that was finally decided in the U.S. Supreme Court .
= = Early life and education , marriage and family = =
Lafount was born in Aston town within Birmingham , England , on January 5 , 1880 , the son of Robert Arthur Lafount , originally from Belbroughton , Worcestershire , and mother Emily . He had at least one sibling , a sister called Elsie . The family came with Mormon missionaries to the United States in 1893 and settled in Utah .
Lafount gained a degree in civil engineering from Utah State Agricultural College . He returned to England as a Mormon missionary himself , arriving in Liverpool in August 1902 and being dispatched to Sheffield . However , he returned to the U.S. from Sheffield ahead of schedule in May 1903 due to illness .
On October 28 , 1903 , Lafount married Alma Luella Robison ( born in Montpelier , Idaho , in 1882 ) . They had four daughters : Elsie ( born c . 1906 ) , Lenore ( born 1908 ) , Constance ( born c . 1911 ) , and Ruth ( born c . 1913 ) .
= = Early career = =
Lafount first worked as an assistant in his father 's hardware store in Logan , Utah , known as the Lafount Hardware Company , and then worked as its manager . He was in the hardware business for twelve years starting in 1903 .
Beginning in 1909 , while still living in Logan , Lafount held the position of general manager at the newly founded Pacific Land & Water Company of Salt Lake City , which acquired and developed land for agricultural and mining purposes . The company also had offices in Logan ; on one trip between the two cities , he escaped with only bruises when the gasoline tank of his automobile exploded , hurling him some forty feet . Lafount worked at Pacific Land & Water for ten years . He was then a receiver for the Sevier River Land and Water Company from 1923 to 1927 . By the mid @-@ 1920s , he was a manufacturer of earphones for crystal radio receivers . He knew prominent people socially , including LDS Church President Heber J. Grant and U.S. Senator from Utah Reed Smoot .
During the 1910s , the Lafount family had moved from Logan to Salt Lake City , where they lived in a large brick house located at Fifteenth South and Ninth East . From 1919 to 1924 , Lafount was bishop of the ward ( ecclesiastical and administrative head of his congregation ) in the same area where he lived . His wife worked for the church , was a leader in social charities , and gave well @-@ received dramatic readings . Daughter Lenore later described Harold as " a man of temper and drive " who was prone to angry outbursts .
= = Federal Radio Commission = =
Upon the recommendation of Senator Smoot , in November 1927 , President Calvin Coolidge appointed Lafount to the Federal Radio Commission ( FRC ) , a new federal body created by the Radio Act of 1927 to regulate radio use in the United States , and the first such separate agency . The commission had gotten off to a slow start earlier that year due to problems with vacancies ; Lafount was slotted for the Fifth Zone of the new entity , to replace original commissioner John F. Dillon , who had died shortly after taking that position . News of the appointment came as a surprise to the other members of the commission , since Lafount had little presence in the radio industry .
Upon arriving in Washington , D.C. , for his new position , Lafount wanted to thank the president personally . Told by an appointment secretary that he would need a new morning suit , Lafount spent $ 175 to get one . After Lafount went to the White House and gave a brief speech of thanks , President Coolidge in response said only , " In case of doubt read the law . Good @-@ day , sir . " Lafount began traveling and working for the commission right away . The United States Senate subsequently confirmed Lafount by voice vote on March 30 , 1928 . Three other commissioners were confirmed at the same time , two by voice votes .
Lafount 's zone covered the Rocky Mountain and Pacific states as well as the territories of Hawaii and Alaska . He traveled frequently , as part of visiting all kinds of radio stations in his large territory . At one point during 1927 – 1928 he took an 8 @,@ 200 miles ( 13 @,@ 200 km ) trip in the zone , where he interviewed over 700 people , including over 100 listeners , representing over 100 radio stations . At another time during 1930 he climbed to high elevations in southern Colorado to hear the reception that ranchers , sheepherders , and rangers received . Some smaller radio stations had unsponsored time available , and he proposed the creation of citizen @-@ based advisory boards to create programming for the benefit of community interests for such stations . Overall , however , he felt that too many small stations with weak signals were blocking reception of larger stations , and came to the conclusion that the number of stations should be reduced and the signals of the larger stations strengthened .
Over time , the commissioners ' activities became less bound to their particular geographies . Accordingly , Lafount became responsible for coordinating FRC activities with other government agencies and entities . Lafount was in the public eye ; The New York Times ran 140 stories that mentioned him during his stint on the FRC .
During his first months on the commission , Lafount was an informal member of the allocating committee that led to the FRC 's 1928 reallocation of the commercial broadcast radio spectrum under General Order 40 . Lafount subsequently supported the action , which enabled the growth of advertiser @-@ based broadcasting but was criticized by some as a giveaway of a public resource ( in the form of clear @-@ channel frequencies ) to large business and media interests . By 1931 , Lafount was referring to General Order 40 as " the structure or very foundation upon which broadcasting has been built , and upon which the success or failure of every branch of the radio industry must depend . "
Lafount believed that radio could help bring about a sense of national unity , which he favored , and that " common sources of entertainment " were among those characteristics that " constitute [ d ] bonds for making our people homogenous . " However , he believed that radio programming should be based upon what listeners in the mass wanted to hear , and not upon what some central authority ( such as the BBC in the English model ) thought they would be best off hearing . Overall , Lafount was quite satisfied with the work of the FRC , writing in 1931 that " experts everywhere " agreed that the U.S. broadcasting system " is as perfect as it could be made . "
The question of the educational value of radio was a constant issue , and by 1931 Lafount was strongly in the camp of those who believed that educational programming was on the increase . He said that there were adequate frequencies and hours for such content and defended the FRC 's role in this regard . But he stressed that radio was fundamentally an instrument of commerce and that the FRC should take no action that might imperil that . In an oft @-@ quoted 1931 statement , Lafount said , " Commercialism is at the heart of the broadcasting industry in the United States . What has education contributed to radio ? Not one thing . What has commercialism contributed ? Everything – the lifeblood of the industry . "
However , the extent to which broadcast radio was dominated by advertising and by commercial interests became a hot topic , with members of the public requesting that Congress step in and take action . Lafount often warned commercial broadcasters that they faced a dismal future unless they mended their ways in this regard . In a 1932 speech before a St. Louis meeting of the National Association of Broadcasters , he said that " overcommercialization " was indeed a problem , and that radio broadcasters were " selling their birthright for a mess of pottage . "
After witnessing early mechanical television in action , Commissioner Lafount said that the FRC was doing all it could to help develop the still @-@ infant technology in terms of regulatory issues . He wrote in 1931 that , " I believe that television is destined to become the greatest force in the world . I think it will have more influence over the lives of individuals than any other single force . " This remark has been quoted in several books about the history of television . He at the same time proposed the censorship of television , in order that objectionable images not be seen and the amount of advertising not be excessive .
Lafount became acting chairman of the commission during the latter part of 1932 . Believing that the radio broadcasting system in the U.S. was " typically American " and " suits our democratic temperament as no other system I have yet encountered would , " he urged broadcasters to air political programming and advertising during the 1932 U.S. presidential election . He thus became influential in the development of federal regulations specifying that candidates and parties receive equal airtime . Although a Republican , Lafount told broadcasters that they should supply free airtime and publicity to the subsequent Roosevelt administration 's programs created under the National Industrial Recovery Act , in an effort to help the nation recover from the Great Depression . He refuted Republican accusations in 1933 that the Roosevelt administration was trying to censor radio broadcasts .
= = Subsequent radio industry career ; second marriage = =
Lafount stayed on the FRC until its replacement by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) in 1934 , but was not appointed to that body . The FRC role had enabled Lafount to know not just many government figures but also the people running the growing broadcasting industry . Upon leaving the FRC , he became head of the broadcasting interests of the Bulova Watch Company . Arde Bulova , chairman of the company , either owned or partly owned several radio stations .
On September 8 , 1938 , Lafount 's wife Alma died in Washington , D. C. at the age of 56 . He then married Gladys MacDonald on September 6 , 1939 , but she died in New York on June 14 , 1943 , at the age of 40 . During these years , Lafount split his time among residences in New York , Washington , and Salt Lake City .
By 1941 , Lafount was president of the National Independent Broadcasters , which represented some 200 radio stations ( out of 800 total in the nation ) , focusing on those that were not affiliated with any network . During World War II , Lafount served as chairman of the radio committee within the New York City War Fund and subsequently was a member of the radio committee within the National War Fund .
In 1942 , Lafount became president of the newly founded , New York @-@ based Atlantic Coast Network , a regional network of radio stations , most of which Arde Bulova had an interest in . These included the well @-@ known stations WNEW in New York , WPEN in Philadelphia , WELI in New Haven , WNBC in Hartford , WFCI in Providence , and WCOP in Boston with WFBR in Baltimore and WWDC in Washington soon joining . He maintained this position through at least the late 1940s . He served as vice @-@ president of the Wodaam Corporation , which ran WOV , and the Greater New York Broadcasting Corporation , which ran WNEW ; both were part of the larger Bulova interests . He was also vice president of WNBC , a different station with those call letters in New Britain , Connecticut , and the Fifth @-@ Forty @-@ Sixth Corporation .
Lafount was also president of the Broadcasting Service Organization in Boston , which ran WORL . As such , he was a principal in a long @-@ running regulatory and legal case . In 1937 , Lafount and two others , Sandford H. Cohen and George Cohen , had acquired 70 percent of WORL , a radio station in Boston , with Lafount becoming president . Accordingly , effective control of the station passed to Bulova . But Lafount and the others allegedly concealed the transaction from the FCC . During 1943 and 1944 , the United States House Select Committee to Investigate the Federal Communications Commission , commonly referred to as the Lea Committee , held hearings on various aspects of broadcasting regulation . Lafount 's matter was the subject of several days ' investigation by that committee in Spring 1944 . By late 1945 , the FCC was threatening to not renew the station 's license . The three co @-@ owners said they had not consciously violated any regulations , because they thought FCC notification was only necessary if a single person gained more than half @-@ control of a station . The commission claimed that deception and false reports had continued throughout the 1937 to 1943 period .
In April 1947 , the FCC denied the license renewal , saying that Lafount and the other owners had shown " gross carelessness and willful disregard [ of facts ] " in giving false information about the ownership structure and financial status of the station . The agency sought other applicants for the 950 AM band frequency , while Lafount appealed their decision in federal court . In December 1948 , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit overturned the FCC on a 2 – to @-@ 1 decision , saying that the FCC had acted " arbitrarily , capriciously , and unreasonably " in refusing the renewal . The U.S. Justice Department appealed , however , and in May 1949 , the United States Supreme Court handed down a brief , unsigned , unanimous decision that overturned the appeals court and stated that the FCC acted within its power when it refused the license renewal for Lafount and the other owners . The station , which had stayed on the air via temporary licenses , went off the air on May 30 , 1949 . ( The station returned in October 1950 , under new ownership . )
= = Death and family legacy = =
Lafount died in Detroit , Michigan , on October 21 , 1952 , at age 72 in the home of his daughter Lenore . He was survived by his mother , his sister , and his four daughters . Broadcasting magazine wrote upon his passing that " Lafount was an important influence in the early development of radio regulation . "
George Romney had first moved to Washington , D.C. , in 1929 in order to remain near Lenore Lafount following her father 's appointment to the FRC . They married in 1931 . Social connections through the Lafounts enabled George to gain greater visibility in Washington business and political circles during the 1930s . By the late 1940s , Harold Lafount had been so impressed with his son @-@ in @-@ law that he asked lawyers to investigate whether the latter 's Mexican birth would still make him eligible to run for president ; they reported in the affirmative .
Following Lafount 's death , George became chairman and president of American Motors Corporation and Governor of Michigan . He did indeed run for president in 1968 , but the campaign was unsuccessful , after which he became U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development . However , George 's son , Mitt Romney ( of whom Lafount is the maternal grandfather ) , became cofounder and CEO of Bain Capital , president and CEO of the Salt Lake Organizing Committee for the 2002 Winter Olympics , and Governor of Massachusetts , and was the nominee of the Republican Party in the 2012 U.S. presidential election .
= Baynard 's Castle =
Baynard 's Castle refers to buildings on two neighbouring sites in London , between where Blackfriars station and St Paul 's Cathedral now stand . The first was a Norman fortification constructed by Ralph Baynard and demolished by King John in 1213 . The second was a medieval palace built a short distance to the southeast and destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666 . According to Sir Walter Besant , " There was no house in [ London ] more interesting than this " . The original castle was built at the point where the old Roman walls and River Fleet met the River Thames , just east of what is now Blackfriars station . The Norman castle stood for over a century before being demolished by King John in 1213 . It appears to have been rebuilt after the barons ' revolt , but the site was sold in 1276 to form the precinct of the great priory of Blackfriars .
About a century later , a new mansion was constructed on land that had been reclaimed from the Thames , southeast of the first castle . The house was rebuilt after 1428 , and became the London headquarters of the House of York during the Wars of the Roses . Both King Edward IV and Queen Mary I of England were crowned at the castle .
The house was reconstructed as a royal palace by Henry VII at the end of the 15th century , and Henry VIII gave it to Catherine of Aragon on the eve of their wedding . After Henry '
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s death the house came into the hands of Catherine Parr 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , the Earl of Pembroke who built a large extension around a second courtyard in about 1551 . The Pembroke family took the side of Parliament in the Civil War , and after the Restoration the house was occupied by the Earl of Shrewsbury , a Royalist . Baynard 's Castle was left in ruins after the Great Fire of London in 1666 , although fragments survived into the 19th century . The site is now occupied by a BT office called Baynard House , but the castle is commemorated in Castle Baynard Street and the Castle Baynard ward of the City of London .
= = Norman castle = =
Today the River Fleet has been reduced to a trickle in a culvert under New Bridge Street that emerges under Blackfriars Bridge , but before the development of London it was the largest river in the area after the Thames . It formed the western boundary of the Roman city of London and the strategic importance of the junction of the Fleet and the Thames means that the area was probably fortified from early times . Richard of Cirencester suggests that Canute spent Christmas at such a fort in 1017 , where he had Eadric Streona executed . Some accounts claim this was triggered by an argument over a game of chess ; Historian William Page suggests that Eadric held the fort as Ealdorman of Mercia and after his death it may have been granted to Osgod Clapa , who was a " staller " , a standard @-@ bearer and representative of the king ( see Privileges section ) .
This fort was apparently rebuilt after the Norman invasion by Ralph Baynard , a follower of William the Conqueror and sheriff of Essex . It was on the riverfront inside the Roman walls ; a second Norman fort , Montfichet 's Tower was c70 metres ( 230 ft ) to the north . The site of Baynard 's Castle was adjacent to the church of St. Andrew @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Wardrobe , on the southern side of 160 Queen Victoria Street ( the former Times office and now The Bank of New York Mellon Centre ) ; archaeologists have found fortifications stretching at least 50 metres ( 160 ft ) south , onto the site of the proposed development at 2 Puddle Dock . This may be the Bainiardus mentioned in the Domesday Survey ( 1087 ) who gave his name to springs near Paddington called Baynard 's Watering , later shortened to Bayswater .
The castle was inherited by Ralph 's son Geoffrey and his grandson William Baynard , but the latter forfeited his lands early in the reign of Henry I ( 1100 – 1135 ) for supporting Henry 's brother Robert Curthose in his claim to the throne . After a few years in the hands of the king , the castle passed to Eustace , Count of Boulogne by 1106 . John Stow gives 1111 as the date of forfeiture . Later in Henry 's reign , the lordship of Dunmow and honour or soke of Baynard 's Castle were granted to the king 's steward , Robert Fitz Richard ( 1064 – 1136 ) . The soke was coterminous with the parish of St. Andrew @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Wardrobe , which was adjacent to the Norman castle ; the soke roughly corresponds to the eponymous ward of the City of London . Both Dunmow and Baynard 's Castle were eventually inherited by his grandson , Robert Fitzwalter ( d . 1234 ) .
= = Fitzwalter and the barons ' revolt = =
Fitzwalter was the leader of the barons ' revolt against King John which culminated in the Magna Carta of 1215 . The Chronicle of Dunmow relates that King John desired Fitzwalter 's daughter , Matilda the Fair , and Fitzwalter was forced to take up arms to defend the honour of his daughter . This romantic tale may well be propaganda giving legitimacy to a rebellion prompted by Fitzwalter 's reluctance to pay tax or some other dispute . He plotted with the Welsh prince Llywelyn ab Iorwerth and Eustace de Vesci of Alnwick Castle in 1212 . John got wind of the plot and exiled Fitzwalter and de Vesci , who fled to France and Scotland respectively . On 14 January 1213 the king destroyed Castle Baynard . Fitzwalter was forgiven under the terms of the king 's submission to Pope Innocent III in May 1213 . His estates were restored on 19 July 1213 and according to Stow he was given licence to repair Castle Baynard and his other castles .
It is not clear to what extent the castle was rebuilt , but in 1275 Fitzwalter 's grandson , also called Robert , was given licence to sell the site to Robert Kilwardby , the Archbishop of Canterbury for the precinct of the great Dominican Priory at Blackfriars built in 1276 . Montfichet 's Tower was included in the sale , having also been destroyed by King John in 1213 . The building of the priory required the Roman walls to be rerouted , and the military functions of the castle were taken up by a new " tower " in the river at the end of the walls . Started under the great castle @-@ builder Edward I , it was completed during the reign of Edward II ( 1307 – 1327 ) and demolished in 1502 . This was probably the tower of Legate 's Inn given by Edward III to William de Ros .
= = Privileges = =
The lord of Castle Baynard appears to have had held a special place among the nobility of London . Robert explicitly retained all the franchises and privileges associated with the Barony of Baynard when he made the sale . He claimed them in 1303 , his son Robert tried again before the King 's Justices in 1327 and his brother John FitzWalter tried again in 1347 in front of the Mayor and Common Council , all without success .
These suits centred around a claim to be the chief banneret of London . Created in the reign of Edward I ( 1272 – 1307 ) , Knights banneret led troops into battle under their own banner rather than that of someone else . It seems that the castellany of Castle Baynard had entitled FitzWalter 's ancestors to carry the banner of London , and hence be leaders of the London forces . In 1136 Robert Fitz Richard had claimed the lordship of the Thames from London to Staines , as the king 's banner @-@ bearer and as guardian of the whole city of London .
In times of peace , the soke of Castle Baynard had a court which sentenced criminals convicted before the mayor at the Guildhall , and maintained its a prison and stocks . Traitors were drowned while tied to a post , as the tide overwhelmed them at Wood Wharf . Fitzwalter was invited to the Court of Privilege , held at the Great Council in the Guildhall , but sitting next to the Lord Mayor making pronouncements all judgements . This may represent a combination of the post @-@ Conquest roles of the feudal constable and local justiciar with the pre @-@ Norman office of staller . The latter was the king 's standard @-@ bearer in war who was his spokesman at the Danish thing , or 11th century governing assembly .
= = New site = =
A " Hospice called le Old Inne by Pauls Wharfe " is listed in the possessions of Edward , Duke of York , who was killed at Agincourt in 1415 . He may have acquired the house by his marriage to Philippa de Mohun , widow of Walter Fitzwalter ( d . 1386 ) .
A declaration of 1446 appears to identify this building with a town @-@ house built on land reclaimed from the river , 100 metres ( 110 yd ) southeast of the original castle . Humphrey , Duke of Gloucester rebuilt the house after a " great fire " in 1428 , there were four wings in a trapezoidal shape around a courtyard . Excavations have shown that the Roman riverside wall , on the south side of the medieval Thames Street , formed the foundation of the north wall of the new house . It seems that the nearby waterfront was known as Baynard 's Castle even after the original castle was destroyed , and the name was transferred to the building on the new site .
Gloucester died within days of being arrested for treason in 1447 . The house passed to the crown before being occupied by Edward 's nephew Richard Plantagenet , 3rd Duke of York by 1457 . The former Lord Protector kept 400 gentlemen and men @-@ at @-@ arms at the castle in his pursuit of his claim to the throne , but was killed at the Battle of Wakefield in 1460 . This London powerbase allowed York 's son to take the crown in the hall of the castle as Edward IV whilst Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou were campaigning in northern England . Edward gave the castle to his mother on 1 June 1461 , a few weeks before his coronation , and he put his family there for safety before the decisive Battle of Barnet . After Edward V and his brother Richard were declared illegitimate in 1483 and imprisoned in the Tower of London , Edward 's brother Richard assumed the title of King at Baynard 's Castle , as depicted in Shakespeare 's play Richard III .
= = Tudors = =
In 1501 Henry VII " repayred or rather new builded this house , not imbattoled , or so strongly fortified Castle like , but farre more beautiful and commodious for the entertainement of any Prince or greate Estate " . Henry 's alterations included five projecting towers between two existing polygonal corner towers on the riverfront . Henry is recorded as staying at the castle when attending functions at St Paul 's . His son gave the castle to Catherine of Aragon on 10 June 1509 , the day before their wedding , and the queen took up residence there . Later one of Henry 's favourite courtiers , Sir William Sidney ( 1482 ? – 1554 ) , tutor to the future Edward VI , lived in the castle and made his will there in 1548 .
The house passed to William Herbert , 1st Earl of Pembroke by 1551 , the year in which this influential courtier was made Earl of Pembroke . Thus it was at Baynard 's Castle that the Privy Council met to end the reign of Lady Jane Grey and proclaim Mary as Queen of England . Pembroke 's wife Anne Parr , the sister of Henry VIII 's queen Catherine Parr , died in the castle in 1552 . The house was extended to the west around 1550 with three wings of brick , faced with stone on the riverfront . The second courtyard formed by this extension is clearly visible on Hollar 's view of London before the Great Fire . Old prints show a large gateway in the middle of the south side , a bridge of two arches and steps down to the river .
The house remained in the Pembroke family until the 4th Earl , Philip Herbert , who was appointed Chancellor of the University of Oxford there in 1641 . Herbert preferred to live in Whitehall while his wife Anne ( 1590 – 1676 ) took up residence in Baynard 's Castle , describing it in her memoirs as " a house full of riches , and more secured by my lying there " . Pembroke sided with the parliamentarians in the First English Civil War and died in 1650 . By the time of the Restoration , the house was occupied by the Earl of Shrewsbury , who had fought on the side of the Royalist army in their defeat at Worcester in 1651 . Samuel Pepys records that on 19 June 1660 " My Lord went at night with the King to Baynard 's Castle to supper ... [ the next morning he ] lay long in bed this day , because he came home late from supper with the King " . Charles II had only arrived in London on 29 May , and would appoint Pepys ' " lord " , Edward Montagu as Earl of Sandwich a few weeks later .
= = After the Great Fire = =
Baynard Castle was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666 . The engraver Wenceslaus Hollar depicted considerable ruins standing after the fire , including the stone facade on the river side , but only a round tower was left when Strype was writing in 1720 . This tower had been converted into a dwelling , the rest of the site became timber yards and wood wharves with Dunghill Lane running through the site from Thames Street . Richard Horwood 's map of c . 1813 shows a copper wharf , which in 1878 belonged to the Castle Baynard Copper Company . The remaining tower ( some sources say two survived ) was pulled down in the 19th century to make way for warehouses of the Carron Company . In the 1970s the area was redeveloped , with the construction of the Blackfriars underpass and Baynard House , a Brutalist office block occupied by BT Group . Most of the site under Baynard House is a Scheduled Ancient Monument .
= = Archaeology = =
Most of the archaeological evidence for the second Baynard 's Castle comes from excavations in 1972 – 5 , before the construction of Baynard House . Parts of the north wing of both the original house and extension were found , including the north gate and gatetower , and the cobbled entrance from Thames Street . Two east @-@ west " limestone " walls were found ; the excavator suggested that the more northerly one was the curtain wall of the pre @-@ 1428 castle , and the other was a post @-@ 1428 replacement . The latter was surmounted by a brick facing with a rubble core , to which a rectangular pier was attached . The castle had foundations of chalk , ragstone and mortar and was built entirely on reclaimed land . Several phases of building in the late 17th century were also identified . Excavations in 1981 at the City of London School uncovered the SE corner tower of the Tudor castle . The London Archaeological Archive codes for the excavations are BC72 / GM152 , UT74 , BC74 , BC75 and BYD81 .
= HMS Grenade ( H86 ) =
HMS Grenade ( H86 ) was a G @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy during the 1930s . She was transferred from the Mediterranean Fleet shortly after the beginning of World War II for service in home waters . The ship participated in the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign in April 1940 . German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers sank Grenade as she evacuated Allied troops during Operation Dynamo on 29 May 1940 .
= = Description = =
Grenade displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Grenade carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft defence Grenade had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Service = =
Grenade was laid down by Alexander Stephen and Sons in Glasgow , Scotland on 3 October 1934 , launched on 12 November 1935 and completed on 28 March 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 252 @,@ 560 . She was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . Grenade was given a post @-@ completion overhaul in Malta between 20 March and 24 April 1937 . After returning home to give her crew leave and be refitted in Chatham Dockyard between 27 May and July 1938 , the ship was then briefly transferred to the Red Sea in October 1938 .
When World War II began in September 1939 , Grenade was in Alexandria , but she , and her entire flotilla , was transferred to the Western Approaches Command at Plymouth in October . On 7 November she collided with her flotilla leader , Grenville and her repairs were not completed until 9 December . During the next several months she was assigned to contraband control duties in the Downs . She , and her sister ship , Griffin , rescued 117 survivors from Grenville after the latter ship struck a mine on 19 January 1940 . The ship was refitted in London between 27 January and 27 February , but was struck by the ocean liner Orion on 27 February and was only temporarily repaired there . Grenade received permanent repairs in Harwich from 2 March to 3 April and was assigned to Home Fleet at Scapa Flow after their completion .
When Britain received word that the Germans were preparing to invade Norway on 7 / 8 April , Grenade was part of the escort of Convoy ON25 and was recalled , along with the rest of the escort , to join the Home Fleet . The ship , and the destroyer Encounter , escorted the oil tanker British Lady to Flakstadøya in the Lofoten Islands where a refuelling and repair base was being set up to support British naval operations in northern Norway . For the rest of the month Grenade escorted the battleship Warspite and the aircraft carrier Ark Royal in Norwegian waters . The ship provided cover during the evacuation of British and French troops from Namsos in early May and tied up to the French destroyer Bison to rescue survivors after the latter 's forward magazine had been hit by a bomb from a Junkers Ju 87 dive bomber and exploded on 3 May . Four men on Grenade were wounded by splinters from near misses during this time and she rescued 36 sailors , but twenty of them died of their wounds before the ship reached Scapa Flow on 5 May .
Grenade was then transferred to the English Channel and collided with the anti @-@ submarine trawler Clayton Wyke on 14 May in heavy fog . Her repairs were completed at Sheerness Dockyard on 25 May . During the initial stages of the evacuation from Dunkirk the ship provided cover in the northern part of the Channel to the evacuation forces and took part in the rescue of 33 survivors on 28 May from the coaster SS Abukir , which had been torpedoed by an E @-@ boat . She made one trip to Dunkirk during the night of 28 / 29 May and was caught in Dunkirk harbour by German Stukas during the following day . Grenade was hit by two bombs which set her afire and killed 14 sailors and mortally wounded another four men . The ship was cast off from her berth , in case she sank there , and then drifted into the harbour channel . The trawler John Cattling towed Grenade over to the west side of the outer harbour where her magazines exploded later that evening .
= Kenny McLean =
Kenneth " Kenny " McLean ( born 8 January 1992 ) is a Scottish professional footballer who plays for Aberdeen as a central midfielder or left midfielder .
After being released by Rangers ' youth team , McLean started his senior career at SPL club St Mirren . He went on loan to Second Division side Arbroath for the second half of the 2009 – 10 season , before returning to St Mirren and breaking into the first team . He moved to current club Aberdeen in 2015 .
He has represented Scotland at the under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 21 international levels .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
McLean was born in Rutherglen and attended Cathkin High School in Cambuslang . He played in Rangers ' youth squad when he was younger . After being released by them he joined St Mirren .
= = = Arbroath ( loan ) = = =
McLean moved on loan from St Mirren to Second Division club Arbroath in December 2009 . Arbroath signed McLean , along with Kilmarnock striker Daniel McKay , to cover for injuries . On 12 December , McLean made his debut for Arbroath in a 4 – 3 loss to Stirling Albion . Shortly after this match , Arbroath signed McLean 's St Mirren team mate Kyle Faulds on loan . On 10 April , McLean scored his only goal for Arbroath , a penalty kick in a 4 – 2 loss against Stirling Albion . He made a total of 23 appearances during the second half of the 2009 – 10 season . Arbroath were relegated to the Third Division at the end of the season , after losing to Forfar Athletic in the relegation play @-@ off . McLean has said that his loan spell at Arbroath helped him develop as a player and also to become more mature .
= = = St Mirren = = =
Eighteen @-@ year @-@ old McLean made his debut on 17 October 2010 , coming on as a substitute in a 2 – 2 draw against Hamilton . St Mirren were 2 – 0 down when he came on and their manager , Danny Lennon , thought that they were going to lose anyway so he would bring a youngster on . However , The Herald noted that McLean 's " drive and energy " lifted St Mirren and helped them to turn the game around and get a draw . Three days after his debut , McLean made his first start for St Mirren , in a 3 – 0 loss to Hearts . Later in the week he signed a three @-@ year contract extension , tying him to the club until 2014 . He then made his first home start , in a 1 – 0 loss to Celtic on 16 November . After this match he thanked his manager for having faith in him and also said that he was amazed by the fact that only six months before he was playing in the Second Division relegation play @-@ off , but was now playing against some of the best players in the country . He went on to make a total of 23 appearances during the 2010 – 11 season .
Sky Sports said that during the 2011 – 12 season McLean had begun to emerge as one of the top young talents in the SPL . His first game of the season was on 6 August , in a 1 – 1 draw against Dundee United , where he came on as an 80th @-@ minute substitute . His first start came a week later in a 1 – 0 loss to Motherwell . McLean then played regularly in the first team over the next few months and was in excellent form . He scored his first senior goal in a 1 – 0 win over St Johnstone on 29 October and was rewarded with the SPL Young Player of the Month award for October 2011 . After this , team @-@ mate Gary Teale said that he thought McLean was very similar to former Rangers and Scotland captain Barry Ferguson , and that he thought McLean would have a brilliant future in the game . In the weeks leading up to his award , McLean had been watched by English Championship clubs Burnley and Crystal Palace , with Celtic also reportedly interested in him . Lennon encouraged interest from other clubs , saying that he took it as a compliment to McLean 's development . But he also said that he would not consider selling McLean in the near future and expressed his delight at the fact that he had already signed McLean on a long @-@ term contract . On 19 November , McLean scored his second goal for St Mirren , in a 2 – 1 win over Dunfermline Athletic . He then scored St Mirren 's first goal , on 10 December , as they came from behind to secure a 2 – 2 draw against Aberdeen . McLean was one of the four players nominated for the SPL young Player of the Year Award . In January 2014 it was announced that McLean would be out @-@ of @-@ action for 6 weeks following knee surgery .
On 2 July 2014 it was announced that McLean had a signed a two @-@ year contract extension with the club , following much speculation that he would leave the club in the summer .
= = = Aberdeen = = =
McLean signed a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract with Aberdeen on 2 February 2015 , for a reported transfer fee of around £ 300 @,@ 000 . He made his debut for the club the following weekend in a league game against Ross County , which Aberdeen won 4 – 0 . On 16 July 2015 , McLean scored his first goal for Aberdeen in a 3 – 0 win away to HNK Rijeka in the second qualifying round first leg of the Europa League . McLean scored his first league goal for Aberdeen in a 1 – 0 win over Dundee United on the opening day of the 2015 – 16 season .
= = International career = =
McLean earned his first call @-@ up for Scotland under @-@ 19 squad in October 2010 , coming on as a 58th @-@ minute substitute in a 4 – 2 win over Norway .
In March 2011 , he was then called up to the under @-@ 21 team . Making his debut , again from the bench , as Scotland beat Belgium 1 – 0 . He was not selected for the Scotland under @-@ 21 team to play in a 2013 European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship qualification match against the Netherlands on 14 November 2011 . St Mirren manager Danny Lennon expressed his surprise at McLean being left out of the squad . The Herald said that this was understandable given that he was " among the on @-@ form midfielders of his age group " at the time .
McLean received his first call @-@ up to the senior Scotland squad in March 2016 , for a friendly against Czech Republic . McLean made his international debut in that game , playing 57 minutes .
= = Career statistics = =
As of 23 July 2016
= = Style of play = =
McLean 's favoured position is as a central midfielder , but he can also play as a left midfielder . He has said that he favours playing in the centre because he can get more of the ball and influence play more than when he is on the left . He is a naturally attacking player and when playing in the centre he makes runs to and beyond the striker which adds an extra dimension to his team 's play .
Former Scotland international , and McLean 's teammate at St Mirren , Gary Teale has compared him to Barry Ferguson . Teale said that McLean had shown incredible maturity at such a young age and that from their first training session together he could see McLean 's talent . McLean has an excellent first touch and is also very composed and assured on the ball . McLean also has very high energy , work rate and athleticism which enable him to make lots of attacking runs . McLean 's manager at St Mirren , Danny Lennon , said that he thought McLean was an excellent passer and that he could " open a tin of beans " with his left foot and was also decent with his right . Lennon also said that McLean was a rare type of Scottish player because he was always looking for a ' slide @-@ rule ' pass and he was actually capable of delivering them .
= Priscus ( general ) =
Priscus or Priskos ( Greek : Πρῖσκος ; died 613 ) was a leading East Roman ( Byzantine ) general during the reigns of the Byzantine emperors Maurice ( reigned 582 – 602 ) , Phocas ( r . 602 – 610 ) and Heraclius ( r . 610 – 641 ) . Priscus comes across as an effective and capable military leader , although the contemporary sources are markedly biased in his favour . Under Maurice , he distinguished himself in the campaigns against the Avars and their Slavic allies in the Balkans . Absent from the capital at the time of Maurice 's overthrow and murder by Phocas , he was one of the few of Maurice 's senior aides who were able to survive unharmed into the new regime , remaining in high office and even marrying the new emperor 's daughter . Priscus , however , also negotiated with and assisted Heraclius in the overthrow of Phocas , and was entrusted with command against the Persians in 611 – 612 . After the failure of this campaign , he was dismissed and tonsured . He died shortly after .
= = Biography = =
= = = Under Maurice = = =
Priscus first appears in the historical sources when he was appointed , in late 587 or early 588 , to command in the East against the Persians as magister militum per Orientem , replacing Philippicus . He only reached the East in spring , and assumed his new command at Monocarton in April . Priscus immediately ran into trouble with the soldiers : his haughty manner in refusing to mingle with them made him unpopular , and when a decree by Emperor Maurice which reduced army pay by a quarter was announced , the soldiers mutinied on Easter day , 18 April 588 . Priscus not only failed to restore order , but was himself attacked and forced to flee to Constantina , while the soldiers elected the dux of Phoenice , Germanus , as their leader . Priscus 's attempts from Constantina to calm the soldiers by employing the local bishops as mediators and rescinding the decree also failed . Philippicus was restored to command by Maurice , while Priscus returned to Constantinople .
Despite this debacle , in the same summer he was entrusted with the post of magister militum for Thrace , and tasked with campaigning against the Avars at the head of an improvised force . His deputy ( hypostrategos ) Salvianus with 1 @,@ 000 cavalry was sent to hold the passes of the Haemus Mountains , but after two days was forced by the Avars ' numerical superiority to withdraw . The Avars sacked the city of Anchialos , but an attempted siege of Drizipera was broken off and the Avars marched south , reaching Heraclea Perinthus and cutting Priscus 's forces off from Constantinople . Outflanked , Priscus retreated to Tzurullum , where he was besieged by the Avars . The 7th @-@ century historian Theophylact Simocatta reports that after a few days , Priscus devised a stratagem to force the Avars to withdraw : he allowed one of his guards to be captured , bearing a fake letter purportedly coming from Maurice that informed Priscus of a seaborne attack against the Avars ' homeland . The Avar khagan was persuaded that the letter was true and prepared to return home in haste ; he arranged for a truce in exchange for the renewed payment of an annual tribute . The 12th @-@ century history of Michael the Syrian gives this as 800 pounds of gold ( some 60 @,@ 000 solidi ) , a considerably reduced sum compared to the 100 @,@ 000 solidi agreed in 584 . The Avars departed for their country , while Priscus disbanded his army and returned to Constantinople . Priscus disappears for the next few years , as he fell into disfavour with Maurice . By 593 , he had recovered his position , as a letter by Pope Gregory the Great which congratulates him on returning to the emperor 's favour testifies . The Pope 's letter also testifies that by this time , Priscus had been given the Empire 's supreme honorary rank , that of patrikios .
In spring 593 , Priscus was re @-@ appointed in command as commander of the cavalry in Thrace , with Gentzon leading the infantry . Priscus , as the more senior of the two , also held overall command . Both generals marched to Dorostolon on the Danube , and campaigned with success against the Slavic tribes preparing to cross the river under their leaders Ardagastus and Musocius . Crossing the river , both Slavic hosts were annihilated in surprise night attacks . At the same time , however , Priscus reportedly quarrelled with his men over the distribution of the booty captured , and especially the considerable portion Priscus allocated to the imperial family . The soldiers were eventually placated , and the booty sent back to the capital with an escort . Maurice also sent orders for the army to winter north of the river , but this caused great resentment and unrest amongst the soldiers . Priscus chose to disobey the emperor 's order and crossed again with his army to winter in the southern bank . In the autumn of 593 , he was replaced by Maurice with his own brother Peter . Before the latter could assume command , however , Priscus arranged for a truce with the khagan , to whom he returned all Avar captives , some 5 @,@ 000 in number , a fact for which he was criticized by Maurice .
In late 594 , however , after Peter was heavily defeated by the Slavs , Priscus was again appointed to command as magister militum of Thrace , a post he proceeded to hold continuously for several years . In 595 , he marched up the Danube , crossing the river and marching along its northern bank to Novae , despite the khagan 's protests . There , he learned that Singidunum had been captured by the Avars . He sailed his army to the city and , after failed face @-@ to @-@ face negotiations with the khagan , sent the taxiarches Goduin to recapture it . The Avars , having razed the city 's walls , abandoned it at the approach of the Byzantine force . Next the Avars launched a raid against Dalmatia . Goduin was dispatched with 2 @,@ 000 men to shadow them . He managed to ambush the Avar detachment carrying their booty , recovered it and sent it to Priscus . After these events , the khagan turned west to campaign against the Bavarians and the Franks , leaving the Byzantine territories quiet for a period of a year and a half , until the summer of 597 . Nevertheless , Priscus and his army remained on watch along the Danube border .
When the Avars resumed their operations with a large invasion in autumn 597 , they appear to have caught Priscus , who was probably operating with his army at the eastern Stara Planina , off guard . They advanced quickly , and even managed to bottle up and besiege Priscus and his men at the port of Tomi , until the approach of a freshly raised army under Comentiolus forced them to abandon the siege on Easter day , 30 March 588 . Priscus , however , remained strangely inactive , and Comentiolus 's inexperienced army was routed in battle . The Avars then advanced south into Thrace , forcing Maurice to garrison the Anastasian Wall to prevent an attack on Constantinople . The Avar army , however , was decimated by a plague , and a treaty was quickly concluded , whereby the Avars retreated beyond the Danube in exchange for an increased annual tribute of 120 @,@ 000 solidi . The Byzantines used the time to regroup their forces , and in the summer of 599 , two armies under Priscus and Comentiolus headed west along the Danube . At Viminacium , Comentiolus fell ill and Priscus assumed sole command of the campaign . His army crossed the river , and fought three successive battles over ten days . These battles were won by the Byzantines , who , according to the account of Theophylact Simocatta , killed 28 @,@ 000 barbarians in total , including some of the sons of the khagan . Priscus pursued the fleeing khagan and invaded the Avar homeland in Pannonia . There , a fourth battle was fought near the river Tisza , which was also won by the Byzantines . On the very next day , Priscus dispatched a reconnaissance force across the river , which attacked three Gepid settlements by surprise . According to Simocatta , 30 @,@ 000 were killed and many were taken captive . Nineteen days later , another great battle was fought by the Tisza , which ended in a decisive Byzantine victory : the Avars and especially their Slavic allies suffered greatly , and Priscus took 3 @,@ 000 Avars , 8 @,@ 000 Slavs , and 6 @,@ 200 other barbarians captive , who were sent south as slaves . Maurice , who had not yet realized the extent of his army 's victory , ordered their release as a gesture of goodwill to the khagan . Nevertheless , Priscus 's campaign was a remarkable act of aggressive defence . In the words of Michael Whitby , the main modern expert on Maurice 's reign , it was " without parallel in the sixth century " for the Danube frontier , and which essentially decided the war for Byzantium .
After this success , which secured the Balkans , Maurice intended to consolidate Roman control by bringing in Armenian settlers who would be given land in exchange for military service . To this end , Priscus was sent to Armenia to recruit men and their families . His mission there , however , was interrupted by a large @-@ scale military revolt that brought about the downfall of Maurice . In 602 , Maurice again ordered his troops on the Danube frontier to winter north of the river . Again , this provoked widespread discontent , and when Peter , who had replaced Priscus , refused to bow down and rescind the order , an outright mutiny broke out . The army chose the officer Phocas as its new leader and marched down to Constantinople . Without any credible military forces of his own , Maurice had to flee , but was captured with his family and executed by Phocas , who now became emperor .
= = = Under Phocas = = =
Due to his absence from Constantinople at the time of Phocas 's takeover , and because he retained a large measure of support within the soldiery , Priscus was the only one of Maurice 's senior generals who was retained by the new regime , whereas Comentiolus and Peter were executed and Philippicus was banished to a monastery . A possible explanation for this comes from the later historian Paul the Deacon , who records , possibly based on early 7th @-@ century sources , that Phocas had once served as an equerry under Priscus . At any rate , Priscus was soon counted among the main supporters of the new regime . In the winter of 602 / 603 , he was made comes excubitorum , commander of the imperial bodyguard . In 606 or 607 , he also married Phocas 's daughter , Domentzia , becoming the effective heir @-@ apparent to the sonless ruler . In the games celebrated at the Hippodrome to honor the event , however , Phocas reacted violently when he saw portraits of Priscus and Domentzia carried alongside his by the citizens . From this moment on , the chroniclers report , Priscus turned against Phocas .
Phocas 's rule lacked legitimacy and quickly came to be resented by the populace and the elites of the Byzantine Empire . What prestige he had further eroded when the Persian shah Khosrau II ( r . 590 – 628 ) declared war , and when the Byzantine forces began to suffer their first defeats . According to a later tradition , Priscus sent a letter to the Exarch of Africa , Heraclius the Elder , urging him to revolt . This is probably a later invention , but if true , it would indicate the level of dissent even within Constantinople . Whatever the truth of the matter , in 608 Africa rose in revolt , and the Exarch 's son , Heraclius the Younger , was dispatched against Constantinople at the head of a fleet . Unopposed by Phocas 's forces , he landed at the suburb of Hebdomon on October 3 and marched to the capital , where pro @-@ Heraclian riots had broken out . At this juncture , Priscus pretended to be ill , and withdrew to his mansion at the Boraïdou quarter , where he assembled the excubitores and his own retainers ( bucellarii ) , thus depriving Phocas of his main source of armed support . He is also recorded by John of Nikiu to have safeguarded the women of Heraclius 's family from retribution by Phocas .
= = = Under Heraclius = = =
After Phocas 's fall , Heraclius became emperor of Byzantium . The Patriarch Nikephoros claims in his Short History that the crown was first offered to Priscus , who refused it . As commander of the excubitores , a protopatrikios ( first among the patrician order ) and one of the few senior and influential officials with ties to past regimes , Priscus represented a potential threat to Heraclius . Nevertheless , facing a critical situation in the East , where the Persians had overrun much territory and were raiding Anatolia , Heraclius appointed Priscus in command of the Anatolian army in the autumn of 611 . The Persian general Shahin captured Caesarea in Cappadocia , only to be blockaded and besieged there by Priscus . Heraclius himself decided to visit the army camp at Caesarea during winter , but Priscus refused to meet him , on the pretext of an illness . This snub alienated Heraclius from his general , and when Shahin and his army managed to break out and escape in summer , Priscus was recalled to Constantinople , ostensibly to become godfather to the Byzantine emperor 's son , Heraclius Constantine . At the capital , he was removed from his post as comes excubitorum , which went to Heraclius 's cousin Nicetas , while command in Anatolia went to the other surviving general of Maurice , Philippicus , brought out of retirement . Priscus was brought before the Byzantine Senate and accused by Heraclius of treason . In the end , he was tonsured as a monk on 5 December 612 and confined in the Monastery of the Chora , where he died in 613 .
= = Assessment = =
Priscus comes across as an able and versatile military leader . In many instances , his operations against the Slavs resemble the prescriptions of the most influential Byzantine military manual , the Strategikon , ascribed to Emperor Maurice . Despite his reputation as a strict disciplinarian and his aloof stance which led to the mutiny of 588 , in later campaigns he showed ability in dealing with the soldiers and calming their discontent . This cleverness was also employed against the Avar khagan . For instance , during the siege of Tomi in 598 , Priscus managed to persuade the Avars to supply the Byzantine army , which was in fact close to starvation , with grain . As the scholar Walter Kaegi comments , Priscus 's policy in defending the Danube frontier consisted in keeping the peace with the khagan " by sly negotiations " , allowing him focus his efforts against the Slavs raiding imperial territory .
The main Byzantine source for the period , Theophylact Simocatta , displays a marked bias in favour of Priscus , especially in its account of the Balkan campaigns , where the other generals are denigrated and made to appear incompetent , with their achievements regularly belittled while Priscus 's successes are extolled and his defeats glossed over . This may be due to the fact that for this period , Simocatta relied on a semi @-@ official " campaign log " compiled during the years of Emperor Phocas , when Priscus was pre @-@ eminent while most of his rivals were either executed or in exile .
= Charles Critchfield =
Charles Louis Critchfield ( June 7 , 1910 – February 12 , 1994 ) was an American mathematical physicist . A graduate of George Washington University , where he earned his PhD in Physics under the direction of Edward Teller in 1939 , he conducted research in ballistics at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton and the Ballistic Research Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground , and received three patents for improved sabot designs .
In 1943 , Teller and Robert Oppenheimer persuaded Critchfield to come to the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos National Laboratory , where he joined the Ordnance Division under Captain William Parsons on the gun @-@ type fission weapons , Little Boy and Thin Man . After it was discovered that the Thin Man design would not work , he was transferred to Robert Bacher 's Gadget Division as the leader of the Initiator group , which was responsible for the design and testing of the " Urchin " neutron initiator that provided the burst of neutrons that kick @-@ started the nuclear detonation of the Fat Man weapon .
After the war he became a professor at the University of Minnesota , and then vice president for research at the Convair division of General Dynamics , where he worked on the Atlas family of rockets . In 1961 , J. Carson Mark and Norris Bradbury offered him a position at Los Alamos , which he held until he retired in 1977 .
= = Early life = =
Charles Louis Critchfield was born in Shreve , Ohio , on June 7 , 1910 , and grew up in Washington , D.C. He received his B.S. ( 1934 ) and M.A. ( 1936 ) degrees in Mathematics from George Washington University , where he also earned a PhD in Physics ( 1939 ) under the direction of Edward Teller .
During Critchfield 's graduate studies , Teller 's colleague George Gamow introduced him to Hans Bethe , with whom he wrote a paper in 1938 , which analyzed the nuclear fusion of protons into deuterons . The next year , Bethe showed that this process is a key link in the proton @-@ proton chain reaction and the CNO cycle , which are the major ways that nuclear energy is released in the solar core and in massive stars . In 1967 , Bethe was awarded the Nobel Prize for this work on stellar nucleosynthesis .
= = World War II = =
After he graduated , Critchfield taught optics for a year at the University of Rochester at the invitation of Victor Weisskopf . In 1940 , he was awarded a National Research Council fellowship , and went to work under Eugene Wigner at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton . At this time , Robert Kent had just recruited John von Neumann to the advisory board of the Ballistic Research Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground . Critchfield joined von Neumann and Wigner there on several visits .
In 1942 , after a brief stay at Harvard University , Critchfield went to the Carnegie Institution of Washington , where he continued his ballistic studies , which resulted in three patents for improved sabot designs . Because of his experience with ballistics , Teller and Robert Oppenheimer persuaded Critchfield to come to the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1943 , where he joined the Ordnance Division under Captain William Parsons . As leader of the target , projectile , and source group , he worked on the gun @-@ type fission weapons , Little Boy and Thin Man .
In April 1944 , the Manhattan Project experienced a crisis when Emilio Segrè discovered that plutonium made in nuclear reactors would not work in Thin Man . In response , Oppenheimer completely reorganized the laboratory to focus on development of an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon in August . He reassigned Critchfield to a new Gadget Division under Robert Bacher , as the leader of the Initiator group . This group was responsible for the design and testing of the " Urchin " neutron initiator , which provided a burst of neutrons that kick @-@ started the nuclear detonation of the Fat Man weapon .
= = Postwar = =
Critchfield left Los Alamos in 1946 and returned to George Washington University , but soon left to join Wigner at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory . In 1947 he became an assistant professor at the University of Minnesota , where he participated , with Edward P. Ney and John R. Winckler , in a classified project to improve balloon technology . Here , with Leland S. Bohl , he invented and patented the natural shape balloon , and participated , with Ney and his student Sophie Oleksa , in an early search for primary cosmic ray electrons .
In 1955 , after advancing to full professor at Minnesota , Critchfield became vice president for research at the Convair division of General Dynamics . Here , he worked on the Atlas family of rockets , which began as a series of ICBMs and evolved into launch vehicles for Project Mercury and many other space missions . He also created the Convair Scientific Research Laboratory whose staff were expected to serve as consultants for the company 's engineering divisions and to carry out basic scientific research . In 1957 , Critchfield 's student William C. Erickson joined the staff , and created the Clark Lake Radio Observatory . In 1963 , this facility , where observations focused on long wavelength radio waves , was transferred to the University of Maryland , where Erickson had become a professor . Although the original observatory has been abandoned , similar research continues at the much larger Long Wavelength Array in central New Mexico .
= = Later life = =
In early November 1959 , President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's Secretary of Defense Neil H. McElroy selected Critchfield to be head of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency . McElroy hoped that Critchfield would be able to fix the nation 's trouble missile program , but Critchfield was reluctant to serve at the director 's $ 19 @,@ 000 salary . McElroy then offered to let Critchfield serve without pay , with the government paying only his expenses of $ 15 per day , while allowing Critchfield to continue to draw his Convair salary of around $ 40 @,@ 000 . Critchfield accepted this offer , but ran into a storm of political and media criticism over the conflict of interest involved in heading an agency that did $ 4 million worth of business with Convair each year . Critchfield then withdrew his name from consideration .
In 1961 , Critchfield accepted a professorship at the University of Wisconsin , but before he moved to Madison , his friends at Los Alamos , J. Carson Mark and Norris Bradbury offered him a position there that he took instead . He held this position until he retired in 1977 , but he continued his association with the laboratory until his death after a long battle with cancer on February 12 , 1994 . His obituary in Physics Today was written by Carson Mark , Louis Rosen , Edward Teller , and Roger Meade .
Charles Critchfield is buried next to his wife , Jean , in Guaje Pines Cemetery in Los Alamos County , New Mexico .
= = External Links = =
1993 Audio Interview with Charles Critchfield by Richard Rhodes Voices of the Manhattan Project
= Biogenesis ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Biogenesis " is the twenty @-@ second episode and the sixth season finale of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States and Canada on May 16 , 1999 on the Fox Network , and aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on July 25 , 1999 on Sky1 . It was written by executive producers Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz , and directed by Rob Bowman . " Biogenesis " earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 4 , being watched by 15 @.@ 86 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a bizarre rock inscribed with Navajo writing found in Côte d 'Ivoire , and the death of the African scientist involved . While its appearance in Washington begins to affect Mulder ’ s mental health , leading him to turn to Agent Fowley for help ; a disturbed Scully — determined to disprove the theory that life on Earth began with aliens — heads to New Mexico and finds a dying Albert Hosteen — who has discovered that the rock includes passages from the Bible , and a map of the human genome . While Mulder breaks down in a mental institution , Scully journeys unexpectedly to Africa .
" Biogenesis " was a story milestone for the series , along with " The Sixth Extinction " and " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati , " and introduced new aspects to the series ' overarching mythology . The episode was written due to series creator Chris Carter 's fascination with the possibility that extraterrestrials were involved in the great extinctions that had happened millions of years ago .
= = Plot = =
On a beach in Côte d 'Ivoire , a metallic artifact with inscriptions is discovered by Solomon Merkmallen , a biology professor . When he takes it to his office and places it together with a similar artifact , the two suddenly fuse and fly across the room , becoming embedded in a Bible . Merkmallen then travels to the United States to meet with Steven Sandoz , an American University biologist who has a third artifact . However , he is murdered by a man posing as Sandoz ; when the real Sandoz finds the body , he flees .
Walter Skinner assigns Fox Mulder and Dana Scully to investigate Sandoz 's disappearance , giving them a rubbing of Merkmallen 's artifact . Mulder tells Skinner that both Merkmallen and Sandoz espoused panspermia , a theory suggesting an extraterrestrial origin to life on Earth . Mulder begins suffering from a headache and is unable to hear Scully speak , a condition seemingly caused by the rubbing . At the university , the agents meet Dr. Barnes — the man who posed as Sandoz — who professes disbelief in his theories . Mulder 's condition worsens , but he refuses to go to the hospital and , due to seeming telepathic abilities , realizes that Barnes murdered Merkmallen . Later , in Mulder 's office , Chuck Burks tells them that the symbols on the artifact are from Navajo .
In Sandoz 's apartment , Mulder and Scully find a picture of him with Albert Hosteen ; they also find Merkmallen 's dismembered body in a trash bag . The agents report to Skinner , with Mulder believing that Sandoz is being framed and that the artifact emits galactic radiation . He also seems to know that someone else is involved on the case , but Skinner remains silent . However , after the agents leave , Skinner hands a video tape of their conversation to Alex Krycek , who later provides it to Barnes . Scully travels to New Mexico and discovers that Hosteen is dying of cancer ; Scully runs into Sandoz and corners him . Sandoz claims that Albert was helping him translate the artifacts , which had included passages from the Bible . Meanwhile , Mulder goes to the university to tail Barnes , but is overcome by his headache and passes out in the stairwell .
Scully contacts Mulder , who is now resting at home . He believes that the artifact proves that humanity was created by aliens . Diana Fowley , who is with Mulder , contacts the Cigarette Smoking Man . A healing ceremony is held for Albert , but Scully is forced to leave when Skinner contacts her , telling her Mulder is in the hospital . Mulder is being held in a padded cell and is displaying abnormal brain activity . Scully , after learning that Skinner knows about their earlier conversation with Burks , calls him and Fowley liars and leaves . Scully is about to find a surveillance camera in the X @-@ Files office when she is called by Sandoz telling her that the artifact contains information on human genetics . Sandoz is killed by Krycek shortly afterwards . Scully then heads to the West African Coast where she discovers that the artifact is part of a large spacecraft partially buried in the beach .
= = Production = =
The episode started a new mythology for the series questioning the origin of human life . Series creator Chris Carter claimed to be interested in the subject for a while , citing the possibility of extraterrestrial involvement in great extinctions that had happened millions of years ago . Carter claimed that early in the show he had met with a man
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Keen likewise did not consider Las Casas to have had any substantial impact on the slave trade , which was well in place before he began writing . This view is contradicted by Sylvia Wynter , who argued that Las Casas 's 1516 Memorial was the direct cause of Charles V granting permission in 1518 to transport the first 4 @,@ 000 African slaves to Jamaica .
Revisionist histories of the late 20th century have argued in favor of a more nuanced image of Las Casas , suggesting that he was neither a saint nor a fanatic , but a person with exceptional willpower and a sense of justice , which sometimes led him into arrogance , stubbornness and hypocrisy . Some historians such as ( Castro 2007 ) argue that he was more of a politician than a humanitarian , and that his liberation policies were always combined with schemes to make colonial extraction of resources from the natives more efficient . He also argues that Las Casas failed to realize that by seeking to replace indigenous spirituality with Christianity , he was undertaking a religious colonialism that was more intrusive than the physical one . This critique has been rejected by other historians as facile and anachronistic .
= = = Cultural legacy = = =
In 1848 , Ciudad de San Cristóbal , the capital of the Mexican state of Chiapas , was renamed San Cristóbal de Las Casas , in honor of its first bishop . His work is a particular inspiration behind the work of the Las Casas Institute at Blackfriars Hall , Oxford . He is also often cited as a predecessor of the liberation theology movement . He is commemorated by the Church of England in the Calendar of Saints on July 20 and at the Evangelical Lutheran Church on July 17 . In the Catholic Church , the Dominicans introduced his cause for canonization in 1976 . In 2000 the Church began the process for his beatification .
Bartolomé de Las Casas has also come to be seen as an early advocate for a concept of universal human rights . He was among the first to develop a view of unity among humankind , stating that " All people of the world are humans , " and that they had a natural right to liberty – a combination of Thomist rights philosophy with Augustinian political theology . In this capacity , an ecumenical human rights institute located in San Cristóbal de las Casas , the Centro Fray Bartolomé de las Casas de Derechos Humanos , was established by Bishop Samuel Ruiz in 1989 .
He is also featured in the Guatemalan quetzal one cent ( Q0.01 ) coins .
The small town of Lascassas , Tennessee , in the United States has also been named after him .
He is a central character in the H.R. Hays historical novel The Takers of the City , published in 1946 .
= Stan Marsh =
Stanley " Stan " Marsh is a main character in the animated television series South Park . He is voiced by and loosely based on series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . Stan is one of the show 's four central characters , along with his friends Kyle Broflovski , Kenny McCormick and Eric Cartman . He debuted on television when South Park first aired on August 13 , 1997 , after having first appeared in The Spirit of Christmas shorts created by Parker and long @-@ time collaborator Matt Stone in 1992 ( Jesus vs. Frosty ) and 1995 ( Jesus vs. Santa ) .
Stan is a third , then fourth @-@ grade student who commonly has extraordinary experiences not typical of conventional small @-@ town life in his fictional hometown of South Park , Colorado . Stan is generally depicted as friendly , knowledgeable , helpful , and relaxed . He often shares with his best friend Kyle a leadership role as the protagonist of the show . Stan is unreserved in expressing his distinct lack of esteem for adults and their influences , as adult South Park residents rarely make use of their critical faculties .
Like the other South Park characters , Stan is animated by computer in a way to emulate the show 's original method of cutout animation . He also appears in the full @-@ length feature film South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut ( 1999 ) , as well as South Park @-@ related media and merchandise . While Parker and Stone portray Stan as having common childlike tendencies , his dialogue is often intended to reflect stances and views on more adult @-@ oriented issues and has been frequently cited in numerous publications by experts in the fields of politics , religion , popular culture , and philosophy .
= = Role = =
Stan lives in South Park at 2001 Bonanza Street with his parents Randy and Sharon Marsh . Randy is a geologist , and Sharon is a secretary at a rhinoplasty clinic . Stan 's family includes his 12 @-@ year @-@ old sister Shelley , who bullies and beats him , and his centenarian grandfather , Marvin , who calls Stan " Billy " and who previously begged Stan to help him commit suicide . Stan attends South Park Elementary as part of Mr. Garrison 's fourth grade class . During the show 's first 58 episodes ( 1997 through the season 4 episode " 4th Grade " in 2000 ) , Stan and the other main child characters were in the third grade . His birthday is listed as October 19 ( the same day as co @-@ creator Trey Parker ) , 2001 on his Facebook page during the season 14 episode " You Have 0 Friends " . Stan is frequently embarrassed and / or annoyed by his father 's antics and frequent acts of public drunkenness . Stan 's relationship as nephew to his uncle Jimbo received moderate attention in the show 's first two seasons .
Amongst the show 's main characters , Kyle is defined as being the only Jewish kid , Cartman is recognized by his obesity , greed , and bigotry , and Kenny is notable for being poor and frequently dying ; as opposed to having a prominent distinguishing trait , Stan is portrayed ( in words of the show 's official website ) as " a normal , average , American , mixed @-@ up kid " .
Stan is modeled after Parker , while Kyle is modeled after Stone . Stan and Kyle are best friends , and their relationship , which is intended to reflect the real @-@ life friendship between Parker and Stone , is a common topic throughout the series . The two do have their disagreements , but always reconcile without any long @-@ term damage to their friendship . As is the case with his other friends and classmates , Stan is frequently at odds with Cartman , resenting Cartman 's behavior and openly mocking his weight . Stan also shares a close friendship with Kenny , while Kenny professes that Stan is one of " the best friends a guy could have " . Stan can understand Kenny 's muffled voice perfectly , and typically exclaims the catchphrase " Oh my God ! They killed Kenny ! " , following one of Kenny 's trademark deaths , allowing Kyle to follow up with " You bastards ! " Stan is the only character in the group to have had a steady girlfriend , Wendy Testaburger , and their relationship was a recurring topic in the show 's earlier seasons . Despite reconciling and declaring to be a couple again in the season 11 ( 2007 ) episode " The List " after Wendy had dumped him in the season seven ( 2003 ) episode " Raisins " , their relationship has received relatively less focus in recent seasons . As a running gag , a nervous Stan often vomits whenever Wendy approaches to kiss or speak to him . In many episodes , Stan contemplates ethics in beliefs , moral dilemmas , and contentious issues , and will often reflect on the lessons he has attained with a speech that often begins with " You know , I learned something today ... " .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation and design = = =
An unnamed precursor to Stan first appeared in the first The Spirit of Christmas short , dubbed Jesus vs. Frosty , created by Parker and Stone in 1992 while they were students at the University of Colorado . The character was composed of construction paper cutouts and animated through the use of stop motion . When asked three years later by friend Brian Graden to create another short as a video Christmas card that he could send to friends , Parker and Stone created another similarly @-@ animated The Spirit of Christmas short , dubbed Jesus vs. Santa , in which Stan also appeared . Stan next appeared on August 13 , 1997 , when South Park debuted on Comedy Central with the episode " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " .
In the tradition of the show 's animation style , Stan is composed of simple geometrical shapes and primary colors . He is not offered the same free range of motion associated with hand @-@ drawn characters ; his character is mostly shown from only one angle , and his movements are animated in an intentionally jerky fashion . Ever since the show 's second episode , " Weight Gain 4000 " ( season one , 1997 ) , Stan , like all other characters on the show , has been animated with computer software , though he is portrayed to give the impression that the show still utilizes its original technique .
Stan is usually depicted in winter attire which consists of a brown jacket , blue denim jeans , red gloves / mittens , and a red @-@ brimmed blue knit cap adorned with a decorative red pom @-@ pom . In the rare instances Stan is seen without his cap , he is shown to have shaggy black hair . He was given his full name in the season one episode " An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig " , sharing his surname of " Marsh " with Parker 's paternal step @-@ grandfather . While originally voicing Stan without any computer manipulation , Parker now speaks within his normal vocal range while adding a childlike inflection . The recorded audio is then edited with Pro Tools , and the pitch is altered to make the voice sound more like that of a fourth grader .
Stan 's birthday is October 19 , which is Trey Parker 's birthday , except Stan 's year of birth is 1987 .
= = = Personality and traits = = =
Stan is foul @-@ mouthed ( a trait present in his friends as well ) as a means for Parker and Stone to display how they claim young boys really talk when they are alone . In responding to certain situations , particularly during earlier seasons , Stan often exclaims " Dude , this is pretty fucked up right here " . While Stan is cynical and profane , Parker still notes that there is an " underlying sweetness " to the character , and Time magazine described Stan and his friends as " sometimes cruel but with a core of innocence " . He is amused by bodily functions and toilet humor , and his favorite television personalities are Terrance and Phillip , a Canadian duo whose comedy routines on their show @-@ within @-@ the @-@ show revolve substantially around fart jokes .
Stan is an avid animal lover . He is highly against his uncle Jimbo 's hunting , and was also known to commit to vegetarianism after feeling compassion for baby calves in a farm , even going as far to hide them in his room to protect them from being slaughtered . Later , he was forced to quit vegetarianism because of a severe illness he developed , however , he still fights for animal rights , becoming a member of PETA in " Douche and Turd " as well as saving whales and dolphins in " Whale Whores " .
The only adult on the show that Stan consistently trusted was Chef , the cafeteria worker at his school , as Stan generally holds the rest of the show 's adult population in low regard due to their tendency to both behave irrationally when subjected to the scams , cults , and sensationalized media stories of which he is often skeptical , and engage in hypocritical behavior . He doubts the legitimacy of holistic medicine , declares cults to be dangerous , and regards those claiming to be psychic mediums as frauds , specifically by declaring John Edward to be " the biggest douche in the universe " .
After turning ten years old , Stan was diagnosed with cynicism , which in the series is treated as a serious medical disorder where the sufferer sees nothing but feces instead of people and animals and hear Flatulence noises during music and voices . Stan 's friendships with the other main characters ended , his parents divorced and he moved out of his home . This episode formed a cliffhanger and set off widespread speculation that the series was coming to an end , but the premiere of the second half of the season resolved the arc as Stan was erroneously diagnosed with Asperger 's Syndrome and discovers Jameson Irish Whiskey cures cynicism . After struggling to repair his life , he finally explains he doesn 't want things to go back to normal , when his parents get back together and his life is repaired , although the end of the episode implies Stan may be permanently bound to whiskey to continue an everyday life .
= = Cultural impact = =
In 2014 , Stan was ranked by IGN at third place on their list of " The Top 25 South Park Characters " , commenting that he " often acts as the voice of reason in the midst of the show 's insane events , and in many ways he 's more mature than his father Randy . " The website concluded that " his history as one of the more stable and thoughtful characters in the series made him the perfect choice for the voice of Trey and Matt 's own creative / professional frustrations . "
Stan frequently offers his perspective on religion , and he was at the center of one of the most controversial episodes of the series , " Trapped in the Closet " ( season nine , 2005 ) , where he was recognized as the reincarnation of Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard before denouncing the church as nothing more than " a big fat global scam " .
In the show 's nineteen seasons , Stan has addressed other topics such as homosexuality , hate crime legislation , civil liberties , parenting , illegal immigration , voting , alcoholism , and race relations . His commentary on these issues have been interpreted as statements Parker and Stone are attempting to make to the viewing public , and these opinions have been subject to much critical analysis in the media and literary world . The book South Park and Philosophy : You Know , I Learned Something Today includes an essay in which East Carolina University philosophy professor Henry Jacoby compares Stan 's actions and reasoning within the show to the philosophical teachings of William Kingdon Clifford , and another essay by Southern Illinois University philosophy professor John S. Gray which references Stan 's decision to not vote for either candidate for a school mascot in the season eight ( 2004 ) episode " Douche and Turd " when describing political philosophy and the claimed pitfalls of a two @-@ party system . Essays in the books South Park and Philosophy : Bigger , Longer , and More Penetrating , Blame Canada ! South Park and Contemporary Culture , and Taking South Park Seriously have also analyzed Stan 's perspectives within the framework of popular philosophical , theological , and political concepts .
= Russian battleship Sinop =
The Russian battleship Sinop ( Russian : Синоп ) was a battleship built for the Imperial Russian Navy , being the third ship of the Ekaterina II class . She was named after the Russian victory at the Battle of Sinop in 1853 . The ship participated in the pursuit of the mutinous battleship Potemkin in June 1905 and towed her back to Sevastopol from Constanța , Romania , where Potemkin had sought asylum . Several proposals were made for Sinop 's reconstruction with modern guns and better quality armor during the 1900s , but both were cancelled . She was converted to a gunnery training ship in 1910 before she became a guardship at Sevastopol and had her 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns removed in exchange for four single 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns in turrets . Sinop was refitted in 1916 with torpedo bulges to act as " mine @-@ bumpers " for a proposed operation in the heavily mined Bosphorus . Both the Bolsheviks and the Whites captured her during the Russian Civil War after her engines were destroyed by the British in 1919 . She was scrapped by the Soviets beginning in 1922 .
= = Design and development = =
Sinop was 331 feet 8 @.@ 5 inches ( 101 @.@ 1 m ) long at the waterline and 339 feet 3 inches ( 103 @.@ 4 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 68 feet 11 inches ( 21 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 28 ft 3 in ( 8 @.@ 6 m ) more than 28 inches ( 711 mm ) than designed . Her displacement was 11 @,@ 310 long tons ( 11 @,@ 490 t ) at load , over 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 200 t ) more than her designed displacement of 10 @,@ 181 long tons ( 10 @,@ 344 t ) .
Sinop was the first large warship to use vertical triple expansion steam engines , having two 3 @-@ cylinder engines imported from Napier & Son of the United Kingdom . Fourteen cylindrical boilers provided steam to the engines . The engines had a total designed output of 9 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 711 kW ) , but they only produced 8 @,@ 888 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 628 kW ) on trials and gave a top speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . At full load she carried 900 long tons ( 910 t ) of coal that provided her a range of 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and 1 @,@ 367 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 532 km ; 1 @,@ 573 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) .
She differed from her sisters mainly in the design of her gun mounts . Sinop had six 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Obukhov Model 1877 30 @-@ caliber guns mounted in twin barbette mounts , two forward , side by side , and one aft . Each of the forward mounts could traverse 30 ° across the bow and 35 ° abaft the beam , or a total of 155 ° . The rear mount could traverse 202 ° . Their rate of fire was one round every four minutes , thirty @-@ five seconds , including training time . Sixty rounds per gun were carried . The main guns were mounted very low , ( only 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) ) above the main deck , and caused extensive damage to the deck when fired over the bow or stern . The seven 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Model 1877 35 @-@ caliber guns were mounted on broadside pivot mounts in hull embrasures , except for one gun mounted in the stern in the hull . Six of the eight 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) five @-@ barreled revolving Hotchkiss guns were mounted in small sponsons that projected from the hull with the aftermost pair mounted in hull embrasures to defend the ship against torpedo boats . Four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) five @-@ barreled revolving Hotchkiss guns were mounted in the fighting top . She carried seven above @-@ water 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , one tube forward on each side , able to bear on forward targets , two other tubes were mounted on each broadside fore and aft of the central citadel ; the seventh tube was in the stern .
= = History = =
Sinop was named after the Russian victory in the Battle of Sinop in 1853 . She was built by the Russian Steam Navigation Company ( RoPIT ) at Sevastopol . She was laid down in late June 1883 , launched on 1 June 1887 , and completed in 1889 . Sinop began her trials in the middle of 1889 and she had a boiler accident the following year that killed eight and severely burned 10 more . Her machinery was upgraded between 1899 and May 1904 with 20 new Belleville water @-@ tube boilers , but the ship suffered a boiler explosion in 1903 that left seven sailors badly burned . Plans for a radical reconstruction were made to be done while she was docked for replacement boilers . It involved cutting her down by one deck and replacing her armament with two twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ caliber guns and ten 6 @-@ inch 45 @-@ caliber guns between the turrets in an armored citadel that used Krupp armor . However , this proved to be too expensive and was cancelled .
Sinop participated in the pursuit of the mutinous battleship Potemkin in June 1905 and towed her back to Sevastopol from Constanța , Romania . In 1907 the Naval General Staff made a proposal for a radical reconstruction that was similar to the proposals to reconstruct her and her sister Chesma made before the Russo @-@ Japanese War . This involved cutting her down by one deck and replacing her armament with two twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ caliber guns and her compound armor replaced by Krupp armor . This new proposal differed from the older one in that eight 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns replaced the ten 6 @-@ inch guns originally planned . This was also rejected as she still would have lacked the speed to stay with the main fleet and her armor was too obsolete to withstand modern high @-@ explosive shell fire .
She was converted to a gunnery training ship in 1910 and had four 6 @-@ inch 45 @-@ caliber guns installed on her upper deck . Sinop 's 12 @-@ inch guns were removed in 1912 and she received four single 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber guns in turrets that were also mounted on the upper deck . The ship 's original 6 @-@ inch 35 @-@ caliber guns were replaced with 45 @-@ caliber guns and two more were added in the Admiral 's salon . Four more 47 @-@ mm guns were also added as were four machine guns . Her torpedo tubes were removed and Sinop also received a central fire control station . She spent World War I as a guardship at Sevastopol .
Sinop was refitted in Nikolaev with torpedo bulges to serve as ' mine @-@ bumpers ' in 1916 to allow her to lead other ships into the mined waters of the Bosphorus , but the operation was later cancelled . She was captured by the Germans in April 1918 in Sevastopol and was handed over to the Allies in November 1918 . The British sabotaged her engines on 25 April 1919 as they abandoned the Whites to prevent any use by the advancing Bolsheviks . Sinop therefore remained at Sevastopol for the duration of the Russian Civil War , being captured by both sides as they occupied the city in turn , but was then abandoned by Wrangel 's fleet when it evacuated the Crimea in 1920 . Although Russian archives say that Sinop was gradually scrapped from 1922 , an underwater expedition under the leadership of Robert Ballard found a wreck that has been tentatively identified as Sinop upside down off not far from Sevastopol .
= Francis White ( Virginia ) =
Francis White ( 1761 – October 6 , 1826 ) was a distinguished early American lawyer and politician in what was then the U.S. state of Virginia ( now West Virginia ) .
White served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates , representing Hampshire County , and later served as a member of the Virginia State Senate , representing Berkeley , Hampshire , Hardy , and Morgan counties . He represented Virginia 's 2nd congressional district in the United States House of Representatives during the 13th United States Congress . White also served as the sheriff of Hampshire County .
White was the grandson of Virginia pioneer settler and physician Dr. Robert White ( 1688 – 1752 ) ; thus , he was a member of the prominent White political family of Virginia and West Virginia . He was the nephew of United States House Representative Alexander White ( 1738 – 1804 ) , and the brother of Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) .
= = Early life = =
Francis White was born in 1761 at Hayfield , near Winchester in Frederick County , Colony of Virginia . White was the son of John White and his wife , Ann Patton White . Through his grandfather , Dr. Robert White ( 1688 – 1752 ) , Francis White was of Scottish descent . His uncle was Alexander White ( 1738 – 1804 ) , an inaugural member of the United States House of Representatives .
White attended the common schools in Winchester . Following his education , White engaged in agricultural pursuits along the Cacapon and North rivers in Hampshire County , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) . By 1813 , White was operating a gristmill and a sawmill on his Hampshire County property .
= = Political career = =
= = = Virginia House of Delegates = = =
White was elected to represent the multi @-@ member electoral district of Hampshire County in the Virginia House of Delegates for three terms : 1794 , 1809 to 1813 , and 1818 to 1823 . In his 1794 term , White served alongside Isaac Parsons ; from 1809 to 1813 , he served alongside Alexander King , from 1818 to 1823 , White served alongside William Armstrong , Jr . , Ephraim Dunn , and Edward McCarty .
During the 1809 election for Hampshire County 's two seats in the Virginia House of Delegates , White ran against fellow Federalist Alexander King , and Democratic @-@ Republicans William Donaldson and Jonathan Pugh . King received the most votes at 312 , and White came in second with 288 votes , thus qualifying him for a seat . White ran for reelection in 1811 against Alexander King , William Armstrong , and Jonathan Pugh . White and King received the two highest vote totals , with White receiving 313 votes . White was reelected to his seat in 1812 , with 336 votes .
Following his election along with Ephraim Dunn in 1821 , White returned to the Virginia House of Delegates , representing Hampshire County . In the 1822 election , White ran for election against Ephraim Dunn and George Park , with Dunn and White winning Hampshire County 's two seats in the Virginia House of Delegates . White received the most votes , with 276 .
In 1795 , while serving in the Virginia House of Delegates , White was either elected or appointed to serve as a justice of the peace in Hampshire County , along with Alexander King , William Vause , John Jack , Virgil McCrackin , and John Snyder .
= = = United States House of Representatives = = =
White was elected unopposed as a Federalist representing Virginia 's 2nd congressional district in the United States House of Representatives during the 13th United States Congress ( March 4 , 1813 – March 3 , 1815 ) . White 's election in 1813 occurred during an ascendancy of the Federalist Party throughout Virginia .
White served on the United States House Committee on the District of Columbia . According to GovTrack , from May 1813 to March 1815 , White missed 56 of 352 roll call votes ( 15 @.@ 9 % ) . White resided at the Law 's Ten Buildings boarding house of Mrs. Lane on New Jersey Avenue in Washington , D.C. during the May 24 – August 2 , 1813 session and the December 6 , 1813 – April 18 , 1814 session .
White ran for reelection in 1815 , but he lost to fellow Federalist Magnus Tate with 420 votes ( 36 @.@ 65 percent of the vote ) , while Tate had 726 .
= = = Virginia State Senate = = =
Following his term in the United States House of Representative , White continued to operate his farms on the Cacapon and North rivers . In 1823 , White was elected as a member of the Virginia State Senate , defeating opponent candidate Ignatius O 'Ferrall . White held the seat until 1824 . White 's seat in the Virginia State Senate represented District 6 , which consisted of Berkeley , Hampshire , Hardy , and Morgan counties .
While serving in the Virginia State Senate , White was appointed sheriff of Hampshire County on December 9 , 1823 , by Virginia Governor James Pleasants . On Thursday , January 1 , 1824 , White informed the Virginia State Senate of his appointment to the position of Hampshire County sheriff , and he asked for an opinion as to whether he could retain his senate seat while serving as sheriff . White 's inquiry was referred to the senate 's Committee of Privileges and Elections for " consideration and a report of their opinion thereupon to the House . " The following day , on Friday , January 2 , 1824 , the Committee of Privileges and Elections delivered their opinion : White should vacate his senate seat upon his acceptance of the position of Hampshire County sheriff , and the sheriffs of the senate district 's four counties were directed to hold a special election to " supply the vacancy occasioned . " On Tuesday , February 3 , 1824 , the Virginia State Senate certified the election of Elisha Boyd to fill White 's senate seat .
= = Later life and death = =
White continued to serve as Hampshire County 's sheriff until his death . White died on October 6 , 1826 , at his residence on the Cacapon River in Hampshire County . He was interred at the White Family Graveyard at Hayfield in Frederick County , Virginia .
= = Personal life and family = =
White married his first cousin , Margaret White , in Frederick County on December 5 , 1787 . Margaret White was the daughter of White 's uncle , Robert White II . White and his wife had at large family , with at least six children :
Robert Norvell White , married Matilda McBride , daughter of John McBride
Thomas B. White
John A. White
Francis White , Jr . ( 1799 – September 8 , 1868 )
Unnamed daughter , married to a Mr. Keyes
Mary M. White McDonald ( 1811 – February 7 , 1839 ) , married Evan McDonald , son of Benjamin and Margaret Hiett McDonald
= = Land ownership = =
White amassed extensive landholdings in Hampshire County . In 1797 , White purchased 233 acres ( 0 @.@ 94 km2 ) along the North River in Hampshire County from Henry and Rachael Pierce of Cecil County , Maryland . White purchased an additional 20 acres ( 0 @.@ 081 km2 ) along the North River in 1800 . At the time of his election to the United States House of Representatives , White was a resident of Romney .
= 2008 – 09 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team =
The 2008 – 09 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team represented the University of Michigan in competitive college basketball during the 2008 – 09 NCAA Division I season . The 2008 – 09 season marked the team 's ninety @-@ second consecutive season as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's ( NCAA ) Big Ten Conference . The team finished the season with a 21 – 14 overall record and a 9 – 9 conference record . The 9 – 9 conference record tied for seventh place in the 2008 – 09 Big Ten conference standings . Michigan was seeded seventh in the single @-@ elimination 2009 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament where it advanced one round . They were seeded tenth in the South Regional bracket of the single @-@ elimination 2009 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , where it also advanced one round before losing to the Blake Griffin @-@ led Oklahoma Sooners . C.J. Lee and David Merritt served as team co @-@ captains , and Manny Harris and DeShawn Sims shared team MVP honors .
The 2008 – 09 season marked a turnaround for the team for several reasons . The team rebounded from a 10 – 22 overall record and a 5 – 13 conference record during the previous 2007 – 08 season . The season was highlighted by the team 's first two wins in eleven years against teams ranked among the top five in the AP Poll , and by the team 's first trip to the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament since the 1998 Tournament . Although the team had appeared in the 1998 NCAA tournament , the last appearance in the NCAA tournament that had been recognized in official NCAA records as not having been tainted by the University of Michigan basketball scandal was their 1995 Tournament appearance . The team was in its first year off scholarship probation , which following the scandal had restricted the number of available scholarships . However , the team continued to be prohibited from affiliating with implicated athletes ( Chris Webber , Robert Traylor , Maurice Taylor , and Louis Bullock ) until 2012 , which meant , among other things , that the players could not help the University recruit . The team began the season unranked , but in December 2008 it earned its first place in the top 25 since February 2006 . As the season progressed , the team adopted the slogan " Queme los barcos " , which is Spanish for " burn the ships " , as a reminder that there was no turning back .
For the forty @-@ second consecutive season , the team played its home games in Ann Arbor , Michigan at the Crisler Arena , which has a capacity of 13 @,@ 751 . John Beilein was in his second season as head coach with the team during the 2008 – 2009 season . At the conclusion of the season , guard Manny Harris was named to the All @-@ Big Ten first team , and forward DeShawn Sims was selected by the Big Ten media to the second team and chosen by the Big Ten coaches for the third team .
= = Preview = =
Their 2008 – 09 pre @-@ conference schedule included Atlantic Coast Conference members Maryland Terrapins and Duke Blue Devils , who went on to win the 2009 ACC Men 's Basketball Tournament . The team also played against geographical rival Eastern Michigan and the preseason # 2 ranked Connecticut Huskies .
Unlike conference rivals Michigan State , Purdue , and Wisconsin , Michigan was not ranked in the top 25 by either the Associated Press or the ESPN / USA Today preseason polls . In fact , the team did not even receive any votes , like rival Ohio State , in either poll . Pre season reports described the team as a contender for fifth place in the conference . Although the team was building from a 10 – 22 record , it won five of its last ten games the prior year . A poll of 22 members of the media published in the Detroit Free Press ranked Michigan eighth in the conference . The Sports Illustrated 2008 College Basketball Preview issue did not select the team as one of the five predicted Big Ten teams ( the four mentioned above and the Minnesota Golden Gophers ) to qualify for the NCAA tournament .
= = Roster = =
On May 5 , 2008 , sophomore Epke Udoh , the Big Ten 's top shotblocker , decided to transfer for his final two years of athletic eligibility . Beilein attempted to replace Udoh with Robin Benzing , a member of Germany 's national youth team . However , Benzing failed to meet the NCAA 's initial @-@ eligibility guidelines and did not play . Beilein was able to partially solve the problem of complimenting Manny Harris by luring point guard Laval Lucas @-@ Perry to transfer from Arizona . Perry became eligible to play at the conclusion of the fall semester . The team anticipated relying on 7 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) freshman center Ben Cronin to make up for the loss of Udoh and Ron Coleman , who averaged over 21 minutes each of his four seasons . Including Cronin , the team had three incoming recruits .
Michigan granted two of its scholarships to fifth @-@ year redshirt graduate students C.J. Lee and David Merritt in September . Lee and Merritt had both been 2007 – 08 Big Ten Academic All @-@ Conference selections . The varsity roster included fourteen players , thirteen of whom saw live game action . In December , the Wolverines made the decision to redshirt Ben Cronin after only 10 minutes of play . He had hip surgery on January 14 .
– denotes class status adjusted for used redshirt eligibility .
= = = Incoming signees = = =
The incoming class had no four- or five @-@ star recruits . However , it included three players that Rivals.com listed as three @-@ star recruits . Only Ben Cronin was also listed as three @-@ star by scout.com.
= = = Mid @-@ season transfer = = =
= = = 2009 – 10 team recruits = = =
Incoming recruit Darius Morris and two Division I recruit teammates led Windward High School to the California Division V state title . Darius Morris received MVP of Olympic League , CIF Division 5A Southern Section Player of Year , and CIF Division 5A State Player of Year . Also Darius was awarded a John Wooden High School Player of the Year Award , received by Jrue Holiday the year before and the likes of Jason Kapono and Tayshaun Prince in the past .
Matt Vogrich won the Illinois Gatorade Player of the Year award , following in the footsteps of Derrick Rose and Jon Scheyer . Unlike Scheyer and Rose , he did not win Illinois Mr. Basketball . Kelvin Grady announced his intent to transfer at the end of the season .
= = Rankings = =
= = Playing style = =
Over the course of the season , they developed a reputation for shooting a lot of three @-@ point shots and for not turning over the basketball . The team ranked among the national leaders in three @-@ point shots made per game . The ballhandling ability was a function of the Michigan lineup which often employed four guards and one center / forward , which meant that at any time the team had several adept ballhandlers on the court . By the end of the season , the starting lineup usually included four players 6 feet 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) or shorter and Sims who is 6 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 03 m ) . As a team that relied on the three @-@ point shot , it was streaky and was susceptible to hot and cold stretches . The team relied on a deep bench and had 10 players who averaged 10 minutes per game . Even the eleventh player averaged 9 @.@ 6 minutes . The offense used patient ball movement with backdoor cutters and slashers , which necessitated that defenses chase shooters and peel off picks . The offense resulted in a shot mix that employed three @-@ pointers for about 48 % of its shots .
On defense , the team was known for employing Beilein 's trademark trapping 1 – 3 – 1 halfcourt zone defense , which required opponents to be skilled at perimeter passing . The zone defense was generally employed after made baskets and dead @-@ ball situations . After offensive misses or turnovers , the Wolverines relied on man @-@ to @-@ man defense . Depending on the matchups the team also used a 2 – 3 zone defense because the team did not have the type of athletes necessary to play on the wings of his 1 – 3 – 1 . It employed the 1 – 3 – 1 less later in the season , and about ten percent of opponent possessions altogether . In total , the team used some sort of zone defense about 40 percent of the time . The team was also among the top 35 ( of over 300 ) in the nation in terms of three @-@ point shot defense .
= = Accomplishments = =
On December 13 , 2008 , the team tied Dartmouth ’ s current national record for most different players to make a three @-@ point field goal in game set in 1993 when 9 players made three @-@ point shots against Eastern Michigan . The team also set the current Big Ten Conference single @-@ game three @-@ point field goals attempted record of 42 on December 22 , 2008 against Florida Gulf Coast and the conference games record of 40 on January 7 , 2009 againsst Indiana . Over the course of the season the team set the current Big Ten Conference single @-@ season three @-@ point field goals attempted record if 912 as well as the single @-@ season conference games record of 471 . The team led the Big Ten Conference with 151 three @-@ point field goals made in conference games .
The team set several school records . Its single @-@ season total of 305 three @-@ point field goals made surpassed the 1998 school record total of 260 . This record was surpassed by the 2013 – 14 team . The team 's single @-@ game total of 16 three @-@ point field goals made against Eastern Michigan on December 13 , 2008 surpassed the school record 15 made on February 22 , 1998 . The team also established the school ’ s single @-@ season free throw percentage record of 75 @.@ 7 % ( 412 – 544 ) surpassed the 75 @.@ 4 % set in 2002 .
= = Season = =
= = = Preconference = = =
Although the Big Ten Network had a
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s best " . Travis Fickett of IGN said he was happy to see an episode centered on Randy Marsh , who he said is an excellent character ; Fickett said of " Pinewood Derby " , " This isn 't a great episode but its fast @-@ paced lunacy in the South Park tradition and most of the genre tropes it riffs on are dead on . "
= = Mexican flag controversy = =
" Pinewood Derby " drew considerable media attention in Mexico when it originally aired due to its depiction of Mexican president Felipe Calderón . The episode was scheduled to air in Spanish on MTV Latin America on February 8 , 2010 , and was advertised extensively for one week prior to the broadcast date . However , a few hours before the scheduled time , the network decided not to air the episode and replaced it with the episode " The Ring " , allegedly due to its depiction of Calderón irritating the international community and frivolously spending the space cash on water parks . This depiction was said to differ from the image Mexico 's Ministry of the Interior sought to present of Calderón , whom they dubbed the " Employment president " . MTV said the South Park creators did not get a special permit needed to broadcast an image of Mexico 's flag , and MTV executives said they did not want to risk angering fans by altering the image . The explanation was met with skepticism by Mexican South Park fans , some of whom accused MTV of unfair censorship . MTV later announced it would broadcast the episode on April 4 after the network was granted permission from the Minister of the Interior to air it . When asked to comment on the episode getting pulled , Stone said , " That 's so far away from us . We read that on the news , too , along with everyone else . "
= = Home release = =
" Pinewood Derby " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .
= The Telltale Head =
" The Telltale Head " is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 25 , 1990 . It was written by Al Jean , Mike Reiss , Sam Simon and Matt Groening , and directed by Rich Moore . In the episode , Bart cuts the head off the statue of Jebediah Springfield in the center of town to impress Jimbo , Kearney and Dolph , three older kids he admires . The town 's residents , including the three boys , are horrified and Bart regrets his actions . After telling his family , Homer and Bart head to the center of town , where they are met by an angry mob . After Bart tells the mob he has made a mistake , the townspeople forgive Bart and he places the head back on the statue . The episode 's title is a reference to the short story " The Tell @-@ Tale Heart " by Edgar Allan Poe .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins in medias res : Homer and Bart are chased through the streets of Springfield by an angry mob while carrying the head of the statue of their town founder , Jebediah Springfield . Surrounded by the mob , Bart begins to relate the events of the previous day .
Bart suffers through a boring morning at church and is forbidden by Marge to see the violent new Space Mutants movie . After church , he runs into a local gang Jimbo , Dolph , and Kearney . The three invite Bart to sneak into the Space Mutants movie with them .
After being thrown out of the movie by the manager , the gang shoplifts from the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , throw rocks at the Jebediah Springfield statue , and watch clouds . Bart remarks that one cloud resembles Jebediah Springfield , but without a head . His new friends remark that they wish someone would decapitate the statue , saying it would be funny to see the town so upset . When Bart disagrees , the bullies make fun of him which upsets Bart. Bart is conflicted and asks Homer whether it is okay to compromise your beliefs to be popular . Homer tells Bart that popularity is the most important thing in the world , as long as Bart is not talking about killing someone . That night , Bart sneaks out of the house and decapitates the statue .
The town is shaken by the crime , which causes Bart to feel guilty about his actions . Adding to his guilt is when Jimbo , Dolph , and Kearney are upset as well , telling Bart that if they met the person responsible , they would attack him critically , as they did not actually mean what they said about the statue before . Bart begins to fear of the consequences he would face if his actions are to be revealed , and his conscience manifests itself as the statue 's severed head , which begins speaking to him . Unable to go on , Bart finally confesses his crime to his family , explaining that he thought that being popular was the most important thing in the world that Homer told him . It was then Homer realized that he inspired Bart of his popularity advice that caused him to commit the crime in the first place , and feels extremely guilty of doing so . It was then Bart decided to return the head back where it belongs , and Homer follows along , holding himself responsible for the events . They are found by the angry mob , returning the story to the beginning . Bart tells the mob that his act has actually brought the town closer together , to which the mob agrees . The head is returned to the statue and everyone forgives Homer and Bart for their actions . Homer and Bart then leave peacefully , with the former reminding the latter that " not all lynch mobs are this nice . "
= = Production = =
The idea to have the episode in flashbacks was originally thought up in the color screening stage of production . This is the first episode directed by Rich Moore . This is the first time Jebediah Springfield is mentioned , as well as the first time the Simpsons go to church . The announcer of the football game Homer is listening to at church is based on Keith Jackson .
This is the first episode of the series in which Sideshow Bob , Reverend Timothy Lovejoy , Krusty the Clown , Jimbo Jones , Kearney Zzyzwicz , Dolph Starbeam , Ms. Albright , and Apu Nahasapeemapetilon appear .
= = Cultural references = =
Bart awakening and finding the head of Jebediah Springfield in bed next to him is a reference to the scene in The Godfather where Jack Woltz finds the head of his prize racehorse next to him one morning .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Telltale Head " finished twenty @-@ sixth in ratings for the week of February 19 – 25 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 2 , equivalent to approximately 14 @.@ 0 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood said they enjoyed : " the Simpsons [ being ] grossly dysfunctional in church , Homer dispensing terrible advice , and a real moral dilemma for Bart. " In a DVD review of the first season , David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of 3 / 5 and added , " This is a strange episode , touching on many bizarre aspects of the show to come . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide said , " Good little moments abounded , and this was a generally solid episode . I liked the objects the boys saw in the clouds , and quite a few other funny bits appeared . “ Telltale ” wasn ’ t a great episode , but it was generally entertaining and clever . "
= History of Hertfordshire =
Hertfordshire is an English county , founded in the Norse – Saxon wars of the 9th century , and developed through commerce serving London . It is a land @-@ locked county that was several times the seat of Parliament . From origins in brewing and papermaking , through aircraft manufacture , the county has developed a wider range of industry in which pharmaceuticals , financial services and film @-@ making are prominent . Today , with a population slightly over 1 million , Hertfordshire services , industry and commerce dominate the economy , with fewer than 2000 people working in agriculture , forestry and fishing .
Hertfordshire is one of the historic counties of England first recorded in the early 10th century . Its development has been tied with that of London , which lies on its southern border . London is the largest city in Western Europe ; it requires an enormous tonnage of supplies each day and Hertfordshire grew wealthy on the proceeds of trade because no less than three of the old Roman roads serving the capital run through it , as do the Grand Union Canal and other watercourses . In the 19th century , rail links sprang up in the county , linking London to the north . Hatfield in Hertfordshire has seen two rail crashes of international importance ( in 1870 and 2000 ) .
Though nowadays Hertfordshire tends to be politically conservative , historically it was the site of a number of uprisings against the Crown , particularly in the First Barons ' War , the Peasants ' Revolt , the Wars of the Roses and the English Civil War . The county has a rich intellectual history , and many writers of major importance , from Geoffrey Chaucer to Beatrix Potter , have connections there . Quite a number of Prime Ministers were born or grew up in Hertfordshire .
The county contains a curiously large number of abandoned settlements , which K. Rutherford Davis attributes to a mixture of poor harvests on soil hard to farm , and the Black Death which ravaged Hertfordshire starting in 1349 .
= = Early history = =
The earliest evidence of human occupation in Hertfordshire come from a gravel pit in Rickmansworth . The finds ( of flint tools ) date back 350 @,@ 000 years , long before Britain became an island .
People have probably lived in the land now called Hertfordshire for about 12 @,@ 000 years , since the Mesolithic period in Ware ( making Ware one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe ) . Settlement continued through the Neolithic period , with evidence of occupation sites , enclosures , long barrows and even an unusual dog cemetery in the region . Although occupied , the area had a relatively low population in the Neolithic and early Bronze Age , perhaps because of its heavy , relatively poorly drained soil . Nevertheless , just south of present @-@ day Ware and Hertford there is some evidence of an increase in the population , with typical round huts and farming activity having been found at a site called Foxholes Farm . There is no evidence of settlement at Hertford itself from this period , although Ware and perhaps Hertford seem to have been occupied during Roman times .
In the Iron age , a Celtic tribe called the Catuvellauni occupied Hertfordshire . Their main settlement ( or oppidum ) was Verlamion on the River Ver ( near present @-@ day St Albans ) . Other oppida in Hertfordshire include sites at Cow Roast near Tring , Wheathampstead , Welwyn , Braughing , and Baldock . Hertfordshire contains several Iron Age hill forts , including the largest example in Eastern England at Ravensburgh Castle in Hexton .
There is a wealth of Iron Age burial sites in Hertfordshire , making it a place of international importance in Iron Age study . The large number of sites of all types indicates dense and complex settlement patterns immediately prior to the Roman invasion .
= = = The Roman Invasion of Britain = = =
In 55 BCE when the Romans first attempted to invade Britain , the Catuvellauni ( which is Brythonic for " Expert Warrior " ) were the largest British tribe . Caesar 's report to the Senate said that " Cassivellaun " ( Cassivellaunus ) was leader of the Britons , and Cassivellaunus ' headquarters were near Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire . On Caesar 's second invasion attempt in 54 BCE , Cassivellaunus led the British defensive forces . The Romans besieged him at Wheathampstead , and partly because of the defection of the Trinovantes ( whose King Cassivellaunus had had murdered ) , the Catuvellauni were forced to surrender . However , after the siege of Wheathampstead , Caesar returned to Rome without leaving a garrison .
Cunobelinus became king of the Catuvellauni in 9 or 10 CE and ruled for about thirty years , conquering such a large area of Britain that the Roman writer Suetonius called him Britannorum Rex ( ( Latin ) " King of Britain " ) . He built Beech Bottom Dyke , a defensive earthwork , at St Albans , which may be related to another Iron Age defensive earthwork , the Devil 's Dyke , at Cassivellaunus ' headquarters in nearby Wheathampstead . The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni again in July 43 CE and this time , garrisoned Britain . When the Romans took over , their settlement , laid out in 49 CE , became known as Verulamium . Alban , a Roman army officer who became Britain 's first Christian martyr after his arrest at Chantry Island , died in the 3rd or 4th century and gave his name to the modern town of St Albans . Verulamium became one of Roman Britain 's major cities , the third @-@ largest and the only to be granted self @-@ governing status . Strong though Verulamium 's defences may have been , they were not enough to stop Boudica , who burned the city in 61 CE . Verulamium was rebuilt , with defences enclosing a site of some 81 hectares ( 200 acres ) and was occupied into the 5th century .
A number of Roman Roads run through Hertfordshire including Watling Street and Ermine Street . The ancient trackway , the Icknield Way also runs through Hertfordshire . These are three of the " four highways " of medieval England ( the other being the Fosse Way , which does not run through Hertfordshire ) which were still the main routes through the country more than a thousand years later . The first Roman Road to be built was the Military Way , constructed very early in the Roman conquest to speed the troops ' access north . Later , Ermine Street would be built directly on top of it .
= = = Hertfordshire in the Early Middle Ages = = =
After the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion of Britain , the Hertfordshire area formed parts of the Kingdom of Mercia and the Kingdom of Essex . The main early Saxon tribes there seem to have been the Hicce , Brahhingas and Wæclingas . Place names tend to derive from Celtic rather than Saxon , and there is a " singular lack of Early Saxon place names . " The Synod of Hertford , which was the first national Synod of the English Church , took place on 26 September 672 @-@ 3 . It was at this Synod that the " question of Easter " was settled , and the church agreed how to calculate the date of Easter . The Synod also marked the end of the conflict between the Celtic Church and the Romanised church introduced by Saint Augustine .
King Offa of Mercia ( died 796 ) built a church at Hitchin in Hertfordshire , but it burned down in 910 CE and the monks moved to St Albans . Offa defeated Beornred of Mercia at Pirton , near Hitchin and gave his name to the village of Offley ( " Offa 's Lea " ) . Some sources ( including Matthew Paris , who was a monk at St Albans ) suggest he died at Offley , though he was buried fifteen miles away in Bedford . One of Offa 's last acts was to found St Albans Abbey .
= = = Origins of the county = = =
The word Hertfordshire ( Saxon " Heorotfordscir " or " Heorotfordscír " ) is attested from 866 . The first reference ( as " Heoroford " ) in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle is for 1011 , but the county 's true origins lie in the 10th century , when Edward the Elder established two burhs in Hertford in 912 and 913 respectively .
Hertfordshire clearly did not exist in any practical sense in the late 9th century . At that time , in the war between Saxon and Norseman , Hertfordshire was on the front line . When , after the Saxon victory in the Battle of Ethandun in 878 , the Saxon King Alfred the Great and Norse King Guthrum the Old agreed to partition England between them , the dividing line between their territories split what was to become Hertfordshire almost through the middle , along the line of the River Lea and then along Watling Street . Their agreement survives in the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum which establishes the Danelaw 's extent . It seems the land now comprising Hertfordshire was then partly in the Kingdom of Essex ( nominally under Norse control , though still populated by Saxons ) and partly in the Kingdom of Mercia ( which remained Saxon ) .
Alfred was also responsible for building weirs on the River Lea at Hertford ( Saxon " Heorotford " , ford used by deer ) and Ware ( Saxon " Waras " , weir ) , presumably to prevent Viking ships coming upriver . King Edgar the Peaceful is credited with making Hertford the capital of the surrounding shire , presumably between 973 and 975 CE .
= = Early Middle Ages = =
Alfred died in 899 , and his son Edward the Elder worked with Alfred 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Æthelred , and daughter , Æthelflæd , to re @-@ take parts of southern England from the Norse . During these campaigns he built the two burhs of Hertford as already noted . Their sites have not been found , and probably lie beneath the streets of Hertford itself . From Hertford , together with Stafford , Tamworth and Witham , Edward and Æthelflæd pushed the Danes back to Northumbria in a series of battles . Anglo @-@ Saxon Hertford is an example of town planning as demonstrated by its organised rectangular grid street pattern .
There is considerable evidence of a mint in Hertford at this period . Edward the Martyr ( from 975 to 978 ) , Æthelred the Unready ( from 978 to 1016 ) and Knut the Great ( from 1016 to 1035 ) all had coins struck there . The mint itself has not been found , but many coins exist . Over 90 % of these coins were found on the Continent or in Scandinavia , which may suggest they were used for payment of Danegeld .
The St Brice 's Day massacre of 1002 probably started at Welwyn in Hertfordshire . The massacre was to be a slaughter of the Norse in England , including women and children . One of those executed was Gunhilde , the sister of King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark . He invaded England next year in retaliation . Forkbeard 's assault on England lasted ten years , until 1013 , when Æthelred fled to the continent . Forkbeard was crowned King of England on Christmas Day , but only reigned for five weeks before dying . Æthelred returned briefly and unsuccessfully until 1016 , at which time he was succeeded by Forkbeard 's son Knut , who granted the Royal Manor of Hitchin to his second in command , Earl Tovi .
= = High Middle Ages = =
After the Norman Invasion , Edgar the Ætheling ( the successor to Harold Godwinson ) surrendered to William the Conqueror at Berkhamsted . William created the manor of Berkhamsted , and bestowed it on Robert , Count of Mortain , who was his half @-@ brother . From Robert 's son William de Mortain it passed to King Henry I , and is still owned by the Royal Family . Henry held court there in 1123 .
The Domesday Book , completed in 1086 , lists 168 settlements in Hertfordshire . Hertfordshire 's population grew quickly from then until the Black Death reached the county in 1349 . The Norman church at St Albans Abbey was finished in 1088 .
Hertfordshire had a conflicted relationship with the King during the High Middle Ages . Like most counties in the south @-@ east , most of Hertfordshire was in private ( i.e. non @-@ royal ) ownership during the High Middle Ages . Royal land comprised about 7 % of the county 's area . The first Earl of Hertford , Gilbert de Clare , was so titled in 1138 . He bore one of the first two sets of heraldic arms in England : three gold chevrons on a red shield . His grandson Richard de Clare once offered King John £ 100 in respect of legal proceedings concerning his inheritance , but then during the First Barons War he sided with the Barons against the King . Richard became one of the twenty @-@ five Barons sworn to enforce the Magna Carta , for which he was excommunicated in 1215 .
Thomas Becket , who became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1161 , held the honour of Berkhamsted Castle from 1155 until 1163 . King Henry III celebrated Christmas there in 1163 .
Around this time , motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles were built in Great Wymondley , Pirton and Therfield . Watford was founded in the 12th century , probably as a result of a market and church set up there by the Abbot of St Albans . In 1130 , the earliest Pipe Roll shows that King Henry I 's Queen Consort Adeliza owned property in the county .
The first draft of the Magna Carta was written at St Albans Abbey in 1213 . It contained significant provisions still in force to this day , including the principle of habeas corpus ( which was first invoked in court in 1305 ) . Two years later , King John was in St Albans when he learned of the Archbishop of Canterbury 's suspension . Though John agreed to the Magna Carta , he did not adhere to it , and Hertfordshire was the main battlefield in the civil war that followed . On 16 December 1216 , during the First Barons ' War , Hertford Castle surrendered after a siege from Dauphin Louis ( later Louis VIII of France ) , whom the English barons had invited to England to replace John as King . Berkhamsted Castle surrendered around the same time .
In winter 1217 , royalist forces plundered St Albans , took captives and extorted £ 100 from the Abbot , who feared the Abbey would be burned .
In 1261 King Henry III held parliament in the county . In 1295 , another parliament was held in St Albans , and in 1299 , King Edward I gave Hertford Castle to his wife Margaret of France on her wedding day .
= = = Industry and commerce = = =
Hertfordshire is largely on a clay sub @-@ soil , and much of its land , though rich , is " heavy " and not well @-@ suited to crop cultivation with a medieval plough . However , the county did grow good barley which later became important for the brewing trade . Hertfordshire developed more through commerce than through the agriculture which drove most of England 's economy during this period .
In the High Middle Ages , the county was relatively urbanised by medieval standards , but because towns follow roads and Hertfordshire had many small roads rather than a few large ones , there was no large conurbation .
Commerce grew in Hertfordshire from the start of the 12th century ; the number of markets and fairs rose steadily from about 1100 until the Black Death . During the 13th century , Hertfordshire 's commerce grew still further . The county traded in butter and cheese , and to a lesser extent meat , hides and leather . Much of this produce was bound for London . The county also developed its inns and other services for travellers to and from London .
The Knights Templar built Baldock , starting around 1140 . In 1185 , a survey of the Knights ' holdings showed Baldock had 122 tenants on 150 acres ( 0 @.@ 61 km2 ) of land and several skilled craftsmen . King John granted the Knights a fair and market at Baldock in 1199 , to be held annually . It began on St Matthew 's Day and lasted five days in all . At around the same time , the leatherworking trade was prominent in Hitchin .
= = = An English pope = = =
Nicholas Breakspear , the only Englishman ever to have been elected Pope , was born on a farm in Bedmond or Abbots Langley in Hertfordshire , probably around 1100 . He was baptised in Abbots Langley . Nicholas was refused permission to become a monk at St Albans , but his career does not seem to have suffered for this , and he was unanimously elected Pope on 2 December 1154 , taking the papal name Adrian IV . He died in 1159 . He was the Pope who placed Rome under an interdict , and is famous for his alleged Donation of Ireland to the English throne .
= = Late Middle Ages = =
In 1302 , King Edward I granted Kings Langley to the Prince of Wales . King Edward II 's " favourite " , Piers Gaveston , loved the palace at Kings Langley and he was buried there after his death in 1312 . Edmund of Langley , the first Duke of York and founder of the House of York , was born in Kings Langley on 5 June 1341 and died there on 1 August 1402 .
Richard of Wallingford , the mathematician and astronomer , became Abbott of St Albans in 1326 . He is regarded as the father of modern trigonometry .
Hertford Castle was used as a gaol for a series of important captives during the Hundred Years ' War . This was actually a series of separate wars that lasted a total of 116 years , between 1337 and 1453 . The Plantagenet Kings of England fought the Valois Kings of France , almost entirely on French soil . Queen Isabella was imprisoned by her son , the King , in Hertford Castle in 1330 , as were King David II of Scotland and his queen in 1346 , after the Battle of Neville 's Cross . King John II of France was imprisoned there in 1359 in considerable luxury .
The Black Death midway through the 14th century massively reduced Hertfordshire 's population . The number of residents probably fell by 30 % – 50 % , and likely took until the 16th century to recover . This meant many of the settlements in Hertfordshire were abandoned , particularly in the north and east of the county where farm yields were poor . Near Tring , a cluster of deserted medieval villages can still be seen . However , the residents who survived grew richer . The reduced population meant workers could demand higher wages and better conditions , despite laws such as the Ordinance of Labourers of 1349 and the Statute of Labourers of 1351 . These changed economic conditions contributed to the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381 , in which Hertfordshire 's people were deeply involved . ( Perhaps confusingly , another man called Richard of Wallingford was one of revolt leader Wat Tyler 's principal allies . This is not the same man as the Abbott of St Albans . )
After Wat Tyler had been caught and executed , King Richard II went to St Albans to quell the rebels . Richard 's body was buried at Kings Langley church in Hertfordshire in 1400 , but he was moved to Westminster Abbey in 1413 , next to his wife Anne . That same year , King Henry IV appointed his knight Hugh de Waterton to Berkhamsted Castle to supervise his children John and Philippa .
King Henry IV moved his government temporarily to St Albans early in his reign for fear of public opinion in London . He gave the castle and honour of Hertford to Edmund , Earl of Stafford , and his wife Anne . Edmund was killed at the Battle of Shrewsbury in 1403 . King Henry IV married Catherine of France on 2 June 1420 , and gave Hertford Castle to her .
In 1413 , King Henry V kept Easter at Kings Langley . He gave the alm of a groat to the poor . Henry Chichele , the Archbishop of Canterbury , visited Barnet in 1423 . No bells rang , and the archbishop took offence at his poor welcome . When he returned in 1426 , the church doors were sealed against him .
Three important battles of the Wars of the Roses took place in Hertfordshire . At the First Battle of St Albans on 22 May 1455 , which was the first major battle of the Wars of the Roses , Richard of York and Neville the Kingmaker defeated the Lancastrians , killed their leader , Edmund Beaufort and captured King Henry VI . The Lancastrians recaptured the King at the Second Battle of St Albans on 12 February 1461 . While he was a prisoner of the Yorkists , in 1459 , Henry VI kept Easter at St Albans Abbey . He gave his best gown to the prior , but the gift seems to have been regretted and the treasurer later bought it back for fifty marks .
The Battle of Barnet took place on 14 April 1471 . Neville the Kingmaker advanced on London . He camped on Hadley Green , and King Edward IV 's army met him there . After confusion in the early morning mist , in which the Yorkists seem to have ended up fighting each other , the Lancastrians won the battle . The Kingmaker was captured and executed , and Edward 's authority was never again seriously challenged .
England 's oldest surviving pub is in Hertfordshire and dates to this period . Ye Olde Fighting Cocks , which is in St Albans , was rebuilt in 1485 . Some of the foundation stones are even older , allegedly going back to the 8th century .
First English paper and printing industry
One of the first three printing presses in England was in St Albans . England 's first paper mill , which was the property of John Tate , stood in Hertford opposite today 's County Hospital from 1494 ; visited by Henry VII twice and producing a star and circle watermark on some versions of the Papal Bull recognising his right to reign over England .
= = Renaissance = =
The long Elizabethan peace , and turmoil in Europe , conspired to raise English commercial power during the Renaissance . European refugees also contributed to English wealth . London was the centre of this new power , and Hertfordshire 's commerce benefited accordingly .
In November 1524 , Catherine of Aragon held court at Hertford Castle . On 3 May 1547 , King Edward VI granted his sister Mary the manor and castle of Hertford , tolls from the bridge at Ware , and the manor of Hertingfordbury .
Under Mary , who as Queen earned the sobriquet " Bloody Mary " , three " heretics " ( that is , protestants who refused to become catholic ) were burnt at the stake in Hertfordshire . William Hale , Thomas Fust , and George Tankerville , were executed at Barnet , Ware , and St Albans respectively . In 1554 , Queen Mary granted the town of Hertford its first charter for a fee of thirteen shillings and fourpence , due annually at Michaelmas .
Queen Elizabeth I lived at Hatfield House near Hatfield as a girl . When plague ravaged London , she held parliaments at Hertford Castle in 1564 and 1581 . The law courts moved to St Albans for the same reason . During her reign , Hertfordshire was specifically commended for its soldiers ' efficiency . In the mobilisation of 1588 for the Anglo @-@ Spanish War , the county sent twenty @-@ five lances and sixty light horse to Brentwood , a thousand infantry to Tilbury , a thousand to Stratford @-@ at @-@ Bow , and five hundred to guard Her Majesty 's person . The Arms of Hertfordshire were granted next year . In 1602 founder of Hartford ( Connecticut ) , Samuel Stone was born in Fore Street , Hertford .
King James I was often in Hertfordshire and had several works carried out in the county . He built Theobalds Park , enclosing a large tract of southern Hertfordshire in a wall . Parts of the wall still exist . He also had a hand in creating the New River , which was the brainchild of Welsh entrepreneur , Hugh Myddelton : an artificial watercourse that predated the building of England 's canal network by over a century .
James I , who was a confirmed dog @-@ lover , also built a huge kennel ( about 46 feet ( 14 m ) long ) and dog @-@ yard ( over half an acre in size ) at Royston . He seems to have loved Royston and spent considerable time there , hunting and feasting and enjoying himself — so much so that his favourite dog , Jowler , returned one evening with a note tied to his collar . The note read : " Good Mr Jowler , we pray you to speak to the King ( for he hears you every day and so he doth not us ) that it will please His Majesty to go back to London , for else the country will be undone ; all our provision is spent already and we are not able to entertain him longer . "
During the civil war , the county was mainly parliamentarian . St Albans was an especially staunch parliamentary stronghold . In the course of this war , deserters and mutineers among the various encamped armies ravaged the Chilterns , plundered Ashridge , rifled Little Gaddesden Church and broke open its tombs . In 1645 , a dozen men of Oliver Cromwell 's New Model Army were hanged for outrages against the people of the county .
In 1647 , the parliamentary army , still unpaid after their victory in the First English Civil War , camped on Thriploe Heath near Royston . They wrote to Parliament demanding their pay . This led to a clash between Cromwell 's army and the Levellers at Cockbush Field , near Ware , on 15 November 1647 . Cromwell captured and imprisoned the Levellers ' " agitators " and a number were sentenced to death , though only one was actually executed .
After the Great Fire of London , many children were sent to Hertfordshire : 62 were sent to Ware , and 56 to Hertford . A few years later the mayor and people of Hertford petitioned King Charles II to confirm , amend and expand the town 's charters . Enquiries were made as to whether anyone would object , and three prominent men did , but the attorney general dismissed their objections on grounds of malice in 1680 . The town henceforth had its own coroner , who doubled as the town clerk , and both the court @-@ day and market @-@ day were changed so as not to coincide with nearby markets at Ware , Hoddesdon or Hatfield .
In 1683 , there was a plot to assassinate Charles II and his brother as he passed through Rye House in Hertfordshire . Unfortunately for the plotters , the Royal party was early , so the opportunity was missed ; when the plot was discovered , it became a pretext for a purge of the Whig leaders .
= = Modern era = =
In the last two centuries , Hertfordshire 's population has multiplied tenfold . Around the end of the 18th century , its population was around 95 @,@ 000 . In 1821 , it was just under 130 @,@ 000 . In 1881 it was just over 203 @,@ 000 , and by 1921 it was just over 333 @,@ 000 . By the 2001 census , it was 1 @,@ 033 @,@ 977 . During the 18th century brewing became an important industry in Hertfordshire .
Smallpox broke out in Hertford gaol in 1729 , and spread into the town . The next year , smallpox hit Hitchin , killing 158 people . The River Lea Navigation Act of 1739 led to the river being improved , becoming navigable as far as Ware . Locks were built in Ware , Broxbourne , and " Stanstead " ( presumably Stanstead Abbotts rather than Stansted Mountfitchet , which is not on the Lea ) . By 1797 , the Grand Junction Canal ( now called the Grand Union Canal ) was being cut . Its highest point is the Tring Summit in Hertfordshire , which was formed in 1799 . Because a canal barge can hold so much more than a wagon , the waterways expansions increased the quantity of supplies that could reach London ( and the amount of refuse and manure that could be carted away ) .
Mobilisation for the Seven Years ' War affected Hertfordshire . In 1756 , £ 350 was paid to the inns and public houses of Ware for the troops staying with them . The next year , Pitt 's army reforms made Hertfordshire liable to provide 560 officers and men .
The county also contributed soldiers to the French Revolutionary Wars . On 7 May 1794 , lists opened for the Hertfordshire Yeomanry Cavalry Regiment , which comprised five troops of cavalry . The Loyal Hemel Hempstead Volunteers formed in 1797 . Two further troops of volunteers were raised in 1798 , at Borehamwood and Sawbridgeworth , and the same year , the Hitchin Volunteers were also raised , but their duty was only to defend land within three miles ( 5 km ) of Hitchin .
In 1795 , a Dr Walker wrote a report on agriculture and forestry in the county . He said " Herts is justly deemed the first and best corn county in the kingdom " , an assessment that may not be free from local bias . It nevertheless shows how more advanced farming techniques and soil improvement programmes had enabled farmers to work Hertfordshire 's " heavier " soils to better effect since the Saxon – Norse wars .
Thanks to a rapidly increasing population and improved record @-@ keeping practices , the volume of paper records for Hertfordshire in the 19th and 20th centuries is huge . Many of these documents are written or printed on paper made locally , at a time when paper @-@ making joined brewing as another dominant industry in the county .
In 1809 , John Dickinson purchased Apsley Mills in Hemel Hempstead for his newly patented paper @-@ making machine . In a dispute with the Society of Paper @-@ Makers in 1821 , he dismissed the men involved and trained replacements . By 1825 , Apsley and Nash Mills in Hemel Hempstead were using steam power to produce paper . Dickinson patented his silk threadpaper in 1829 , which was used , among other things , for Exchequer Bonds , and had to be made under supervision from two excise men . He built Croxley Mills , near Rickmansworth , in 1830 and Abbots Hill , Nash Mills , in 1836 .
In 1840 , the Uniform Penny Post came in . Dickinson made paper for the stamps , and also for the Mulready envelopes . He built a private gas works at Apsley in 1851 . In March 1886 , John Dickinson & Co . Ltd. was incorporated with £ 500 @,@ 000 in capital and 10 acres ( 40 @,@ 000 m2 ) of glass houses . By 1900 , the company had 264 acres ( 1 @.@ 07 km2 ) of glass houses in the Cheshunt area .
Rothamsted Research , previously known as the Experimental Station and then the Institute of Arable Crops Research , is one of the oldest agricultural research institutions in the world , at its Harpenden site . It was founded by a fertiliser inventor in 1843 .
The 19th century was also a busy period for the military . Ten corps of Volunteer Infantry were formed in 1803 . In 1804 , the clock tower in St Albans signalled news of the Battle of Trafalgar by semaphore . The Duke of Wellington earned the freedom of the borough of St Albans after Napoleon 's defeat in 1814 . The Hertfordshire Regiment became the fourth battalion of the Bedfordshire Regiment in 1891 , and in March 1900 , the 42nd ( Hertfordshire ) Company of the Imperial Yeomanry landed at Cape Town . Cecil Rhodes , who founded De Beers and the state of Rhodesia ( now Zimbabwe ) , was born in South Street , Bishops Stortford , in 1853 . The house is still standing , and has been adapted into a museum . He spent much of his youth in South Africa , but returned to Bishops Stortford in 1873 .
The first branch railway line in England was the Aylesbury one , which opened in 1839 . It had a station in Hertfordshire , at Marston Gate . Another rail line grew out from London towards Cambridge , reaching Broxbourne in 1840 , Harlow in 1841 , and Bishops Stortford in 1842 . A branch to Hertford opened in 1843 . The first Hatfield train crash took place on Boxing Day , 1870 . The London Underground rail line reached Rickmansworth in 1887 .
= = Twentieth century = =
= = = Pre World War II = = =
The two flagship garden cities of Letchworth and Welwyn were central to the development of town planning in England . The first Garden City Company formed in 1903 , with £ 300 @,@ 000 of capital , and by 1914 , Letchworth had a population of around 10 @,@ 000 . Ebenezer Howard bought nearly 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) in 1919 , and the first house in Welwyn Garden City was occupied in 1920 . The town 's official date of founding was 29 April .
In the First World War , the Hertfordshire Yeomanry mobilised in September 1914 and were almost immediately deployed to Egypt . The 2nd London Division of the Territorial Force had their headquarters at St Albans , and the North Midland Territorial Division was billeted there as well . The 1 / 1st Hertfordshire Regiment landed at Le Havre in November , and saw action in the Ypres Salient that month .
The Hertfordshire Volunteer regiment formed on 15 May 1915 . On 13 October of that year , a Zeppelin raid hit North Road in Hertford , destroying houses there . In 1916 , the Hertfordshire Regiment was transferred to 39th Division and fought at St Julien . Two Victoria Crosses ( " VC " ) were awarded to Hertfordshire men in 1916 : one to Corporal Alfred Alexander Burt and one to Lieutenant William Leefe Robinson , who shot down a Zeppelin over Cuffley . Second Lieutenant Wulfstan Tempest shot down another on 2 October of that year , and it came down in Potters Bar . The 1st Battalion of the Hertfordshire Regiment fought near Achiet @-@ le @-@ Grant in 1918 , and then at the Battle of Havrincourt . It also fought in the advance to Ghissignies . Hertfordshire 's last VC of the First World War was awarded in December 1918 , after the war had finished : a posthumous VC for Lieutenant Frank Young of Hitchin , who was killed on 18 September 1918 , aged 23 .
With the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 , 1st and 2nd Battalions of the Hertfordshire Regiment were mobilised . Together with the 6th Battalion of the Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment , they made up 162nd Infantry Brigade of the East Anglian Division . Second Battalion would later be at Ver @-@ sur @-@ Mer in Normandy in support of the D @-@ Day landings .
In May 1940 , a public meeting
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6 – 22 @.@ 9 ° C ( − 3 @.@ 3 – 73 @.@ 2 ° F ) were recorded . Recorded precipitation amounted to 7 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) with evaporation rates of 764 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 30 @.@ 10 in ) .
A weather station ( 26 ° 28 ′ 58 @.@ 6 ″ S 67 ° 41 ′ 1 @.@ 3 ″ W ) was run from March to November 2013 in the Salar de Incahuasi , at 3 @,@ 300 metres ( 10 @,@ 800 ft ) altitude . Winds recorded there are mostly northwestern and southwestern and have gusts of > 59 kilometres per hour ( 37 mph ) every month . Stronger average winds are found during spring .
= = Eruptive history = =
Human research in the San Buenaventura area goes back to Stelzner 1885 , mineral @-@ focused research in 1895 and Penck 1920 . The La Hoyada Formation was identified 1963 and reinterpreted as the La Hoyada volcanic complex in 2000 . General geological research in the region occurred 1988 , 2000 and 2006 , and research focused on Cerro Blanco was done by Arnosio et al . 2005 and 2008 .
Activity of Cerro Blanco goes back 8 mya , when the Maricunga Belt in the west was active . The volcano is responsible for a large Holocene eruption with a Volcano explosivity index 7 , the largest in the Andean Central Volcanic Zone for 5000 years . It is comparable to Santorini and Tambora 's large eruptions .
= = = Pre @-@ Holocene = = =
The Aguada Alumbrera Ignimbrite is a white @-@ rosa ignimbrite composed from two units , 7 @.@ 14 mya Unidad Blanquecina and 13 @.@ 57 mya Unidad Rojiza . The Blanquecina unit is of white to white @-@ rosa colour and contains amphibole , biotite and quartz crystals . It contains lithic fragments of dacitic composition . The groundmass of the ignimbrite is grey in colour and contains glass and phenocrysts . Next to Laguna Aguada Alumbrera it is 100 metres ( 330 ft ) thick . The ignimbrite is unconformably overlaid by ignimbrites from La Hoyada volcano and overlies the basement . There are fluvial deposits contained within the Blanquecina ignimbrite , suggesting that sedimentation occurred between the eruptions . The other subunit Rojiza is of white colour and is rich in biotite and quartz . It is mostly buried by other deposits ; south of Aguada Alumbrera the principal deposit is 40 metres ( 130 ft ) thick . This ignimbrite crops out south of Cerro Blanco .
The Rosada Ignimbrite is located next to Cueros de Purulla and has a rosa colour , due to fiamme formed from welded pumice . The pumice contains biotite , hornblende and quartz . It also contains lithic fragments from the basement and from vulcanites . Two dates of 6 @.@ 3 and 7 @.@ 3 mya have been obtained ; the younger age is likely the result from argon loss and less accurate . It and the Aguada Alumbrera ignimbrites are coeval but different compositions indicate that they derive from separate eruptions . The Rosada ignimbrite 's main minerals are biotite , quartz , plagioclase and sanidine . It has a volume of 50 cubic kilometres ( 12 cu mi ) .
A lava dome ( 26 ° 40 @.@ 26 ′ S 67 ° 45 @.@ 90 ′ W ) formed 7 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 5 mya and red ignimbrite 8 @.@ 1 ± 0 @.@ 5 mya . 2 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 3 mya an east @-@ northeast chain of andesitic lava domes was formed , with the youngest dome ( 26 ° 40 @.@ 63 ′ S 67 ° 45 @.@ 1 ′ W ) being 1 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 4 mya old and located next to Cerro Blanco . 0 @.@ 8 mya mafic andesite was erupted south and west of Carachipampa ( 26 ° 28 @.@ 251 ′ S 67 ° 24 @.@ 94 ′ W ) and Laguna de Purulla ( 26 ° 39 @.@ 3 ′ S 67 ° 52 ′ W ) . The Cueros de Purulla obsidian lava dome ( 26 ° 34 @.@ 06 ′ S 67 ° 44 @.@ 97 ′ W ) formed 0 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 1 mya .
The Barranca Blanca and Carachi Ignimbrites are covered by lavas from Volcán Carachipampa and are thus older than 0 @.@ 75 mya . They contain pumices of various colours and lithic fragments , including mylonite and schist . The Barranca Blanca ignimbrite is white in colour and contains rhyodacitic white pumice with subordinate amounts of grey trachyandesitic pumice . The Carachi Ignimbrite overlies the Barranca Blanca ignimbrite . It is weakly welded and contains white pumice and crystals with fiamme . Both of these are pyroclastic density currents that were still hot at the time of deposition .
The Campo de la Piedra Pómez ignimbrites ( 26 @.@ 65 ° S 67 @.@ 71 ° W / -26.65 ; -67.71 ) have a surface area of 261 @.@ 83 square kilometres ( 101 @.@ 09 sq mi ) . They have a volume of 17 cubic kilometres ( 4 @.@ 1 cu mi ) and are separated in two layers which form one cooling unit despite their different colour and mineral composition . They both contain pumice and lithic fragments and are poor in crystals . Both have a pyroclastic texture with pumices bearing a porphyritic texture . Dating techniques yield different ages ; the most reliable one ( argon – argon dating on sanidine ) indicates that these ignimbrites were erupted 73 @,@ 000 ± 23 @,@ 200 years ago . Other proposed dates go as far back as 0 @.@ 555 ± 0 @.@ 11 mya . They do not cross topographic surfaces and were generated by tranquil release from the ground rather than through the collapse of an eruption column . The surface has been exposed to wind erosion , forming yardangs and ripple marks . The source of this eruption is unknown ; the Robledo caldera may be the origin of this eruption but this is controversial . The ignimbrites of Piedra Pómez are covered with a desert varnish similar coating , some bearing signs of endolithic lifeforms .
= = = Holocene = = =
2 @,@ 300 ± 160 BCE a large Plinian eruption occurred at Cerro Blanco . Rhyolites with a volume of 110 cubic kilometres ( 26 cu mi ) generated ashfalls and ignimbrites , forming the largest known eruption in the Central Andes during the Holocene . These Purulla / El Médano ignimbrites ( 26 @.@ 85 ° S 67 @.@ 72 ° W / -26.85 ; -67.72 ) cover an area of 51 @.@ 61 square kilometres ( 19 @.@ 93 sq mi ) and are dated to have occurred less than 12 @,@ 200 years ago on the basis of radiocarbon analysis of organic material contained between various ignimbrite layers . One layer in La Hoyada is dated between 8 @,@ 830 and 5 @,@ 480 BP . Other data attribute the Purulla ignimbrites to 22 @,@ 000 years ago . The date of the major Holocene eruption is constrained to between 5 @,@ 500 and 4 @,@ 000 years ago . Based on stratigraphic relationships , the Cerro Blanco caldera formed during this eruption . The location of the vent did not change during the course of the eruption , indicating that the annular fractures around the caldera were possibly uninvolved in the process . The low population density in the Fiambalá valley south of the volcano during the 10 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 B.P interval is ascribed to this eruption .
The ignimbrites from the caldera @-@ forming eruption have a volume of 17 cubic kilometres ( 4 @.@ 1 cu mi ) and cover a surface area of 527 square kilometres ( 203 sq mi ) south , north and east of the caldera . They are partly welded and contain fiamme and lithic fragments . The material is vitreous and may have been fluid at the time of deposition . Breccia derived from column collapse are also found . The deposits are microcristalline with much glass . A few kilometres from the calderas they abruptly turn into medium @-@ sized pumice deposits . Some ignimbrites from this stage are derived from the lava domes placed within small depressions , the largest of which is 1 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) wide . Aeolian erosion has reworked the ashes generated by the eruption , generating dunes .
The Purulla / El Médano ignimbrites have a precaldera lower layer that various methods have dated 20 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 years ago . This stage was effusive and accompanied by the emplacement of lava domes . A postcaldera stage is represented by lava domes on the southeast edge of the caldera , as well as block and ash flows inside the caldera . These are rhyolitic in composition . Their age is unknown , but postdates the caldera formation .
= = = Recent unrest and threats = = =
There are no reports of historical activity . A small geothermal field is associated with the volcanic complex , consisting of fumaroles , mud volcanoes and thermal anomalies .
The caldera floor has been subsiding in the 1990s according to satellite images . The diametre of the deformation region is less than 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) and the deformation occurs at depths of less than 4 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) . The deflation speed has been decreasing from more than 2 @.@ 5 centimetres per year ( 0 @.@ 98 in / year ) between 1992 and 1997 over 1 @.@ 8 centimetres per year ( 0 @.@ 71 in / year ) between 1996 and 2000 and 1 @.@ 2 centimetres per year ( 0 @.@ 47 in / year ) between 2003 and 2007 to 0 @.@ 87 centimetres per year ( 0 @.@ 34 in / year ) between 2005 and 2010 . This deformation is centered between the Robledo and Cerro Blanco calderas and is accompanied by an uplift to the northwest . The deflation has been interpreted to depend on a magma chamber with a diametre of 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) but is unlikely to be caused by magma withdrawal or tectonic expansion . It may be linked to hydrothermal effects however . A seismic swarm was noted at 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) depth in 2007 and 2009 .
Evidence indicates that such calderas can fill in within a timespan of hundreds to thousands of years . Two possible scenarios of an eruption are the formation of Plinian eruption columns or more tranquil subhorizontal eruption of pyroclastic flows from vents . Given the low population density of 0 @.@ 06 people per 1 square kilometre ( 0 @.@ 39 sq mi ) , the impact of the eruption on local population will be small . Westerly winds may cause larger impact west of the centre , with air travel particularly affected . The community of Bolsón de Fiambalá 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) south of the caldera is beneath the level of Cerro Blanco and connected to it by valleys . In a future eruption , pyroclastic currents and less dense clouds associated with them from Cerro Blanco might reach the community .
= Turbinellus floccosus =
Turbinellus floccosus , sometimes known as the shaggy- , scaly- , or woolly chanterelle , is a cantharelloid mushroom of the family Gomphaceae native to Asia and North America . It was known as Gomphus floccosus until 2011 , when it was found to be only distantly related to the genus 's type species G. clavatus . It was consequently transferred from Gomphus to Turbinellus . The orange @-@ capped vase- or trumpet @-@ shaped fruiting structures may reach 30 cm ( 12 in ) high and 30 cm ( 12 in ) wide . The lower surface , the hymenium , is covered in wrinkles and ridges rather than gills or pores , and is pale buff or yellowish to whitish .
T. floccosus forms ectomycorrhizal relationships with various types of conifer ; fruit bodies may be found in coniferous woodlands across Eastern Asia , from North Korea to Pakistan , and in North America , more frequently in the west , in late summer and autumn . Though mild @-@ tasting , they cause gastrointestinal symptoms of nausea , vomiting and diarrhea when consumed .
= = Taxonomy = =
This species was first described as Cantherellus floccosus in 1834 by American mycologist Lewis David de Schweinitz , who reported it growing in beech woods in Mount Pocono , Pennsylvania . Its specific epithet is derived from the Latin floccus , meaning " flock of wool " . In 1839 , Miles Joseph Berkeley described a specimen from Canada as Cantharellus canadensis from a manuscript by Johann Friedrich Klotzsch , noting its affinity to C. clavatus . A large specimen collected in Maine by Charles James Sprague was described as Cantharellus princeps in 1859 by Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis .
In 1891 , German botanist Otto Kuntze published Revisio Generum Plantarum , his response to what he perceived as a lack of method in existing nomenclatural practice . Three taxa received new names : Kuntze coined the genus Trombetta , which incorporated Cantharellus canadensis ( as Trombetta canadensis ) , while C. floccosus and C. princeps became Merulius floccosus and M. princeps respectively . However , Kuntze 's revisionary program was not accepted by the majority of botanists .
Franklin Sumner Earle made C. floccosus the type species of the new genus Turbinellus in 1909 , remarking that " They constitute a striking and well @-@ marked genus which seems to have more in common with the club @-@ shaped species of Craterellus than with the following genus where they have always been placed . " However this was not widely taken up . Earle 's new combination was not published validly according to nomenclatural rules .
In 1945 it was transferred to Gomphus by Rolf Singer . The generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek γομφος , gomphos , meaning " plug " or " large wedge @-@ shaped nail " . Alex H. Smith treated the members of Gomphus as two sections — Gomphus and Excavatus — within Cantharellus in his 1947 review of chanterelles in western North America , as he felt there were no consistent characteristics that distinguished the genera . The shaggy chanterelle was placed in the latter section due to its scaly cap , lack of clamp connections and rusty @-@ colored spores . Roger Heim classified it in the genus Nevrophyllum , before E. J. H. Corner returned it to Gomphus in 1966 .
The genus Gomphus , along with several others in the Gomphaceae , was reorganized in the 2010s after molecular analysis confirmed that the older morphology @-@ based classification did not accurately represent phylogenetic relationships . Thus the genus Turbinellus was resurrected and the taxon became Turbinellus floccosus .
T. floccosus has been given the common names of scaly vase chanterelle , scaly chanterelle , woolly chanterelle , or shaggy chanterelle , though it is more closely related to stinkhorns than true chanterelles . In Nepal , in the Sherpa language , it is known as diyo chyau or khumbhe chyau , from the words diyo , meaning " oil lamp " and chyau , meaning " mushroom " , as the fruit bodies have a shape similar to the local oil lamps . In Mexico , it is known as corneta or trompeta , or by the indigenous words Tlapitzal , tlapitzananácatl or oyamelnanácatl in Tlaxcala .
= = Description = =
Adult fruit bodies are initially cylindrical , maturing to trumpet- or vase @-@ shaped and reaching up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) high and up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) across . There is no clear demarcation between the cap and stipe . The stipe itself can be up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) tall and 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide , though it tapers to a narrower base . It is solid in younger specimens , though is often hollowed out by insect larvae in older . At higher elevations , two or three fruit bodies may arise from one stipe . Colored various shades of reddish- to yellowish @-@ orange , the cap surface is broken into scales , with the spaces between more yellow and the scales themselves more orange . The most colorful specimens occur in warm humid weather . Older specimens are often paler .
The white flesh is fibrous and thick , though thins out in old specimens . Somewhat brittle , it can sometimes turn brown when cut or bruised . The smell has been reported as indistinct or " earthy and sweet " , and the taste " sweet and sour " . The spore @-@ bearing undersurface is irregularly folded , forked or ridged rather than gilled and is pale buff or yellowish to whitish in color . These ridges are up to 4 mm high . The surface is decurrently attached to the stipe , though irregularly so . The spore print is brownish , the spores ellipsoid with dimensions of 12 @.@ 4 – 16 @.@ 8 x 5 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 3 μm . The spore surface is roughened with ornamentations that can be made visible under the microscope by staining with methyl blue .
The fruit bodies can last for some considerable time , growing slowly over a month . Mushrooms in subalpine and alpine areas are typically heavy @-@ set with a short stipe , their growth slower in the cold climate . This form is slower growing , and is seen at lower altitudes in colder seasons . Smith gave this the name forma rainierensis . Conversely , mushrooms at low altitudes , such as in the redwood forests , can grow and expand rapidly with large caps that have prominent scales . Smith described a paler form with a solid stipe from the Sierra Nevada as forma wilsonii . R. H. Petersen described an olive @-@ capped form that is otherwise identical to the typical form . These forms are not recognised as distinct .
= = = Similar species = = =
The related Turbinellus kauffmanii , found in western North America , is similar @-@ looking but has a pale brown cap . Younger specimens of the latter species also have a pungent smell . Turbinellus fujisanensis , found in Japan , is another lookalike that has smaller spores than T. floccosus . The fruit bodies of Gomphus bonarii , found in northwestern North America , are typically more yellowish to brownish compared to T. floccosus , and they tend to fruit in clumps .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The fungus appears to form ectomycorrhizal relationships with various conifers including Douglas @-@ fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) , fir ( Abies ) species such as momi fir ( Abies firma ) , European silver fir ( A. alba ) and Khinghan fir ( A. nephrolepis ) , Pine ( Pinus ) species such as Pinus densiflora and western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ) . In Mexico , the fungus associates with Abies religiosa — the mycorrhizal association between these two species has been synthesized under controlled laboratory conditions . T. floccosus is more abundant in older stands of trees and places where there is more decomposed wood on the forest floor . The species occurs in coniferous forests in North America , particularly the western states in late summer and autumn . They are most abundant in rainy parts of the Pacific Northwest , northern California and the Sierra Nevada . It also occurs through Asia , having been recorded from India , Nepal , Pakistan , Tibet , China , North Korea , and Japan .
Turbinellus floccosus has been occasionally recorded from introduced conifer plantations in Australia .
= = Toxicity = =
Turbinellus floccosus is poisonous to some people who eat it , but has been eaten without incident by others . Nausea , vomiting and diarrhea may occur , though are sometimes delayed by up to 8 – 14 hours . A tricarboxylic acid known as α @-@ tetradecylcitric- or norcaperatic acid may be responsible for the extreme gastrointestinal symptoms . Laboratory experiments showed it increased tone of guinea pig smooth muscle of the small bowel ( ileum ) , and that when given to rats , it led to mydriasis , skeletal muscle weakness , and central nervous system depression . The concentration ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) of the presumed active ingredient — norcaperatic acid — extracted from fruit bodies of Turbinellus floccosus was over double that extracted from the related T. kauffmanii .
Despite its toxicity , T. floccosus is one of the ten wild mushrooms most widely consumed by ethnic tribes in Meghalaya , northeast India , and is highly regarded by the Sherpa people in the vicinity of Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal . What is not known is whether the populations of T. floccosus are lacking in the toxin , or whether the local people have developed an immunity to it . It is also eaten in Mexico . Mycologist David Arora reported some enjoyed it while he felt it had a sour taste that he found off @-@ putting .
The fruit body of T. floccosus produces oxylipin ( biologically active lipids generated from fatty acids ) that have antifungal activity against the plant pathogens Colletotrichum fragariae , C. gloeosporioides , and C. acutatum . Extracts of the fungus have shown in standard laboratory tests to have antimicrobial activity against several human pathogenic strains . T. floccosus also contains the spermidine derivative pistillarin , a bioactive compound that inhibits DNA damage by hydroxyl radicals generated by the Fenton reaction . Pistillarin is responsible for the green color obtained when iron salts are applied to the fruit body surface .
= Hajj =
The Hajj ( / hædʒ / ; Arabic : حج Ḥaǧǧ " pilgrimage " ) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca , and a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by all adult Muslims who are physically and financially capable of undertaking the journey , and can support their family during their absence . It is one of the five pillars of Islam , alongside Shahadah , Salat , Zakat , and Sawm . The Hajj is the largest annual gatherings of people in the world . The state of being physically and financially capable of performing the Hajj is called istita 'ah , and a Muslim who fulfills this condition is called a mustati . The Hajj is a demonstration of the solidarity of the Muslim people , and their submission to God ( Allah ) . The word Hajj means " to intend a journey " , which connotes both the outward act of a journey and the inward act of intentions .
The pilgrimage occurs from the 8th to 12th ( or in some cases 13th ) of Dhu al @-@ Hijjah , the last month of the Islamic calendar . Because the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Islamic year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year , the Gregorian date of Hajj changes from year to year . Ihram is the name given to the special spiritual state in which pilgrims wear two white sheets of seamless cloth and abstain from certain actions .
The Hajj is associated with the life of Islamic prophet Muhammad from the 7th century , but the ritual of pilgrimage to Mecca is considered by Muslims to stretch back thousands of years to the time of Abraham . During Hajj , pilgrims join processions of hundreds of thousands of people , who simultaneously converge on Mecca for the week of the Hajj , and perform a series of rituals : each person walks counter @-@ clockwise seven times around the Ka 'aba ( the cube @-@ shaped building and the direction of prayer for the Muslims ) , runs back and forth between the hills of Al @-@ Safa and Al @-@ Marwah , drinks from the Zamzam Well , goes to the plains of Mount Arafat to stand in vigil , spends a night in the plain of Muzdalifa , and performs symbolic stoning of the devil by throwing stones at three pillars . The pilgrims then shave their heads , perform a ritual of animal sacrifice , and celebrate the three @-@ day global festival of Eid al @-@ Adha .
Pilgrims can also go to Mecca to perform the rituals at other times of the year . This is sometimes called the " lesser pilgrimage " , or Umrah . However , even if they choose to perform the Umrah , they are still obligated to perform the Hajj at some other point in their lifetime if they have the means to do so .
= = History = =
The present pattern of Hajj was established by Muhammad . However , according to the Quran , elements of Hajj trace back to the time of Abraham , around 2000 BCE . According to Islamic tradition , Abraham was ordered by God to leave his wife Hagar ( Hagar ) and his son Ishmael alone in the desert of ancient Mecca . In search of water , Hagar desperately ran seven times between the two hills of Safa and Marwah but found none . Returning in despair to Ishmael , she saw the baby scratching the ground with his leg and a water fountain sprang forth underneath his foot . Later , Abraham was commanded to build the Kaaba ( which he did with the help of Ishmael ) and to invite people to perform pilgrimage there . The Quran refers to these incidents in verses 2 : 124 @-@ 127 and 22 : 27 @-@ 30 . It is said that the archangel Gabriel brought the Black Stone from Heaven to be attached to the Kaaba .
In pre @-@ Islamic Arabia , a time known as jahiliyyah , the Kaaba became surrounded by pagan idols . In 630 CE , Muhammad led his followers from Medina to Mecca , cleansed the Kaaba by destroying all the pagan idols , and then reconsecrated the building to Allah . In 632 CE , Muhammad performed his only and last pilgrimage with a large number of followers , and instructed them on the rites of Hajj . It was from this point that Hajj became one of the five pillars of Islam .
During the medieval times , pilgrims would gather in big cities of Syria , Egypt , and Iraq to go to Mecca in groups and caravans comprising tens of thousands of pilgrims , often under state patronage . Hajj caravans , particularly with the advent of the Mamluk Sultanate and its successor , the Ottoman Empire , were escorted by a military force accompanied by physicians under the command of an amir al @-@ hajj . This was done in order to protect the caravan from Bedouin robbers or natural hazards , and to ensure that the pilgrims were supplied with the necessary provisions . Muslim travelers like Ibn Jubayr and Ibn Battuta have recorded detailed accounts of Hajj @-@ travels of medieval time . The caravans followed well @-@ established routes called in Arabic darb al @-@ hajj , lit . " pilgrimage road " , which usually followed ancient routes such as the King 's Highway .
= = Timing of Hajj = =
The date of Hajj is determined by the Islamic calendar ( known as Hijri calendar or AH ) , which is based on the lunar year . Every year , the events of Hajj take place in a five @-@ day period , starting on 8 and ending on 12 Dhul @-@ Hijjah , the twelfth and last month of the Islamic calendar . Among these five days , the 9th Dhul @-@ Hijjah is known as Day of Arafah , and this day is called the day of Hajj . Because the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Islamic year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year , the Gregorian date for Hajj changes from year to year . Thus , each year in the Gregorian calendar , the pilgrimage starts eleven days ( sometimes ten days ) earlier than the preceding year . This makes it possible for the Hajj season to fall twice in one Gregorian year , and it does so every 33 years . The last time this phenomenon occurred was 2006 . The table below shows the Gregorian dates of Hajj of recent years ( the dates correspond to 9 Dhul @-@ Hijjah of Hijri calendar ) :
The approximate date for the next Hajj pilgrimage ( 1437 AH ) is 11 September 2016 .
= = Rites = =
Fiqh literature describes in detail the manners of carrying out the rites of Hajj , and pilgrims generally follow handbooks and expert guides to successfully fulfill the requirements of Hajj . In performing the rites of hajj , the pilgrims not only follow the model of Muhammad , but also commemorate the events associated with Abraham .
= = = Ihram = = =
When the pilgrims reach the appropriate Miqat ( depending on where they 're coming from ) , they enter into a state of holiness – known as Ihram – that consists of wearing two white seamless cloths for the male , with the one wrapped around the waist reaching below the knee and the other draped over the left shoulder and tied at the right side ; wearing ordinary dress for the female that fulfills the Islamic condition of public dress with hands or face uncovered ; taking ablution ; declaring the intention ( niyah ) to perform pilgrimage and to refraining from certain activities such as clipping the nails , shaving any part of the body , having sexual relations ; using perfumes , damaging plants , killing animals , covering head ( for men ) or the face and hands ( for women ) ; getting married ; or carrying weapons . The ihram is meant to show equality of all pilgrims in front of God : there is no difference between the rich and the poor .
= = = Tawaf and sa 'ay = = =
The ritual of Tawaf involves walking seven times counterclockwise around the Kaaba . Upon arriving at Masjid al @-@ Haram , pilgrims perform an arrival tawaf either as part of Umrah or as a welcome tawaf . During tawaf , pilgrims also include Hateem – an area at the north side of the Kaaba – inside their path . Each circuit starts with the kissing or touching of the Black Stone ( Hajar al- Aswad ) . If kissing the stone is not possible because of the crowds , they may simply point towards the stone with their hand on each circuit . Eating is not permitted but the drinking of water is allowed , because of the risk of dehydration . Men are encouraged to perform the first three circuits at a hurried pace , known as Ramal , and the following four at a more leisurely pace .
The completion of Tawaf is followed by two Rakaat prayers at the Place of Abraham ( Muqam Ibrahim ) , a site near the Kaaba inside the mosque . However , again because of large crowds during the days of Hajj , they may instead pray anywhere in the mosque . After prayer , pilgrims also drink water from the Zamzam well , which is made available in coolers throughout the Mosque .
Although the circuits around the Kaaba are traditionally done on the ground level , tawaf is now also performed on the first floor and roof of the mosque because of the large crowds .
Tawaf is followed by sa 'ay , running or walking seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah , located near the Kaaba . Previously in open air , the place is now entirely enclosed by the Masjid al @-@ Haram mosque , and can be accessed via air @-@ conditioned tunnels . Pilgrims are advised to walk the circuit , though two green pillars mark a short section of the path where they run . There is also an internal " express lane " for the disabled . After sayee , the male pilgrims shave their heads and women generally clip a portion of their hair , which completes the Umrah .
= = = First day of Hajj : 8th Dhu al @-@ Hijjah = = =
On the 8th Dhu al @-@ Hijjah , the pilgrims are reminded of their duties . They again don the ihram garments and confirm their intention to make the pilgrimage . The prohibitions of ihram start now .
= = = = Mina = = = =
After the morning prayer on the 8th of Dhu al @-@ Hijjah , the pilgrims proceed to Mina where they spend the whole day and offer noon , afternoon , evening , and night prayers . The next morning after morning prayer , they leave Mina to go to Arafat .
= = = Second day : 9th Dhu al @-@ Hijjah = = =
= = = = Arafat = = = =
On 9th Dhu al @-@ Hijjah before noon , pilgrims arrive at Arafat , a barren and plain land some 20 kilometers east of Mecca , where they stand in contemplative vigil : they offer supplications , repent on and atone for their past sins , and seek mercy of God , and listen to sermon from the Islamic scholars who deliver it from near Jabal al @-@ Rahmah ( The Mount of Mercy ) from where Muhammad is said to have delivered his last sermon . Lasting from noon through sunset , this is known as ' standing before God ' ( wuquf ) , one of the most significant rites of Hajj . At Masjid al @-@ Namirah , pilgrims offer noon and afternoon prayers together at noon time . A pilgrim 's Hajj is considered invalid if they do not spend the afternoon on Arafat .
= = = = Muzdalifah = = = =
Pilgrims must leave Arafat for Muzdalifah after sunset without praying maghrib ( evening ) prayer at Arafat . Muzdalifah is an area between Arafat and Mina . Upon reaching there , pilgrims perform Maghrib and Isha prayer jointly , spend the night praying and sleeping on the ground with open sky , and gather pebbles for the next day 's ritual of the stoning of the Devil ( Shaitan ) .
= = = Third day : 10th Dhu al @-@ Hijjah = = =
After returning from Muzdalifah , the Pilgrims spend the night at Mina .
= = = = Ramy al @-@ Jamarat = = = =
Back at Mina , the pilgrims perform symbolic stoning of the devil ( Ramy al @-@ Jamarat ) by throwing seven stones at only the largest of the three pillars , known as Jamrat al @-@ Aqabah from sunrise to sunset . The remaining two pillars ( jamarah ) are not stoned on this day . These pillars are said to represent Satan . Pilgrims climb ramps to the multi @-@ levelled Jamaraat Bridge , from which they can throw their pebbles at the jamarat . Because of safety reasons , in 2004 the pillars were replaced by long walls , with catch basins below to collect the pebbles .
= = = = Animal sacrifice = = = =
After the casting of stones , animals are slaughtered to commemorate the story of Abraham and Ishmael . Traditionally the pilgrims slaughtered the animal themselves , or oversaw the slaughtering . Today many pilgrims buy a sacrifice voucher in Mecca before the greater Hajj begins , which allows an animal to be slaughtered in their name on the 10th , without the pilgrim being physically present . Modern abattoirs complete the processing of the meat , which is then sent as charity to poor people around the world . At the same time as the sacrifices occur at Mecca , Muslims worldwide perform similar sacrifices , in a three @-@ day global festival called Eid al @-@ Adha .
= = = = Hair removal = = = =
After sacrificing an animal , another important rite of Hajj is shaving head or trimming hair ( known as Halak ) . All male pilgrims shave their head or trim their hair on the day of Eid al Adha and women pilgrims cut the tips of their hair .
= = = = Tawaf Al @-@ Ifaadah = = = =
On the same or the following day , the pilgrims re @-@ visit the Masjid al @-@ Haram mosque in Mecca for another tawaf , known as Tawaf al @-@ Ifadah , an essential part of Hajj . It symbolizes being in a hurry to respond to God and show love for Him , an obligatory part of the Hajj . The night of the 10th is spent back at Mina .
= = = Fourth day : 11th Dhu al @-@ Hijjah = = =
Starting from noon to sunset on the 11 Dhu al @-@ Hijjah ( and again the following day ) , the pilgrims again throw seven pebbles at each of the three pillars in Mina . This is commonly known as the " Stoning of the Devil " .
= = = Fifth day : 12th Dhu al @-@ Hijjah = = =
On 12 Dhu al @-@ Hijjah , the same process of stoning of the pillars as of 11 Dhu al @-@ Hijjah takes place . Pilgrims may leave Mina for Mecca before sunset on the 12th .
= = = Last day at Mina : 13th Dhu al @-@ Hijjah = = =
If unable to leave on the 12th before sunset or opt to stay at free will , they must perform the stoning ritual again on the 13th before returning to Mecca .
= = = = Tawaf al @-@ Wadaa = = = =
Finally , before leaving Mecca , pilgrims perform a farewell tawaf called the Tawaf al @-@ Wadaa . ' Wadaa ' means ' to bid farewell ' . The pilgrims circle the Kaaba seven times counter @-@ clockwise , and if they can , attempt to touch or kiss the Kaaba .
= = = Journey to Medina = = =
Though not a part of Hajj , pilgrims may choose to travel to the city of Medina and the Al @-@ Masjid an @-@ Nabawi ( Mosque of the Prophet ) , which contains Muhammad 's tomb . The Quba Mosque and Masjid al @-@ Qiblatayn are also usually visited .
= = Arrangement and facilities = =
Making necessary arrangements each year for the growing number of pilgrims poses a logistic challenge for the government of Saudi Arabia , which has , since the 1950s , spent more than $ 100 billion to increase pilgrimage facilities . Major issues like housing , transportation , sanitation , and health care have been addressed and improved greatly by the government by introducing various development programs , with the result that pilgrims now enjoy modern facilities and perform various rites at ease . The Saudi government often sets quota for various countries to keep the pilgrims ' number at a manageable level , and arranges huge security forces and CCTV cameras to maintain overall safety during Hajj . Various institutions and government programs , such as the Haj subsidy offered in India or the Tabung Haji based in Malaysia assist pilgrims in covering the costs of the journey . For 2014 Hajj , special Hajj information desks were set up at Pakistani airports to assist the pilgrims .
= = Transportation = =
Pilgrims generally travel to Hajj in groups . During the early 19th century , numbers undertaking the traditional overland pilgrimage within caravans began to diminish as many pilgrims began arriving in Mecca by steamship . This continued for some time , until air travel came to predominate ; Egypt introduced the first airline service for Hajj pilgrims in 1937 . Today , many airlines and travel agents offer Hajj packages , and arrange for transportation and accommodation for the pilgrims . King Abdulaziz International Airport in Jeddah and Prince Mohammad Bin Abdulaziz Airport in Medina have dedicated pilgrim terminals to assist the arrival of pilgrims . Other international airports around the world , such as Indira Gandhi in New Delhi , Rajiv Gandhi International Airport in Hyderabad , Jinnah in Karachi and Soekarno @-@ Hatta in Jakarta also have dedicated terminals or temporary facilities to service pilgrims as they depart and return home . During Hajj , many airlines run extra flights to accommodate the large number of pilgrims .
= = Modern crowd @-@ control problems = =
Pilgrim numbers have greatly increased in recent years , which has led to numerous accidents and deaths due to overcrowding . The first major accident during Hajj in modern times occurred in 1990 , when a tunnel stampede led to the death of 1 @,@ 462 people . Afterwards , various crowd @-@ control techniques were adopted to ensure safety . Because of large crowds , some of the rituals have become more symbolic . For example , it is no longer necessary to kiss the Black Stone . Instead , pilgrims simply point at it on each circuit around the Kaaba . Also , the large pillars used for pebble throwing were changed into long walls in 2004 with basins below to catch the stones . Another example is that animal sacrifice is now done by appropriate Saudi authority at appointed slaughterhouses without the pilgrims being present there .
Even with these crowd control techniques , there are still many incidents during the Hajj as pilgrims are trampled or ramps collapse under the weight of the many visitors . During 2015 Hajj , a stampede resulted in 769 deaths and injuries to 934 others , according to the Saudi authorities . A report from Associated Press totalled at least 1470 fatalities from official reports from other countries , making it the most deadly such episode to date . Concerns were raised in 2013 and 2014 about the spread of MERS because of mass gatherings during the Hajj . Saudi Health Minister Abdullah Al @-@ Rabia said authorities have detected no cases of MERS among the pilgrims so far . He also said that , despite few cases of MERS , Saudi Arabia was ready for the 2014 pilgrimage .
= = Significance = =
To the Muslims , Hajj is associated with religious as well as social significance . Apart from being an obligatory religious duty , Hajj is seen to have a spiritual merit that provides the Muslims with an opportunity of self @-@ renewal . Hajj serves as a reminder of the Day of Judgment when Muslims believe people will stand before God . Hadith literature ( sayings of Muhammad ) articulates various merits a pilgrim achieves upon successful completion of their Hajj . After successful pilgrimage , pilgrims can prefix their names with the title ' Al @-@ Hajji ' , and are held with respect in Muslim society . However , Islamic scholars suggest Hajj should signify a Muslim 's religious commitment , and should not be a measurement of their social status . Hajj brings together and unites the Muslims from different parts of the world irrespective of their race , colour , and culture , which acts as a symbol of equality .
A 2008 study on the impact of participating in the Islamic pilgrimage found that Muslim communities become more positive and tolerant after Hajj experience . Titled Estimating the Impact of the Hajj : Religion and Tolerance in Islam 's Global Gathering and conducted in conjunction with Harvard University 's John F. Kennedy School of Government , the study noted that the Hajj " increases belief in equality and harmony among ethnic groups and Islamic sects and leads to more favorable attitudes toward women , including greater acceptance of female education and employment " and that " Hajjis show increased belief in peace , and in equality and harmony among adherents of different religions . "
Malcolm X , an American civil rights activist , describes the sociological atmosphere he experienced at his Hajj in the 1960s as follows :
There were tens of thousands of pilgrims , from all over the world . They were of all colors , from blue @-@ eyed blondes to black @-@ skinned Africans . But we were all participating in the same ritual , displaying a spirit of unity and brotherhood that my experiences in America had led me to believe never could exist between the white and the non @-@ white . America needs to understand Islam , because this is the one religion that erases from its society the race problem . You may be shocked by these words coming from me . But on this pilgrimage , what I have seen , and experienced , has forced me to rearrange much of my thought patterns previously held .
= = Number of pilgrims per year = =
There has been a substantial increase in the number of pilgrims during the last 92 years , and the number of foreign pilgrims has increased by approximately 2 @,@ 824 percent , from 58 @,@ 584 in 1920 to 1 @,@ 712 @,@ 962 in 2012 . Because of development and expansion work at Masjid al @-@ Haram , the authority restricted the number of pilgrims in 2013 . The following number of pilgrims arrived in Saudi Arabia each year to perform Hajj .
= = Gallery = =
= Patrice Evra =
Patrice Latyr Evra ( French pronunciation : [ pa.tʁis e.vʁa ] ; born 15 May 1981 ) is a French international footballer who plays for Italian club Juventus . Originally an attacker , he primarily plays as a left @-@ back . Evra , whom Sir Alex Ferguson praised for his leadership , also describing him as one of the best left @-@ backs in Europe , has served as captain for both Manchester United and France .
The son of a diplomat , Evra was born in Senegal and arrived in Europe when he was a year old . He was raised in France and began his football career playing for various clubs in the Île @-@ de @-@ France region such as hometown club CO Les Ulis and CSF Brétigny . In 1997 , he had a stint at professional club Paris Saint @-@ Germain . A year later , Evra seized his first footballing opportunity in neighbouring Italy when he signed his first professional contract with Marsala in Sicily . He made his professional debut with the club and , in the ensuing season , joined Monza . After a year playing with Monza , Evra returned to France to play for Nice . Originally a midfielder , while playing at Nice , he was converted into a full @-@ back . In 2002 , Evra moved to AS Monaco and contributed to the team that won the Coupe de la Ligue in 2003 . He also featured in European competition for the first time in his career and , in the 2003 – 04 season , was the starting left @-@ back on the Monaco team that reached the 2004 UEFA Champions League Final . In that same season domestically , Evra was named the National Union of Professional Footballers ( UNFP ) Ligue 1 Young Player of the Year . He was also named to the organisation 's Ligue 1 Team of the Year .
Evra 's performances with Monaco culminated into a move to English club Manchester United in January 2006 . While playing for Manchester United , Evra won a slew of trophies , which included winning the Football League Cup in his debut season at the club . In his second season , he eclipsed compatriot Mikaël Silvestre and Gabriel Heinze as first @-@ choice left @-@ back and has since won five Premier League titles , one UEFA Champions League title , one FIFA Club World Cup , three League Cups , and four Community Shield titles . Evra has been named to the Professional Footballers ' Association ( PFA ) Team of the Year on three occasions . For his performances during the 2008 – 09 season , he was named to both the FIFPro World XI and the UEFA Team of the Year . After joining Italian side Juventus in 2014 , he immediately helped the club to a domestic double and the 2015 UEFA Champions League Final , and won a second domestic double and the Supercoppa Italiana the following season .
Evra is also a France international . Prior to playing at senior level , he played at under @-@ 21 level . He made his senior international debut in August 2004 in a friendly match against Bosnia and Herzegovina . Evra has participated in five major international tournaments for France ; the 2008 , 2012 and 2016 editions of the UEFA European Football Championship , winning a runners @-@ up medal at Euro 2016 , and both the 2010 FIFA World Cup and 2014 FIFA World Cup . Ahead of the 2010 World Cup , Evra was named captain of the national team by Domenech and bore the armband for the first time in the team 's friendly match against Costa Rica in May 2010 . At the tournament , he appeared in two group stage matches , although France endured a disastrous campaign which saw the players go on strike . The incident resulted in Evra , for his role as captain , being suspended from national team duty for five matches . However , he returned to the squad and enjoyed a successful 2014 World Cup in Brazil under Didier Deschamps , as France reached the quarter @-@ finals .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Evra began his football career playing for hometown club CO Les Ulis . After playing in the streets for years , he was brought to the club by friend Tshymen Buhanga who informed the club coach " I bring you the new Romário " . Evra spent a year at the club under the watch of coach Jean @-@ Claude Giordanella , who later became vice @-@ president of the club . Giordanella described the player as " more quiet , almost shy . He was a good kid " . Evra originally played football in the striker position and , while training at Les Ulis , underwent trials with professional clubs Rennes and Lens . Following the conclusion of the evaluations , Evra was rejected primarily due to his size . In 1993 , he joined amateur club CSF Brétigny based in nearby Brétigny @-@ sur @-@ Orge . Similar to his stint with Les Ulis , Evra went on trials with several clubs , most notably Toulouse and Paris Saint @-@ Germain . He was ultimately signed by the latter club and converted into a winger . Evra trained at the Camp des Loges for a few months , but was later released .
After failing to convince Paris Saint @-@ Germain officials of his ability as a footballer , Evra returned to Brétigny and was invited by a friend to participate in an indoor five @-@ a @-@ side football tournament organised by the Juvisy @-@ sur @-@ Orge sports center . While playing , he was spotted by an Italian scout who offered him the opportunity to attend a trial with professional club Torino in Italy . Evra spent ten days training with the club and , after the trial , was offered a place on the club 's youth team . Afterwards , he was approached by Serie C1 club Marsala whose officials enticed him with the prospect of becoming a professional . Evra chose the latter option and signed his first professional contract at the age of 17 . He described the moment as " the best feeling I have had in football " . Evra spent only one season with the club appearing in 27 total matches and scoring six goals . After this , he moved to the Serie B level to join Monza for a fee of € 250 @,@ 000 after potential moves to Serie A clubs Roma and Lazio came to nothing . Evra only appeared in three matches , making his debut on 29 August 1999 in a 2 – 1 away defeat against Alzano . He left the club following one season after becoming frustrated due to his lack of appearances .
= = = Nice = = =
Evra returned to France joining professional club Nice in Ligue 2 , the second division of French football . He spent the majority of his first season with the club playing with its reserve team in the Championnat de France amateur , the fourth level of French football . He primarily played as a midfielder on the team and appeared in 18 matches , converting one goal . Midway through the campaign , Evra was called into the first team by manager Sandro Salvioni . He was assigned the number 26 shirt and made his club debut on 7 October 2000 in the team 's 7 – 2 defeat to Châteauroux starting in the left winger position . Evra made four more appearances during the campaign appearing as a substitute in defeats to Cannes , Nancy , and starting in the team 's 3 – 0 win over Laval and 1 – 0 loss to Le Havre on the final match day of the season . Evra played primarily as centre forward in the matches .
In the 2001 – 02 season , Evra switched to the number 17 shirt and was promoted to the first team on a permanent basis . In the team 's first league match of the season against Laval , he started in the team 's 2 – 1 win . Towards the end of the match , reserve left @-@ back Jean @-@ Charles Cirilli , who was starting in place of the regular starter José Cobos , suffered an injury , which required the player to be substituted out . As a consequence , Evra dropped back into the role and played out the rest of the match in the position . Following the match , due to injuries to both Cobos and Cirilli , Evra was informed by Salvioni that he would take over the position . The young player disagreed with the manager 's decision declaring that he was a forward , however , after Salvioni informed him " If you want to be in the team you play there " , Evra agreed to take on the role . Evra made his debut in the position in the team 's following league match against Strasbourg ; a 3 – 0 defeat . He appeared regularly in the campaign and , following the return of Cobos , was even allowed to play in his preferred left wing role . With the club in the midst of a promotion battle , Evra scored his first and only goal for Nice in his last match with the club , a 4 – 3 win over Laval . The victory placed Nice in third place , which resulted in the club earning promotion to Ligue 1 for the first time since 1997 . For his performances , Evra was named to the National Union of Professional Footballers ( UNFP ) Ligue 2 Team of the Year in the left @-@ back position .
= = = AS Monaco = = =
Following the season , Evra was recruited by Nice 's Derby de la Côte d 'Azur rivals AS Monaco . Despite wanting to play as a left winger again , Evra was advised by manager Didier Deschamps that he would only play as a left @-@ back . Evra has since credited Deschamps for allowing him to become a better defender after initially describing the role as being not fun . Evra was inserted into a back four that consisted of centre @-@ backs Rafael Márquez and Sébastien Squillaci and right @-@ back Franck Jurietti . Evra was assigned the number 3 shirt and made his debut for the club in the opening match of the 2002 – 03 season against Troyes . He played the entire match in a 4 – 0 win . On 28 September , Evra scored his first goal for the club netting the game @-@ winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory against Rennes . On 22 March 2003 , he scored his second goal of the season in a 3 – 0 away win over Le Havre . The victory allowed Monaco to maintain its position at the top of the table as the club was in a three @-@ way battle with Lyon and Marseille . Monaco climatically conceded first place to Lyon in May , which resulted in Lyon being declared champions for the first time in its history . Monaco finished the campaign in second place , which merited the club an appearance in the UEFA Champions League . The club was also rewarded domestically for its performance in the Coupe de la Ligue where it reached the final . Evra featured in the team 's 4 – 1 win over Sochaux in the match . The league cup title gave Evra the first major honour of his career .
After the season , Marquez and Jurietti departed Monaco for Spanish club Barcelona and Bordeaux respectively , and were replaced by Gaël Givet and Hugo Ibarra , the latter joining the club on loan . In the 2003 – 04 league season , Deschamps installed Evra as a vice @-@ captain and he responded by appearing in 33 matches and providing four assists . Monaco spent six months from September to March in first place , but , like last season , conceded the top spot to Lyon as the season wore on . Evra made his UEFA Champions League debut on 17 September 2003 in the team 's opening group stage match against Dutch club PSV . Evra played the entire match in a 2 – 1 win . He appeared in all six group stage matches as Monaco finished in first place . For his performances in the first half of the 2003 – 04 season , Evra was linked with a 2004 winter move to English club Arsenal , Italian clubs Juventus and Milan , and Spanish club Barcelona .
After appearing consistently with the team , on 24 March 2004 , Evra suffered an ankle injury in the team 's 4 – 2 first leg defeat to Spanish club Real Madrid in the quarter @-@ finals of the Champions League . Evra subsequently missed two weeks in the league , but was healthy enough to return for the team 's second leg quarter @-@ final tie against Madrid , which Monaco won 3 – 1 . The win allowed the club advancement to the Champions League semi @-@ finals on the away goals rule . In the semi @-@ finals , Monaco faced English club Chelsea . Evra appeared in both matches as Monaco advanced to the final , beating the London club 5 – 3 on aggregate . In the 2004 UEFA Champions League Final , Monaco were pitted against Portuguese contenders Porto at the Arena AufSchalke in Gelsenkirchen , Germany . The club was defeated 3 – 0 by Porto . Evra played the full 90 minutes . After the season , Evra was given the UNFP Young Player of the Year award , becoming only the second defender and the first since 1997 ( Philippe Christanval ) to win the award . He was also named to the organisation 's Ligue 1 Team of the Year .
Despite missing out on playing in UEFA Euro 2004 , Evra endured a tumultuous summer in which the player was linked with moves with Manchester United in England , and Juventus and Internazionale in Italy . Despite offers , Evra remained at Monaco . On 24 September 2004 , he signed a one @-@ year contract extension with the club until 2008 . In the season , Evra was a regular appearing in a career @-@ high 52 matches scoring one goal and assisting on seven as Monaco reached the semi @-@ finals in both the Coupe de la Ligue and Coupe de France . Evra scored his only goal of the season on 8 January 2005 in the team 's Round of 64 Coupe de France match against amateur club AC Seyssinet @-@ Pariset . He netted the opener in a 7 – 0 win . In the Champions League , Monaco reached the first knockout round where the club suffered defeat to PSV 3 – 0 on aggregate . Evra appeared in nine of the ten matches the team contested in the competition . In April 2005 , Evra confirmed that he was interested in departing the club stating " I will have a decision to make for the rest of my career [ ... ] If attracted clubs show concrete interest , I will think about it seriously " . Despite several clubs declaring interest in Evra , Deschamps declared that the player would not be sold . At the start of the 2005 – 06 season , Monaco struggled falling to 15th place after only a month of play . On 21 December 2005 , Evra made his final appearance with the club in a 1 – 0 win over Lille in the Coupe de la Ligue .
= = = Manchester United = = =
= = = = 2006 – 2008 = = = =
On 27 December , French sources revealed that Manchester United was interested in signing Evra . Despite rumours of Monaco reaching a transfer agreement with Italian club Internazionale , on 3 January 2006 , Evra revealed that he preferred to move to England to join Manchester United . The following day , Manchester United officially issued a transfer bid for the player . On 6 January , Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson confirmed that a deal for Evra was done . Four days later , the transfer was official as Evra joined the club for a transfer fee of around £ 5 @.@ 5 million and put pen to paper on a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract . Evra 's arrival signalled Ferguson 's intention to shore up the club 's defence that had suffered since the sidelining of Gabriel Heinze . After joining the club , Evra affirmed that Manchester was his only future destination pronouncing " I was not very keen to go forward in the talks with Arsenal , Liverpool or Real Madrid . They all talked with my agent in the past two seasons . But to me , it was over . As I said to the Monaco officials , I only wanted to hear about Manchester " .
Evra initially had some problems adapting to the English game . He made his debut for the club on 14 January in a 3 – 1 away defeat to Manchester City in the Premier League . He was substituted out at half @-@ time after failing to make an impact . After the conclusion of the match , Ferguson stated , " Maybe it was a bit of a gamble playing Evra " , while the player himself admitted that " playing for Manchester United was something I was not prepared for " . Despite the initial set @-@ back , Evra started in the team 's ensuing match against Liverpool , a 1 – 0 victory , and was praised for his performance by team @-@ mate Rio Ferdinand . On 26 February , Evra appeared as a substitute in United 's 4 – 0 win over Wigan Athletic in the 2006 Football League Cup Final . On 2 March , it was reported that Liverpool defender
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match against the Netherlands , which was a 4 – 1 defeat . In the must @-@ win final group stage match against Italy , Evra started his second consecutive match , but France lost 2 – 0 and were eliminated from the competition . Following the match , cameras witnessed Evra and team @-@ mates Patrick Vieira and Abidal getting into an altercation in the tunnel . Vieira later stated that the video was shot after he got into an argument with a set of French supporters . A day after the team 's elimination , Evra admitted his frustration to French newspaper L 'Equipe , stating , " I am someone who does not like losing but I 'm not going to make excuses . We had three games in this Euro , we have not won one . It 's even hard to believe , to say it 's over now " .
= = = 2010 World Cup and exclusion = = =
After Euro 2008 , defensive stalwart Lilian Thuram retired from the team ; to accommodate this , Domenech decided to move Abidal into the centre @-@ back position , which allowed Evra to take over as the starting left @-@ back . In the team 's first competitive match since Euro 2008 against Austria , Evra provided the assist for France 's only goal scored by Sidney Govou in a surprising 3 – 1 defeat . During the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign , Evra participated in ten of the team 's 12 matches , which included both legs in the team 's playoff round win over the Republic of Ireland . On 26 May 2010 , Evra captained the national team for the first time in a friendly match against Costa Rica ; France won the match 2 – 1 . He was subsequently named the captain for the 2010 FIFA World Cup ahead of Thierry Henry , who was relegated to the bench for the tournament . Evra wore the armband in the team 's first two matches , a 0 – 0 draw with Uruguay and a 2 – 0 loss to Mexico . On 19 June , striker Nicolas Anelka was dismissed from the squad after reportedly having a dispute , in which obscenities were passed , with Domenech during half @-@ time of the team 's loss to Mexico . The resulting disagreement over Anelka 's exclusion between the players , the coaching staff , and federation officials resulted in Evra leading a player protest against the decision on 20 June , in which the players refused to train . Prior to leading the revolt , Evra had got into a verbal argument with national team fitness coach Robert Duverne . The strike was denounced by the French Football Federation , as well as government officials . The following day , the players returned to training without incident . As a result of the mutiny , Evra was stripped of the captaincy and benched for the team 's final group stage match against hosts South Africa . France lost 2 – 1 and were knocked out of the competition .
Following the competition , former national team captain Lilian Thuram stated that Evra should be banned permanently from playing for the national team . His sentiments were later echoed by sports minister Chantal Jouanno who declared " I have nothing against Evra but , as a France player and especially captain , he did not defend the values of sport which are shared by the Republic . I am sure there exist other talents who have not sullied France and are waiting for the chance to write new history " . On 6 August , Evra was one of five players summoned to attend a hearing held by the Disciplinary Committee of the French Football Federation in response to the team 's strike held at the World Cup . On 17 August , he received a five @-@ match international ban for his part in the incident .
= = = Return to the national team = = =
As a result of being captain , Evra bore the brunt of the criticism ; however , despite the public ridicule , Evra maintained his stance regarding his future with the national team stating " I can ’ t see my future without the France team " . On 17 March 2011 , he was called up to the national team by new manager Laurent Blanc for the first time since the 2010 FIFA World Cup . He had been eligible to return to the team since the previous month after serving his five @-@ match suspension , however , he was not called up to the team by Blanc with the manager citing sporting reasons as being why . Evra made his return to the team on 25 March in the team 's UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying match against Luxembourg . He started the match and played the full 90 minutes in a 2 – 0 win . Four days later , Evra appeared on the bench in his first match at the Stade de France since the World Cup , against Croatia . After appearing regularly in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 , on 29 May 2012 , he was named to the squad to participate in the competition .
= = = 2014 – 2016 = = =
Evra played four of France 's five matches at the 2014 FIFA World Cup , in which they were eliminated in the quarter @-@ finals by the eventual champions Germany .
In May 2016 , Evra was named to national team manager Didier Deschamps 's 23 @-@ man France squad for UEFA Euro 2016 , to be played on home soil . On 10 June , he was later included in the starting line @-@ up for France 's opening match of the tournament against Romania , playing the entire 90 minutes of the fixture . With France leading 1 – 0 , Evra fouled Nicolae Stanciu in the penalty box ; Bogdan Stancu scored the resulting penalty in the 65th minute . The hosts eventually won the match 2 – 1 , although Evra was later criticised for his performance . In the semi @-@ final against Germany on 7 July , Evra drew praise from the media as he helped win a penalty for his team and produced a strong defensive performance to help France keep a clean @-@ sheet and defeat the reigning World Champions 2 – 0 to advance to the final of the competition ; following the victory , he was also lauded for his leadership , and his role in using his experience to unite the team .
= = Style of play = =
Regarded as one of the best players in the world in his position during his prime , Evra is a fast , energetic , and athletic left @-@ back , who , despite his size , is physically strong , and good in the air , which also allows him to be deployed as a centre @-@ back on occasion ; in addition to his physical attributes , he is also comfortable on the ball , and adept at getting into attacking positions , where he can deliver crosses to team @-@ mates , having functioned as a winger earlier on in his career . An aggressive , tactically intelligent , versatile , and hard @-@ working player , he is also renowned for his leadership and tenacity on the pitch ; these attributes make him effective both offensively and defensively .
= = Personal life = =
Evra was born in Dakar , the capital city of Senegal , to a father of Guinean descent and Juliette , a Cape Verdean mother . He is one of a total of 25 children , although two are now deceased . Evra 's father was a diplomat and , when Evra was 12 months old , moved to Brussels in Belgium to work at the Senegalese embassy . After over two years living in Belgium , when Evra was three , the family moved to France and settled in Les Ulis , a commune south of Paris . The family first settled in the local Bergeries neighborhood before moving to the Hautes Plaines quarter shortly after . Evra was raised on Senegalese culture and values that quickly became " Westernised " . At the age of 10 , he returned to Senegal for a short period , describing the return as " not a good experience " primarily because he ventured back to the country to undergo circumcision . He had not returned to the country as of 2011 . Ahead of the 2010 FIFA World Cup , Evra revealed that he had suffered racial abuse from supporters of the Senegal national team for choosing to represent France internationally over his country of birth . Evra is allergic to eggs , a condition which he did not discover until an examination by Juventus .
Evra developed an interest in football at a young age and was fascinated by the play of former Brazilian international Romário , though he never really had an idol . He also earned good grades in school . Evra is married to Sandra with whom he has a son , Lenny and a daughter , Maona . He speaks five languages : his native French , English , Italian , Spanish and Portuguese . He also attempted to learn Korean in order to better communicate with Park Ji @-@ Sung , a South Korean teammate at Manchester United .
Evra participated in the Shoot For Love charity challenge raising vital funds for children suffering with cancer , organised by the Guus Hiddink Foundation .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
Statistics accurate as of match played 21 May 2016
= = = International = = =
As of match played 10 July 2016
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Monaco
Coupe de la Ligue ( 1 ) : 2002 – 03
Manchester United
Premier League ( 5 ) : 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 , 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13
Football League Cup ( 3 ) : 2005 – 06 , 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10
FA Community Shield ( 5 ) : 2007 , 2008 , 2010 , 2011 , 2013
UEFA Champions League ( 1 ) : 2007 – 08
FIFA Club World Cup ( 1 ) : 2008
Juventus
Serie A ( 2 ) : 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Coppa Italia ( 2 ) : 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
Supercoppa Italiana ( 1 ) : 2015
= = = Individual = = =
UNFP Ligue 1 Young Player of the Year ( 1 ) : 2003 – 04
UNFP Ligue 1 Team of the Year ( 1 ) : 2003 – 04
PFA Premier League Team of the Year ( 3 ) : 2006 – 07 , 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10
FIFA FIFPro World XI ( 1 ) : 2009
UEFA Team of the Year ( 1 ) : 2009
= Harry Randall Truman =
Harry Randall Truman ( October 30 , 1896 – May 18 , 1980 ) was a resident of the U.S. state of Washington who lived on Mount St. Helens . He came to brief fame in the months preceding the volcano 's 1980 eruption after he stubbornly refused to leave his home despite evacuation orders , and he is presumed to have been killed in the eruption . He was the owner and caretaker of Mount St. Helens Lodge at Spirit Lake , located at the south end of Spirit Lake at the foot of the mountain in the danger zone at the time of the eruption .
After Truman 's death , his family and friends reflected on his love for the mountain . He was commemorated in a book by his niece and a song by Headgear . In 1981 , Art Carney portrayed Truman in the docu @-@ drama film St. Helens .
= = Life = =
Truman was born in Ivydale , Clay County , West Virginia , to Rosa Belle ( née Hardman ; 1873 – 1957 ) and Newberry Truman ( 1874 – 1923 ) . His family settled in Chehalis , Washington several years later , where his father died in a logging camp accident in 1923 , aged 49 . He had one sister , Geraldine ( 1905 – 1987 ) .
Truman enlisted in the 100th Aero Squadron – 7th Squad of United States Army as a private on August 4 , 1917 . Several months later , he survived the torpedoing of the Tuscania on February 5 , 1918 , off the coast of Ireland . After the incident , Truman was honorably discharged from military service on June 12 , 1919 . He lived in Riffe , Washington , until 1926 , when he became caretaker of the Mount St. Helens Lodge at the foot of Mount St. Helens beside Spirit Lake . In 1928 Truman bought a half interest in the lodge , later that same year he bought the other half . At the time of his death , Truman had operated the lodge for 52 years . He was also a member of the Tuscania Survivors Association from 1938 until his death .
Truman was married three times : to Helen Irene ( née Hughes ) , Marjorie ( née Bennett ) , and Edna O. ( née Henrickson ) . It is not clear when he married or separated from Hughes , but he married Bennett in 1935 and Henrickson in 1947 .
= = Celebrity = =
He became a minor celebrity during the two months of volcanic activity preceding the eruption , giving interviews to reporters and expressing his opinion that the danger from the volcano was exaggerated , saying , " I don 't have any idea whether it will blow [ ... ] But I don 't believe it to the point that I 'm going to pack up . " Truman discarded all of his concerns about the volcano and his situation , stating " If the mountain goes , I 'm going with it . This area is heavily timbered , Spirit Lake is in between me and the mountain , and the mountain is a mile away , the mountain ain 't gonna hurt me ... boy . " According to The Bulletin , he responded to being knocked from his bed by precursor earthquakes by moving his mattress to his basement . At one point , Truman " scoffed " at the public 's concern for his safety . He became something of a " folk hero " and from March until May , was the subject of many songs and poems by children . One group of children from Salem , Oregon , sent him banners inscribed " Harry - We Love You " , while Truman received fan letters including several marriage proposals .
= = Death = =
Truman was alone at his lodge when he is presumed to have died in the eruption on May 18 . A pyroclastic flow engulfed the Spirit Lake area , destroying the lake and burying the site of his lodge under 150 feet ( 46 m ) of volcanic landslide debris . A new lake eventually formed on a much higher elevation .
His sister Geraldine expressed that she found it hard to accept the reality of his death , commenting , " I don 't think he made it . But I thought if they would let me fly over and see for myself that Harry 's lodge is gone , then maybe I 'd believe it for sure . "
The 1980 event was the deadliest and most destructive volcanic eruption in the recorded history of the continental United States of America . A total of 57 people are known to have died , and more were left homeless when the ash falls and pyroclastic flows destroyed or buried 200 houses . In addition to Truman , photojournalist Reid Blackburn , volcanologist David A. Johnston and photographer Robert Landsburg were killed .
= = Legacy = =
Truman had already emerged as a " folk hero " for his resistance to the evacuation efforts prior to his death . After his death , his friends and family , including his sister , Geraldine ( Geri ) , reflected on his death . Geri commented , " He was a very opinionated person . " Friend John Garrity added , " The mountain and the lake were his life . If he 'd left and then saw what the mountain did to his lake , it would have killed him anyway . He always said he wanted to die at Spirit Lake . He went the way he wanted to go . " Another friend , John Andersen , said , " Harry 's name and Harry 's presence will always be a part of that ( Spirit Lake ) . There can be no finer memorial . " Truman 's cousin Richard Ice commented that Truman " was not only a fast talker but loud . He had an opinion on all subjects and a definite one . " Ice also added that Truman 's short period of life as a celebrity was " the peak of his life . "
Truman was the subject of the book Truman of St. Helens : The Man and His Mountain written by his niece Shirley Rosen and was portrayed by Art Carney in the 1981 docu @-@ drama film St. Helens . He is the subject of the song " Harry Truman " written and recorded by Irish band Headgear , which features the refrain , " You can move the mountain but I 'm never coming down " . Another song about Harry was written by Lula Belle Garland called " The Legend of Harry And The Mountain . " It was recorded in 1980 by Ron Shaw & The Desert Wind Band .
More recently , singer @-@ songwriter and family entertainer Billy Jonas included Truman 's story in his song " Old St. Helen " , recorded in 2002 .
Truman Trail and Harry 's Ridge in the Mount St. Helens region are named after him . He was also famous for owning 16 cats , which he considered family , and mentioned in almost all public statements he made . The cats are presumed to have died with Truman on the day of the eruption .
= Spanish American wars of independence =
The Spanish American wars of independence were the numerous wars against Spanish rule in Spanish America that took place during the early 19th century , after the French invasion of Spain during Europe 's Napoleonic Wars . These conflicts started in 1809 with short @-@ lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville . When the Central Junta fell to the French invasion , in 1810 , numerous new juntas appeared across the Spanish domains in the Americas . The conflicts among these colonies and with Spain eventually resulted in a chain of newly independent countries stretching from Argentina and Chile in the south to Mexico in the north in the first third of the 19th century . Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish – American War in 1898 .
The new republics from the beginning abolished the casta system , the Inquisition and nobility , and slavery was ended in all of the new nations within a quarter century . Criollos ( those of Spanish descent born in the New World ) and mestizos ( those of mixed Indian and Spanish blood ) replaced Spanish @-@ born appointees in most political offices . Criollos remained at the top of a social structure which retained some of its traditional features culturally , if not legally . For almost a century thereafter , conservatives and liberals fought to reverse or to deepen the social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions .
These conflicts were fought as irregular warfare and conventional warfare , and both wars of national liberation and civil wars , since on the one hand the goal of one group of belligerents was the independence of the Spanish colonies , and on the other the majority of combatants on both sides were Spanish Americans and indigenous people , not Spaniards . Both armies originated from Spanish colonial troops of Americas . While some Spanish Americans believed that independence was necessary , most who initially supported the creation of the new governments saw them as a mean to preserve the region 's autonomy from the French . Over the course of the next decade , the political instability in Spain and the absolutist restoration under Ferdinand VII convinced more and more Spanish Americans of the need to formally establish independence from the mother country .
The events in Spanish America were related to the other wars of independence in Haiti and Brazil . Brazil 's independence , in particular , shared a common starting point with Spanish America 's , since both conflicts were triggered by Napoleon 's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula , which forced the Portuguese royal family to resettle in Brazil in 1807 . The process of Latin American independence took place in the general political and intellectual climate that emerged from the Age of Enlightenment and that influenced all of the Atlantic Revolutions , including the earlier revolutions in the United States and France . A more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the Kingdom of Spain and its monarchy during this period .
= = Historical background = =
Several factors set the stage for wars of independence . First the Bourbon Reforms of the mid @-@ eighteenth century introduced changes to the relationship of Spanish Americans to the Crown . In an effort to better control the administration and economy of the overseas possessions the Crown reintroduced the practice of appointing outsiders , almost all peninsulars , to the various royal offices throughout the empire . This meant that Spanish Americans lost the gains they had made in holding local offices as a result of the sale of offices during the previous century and a half . In some areas — such as Cuba , Río de la Plata and New Spain — the reforms had positive effects , improving the local economy and the efficiency of the government .
In other areas , the changes in crown 's economic and administrative policies led to tensions with locals , which at times erupted into open revolts , such as the Revolt of the Comuneros in New Granada and the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in Peru . Neither of these two eighteenth @-@ century developments — the loss of high offices to Criollos and the revolts — were the direct causes of the wars of independence , which took place decades later , but they were important elements of the political background in which the wars took place .
Other factors included Enlightenment thinking and the examples of the Atlantic Revolutions . The Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Latin America and the Iberian Peninsula . Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment in Spain . The political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout the Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors .
= = Creation of new governments in Spain and Americas , 1808 – 1810 = =
= = = Collapse of the Bourbon dynasty = = =
The Peninsular War was the trigger for the wars of independence . The Peninsular War began an extended period of instability in the world @-@ wide Spanish monarchy that lasted until 1823 . Napoleon 's removal of the Bourbon dynasty from the Spanish throne precipitated a political crisis . Although the Spanish world almost uniformly rejected Napoleon 's plan to give the crown to his brother , Joseph , there was no clear solution to the lack of a king . Following traditional Spanish political theories on the contractual nature of the monarchy ( see Philosophy of Law of Francisco Suárez ) , the peninsular provinces responded to the crisis by establishing juntas . The move , however , led to more confusion , since there was no central authority and most juntas did not recognize the presumptuous claim of some juntas to represent the monarchy as a whole . The Junta of Seville , in particular , claimed authority over the overseas empire , because of the province 's historic role as the exclusive entrepôt of the empire .
= = = Rebellion against Spanish rule = = =
This impasse was resolved through negotiations between the juntas and the Council of Castile , which led to the creation of a " Supreme Central and Governmental Junta of Spain and the Indies " on September 25 , 1808 . It was agreed that the traditional kingdoms of the peninsula would send two representatives to this Central Junta , and that the overseas kingdoms would send one representative each . These " kingdoms " were defined as " the viceroyalties of New Spain , Peru , New Granada , and Buenos Aires , and the independent captaincies general of the island of Cuba , Puerto Rico , Guatemala , Chile , Province of Venezuela , and the Philippines . "
This scheme was criticized for providing unequal representation to the overseas territories ; nevertheless , throughout the end of 1808 and early 1809 , the provincial capitals elected candidates , whose names were forwarded to the capitals of the viceroyalties or captaincies general . Several important and large cities were left without direct representation in the Supreme Junta . In particular Quito and Chuquisaca , which saw themselves as the capitals of kingdoms , resented being subsumed in the larger " kingdom " of Peru . This unrest led to the establishment of juntas in these cities in 1809 , which were eventually quashed by the authorities within the year . An unsuccessful attempt at establishing a junta in New Spain was also stopped . In order to establish a more legitimate government , the Supreme Junta called for the convening of an " extraordinary and general Cortes of the Spanish Nation . " The election scheme for the Cortes , based on provinces and not kingdoms , was more equitable and provided more time to determine what would be considered an overseas province .
The dissolution of the Supreme Junta on January 29 , 1810 , because of the reverses suffered after the Battle of Ocaña by the Spanish forces paid with Spanish American money , set off another wave of juntas being established in the Americas . French forces had taken over southern Spain and forced the Supreme Junta to seek refuge in the island @-@ city of Cadiz . The Junta replaced itself with a smaller , five @-@ man council , the Council of Regency of Spain and the Indies . Most Spanish Americans saw no reason to recognize a rump government that was under the threat of being captured by the French at any moment , and began to work for the creation of local juntas to preserve the region 's independence from the French . Junta movements were successful in New Granada ( Colombia ) , Venezuela , Chile and Río de la Plata ( Argentina ) . Less successful , though serious movements , also occurred in Central America . Ultimately , Central America , along with most of New Spain , Quito ( Ecuador ) , Peru , Upper Peru ( Bolivia ) , the Caribbean and the Philippine Islands remained in control of royalists for the next decade and participated in the Spanish Cortes effort to establish a liberal government for the Spanish Monarchy .
= = Wars for disputed sovereignty , 1810 – 14 = =
The creation of juntas in Spanish America , such as the Junta Suprema de Caracas on April 19 , 1810 , set the stage for the fighting that would afflict the region for the next decade and a half . Political fault lines appeared , and were often the causes of military conflict . On the one hand the juntas challenged the authority of all royal officials , whether they recognized the Regency or not . On the other hand , royal officials and Spanish Americans who desired to keep the empire together were split between liberals , who supported the efforts of the Cortes , and conservatives ( often called " absolutists " in the historiography ) , who did not want to see any innovations in government . Finally , although the juntas claimed to carry out their actions in the name of the deposed king , Ferdinand VII , their creation provided an opportunity for people who favored outright independence to publicly and safely promote their agenda . The proponents of independence called themselves patriots , a term which eventually was generally applied to them .
The idea that independence was not the initial concern is evidenced by the fact that few areas declared independence in the years after 1810 . The congresses of Venezuela and New Granada did so in 1811 and also Paraguay in same year ( 14 and 15 of May 1811 ) . Some historians explain the reluctance to declare independence as a " mask of Ferdinand VII " : that is , that patriot leaders felt that they needed to claim loyalty to the deposed monarch in order to prepare the masses for the radical change that full independence eventually would entail . Nevertheless , even areas such as Río de la Plata and Chile , which more or less maintained de facto independence from the peninsular authorities , did not declare independence until quite a few years later , in 1816 and 1818 , respectively . Overall , despite achieving formal or de facto independence , many regions of Spanish America were marked by nearly continuous civil wars , which lasted well into the 1820s . In Mexico , where the junta movement had been stopped in its early stages by a coalition of Peninsular merchants and government officials , efforts to establish a government independent of the Regency or the French took the form of popular rebellion , under the leadership of Miguel Hidalgo . Hidalgo was captured and executed in 1811 , but a resistance movement continued , which declared independence from Spain in 1813 . In Central America , attempts at establishing juntas were also put down , but resulted in significantly less violence . The Caribbean islands , like the Philippines on the other side of the world , were relatively peaceful . Any plots to set up juntas were denounced to the authorities early enough to stop them before they gained widespread support .
= = = Social tensions = = =
Underlying social tensions had a great impact on the nature of the fighting . Rural areas were pitted against urban centers , as grievances against the authorities found an outlet in the political conflict . This was the case with Hidalgo 's peasant revolt , which was fueled as much by discontent over several years of bad harvests as with events in the Peninsular War . Hidalgo was originally part of a circle of liberal urbanites in Querétaro , who sought to establish a junta . After this conspiracy was discovered , Hidalgo turned to the rural people of the Mexican Bajío to build his army , and their interests soon overshadowed those of the urban intellectuals . A similar tension existed in Venezuela , where the Spanish immigrant José Tomás Boves was able to form a nearly invincible , though informal , royalist army out of the Llanero , mixed @-@ race , plains people , by seeking to destroy the white landowning class . Boves and his followers often disregarded the command of Spanish officials and were not concerned with actually reestablishing the toppled royal government , choosing instead to keep real power among themselves . Finally in the backcountry of Upper Peru , the republiquetas kept the idea of independence alive by allying with disenfranchised members of rural society and Native groups , but were never able to take the major population centers . This period witnessed increasingly violent confrontations between Spaniards and Spanish Americans , but this tension was often related to class issues or fomented by patriot leaders to create a new sense of nationalism . After being incited to rid the country of the gachupines ( a disparaging term for Peninsulares ) , Hidalgo 's forces indiscriminately massacred hundreds of Criollos and Peninsulares who had taken refuge at the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato . In Venezuela during his Admirable Campaign , Simón Bolívar instituted a policy of a war to the death — in which and royalist Spanish Americans would be purposely spared but even neutral Peninsulares would be killed — in order to drive a wedge between the two groups . This policy laid the ground for the violent royalist reaction under Boves . Often though , royalism or patriotism simply provided a banner to organize the aggrieved , and the political causes could be discarded just as quickly as they were picked up . The Venezuelan Llaneros switched to the patriot banner once the elites and the urban centers became securely royalist after 1815 , and it was the royal army in Mexico that ultimately brought about that nation 's independence .
= = = Regional rivalry = = =
Regional rivalry also played an important role in the wars . The disappearance of a central , imperial authority — and in some cases of even a local , viceregal authority ( as in the cases of New Granada and Río de la Plata ) — initiated a prolonged period of balkanization in many regions of Spanish America . It was not clear which political units which should replace the empire , and there were no new national identities to replace the traditional sense of being Spaniards . The original juntas of 1810 appealed first , to sense of being Spanish , which was counterposed to the French threat ; second , to a general American identity , which was counterposed to the Peninsula lost to the French ; and third , to a sense of belonging to the local province , the patria in Spanish . More often than not , juntas sought to maintain a province 's independence from the capital of the former viceroyalty or captaincy general as much as from the Peninsula itself . Armed conflicts broke out between the provinces over the question of whether some provinces were to be subordinate to others as they had been under the crown . This phenomenon was particularly evident in New Granada and Río de la Plata . This rivalry also leads some regions to adopt the opposite political cause to that chosen by their rivals . Peru seems to have remained strongly royalist in large part because of its rivalry with Río de la Plata , to which it had lost control of Upper Peru when the later was elevated to a viceroyalty in 1776 . The creation of juntas in Río de la Plata allowed Peru to regain formal control of Upper Peru for the duration of the wars .
= = The king 's war against independence , 1814 – 20 = =
By 1815 the general outlines of which areas were controlled by royalists and pro @-@ independence forces were established and a general stalemate set in the war . In areas where royalists controlled the main population centers , most of the fighting by those seeking independence was done by isolated guerrilla bands . In New Spain , the two main guerrilla groups were led by Guadalupe Victoria in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca . In northern South America , New Granadan and Venezuelan patriots , under leaders such as Francisco de Paula Santander , Simón Bolívar , Santiago Mariño , Manuel Piar and José Antonio Páez , carried out campaigns in the vast Orinoco River basin and along the Caribbean coast , often with material aid coming from Curaçao and Haiti . Also , as mentioned above , in Upper Peru , guerrilla bands controlled the isolated , rural parts of the country .
= = = Restoration of Ferdinand VII = = =
In March 1814 , following with the collapse of the First French Empire , Ferdinand VII was restored to the Spanish throne . This signified an important change , since most of the political and legal changes made on both sides of the Atlantic — the myriad of juntas , the Cortes in Spain and several of the congresses in the Americas , and many of the constitutions and new legal codes — had been made in his name . Before entering Spanish territory , Ferdinand made loose promises to the Cortes that he would uphold the Spanish Constitution . But once in Spain he realized that he had significant support from conservatives in the general population and the hierarchy of the Spanish Catholic Church ; so , on May 4 , he repudiated the Constitution and ordered the arrest of liberal leaders on May 10 . Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had been made by a Cortes assembled in his absence and without his consent . He restored the former legal codes and political institutions and promised to convene a new Cortes under its traditional form ( with separate chambers for the clergy and the nobility ) , a promise never fulfilled . News of the events arrived through Spanish America during the next three weeks to nine months , depending on time it took goods and people to travel from Spain .
Ferdinand 's actions constituted a definitive de facto break both with the autonomous governments , which had not yet declared formal independence , and with the effort of Spanish liberals to create a representative government that would fully include the overseas possessions . Such a government was seen as an alternative to independence by many in New Spain , Central America , the Caribbean , Quito , Peru , Upper Peru and Chile . Yet the news of the restoration of the " ancien régime " did not initiate a new wave of juntas , as had happened in 1809 and 1810 , with the notable exception of the establishment of a junta in Cuzco demanding the implementation of the Spanish Constitution . Instead most Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy . In fact , in areas of New Spain , Central America and Quito , governors found it expedient to leave the elected constitutional ayuntamientos in place for several years in order to prevent conflict with the local society . Liberals on both sides of the Atlantic , nevertheless , continued to conspire to bring back a constitutional monarchy , ultimately succeeding in 1820 . The most dramatic example of transatlantic collaboration is perhaps Francisco Javier Mina 's expedition to Texas and northern Mexico in 1816 and 1817 .
Spanish Americans in royalist areas who were committed to independence had already joined the guerrilla movements . However , Ferdinand 's actions did set areas outside of the control of the crown on the path to full independence . The governments of these regions , which had their origins in the juntas of 1810 , and even moderates there , who had entertained a reconciliation with the crown , now saw the need to separate from Spain if they were to protect the reforms they had enacted .
= = = Royalist military = = =
During this period , royalist forces made advances into New Granada , which they controlled from 1815 to 1819 , and into Chile , which they controlled from 1814 to 1817 . Except for royalist areas in the northeast and south , the provinces of New Granada had maintained independence from Spain since 1810 , unlike neighboring Venezuela , where royalists and pro @-@ independence forces had exchanged control of the region several times . To pacify Venezuela and to retake New Granada , Spain organized in 1815 the largest armed force it ever sent to the New World , consisting of 10 @,@ 500 troops and nearly sixty ships . ( See , Spanish reconquest of New Granada . ) Although this force was crucial in retaking a solidly pro @-@ independence region like New Granada , its soldiers were eventually spread out throughout Venezuela , New Granada , Quito , and Peru and were lost to tropical diseases , diluting their impact on the war . More importantly , the majority of the royalist forces were composed , not of soldiers sent from the peninsula , but of Spanish Americans .
Overall , Europeans formed only about a tenth of the royalist armies in Spanish America , and only about half of the expeditionary units , once they were deployed in the Americas . Since each European soldier casualty was replaced by a Spanish American soldier , over time , there were more and more Spanish American soldiers in the expeditionary units . For example , Pablo Morillo , commander in chief of the expeditionary force sent to South America , reported that he had only 2 @,@ 000 European soldiers under his command in 1820 ; in other words , only half the soldiers of his expeditionary force were European . It is estimated that in the Battle of Maipú only a quarter of the royalist forces were European soldiers , in the Battle of Carabobo about a fifth , and in the Battle of Ayacucho less than 1 % was European .
The American militias reflected the racial make @-@ up of the local population . For example , in 1820 the royalist army in Venezuela had 843 white ( español ) , 5 @,@ 378 Casta and 980 Indigenous soldiers .
= = = Patriot advances = = =
Towards the end of this period the pro @-@ independence forces made two important advances . In the Southern Cone , a veteran of the Spanish army with experience in the Peninsular War , José de San Martín , became the governor of the Province of Cuyo . He used this position to begin organizing an army as early as 1814 in preparation for an invasion of Chile . This was an important change in strategy after three United Provinces campaigns had been defeated in Upper Peru . San Martín 's army became the nucleus of the Army of the Andes , which received crucial political and material support in 1816 when Juan Martín de Pueyrredón became Supreme Director of the United Provinces . In January 1817 , San Martín was finally ready to advance against the royalists in Chile . Ignoring an injunction from the congress of the Río de la Plata not to move against Chile , San Martín together with General Bernardo O 'Higgins Riquelme , later Supreme Director of Chile , led the Army over the Andes in a move that turned the tables on the royalists . By February 10 , San Martín had control of northern and central Chile , and a year later , after a war with no quarter , the south . With the aid of a fleet under the command of former British naval officer Thomas Cochrane , Chile was secured from royalist control and independence was declared that year . San Martín and his allies spent the next two years planning an invasion of Peru , which began in 1820 .
In northern South America , after several failed campaigns to take Caracas and other urban centers of Venezuela , Simón Bolívar devised a similar plan in 1819 to cross the Andes and liberate New Granada from the royalists . Like San Martín , Bolívar personally undertook the efforts to create an army to invade a neighboring country , collaborated with pro @-@ independence exiles from that region , and lacked the approval of the Venezuelan congress . Unlike San Martín , however , Bolívar did not have a professionally trained army , but rather a quickly assembled mix of Llanero guerrillas , New Granadan exiles led by Santander and British recruits . From June to July 1819 , using the rainy season as cover , Bolívar led his army across the flooded plains and over the cold , forbidding passes of the Andes , with heavy losses — a quarter of the British Legion perished , as well as many of his Llanero soldiers , who were not prepared for the nearly 4 @,@ 000 @-@ meter altitudes — but the gamble paid off . By August Bolívar was in control of Bogotá and its treasury , and gained the support of many in New Granada , which still resented the harsh reconquest carried out under Morillo . Nevertheless , Santander found it necessary to continue the policy of the " war to the death " and carried out the execution of thirty @-@ eight royalist officers who had surrendered . With the resources of New Granada , Bolívar became the undisputed leader of the patriots in Venezuela and orchestrated the union of the two regions in a new state called Colombia ( Gran Colombia ) .
= = Independence consolidated , 1820 – 33 = =
To counter the advances the pro @-@ independence forces had made in South America , Spain prepared a second , large , expeditionary force in 1819 . This force , however , never left Spain . Instead , it became the means by which liberals were finally able to reinstate a constitutional regime . On January 1 , 1820 , Rafael Riego , commander of the Asturias Battalion , headed a rebellion among the troops , demanding the return of the 1812 Constitution . His troops marched through the cities of Andalusia with the hope of extending the uprising to the civilian population , but locals were mostly indifferent . An uprising , however , did occur in Galicia in northern Spain , and from there it quickly spread throughout the country . On March 7 , the royal palace in Madrid was surrounded by soldiers under the command of General Francisco Ballesteros , and three days later , on March 10 , the besieged Ferdinand VII , now a virtual prisoner , agreed to restore the Constitution .
Riego 's Revolt had two significant effects on the war in the Americas . Militarily , the large numbers of reinforcements , which were especially needed to retake New Granada and defend the Viceroyalty of Peru , would never arrive . Furthermore , as the royalists ' situation became more desperate in region after region , the army experienced wholesale defections of units to the patriot side . Politically , the reinstitution of a liberal regime changed the terms under which the Spanish government sought to engage the insurgents . The new government naively assumed that the insurgents were fighting for Spanish liberalism and that the Spanish Constitution could still be the basis of reconciliation between the two sides . The government implemented the Constitution and held elections in the overseas provinces , just as in Spain . It also ordered military commanders to begin armistice negotiations with the insurgents with the promise that they could participate in the restored representative government .
= = = New Spain and Central America = = =
In effect , the Spanish Constitution of 1812 adopted by the Cortes de Cadiz served as the basis for independence in New Spain and Central America , since in both regions it was a coalition of conservative and liberal royalist leaders who led the establishment of new states . The restoration of the Spanish Constitution and representative government was enthusiastically welcomed in New Spain and Central America . Elections were held , local governments formed and deputies sent to the Cortes . Among liberals , however , there was fear that the new regime would not last ; and conservatives and the Church worried that the new liberal government would expand its reforms and anti @-@ clerical legislation . This climate of instability created the conditions for the two sides to forge an alliance . This alliance coalesced towards the end of 1820 behind Agustín de Iturbide , a colonel in the royal army , who at the time was assigned to destroy the guerrilla forces led by Vicente Guerrero . In January 1821 , Iturbide began peace negotiations with Guerrero , suggesting they unite to establish an independent New Spain . The simple terms that Iturbide proposed became the basis of the Plan of Iguala : the independence of New Spain ( now to be called the Mexican Empire ) with Ferdinand VII or another Bourbon as emperor ; the retention of the Catholic Church as the official state religion and the protection of its existing privileges ; and the equality of all New Spaniards , whether immigrants or native @-@ born . The following month the other important guerrilla leader , Guadalupe Victoria , joined the alliance , and March 1 Iturbide was proclaimed head of a new Army of the Three Guarantees . The representative of the new Spanish government , Superior Political Chief Juan O 'Donojú , who replaced the previous viceroys , arrived in Veracruz on July 1 ; but he found that royalists the entire country except for Veracruz , Mexico City and Acapulco . Since at the time that O 'Donojú had left Spain , the Cortes was considering greatly expanding the autonomy of the overseas Spanish possessions , O 'Donojú proposed to negotiate a treaty with Iturbide on the terms of the Plan of Iguala . The resulting Treaty of Córdoba , which was signed on August 24 , kept all existing laws , including the 1812 Constitution , in force until a new constitution for Mexico could be written . O 'Donojú became part of the provisional governing junta until his death on October 8 . Both the Spanish Cortes and Ferdinand VII rejected the Treaty of Córdoba , and the final break with the mother country came on May 19 , 1822 , when the Mexican Congress conferred the throne on Itrubide .
Central America gained its independence along with New Spain . The regional elites supported the terms of the Plan of Iguala and orchestrated the union of Central America with the Mexican Empire in 1821 . Two years later , following Iturbide 's downfall , the region , with the exception of Chiapas , peacefully seceded from Mexico in July 1823 , establishing the Federal Republic of Central America . The new state existed for seventeen years , centrifugal forces pulling the individual provinces apart by 1840 .
= = = South America = = =
Unlike in New Spain and Central America , in South America independence was spurred by the pro @-@ independence fighters who had held out for the past half decade . José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar inadvertently led a continent @-@ wide pincer movement from southern and northern South America that liberated most of the Spanish American nations on that continent . After securing the independence of Chile in 1818 , San Martín concentrated on building a naval fleet in the Pacific to counter Spanish control of those waters and reach the royalist stronghold of Lima . By mid @-@ 1820 San Martín had assembled a fleet of eight warships and sixteen transport ships under the command of Admiral Cochrane . The fleet set sail from Valparaíso to Paracas in southern Peru . On September 7 , the army landed at Paracas and successfully took Pisco . After this , San Martín , waiting for a generalized Peruvian revolt , chose to avoid direct military confrontation . San Martín hoped that his presence would initiate an authentic Peruvian revolt against Spanish rule , believing that otherwise any liberation would be ephemeral . In the meantime , San Martín engaged in diplomacy with Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela , who was under orders from the constitutional government to negotiate on the basis of the 1812 Constitution and to maintain the unity of the Spanish Monarchy . However , these efforts proved fruitless , since independence and unity of the monarchy could not be reconciled , so the army sailed in late October to a better strategic position in Huacho , in northern Peru . During the next few months , successful land and naval campaigns against the royalists secured the new foothold , and it was at Huacho that San Martín learned that Guayaquil ( in Ecuador ) had declared independence on October 9 .
Bolívar , learning about the collapse of the Cadiz expedition , spent the year 1820 preparing a liberating campaign in Venezuela . Bolívar was aided by Spain 's new policy of seeking engagement with the insurgents , which Morillo implemented , renouncing to the command in chief , and returning to Spain . Although Bolívar rejected the Spanish proposal that the patriots rejoin Spain under the Spanish Constitution , the two sides established a six @-@ month truce and the regularization of the rules of engagement under the law of nations on November 25 and 26 . The truce did not last six months . It was apparent to all that the royalist cause had been greatly weakened by the lack of reinforcements . Royalist soldiers and whole units began to desert or defect to the patriots in large numbers . On January 28 , 1821 , the ayuntamiento of Maracaibo , declared the province an independent republic that chose to join the new nation state of Gran Colombia . Miguel de la Torre , who had replaced Morillo as head of the army , took this to be a violation of the truce , and although the republicans argued that Maracaibo had switched sides of its own volition , both sides began to prepare for renewed war . The fate of Venezuela was sealed when Bolívar returned there in April leading an army of 7 @,@ 000 from New Granada . At the Battle of Carabobo on June 24 , the Gran Colombian forces decisively defeated the royalist forces , assuring control of Venezuela save for Puerto Cabello and guaranteeing Venezuelan independence . Bolívar could now concentrate on Gran Colombia 's claims to southern New Granada and Quito .
In Peru , on January 29 , 1821 , Viceroy Pezuela was deposed in a coup d 'état by José de la Serna , but it would be two months before San Martín moved his army closer to Lima by sailing it to Ancón . During the next few months San Martín once again engaged in negotiations , offering the creation of an independent monarchy ; but La Serna insisted on the unity of the Spanish monarchy , so the negotiations came to nothing . By July La Serna judged his hold on Lima to be weak , and on July 8 the royal army abandoned the coastal city in order to reinforce positions in the highlands , with Cuzco as new capital of viceroyalty . On the 12th San Martín entered Lima , where he was declared " Protector of the Country " on July 28 , an office which allowed him to rule the newly independent state .
To ensure that the Presidency of Quito became a part of Gran Colombia and did not remain a collection of small , divided republics , Bolívar sent aid in the form of supplies and an army under Antonio José de Sucre to Guayaquil in February 1821 . For a year Sucre was unable to take Quito , and by November both sides , exhausted , signed a ninety @-@ day armistice . The following year , at Battle of Pichin
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cha on May 24 , 1822 , Sucre 's Venezuelan forces finally conquered Quito ; Gran Colombia 's hold on the territory was secure . The following year , after a Peruvian patriot army was destroyed in the Battle of Ica , San Martín met with Simón Bolívar in Guayaquil on July 26 and 27 . Thereafter San Martín decided to retire from the scene . For the next two years , two armies of Rioplatense ( Argentinian ) , Chilean , Colombian and Peruvian patriots were destroyed trying to penetrate the royalist bastion in the Andean regions of Peru and Upper Peru . A year later a Peruvian congress resolved to make Bolívar head of the patriot forces in the country . An internecine conflict between La Serna and General Pedro Antonio Olañeta , which was an extension of the Liberal Triennium , proved to be the royalists ' undoing . La Serna lost control of half of his best army by the beginning of 1824 , giving the patriots an opportunity .
Under the command of Bolivar and Sucre , the experienced veterans of the combined army , mainly Colombians , destroyed a royalist army under La Serna 's command in the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9 , 1824 . La Serna 's army was numerically superior but consisted of mostly new recruits . The only significant royalist area remaining on the continent was the highland country of Upper Peru . Following the Battle of Ayacucho , the royalist troops of Upper Peru under the command of Olañeta surrendered after he died in Tumusla on April 2 , 1825 . Bolívar tended to favor maintaining the unity of Upper Peru with Peru , but the Upper Peruvian leaders — many former royalists , like Casimiro Olañeta , nephew of General Olañeta — gathered in a congress under Sucre 's auspices supported the country 's independence . Bolívar left the decision to Sucre , who went along with the congress . Sucre proclaimed Upper Peru 's independence in the city which now bears his name on August 6 , bringing the main wars of independence to an end .
As it became clear that there was to be no reversal of Spanish American independence , several of the new states began to receive international recognition . Early , in 1822 , the United States recognized Chile , the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata , Peru , Gran Colombia , and Mexico . Britain waited until 1825 , after the Battle of Ayacucho , to recognize Mexico , Gran Colombia , and Río de la Plata . Both nations recognized more Spanish American states in the next few years .
= = = Last royalist bastions = = =
The Spanish coastal fortifications in Veracruz , Callao and Chiloé were the footholds that resisted until 1825 and 1826 respectively . In the following decade , royalist guerrillas continued to operate in several countries and Spain launched a few attempts to retake parts of the Spanish American mainland . In 1827 Colonel José Arizabalo started an irregular war with Venezuelan guerrillas , and Brigadier Isidro Barradas lead the last attempt with regular troops to reconquer Mexico in 1829 . The Pincheira brothers moved to Patagonia and remained there as royalist outlaws until defeated in 1832 . But efforts like these did not reverse the new political situation .
The increasing irrelevancy of the Holy Alliance after 1825 and the fall of absolutism in France in 1830 during the July Revolution eliminated the principal support of Ferdinand VII in Europe , but it was not until the king 's death in 1833 that Spain finally abandoned all plans of military re @-@ conquest , and in 1836 its government went so far as to renounce sovereignty over all of continental America . During the course of the 19th century , Spain would recognize each of the new states . Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule , until the Spanish – American War in 1898 .
= = Effects of independence = =
= = = Economics = = =
The nearly decade and a half of wars greatly weakened the Spanish American economies and political institutions , which hindered the region 's potential economic development for most of the nineteenth century and resulted in the enduring instability the region experienced . Independence destroyed the de facto trade bloc that was the Spanish Empire - Manila galleons and Spanish treasure fleets in particular . After independence , trade among the new Spanish American nations was less than it had been in the colonial period . Once the ties were broken , the small populations of most of the new nations provided little incentive to entice Spanish American producers to recreate the old trade patterns . In addition , the protection against European competition , which the Spanish monopoly had provided to the manufacturing sectors of the economy , ended . Due to expediency , protective tariffs for these sectors , in particular textile production , were permanently dropped and foreign imports beat out local production . This greatly affected Native communities , which in many parts of Spanish America , specialized in supplying finished products to the urban markets , albeit using pre @-@ industrial techniques . The wars also greatly affected the principal economic sector of the region , mining . Silver production in Bolivia halved after independence and it dropped by three quarters in Mexico .
To compensate for the lack of capital , foreign investment , in particular from Great Britain , was courted , but it was not sizable enough to initiate an economic recovery . Finally the new nations entered the world economy after the end of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , when the economies of Europe and the United States were recovering and aggressively seeking new markets to sell their products after more than two decades of disruption . Ultimately Spanish America could only connect to the world markets as an exporter of raw materials and a consumer of finished products .
= = = Society = = =
In addition to improving the economy , the lower social classes also had to be integrated into the new body politic , although they often got few rewards from independence . The political debate seeking answers to these questions was marked by a clash — at times on the battlefield — between liberalism and conservatism . Conservatives sought to maintain the traditional social structures in order to ensure stability ; liberals sought to create a more dynamic society and economy by ending ethnically @-@ based social distinctions and freeing property from economic restrictions . In its quest to transform society , liberals often adopted policies that were not welcome by Native communities , who had benefited from unique protections afforded to them by traditional Spanish law .
Independence , however , did initiate the abolition of slavery in Spanish America , as it was seen as part of the independence struggle , since many slaves had gained their manumission by joining the patriot armies . In areas where slavery was not a major source of labor ( Mexico , Central America , Chile ) , emancipation occurred almost immediately after independence was achieved . In areas where slavery was a main labor source ( Colombia , Venezuela , Peru , Argentina ) , emancipation was carried out in steps over the next three decades , usually first with the creation of free @-@ womb laws and programs for compensated emancipation . By the early 1850s , slavery had been abolished in the independent nations of Spanish America .
= = = Role of women = = =
Women were not simply spectators throughout the Independence Wars of Latin America . Many women took sides on political issues and joined independence movements in order to participate on many different levels . Women could not help but act as caring relatives either as mother , sister , wives or daughters of the men who were fighting . Women created political organizations and organized meetings and groups to donate food and supplies to the soldiers . Some women supported the wars as spies , informants and combatants . Manuela Sáenz was a long term lover of Simón Bolívar and acted as his spy and confidante and was secretary of his archive . She saved his life on two occasions , nursed wounded soldiers and has even been believed some historians to have fought in a few battles . Sáenz followed Bolivar and his army through the independence wars and became to be known in Latin America as the “ mother of feminism and women ’ s emancipation and equal rights . ” Bolivar himself was a supporter of women ’ s rights and suffrage in Latin America . It was Bolivar who allowed for Sáenz to become the great pioneer of women ’ s freedom . He wanted to set the women of Latin America free from the oppression and inferiority of what the Spanish regime had established . Bolivar even made Sáenz a Colonel of the Colombian Army due to her heroics which caused controversy because there were no women in the army at the time . Another woman who gained prominence in the fight for independence was Juana Azurduy de Padilla , a mixed @-@ race woman who fought for the independence of in the Rio de la Plata region . Argentine President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner posthumously promoted her to the rank of general .
According to gender stereotypes , women were not meant to be soldiers ; only men were supposed to engage in the fighting and conflict . There were still plenty of women presence on the battlefields to help rescue and nurse soldiers . Some women fought alongside their husbands and sons on the battlefield . The majority of women assumed supportive and non @-@ competitive roles such as fund raising and caring for the sick . Revolution for women meant something differently than to men . Women saw revolution as a way to earn equal rights as men , such as voting , and to overcome the suppression of the superiority of men over women . Women were usually identified as victims during the independence wars for the women of Latin America were forced to sacrifice for the cause . The ideals of womanhood meant that women must sacrifice what the situation required such as a mother sacrificing her son or a virgin knowing she might be sacrificing motherhood or being wife due to the loss of many young men . This view meant that women were meant to contribute to independence in a supportive role while leaving the combat and politics in the hands of the men .
= = = Government and politics = = =
Independence also did not result in stable political regimes , save in a few countries . First , the new nations did not have well @-@ defined identities , but rather the process of creating identities was only beginning . This would be carried out through newspapers and the creation of national symbols , including new names for the countries ( " Mexico " , " Colombia , " " Ecuador , " " Bolivia , " " Argentina " ) , that broke with the past . In addition , the borders were also not firmly established , and the struggle between federalism and centralism , which begun in independence , continued throughout the rest of the century . Two large states that emerged from the wars — Gran Colombia and the Federal Republic of Central America — collapsed after a decade or two , and Argentina would not consolidate politically until the 1860s .
The wars destroyed the old civilian bureaucracy that had governed the region for centuries , as institutions such as the audiencias were eliminated and many Peninsular officials fled to Spain . The Catholic Church , which had been an important social and political institution during the colonial period , initially came out weakened by the end of the conflicts . As with government officials , many Peninsular bishops abandoned their dioceses and their posts were not filled for decades until new prelates could be created and relations between the new nations and the Vatican was regularized . Then as the Church recovered , its economic and political power was attacked by liberals .
Despite the fact that the period of the wars of independence itself was marked by a rapid expansion of representative government , for several of the new nations the nineteenth century was marked by militarism because of the lack of well @-@ defined political and national institutions . The armies and officers that came into existence during the process of independence wanted to ensure that they got their rewards once the struggle was over . Many of these armies did not fully disband once the wars were over and they proved to be one of the stabler institutions in the first decades of national existence . These armies and their leaders effectively influenced the course of political development . Out of this new tradition came the caudillos , strongmen who amassed formal and informal economic , military and political power in themselves .
= = Overview = =
= = = Wars , battles and revolts = = =
= = = Liberators = = =
= = = Royalists = = =
= = = Foreign involvement = = =
Brown , Matthew . Adventuring through Spanish Colonies : Simón Bolívar , Foreign Mercenaries and the Birth of New Nations . Liverpool University Press , 2006 . ISBN 1 @-@ 84631 @-@ 044 @-@ X
Hasbrouck , Alfred . Foreign Legionaries in the Liberation of Spanish South America . New York : Octagon Books , 1969 .
Kaufman , William W. British Policy and the Independence of Latin America , 1804 – 1828 . New Haven , Yale University Press , 1951 .
Robertson , William Spence . France and Latin American Independence . ( 1939 )
Rodríguez , Moises Enrique . Freedom 's Mercenaries : British Volunteers in the Wars of Independence of Latin America , 2 vols . Lanham , Hamilton Books , University Press of America , 2006 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7618 @-@ 3438 @-@ 0
Whitaker , Arthur P. The United States and the Independence of Latin America , 1800 – 1830 . Baltimore , Johns Hopkins University Press , 1941 .
= = = Historiography = = =
Hensel , Silke . " Was There an Age of Revolution in Latin America ? : New Literature on Latin American Independence . " Latin American Research Review ( 2003 ) 38 # 3 pp : 237 @-@ 249 @.@ online
Uribe , Victor M. " The Enigma of Latin American Independence : Analyses of the Last Ten Years , " Latin American Research Review ( 1997 ) 32 # 1 pp. 236 – 255 in JSTOR
= Green =
Green is the color between blue and yellow on the spectrum of visible light . It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 495 – 570 nm . In the subtractive color system , used in painting and color printing , it is created by a combination of yellow and blue , or yellow and cyan ; in the RGB color model , used on television and computer screens , it is one of the additive primary colors , along with red and blue , which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors .
The modern English word green comes from the Middle English and Anglo @-@ Saxon word grene , from the same Germanic root as the words " grass " and " grow " . It is the color of living grass and leaves and as a result is the color most associated with springtime , growth and nature . By far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll , the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy . Many creatures have adapted to their green environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage . Several minerals have a green color , including the emerald , which is colored green by its chromium content .
In surveys made in Europe and the United States , green is the color most commonly associated with nature , life , health , youth , spring , hope and envy . In Europe and the U.S. green is sometimes associated with death ( green has several seemingly contrary associations ) , sickness , or the devil , but in China its associations are very positive , as the symbol of fertility and happiness . In the Middle Ages and Renaissance , when the color of clothing showed the owner 's social status , green was worn by merchants , bankers and the gentry , while red was the color of the nobility . The Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci wears green , showing she is not from a noble family ; the benches in the British House of Commons are green , while those in the House of Lords are red . Green is also the traditional color of safety and permission ; a green light means go ahead , a green card permits permanent residence in the United States . It is the most important color in Islam . It was the color of the banner of Muhammad , and is found in the flags of nearly all Islamic countries , and represents the lush vegetation of Paradise . It is also often associated with the culture of Gaelic Ireland , and is a color of the flag of Ireland . Because of its association with nature , it is the color of the environmental movement . Political groups advocating environmental protection and social justice describe themselves as part of the Green movement , some naming themselves Green parties . This has led to similar campaigns in advertising , as companies have sold green , or environmentally friendly , products .
= = Etymology and linguistic definitions = =
The word green comes from the Middle English and Old English word grene , which , like the German word grün , has the same root as the words grass and grow . It is from a Common Germanic * gronja- , which is also reflected in Old Norse grænn , Old High German gruoni ( but unattested in East Germanic ) , ultimately from a PIE root * ghre- " to grow " , and root @-@ cognate with grass and to grow . The first recorded use of the word as a color term in Old English dates to ca . AD 700 .
Latin with viridis also has a genuine and widely used term for " green " . Related to virere " to grow " and ver " spring " , it gave rise to words in several Romance languages , French vert , Italian verde ( and English vert , verdure etc . ) . Likewise the Slavic languages with zelenъ . Ancient Greek also had a term for yellowish , pale green – χλωρός , chloros ( cf. the color of chlorine ) , cognate with χλοερός " verdant " and χλόη " the green of new growth " .
Thus , the languages mentioned above ( Germanic , Romance , Slavic , Greek ) have old terms for " green " which are derived from words for fresh , sprouting vegetation . However , comparative linguistics makes clear that these terms were coined independently , over the past few millennia , and there is no identifiable single Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European or word for " green " . For example , the Slavic zelenъ is cognate with Sanskrit hari " yellow , ochre , golden " . The Turkic languages also have jašɨl " green " or " yellowish green " , compared to a Mongolian word for " meadow " .
= = = Languages where green and blue are one color = = =
In some languages , including old Chinese , Thai , old Japanese , and Vietnamese , the same word can mean either blue or green . The Chinese character 青 ( pronounced qīng in Mandarin , ao in Japanese , and thanh in Sino @-@ Vietnamese ) has a meaning that covers both blue and green ; blue and green are traditionally considered shades of " 青 " . In more contemporary terms , they are 藍 ( lán , in Mandarin ) and 綠 ( lǜ , in Mandarin ) respectively . Japanese also has two terms that refer specifically to the color green , 緑 ( midori , which is derived from the classical Japanese descriptive verb midoru " to be in leaf , to flourish " in reference to trees ) and グリーン ( guriin , which is derived from the English word " green " ) . However , in Japan , although the traffic lights have the same colors that other countries have , the green light is described using the same word as for blue , " aoi " , because green is considered a shade of aoi ; similarly , green variants of certain fruits and vegetables such as green apples , green shiso ( as opposed to red apples and red shiso ) will be described with the word " aoi " . Vietnamese uses a single word for both blue and green , xanh , with variants such as xanh da trời ( azure , lit . " sky blue " ) , lam ( blue ) , and lục ( green ; also xanh lá cây , lit . " leaf green " ) .
" Green " in modern European languages corresponds to about 520 – 570 nm , but many historical and non @-@ European languages make other choices , e.g. using a term for the range of ca . 450 – 530 nm ( " blue / green " ) and another for ca . 530 – 590 nm ( " green / yellow " ) . In the comparative study of color terms in the world 's languages , green is only found as a separate category in languages with the fully developed range of six colors ( white , black , red , green , yellow , and blue ) , or more rarely in systems with five colors ( white , red , yellow , green , and black / blue ) . ( See distinction of green from blue ) These languages have introduced supplementary vocabulary to denote " green " , but these terms are recognizable as recent adoptions that are not in origin color terms ( much like the English adjective orange being in origin not a color term but the name of a fruit ) . Thus , the Thai word เขียว kheīyw , besides meaning " green " , also means " rank " and " smelly " and holds other unpleasant associations .
The Celtic languages had a term for " blue / green / grey " , Proto @-@ Celtic * glasto- , which gave rise to Old Irish glas " green , grey " and to Welsh glas " blue " . This word is cognate with the Ancient Greek γλαυκός " bluish green " , contrasting with χλωρός " yellowish green " discussed above .
In modern Japanese , the term for green is 緑 , while the old term for " blue / green " , blue ( 青 , Ao ) now means " blue " . But in certain contexts , green is still conventionally referred to as 青 , as in blue traffic light ( 青信号 , ao shingō ) and blue leaves ( 青葉 , aoba ) , reflecting the absence of blue @-@ green distinction in old Japanese ( more accurately , the traditional Japanese color terminology grouped some shades of green with blue , and others with yellow tones ) .
The Persian language is traditionally lacking a black / blue / green distinction . The Persian word سبز sabz can mean " green " , " black " , or " dark " . Thus , Persian erotic poetry , dark @-@ skinned women are addressed as sabz @-@ eh , as in phrases like سبز گندم گون sabz @-@ eh @-@ gandom @-@ gun ( literally " dark wheat colored " ) or سبز مليح sabz @-@ eh @-@ malih ( " a dark beauty " ) . Similarly , in Sudanese Arabic , dark @-@ skinned people are described as أخضر akhḍar , the term which in Standard Arabic stands unambiguously for " green " .
= = = In nature and culture = = =
= = In science = =
= = = Color vision and colorimetry = = =
In optics , the perception of green is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 495 – 570 nm . The sensitivity of the dark @-@ adapted human eye is greatest at about 507 nm , a blue @-@ green color , while the light @-@ adapted eye is most sensitive about 555 nm , a yellow @-@ green ; these are the peak locations of the rod and cone ( scotopic and photopic , respectively ) luminosity functions .
The perception of greenness ( in opposition to redness forming one of the opponent mechanisms in human color vision ) is evoked by light which triggers the medium @-@ wavelength M cone cells in the eye more than the long @-@ wavelength L cones . Light which triggers this greenness response more than the yellowness or blueness of the other color opponent mechanism is called green . A green light source typically has a spectral power distribution dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 487 – 570 nm .
Human eyes have color receptors known as cone cells , of which there are three types . In some cases , one is missing or faulty , which can cause color blindness , including the common inability to distinguish red and yellow from green , known as deuteranopia or red – green color blindness . Green is restful to the eye . Studies show that a green environment can reduce fatigue .
In the subtractive color system , used in painting and color printing , green is created by a combination of yellow and blue , or yellow and cyan ; in the RGB color model , used on television and computer screens , it is one of the additive primary colors , along with red and blue , which are mixed in different combinations to create all other colors . On the HSV color wheel , also known as the RGB color wheel , the complement of green is magenta ; that is , a color corresponding to an equal mixture of red and blue light ( one of the purples ) . On a traditional color wheel , based on subtractive color , the complementary color to green is considered to be red .
In additive color devices such as computer displays and televisions , one of the primary light sources is typically a narrow @-@ spectrum yellowish @-@ green of dominant wavelength ~ 550 nm ; this " green " primary is combined with an orangish @-@ red " red " primary and a purplish @-@ blue " blue " primary to produce any color in between – the RGB color model . A unique green ( green appearing neither yellowish nor bluish ) is produced on such a device by mixing light from the green primary with some light from the blue primary .
= = = Lasers = = =
Lasers emitting in the green part of the spectrum are widely available to the general public in a wide range of output powers . Green laser pointers outputting at 532 nm ( 563 @.@ 5 THz ) are relatively inexpensive compared to other wavelengths of the same power , and are very popular due to their good beam quality and very high apparent brightness . The most common green lasers use diode pumped solid state ( DPSS ) technology to create the green light . An infrared laser diode at 808 nm is used to pump a crystal of neodymium @-@ doped yttrium vanadium oxide ( Nd : YVO4 ) or neodymium @-@ doped yttrium aluminium garnet ( Nd : YAG ) and induces it to emit 281 @.@ 76 THz ( 1064 nm ) . This deeper infrared light is then passed through another crystal containing potassium , titanium and phosphorus ( KTP ) , whose non @-@ linear properties generate light at a frequency that is twice that of the incident beam ( 563 @.@ 5 THz ) ; in this case corresponding to the wavelength of 532 nm ( " green " ) . Other green wavelengths are also available using DPSS technology ranging from 501 nm to 543 nm . Green wavelengths are also available from gas lasers , including the helium – neon laser ( 543 nm ) , the Argon @-@ ion laser ( 514 nm ) and the Krypton @-@ ion laser ( 521 nm and 531 nm ) , as well as liquid dye lasers . Green lasers have a wide variety of applications , including pointing , illumination , surgery , laser light shows , spectroscopy , interferometry , fluorescence , holography , machine vision , non @-@ lethal weapons and bird control .
As of mid @-@ 2011 , direct green laser diodes at 510 nm and 500 nm have become generally available , although the price remains relatively prohibitive for widespread public use . The efficiency of these lasers ( peak 3 % ) compared to that of DPSS green lasers ( peak 35 % ) may also be limiting adoption of the diodes to niche uses .
= = = Pigments , food coloring and fireworks = = =
Many minerals provide pigments which have been used in green paints and dyes over the centuries . Pigments , in this case , are minerals which reflect the color green , rather that emitting it through luminescent or phosphorescent qualities . The large number of green pigments makes it impossible to mention them all . Among the more notable green minerals , however is the emerald , which is colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium . Chromium ( III ) oxide ( Cr2O3 ) , is called chrome green , also called viridian or institutional green when used as a pigment . For many years , the source of amazonite 's color was a mystery . Widely thought to have been due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors , the blue @-@ green color is likely to be derived from small quantities of lead and water in the feldspar . Copper is the source of the green color in malachite pigments , chemically known as basic copper ( II ) carbonate .
Verdigris is made by placing a plate or blade of copper , brass or bronze , slightly warmed , into a vat of fermenting wine , leaving it there for several weeks , and then scraping off and drying the green powder that forms on the metal . The process of making verdigris was described in ancient times by Pliny . It was used by the Romans in the murals of Pompeii , and in Celtic medieval manuscripts as early as the 5th century AD . It produced a blue @-@ green which no other pigment could imitate , but it had drawbacks ; it was unstable , it could not resist dampness , it did not mix well with other colors , it could ruin other colors with which it came into contact . , and it was toxic . Leonardo da Vinci , in his treatise on painting , warned artists not to use it . It was widely used in miniature paintings in Europe and Persia in the 16th and 17th centuries . Its use largely ended in the late 19th century , when it was replaced by the safer and more stable chrome green . Viridian , also called chrome green , is a pigment made with chromium oxide dihydrate , was patented in 1859 . It became popular with painters , since , unlike other synthetic greens , it was stable and not toxic . Vincent van Gogh used it , along with Prussian blue , to create a dark blue sky with a greenish tint in his painting Cafe terrace at night .
Green earth is a natural pigment used since the time of the Roman Empire . It is composed of clay colored by iron oxide , magnesium , aluminum silicate , or potassium . Large deposits were found in the South of France near Nice , and in Italy around Verona , on Cyprus , and in Bohemia . The clay was crushed , washed to remove impurities , then powdered . It was sometimes called Green of Verona .
Mixtures of oxidized cobalt and zinc were also used to create green paints as early as the 18th century .
Cobalt green , sometimes known as Rinman 's green or Zinc Green , is a translucent green pigment made by heating a mixture of cobalt ( II ) oxide and zinc oxide . Sven Rinman , a Swedish chemist , discovered this compound in 1780 . Green chrome oxide was a new synthetic green created by a chemist named Pannetier in Paris in about 1835 . Emerald green was a synthetic deep green made in the 19th century by hydrating chrome oxide . It was also known as Guignet Green .
There is no natural source for green food colorings which has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration . Chlorophyll , the E numbers E140 and E141 , is the most common green chemical found in nature , and only allowed in certain medicines and cosmetic materials . Quinoline Yellow ( E104 ) is a commonly used coloring in the United Kingdom but is banned in Australia , Japan , Norway and the United States . Green S ( E142 ) is prohibited in many countries , for it is known to cause hyperactivity , asthma , urticaria , and insomnia .
To create green sparks , fireworks use barium salts , such as barium chlorate , barium nitrate crystals , or barium chloride , also used for green fireplace logs . Copper salts typically burn blue , but cupric chloride ( also known as " campfire blue " ) can also produce green flames . Green pyrotechnic flares can use a mix ratio 75 : 25 of boron and potassium nitrate . Smoke can be turned green by a mixture : solvent yellow 33 , solvent green 3 , lactose , magnesium carbonate plus sodium carbonate added to potassium chlorate .
= = = Biology = = =
Green is common in nature , as many plants are green because of a complex chemical known as chlorophyll , which is involved in photosynthesis . Chlorophyll absorbs the long wavelengths of light ( red ) and short wavelengths of light ( blue ) much more efficiently than the wavelengths that appear green to the human eye , so light reflected by plants is enriched in green . Chlorophyll absorbs green light poorly because it first arose in organisms living in oceans where purple halobacteria were already exploiting photosynthesis . Their purple color arose because they extracted energy in the green portion of the spectrum using bacteriorhodopsin . The new organisms that then later came to dominate the extraction of light were selected to exploit those portions of the spectrum not used by the halobacteria .
Animals typically use the color green as camouflage , blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment . Green animals include , especially , amphibians , reptiles , and some fish , birds and insects . Most fish , reptiles , amphibians , and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over @-@ layer of yellow pigment . Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment . For example , broadleaf forests typically have a yellow @-@ green light about them as the trees filter the light . Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds , especially . Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments , sometimes caused by diet . This can causes their feces to look green as well . Other chemicals which generally contribute to greenness among organisms are flavins ( lychochromes ) and hemanovadin . Humans have imitated this by wearing green clothing as a camouflage in military and other fields . Substances that may impart a greenish hue to one 's skin include biliverdin , the green pigment in bile , and ceruloplasmin , a protein that carries copper ions in chelation .
The green huntsman spider is green due to the presence of bilin pigments in the spider 's hemolymph ( circulatory system fluids ) and tissue fluids . It hunts insects in green vegetation , where it is well camouflaged .
= = = Green eyes = = =
There is no green pigment in green eyes ; like the color of blue eyes , it is an optical illusion ; its appearance is caused by the combination of an amber or light brown pigmentation of the stroma , given by a low or moderate concentration of melanin , with the blue tone imparted by the Rayleigh scattering of the reflected light . Green eyes are most common in Northern and Central Europe . They can also be found in Southern Europe , West Asia , Central Asia , and South Asia . In Iceland , 89 % of women and 87 % of men have either blue or green eye color . A study of Icelandic and Dutch adults found green eyes to be much more prevalent in women than in men . Among European Americans , green eyes are most common among those of recent Celtic and Germanic ancestry , about 16 % .
= = In history and art = =
= = = Prehistoric history = = =
Neolithic cave paintings do not have traces of green pigments , but neolithic peoples in northern Europe did make a green dye for clothing , made from the leaves of the birch tree. it was of very poor quality , more brown than green . Ceramics from ancient Mesopotamia show people wearing vivid green costumes , but it is not known how the colors were produced .
= = = Ancient history = = =
In Ancient Egypt green was the symbol of regeneration and rebirth , and of the crops made possible by the annual flooding of the Nile . For painting on the walls of tombs or on papyrus , Egyptian artists used finely @-@ ground malachite , mined in the west Sinai and the eastern desert- A paintbox with malachite pigment was found inside the tomb of King Tutankhamun . They also used less expensive green earth pigment , or mixed yellow ochre and blue azurite . To dye fabrics green , they first colored them yellow with dye made from saffron and then soaked them in blue dye from the roots of the woad plant .
For the ancient Egyptians , green had very positive associations . The hieroglyph for green represented a growing papyrus sprout , showing the close connection between green , vegetation , vigor and growth . In wall paintings , the ruler of the underworld , Osiris , was typically portrayed with a green face , because green was the symbol of good health and rebirth . Palettes of green facial makeup , made with malachite , were found in tombs . It was worn by both the living and dead , particularly around the eyes , to protect them from evil . Tombs also often contained small green amulets in the shape of scarab beetles made of malachite , which would protect and give vigor to the deceased . It also symbolized the sea , which was called the " Very Green . "
In Ancient Greece , green and blue were sometimes considered the same color , and the same word sometimes described the color of the sea and the color of trees . The philosopher Democritus described two different greens ; cloron , or pale green , and prasinon , or leek green . Aristotle considered that green was located midway between black , symbolizing the earth , and white , symbolizing water . However , green was not counted among of the four classic colors of Greek painting ; red , yellow , black and white , and is rarely found in Greek art .
The Romans had a greater appreciation for the color green ; it was the color of Venus , the goddess of gardens , vegetables and vineyards.The Romans made a fine green earth pigment , which was widely used in the wall paintings of Pompeii , Herculaneum , Lyon , Vaison @-@ la @-@ Romaine , and other Roman cities . They also used the pigment verdigris , made by soaking copper plates in fermenting wine . By the Second Century AD , the Romans were using green in paintings , mosaics and glass , and there were ten different words in Latin for varieties of green .
= = = Postclassical history = = =
In the Middle Ages and Renaissance , the color of clothing showed a person 's social rank and profession . Red could only be worn by the nobility , brown and gray by peasants , and green by merchants , bankers and the gentry and their families . The Mona Lisa wears green in her portrait , as does the bride in the Arnolfini portrait by Jan van Eyck .
Unfortunately for those who wanted or were required to wear green , there were no good vegetal green dyes which resisted washing and sunlight . Green dyes were made out of the fern , plantain , buckthorn berries , the juice of nettles and of leeks , the digitalis plant , the broom plant , the leaves of the fraxinus , or ash tree , and the bark of the alder tree , but they rapidly faded or changed color . Only in the 16th century was a good green dye produced , by first dyeing the cloth blue with woad , and then yellow with reseda luteola , also known as yellow @-@ weed .
The pigments available to painters were more varied ; monks in monasteries used use of verdigris , made by soaking copper in fermenting wine , to color medieval manuscripts . They also used finely @-@ ground malachite , which made a luminous green . They used green earth colors for backgrounds .
During the early Renaissance , painters such as Duccio di Buoninsegna learned to paint faces first with a green undercoat , then with pink , which gave the faces a more realistic hue . Over the centuries the pink has faded , making some of the faces look green .
= = = Modern history = = =
= = = = In the 18th and 19th century = = = =
The 18th and 19th century brought the discovery and production of synthetic green pigments and dyes , which rapidly replaced the earlier mineral and vegetable pigments and dyes . These new dyes were more stable and brilliant than the vegetable dyes , but some contained high levels of arsenic , and were eventually banned .
In the 18th and 19th century , green was associated with the romantic movement in literature and art . The French philosopher Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau celebrated the virtues of nature , The German poet and philosopher Goethe declared that green was the most restful color , suitable for decorating bedrooms . Painters such as John Constable and Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ Camille Corot depicted the lush green of rural landscapes and forests . Green was contrasted to the smoky grays and blacks of the Industrial Revolution .
The second half of the 19th century saw the use of green in art to create specific emotions , not just to imitate nature . One of the first to make color the central element of his picture was the American artist James McNeil Whistler , who created a series of paintings called " symphonies " or " noctures " of color , including " Symphony in gray and green ; The Ocean " between 1866 and 1872 .
The late nineteenth century also brought the systematic study of color theory , and particularly the study of how complementary colors such as red and green reinforced each other when they were placed next to each other . These studies were avidly followed by artists such as Vincent van Gogh . Describing his painting , The Night Cafe , to his brother Theo in 1888 , Van Gogh wrote : " I sought to express with red and green the terrible human passions . The hall is blood red and pale yellow , with a green billiard table in the center , and four lamps of lemon yellow , with rays of orange and green . Everywhere it is a battle and antithesis of the most different reds and greens . "
= = = = In the 20th and 21st century = = = =
In the 1980s green became a political symbol , the color of the Green Party in Germany and in many other European countries . It symbolized the environmental movement , and also a new politics of the left which rejected traditional socialism and communism . ( See Politics section below . )
= = Symbolism and associations = =
= = = Safety and permission = = =
Green can communicate safety to proceed , as in traffic lights . Green and red were standardized as the colors of international railroad signals in the 19th century . The first traffic light , using green and red gas lamps , was erected in 1868 in front of the Houses of Parliament in London . It exploded the following year , injuring the policeman who operated it . In 1912 , the first modern electric traffic lights were put up in Salt Lake City , Utah . Red was chosen largely because of its high visibility , and its association with danger , while green was chosen largely because it could not be mistaken for red . Today green lights universally signal that a system is turned on and working as it should . In many video games , green signifies both health and completed objectives , opposite red .
= = = Nature , vivacity , and life = = =
Green is the color most commonly associated in Europe and the U.S. with nature , vivacity and life . It is the color of many environmental organizations , such as Greenpeace , and of the Green Parties in Europe . Many cities have designated a garden or park as a green space , and use green trash bins and containers . A green cross is commonly used to designate pharmacies in Europe .
In China , green is associated with the east , with sunrise , and with life and growth .
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helps suppress his bloodlust . Just as Graham comes to realize how much the Tooth Fairy 's desire for acceptance factors into the murders , Dollarhyde watches as Reba is escorted home by another co @-@ worker . Mistakenly believing them to be kissing , Dollarhyde murders the man and abducts Reba . When she calls him Francis , he tells her : " Francis is gone . Forever . "
Desperately trying to figure out a connection between the murdered families , Graham realizes that someone must have seen their home movies . He and Crawford deduce where the films were processed . They identify the lab in St. Louis and fly there immediately . Dollarhyde has been casing the victims ' homes through home movies , enabling him to prepare for the break @-@ ins in extreme detail . Graham determines which employees that match their profile information have seen these films and obtains Dollarhyde 's home address , to which he and Crawford travel with a police escort . At Dollarhyde 's home , Reba is terrified as he contemplates what to do with her . As he struggles to kill Reba with a piece of broken mirror glass , police teams assemble around the house . Seeing that Dollarhyde has someone inside with him , Graham lunges through a window . He is quickly subdued by Dollarhyde , who retrieves a shotgun and uses it to wound Crawford and kill two police officers . Wounded in the firefight , Dollarhyde returns to the kitchen to shoot Graham , but misses because of his injuries and is killed himself when Graham returns fire . Graham , Reba , and Crawford are tended to by paramedics before Graham returns home and retires permanently .
= = Cast = =
William Petersen as Will Graham . Richard Gere , Mel Gibson and Paul Newman were considered for the role , but Mann cast Petersen after seeing footage from To Live and Die in L.A. Petersen spent time with officers of the Chicago Police Department researching for his role .
Tom Noonan as Francis Dollarhyde . Noonan credits his ability to improvise during rehearsals for his casting . He took up bodybuilding to prepare physically for the part . He began preparation for his role by studying other serial killers , but quickly rejected this approach . While shooting the film , Noonan remained in character at all times , keeping away from cast members playing his pursuers .
Dennis Farina as Jack Crawford . Farina had already worked with Mann before , making his acting début in the 1981 film Thief before starring in Crime Story and in several episodes of Miami Vice . Farina had already read the novel Red Dragon , and was called to audition at the same time as Brian Cox .
Kim Greist as Molly Graham . Greist , who according to reviews was " wasted in a tiny role " , had previously worked with Mann on an episode of Miami Vice .
Brian Cox as Dr. Hannibal Lecktor . Actors John Lithgow , Mandy Patinkin , and Brian Dennehy , and director William Friedkin were also considered for the part of Lecktor , whose name was changed from the novel 's " Lecter " . Cox based his performance on Scottish serial killer Peter Manuel . Cox was asked to audition with his back turned to the casting agents , as they felt they needed to focus on the power of his voice when considering him for the part .
Joan Allen as Reba McClane . In preparation for her role , Allen spent time with the New York Institute for the Blind , learning to walk through New York blindfolded . She had previously worked with co @-@ star William Petersen on stage , in the 1980 Steppenwolf Theatre Company production of Balm in Gilead .
Stephen Lang as Freddy Lounds . Lang had previously starred in Band of the Hand , on which Mann was executive producer . He went on to appear in the Mann @-@ produced Crime Story with Farina and in Mann 's 2009 film Public Enemies .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
The film was originally going to be called Red Dragon , like the novel . Michael Mann , who called the new title " inferior " , said that producer Dino De Laurentiis made the change after Michael Cimino 's film Year of the Dragon , produced by De Laurentiis , bombed at the box office in 1985 . William Petersen has commented that another reason for the change was to avoid any suggestion that it might be a karate movie . " At the time , Bruce Lee was knocking out Dragon movies , and Dino , in his wisdom , decided people would think it was a kung @-@ fu movie " , he later recalled . Brian Cox , who played jailed killer Hannibal Lecktor , has also expressed disdain for the film 's title , calling it " bland " and " cheesy " .
William Petersen worked with the Chicago Police Department Violent Crimes Unit and the FBI Violent Crimes Unit in preparation for the role of Will Graham , talking to the officers and reading some of their crime files . He spoke to the investigators on the Richard Ramirez case about how they coped with the effects these disturbing cases had on them and how they learned to " compartmentalize " their working and personal lives . " Of course you don ’ t really turn it off " , he recalled . " At the end of the day , even if you ’ re just a regular policeman , it takes a toll " . During the three years he spent working on the script , Michael Mann also spent time with the FBI 's Behavioral Science Unit , where he claimed to have met people very like the character of Will Graham . This level of research led Brent E. Turvey to describe the film as " one of the most competent blends of cutting @-@ edge forensic science and criminal profiling at the time " . Mann also spent several years corresponding with imprisoned murderer Dennis Wayne Wallace . Wallace had been motivated by his obsession for a woman he barely knew , and believed that Iron Butterfly 's " In @-@ A @-@ Gadda @-@ Da @-@ Vida " was " their song " . This connection inspired Mann to include the song in the film .
Tom Noonan , who played killer Francis Dollarhyde , initially researched other serial killers to study for the role , but was repulsed by it . He then decided to play the character with the sense that he felt he was doing right by his victims , not harming them . " I wanted to feel this guy was doing the best he could " , Noonan explained , " that he was doing this out of love " . Noonan credits his casting to improvisation during his audition , recalling that he was reading lines alongside a young woman . During a reading of the scene featuring the torture of Freddy Lounds , Noonan noticed that the woman began to seem frightened , and deliberately tried to scare her more . He believed that this is what secured the role for him .
Joan Allen , who played Dollarhyde 's blind love interest Reba McClane , recalls meeting with representatives of the New York Institute for the Blind in preparation for her role . She spent time walking around New York wearing a mask over her eyes to get accustomed to walking as though she were blind .
John Lithgow , Mandy Patinkin , William Friedkin , and Brian Dennehy were all considered for the role of Hannibal Lecktor , but Brian Cox was cast after being recommended to Mann by Dennehy . Cox based his portrayal on Scottish serial killer Peter Manuel , who ( he said ) " didn 't have a sense of right and wrong " . Cox has also suggested that his selection was due to his nationality , claiming that characters who are " a little bit nasty " are best played by Europeans . Mann kept the role of Lecktor very short , believing that it was " such a charismatic character that [ he ] wanted the audience almost not to get enough of him " . For the role of Will Graham , De Laurentiis had expressed interest in Richard Gere , Mel Gibson and Paul Newman , but Mann , having seen footage of William Petersen 's role in To Live and Die in L.A. , championed Petersen for the part .
= = = Filming = = =
Petersen has claimed in an interview that one of the film 's scenes forced the crew to adopt a guerrilla filmmaking approach . The scene in which Petersen 's character Will Graham falls asleep while studying crime scene photographs during a flight required the use of an airplane during shooting . Michael Mann had been unable to gain permission to use a plane for the scene and booked tickets for the crew on a flight from Chicago to Florida . Once on board , the crew used their equipment , checked in as hand luggage , to shoot the scene quickly , while keeping the plane 's passengers and crew mollified with Manhunter crew jackets .
Cinematographer Dante Spinotti made strong use of color tints in the film , using a cool " romantic blue " tone to denote the scenes featuring Will Graham and his wife , and a more subversive green hue , with elements of purple or magenta , as a cue for the unsettling scenes in the film , mostly involving Dollarhyde . Petersen has stated that Mann wanted to create a visual aura to bring the audience into the film , so that the story would work on an interior and emotional level . Mann also made use of multiple frame rates in filming the climactic shootout : different cameras recording the scene at 24 , 36 , 72 and 90 frames per second , giving the final scene what Spinotti has called an " off tempo " , " staccato " feel .
During principal photography , Noonan asked that no one playing his victims and pursuers be allowed to see him , while those he did speak to should address him by his character 's name , Francis . The first time Noonan met Petersen was when Petersen jumped through a large window during the filming of the climactic fight scene . Noonan admits that , because of his request , the atmosphere on set became so tense that people actually became afraid of him . He had also begun body @-@ building to prepare for the role and felt that his size intimidated the crew when filming began , as the first scene to be shot was his character 's interrogation and murder of another . Noonan claims that this led him to take separate flights and stay in separate hotels from the rest of the cast , and while on the film 's sets , he would remain in his trailer alone in the dark to prepare himself , sometimes joined by a silent Mann .
Petersen recalled filming the climactic shoot @-@ out scene at the end of principal photography , when most of the crew had already left the production because of time constraints . With no special effects crew to provide the blood spatter for the gunshots , Petersen described how the remaining crew would blow ketchup across the set through hoses when such effects were needed . Joan Allen also related that Mann would simulate the impacts of bullets in Dollarhyde 's kitchen by throwing glass jars across the surfaces so they would shatter where he needed them to ; one of these broken jars left a shard of glass embedded in Petersen 's thigh during filming . The pool of blood forming around Noonan 's character at the end of this scene was intended to allude to the " Red Dragon " tattoos worn by the character in the novel . This shot left Noonan lying in the corn syrup stage blood for so long that he became stuck to the floor .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Spinotti has commented on how Mann 's use of mise en scène when framing shots evokes " the emotional situation in the film at that particular time " , noting the director 's focus on the particular shape or color of elements of the set . He has also drawn attention to the scene in which Graham visits Lecktor in his cell , pointing out the constant position of the cell bars within the frame , even as the shots cut back and forth between the two characters . " There is nothing in Manhunter ... which is just a nice shot " , says Spinotti . " [ It ] is all focused into conveying that particular atmosphere ; whether it 's happiness , or delusion , or disillusion " . This " manipulation of focus and editing " has become a visual hallmark of the film .
Despite having initially filmed the scenes involving Francis Dollarhyde with an elaborate tattoo across Noonan 's chest , Mann and Spinotti felt that the finished result seemed out of place and that it " trivialize [ d ] the struggle " the character faced . Mann cut the scenes in which the character appeared bare @-@ chested , and quickly re @-@ shot additional footage to replace what had been removed . Spinotti noted that in doing so , scenes which he felt had been captured with a " beautiful " aesthetic were lost , as the production did not have the time to recreate the original lighting conditions .
Petersen had difficulty ridding himself of the Will Graham character after principal photography wrapped . While rehearsing for a play in Chicago , he felt the old character " always coming out " instead of his new role . To try and rid himself of the character , Petersen went to a barbershop where he had them shave his beard , cut his hair and dye it blond so that he could look into the mirror and see a different person . At first he felt it was due to the rigorous shooting schedule for Manhunter , but later realized that the character " had creeped in " .
= = Soundtrack = =
Manhunter 's soundtrack " dominates the film " , with music that is " explicitly diegetic the entire way " . Steve Rybin has commented that the music is not intended to correlate with the intensity of the action portrayed alongside it , but rather to signify when the viewer should react with a " degree of aesthetic distance " from the film , or be " suture [ d ] into the diegetic world " more closely . The soundtrack album was released in limited quantities in 1986 , on MCA Records ( # 6182 ) . It was not , however , released on compact disc at the time , but only on cassette tape and vinyl record . On 19 March 2007 , a two @-@ CD set titled Music from the Films of Michael Mann was released , featuring four tracks from Manhunter : The Prime Movers ' " Strong As I Am " , Iron Butterfly 's " In @-@ A @-@ Gadda @-@ Da @-@ Vida " , Shriekback 's " This Big Hush " , and Red 7 's " Heartbeat " . In March 2010 , Intrada Records announced that they were releasing the Manhunter soundtrack on CD for the first time , with an extra track , " Jogger 's Stakeout " by The Reds .
The Reds were contacted about contributing to the film 's soundtrack after submitting their music for possible use on Miami Vice . They recorded their score over a period of two months , in studios in New York and Los Angeles . They recorded a total of 28 minutes of music for the film ; however , several cues were replaced later with music by Shriekback and Michel Rubini . " Comfortably Numb " by Pink Floyd and " I Had Too Much to Dream ( Last Night ) " by The Electric Prunes have both been cited by The Reds ' vocalist Rick Shaffer as influences on the film 's soundtrack . Mann selected " Strong as I Am " by The Prime Movers for the film and later funded the filming of a music video for the song 's release as a single .
Music in the film 's screen credits which are not listed above included :
= = Themes = =
Visually , Manhunter is driven by strong color cues and the use of tints , including the hallmark blue of Mann 's work . Dante Spinotti has noted that these visual cues were meant to invoke different moods based on the tone of the scenes in which they were used : cool blue tones were used for the scenes shared between Will Graham and his wife Molly , and unsettling greens and magentas were used for the scenes with the killer Francis Dollarhyde . Steven Rybin has observed that " blue is associated with Molly , sex , and the Graham family home " , while green denotes " searching and discovery " , pointing out the color of Graham 's shirt when the investigation begins and the green tone of the interior shots in the Atlanta police station . John Muir suggests that this helps identify the character of Graham with the " goodness " of the natural world , and Dollarhyde with the city , " where sickness thrives " . This strongly stylized approach drew criticism from reviewers at first , but has since been seen as a hallmark of the film and viewed more positively .
Academic studies of the film tend to draw attention to the relationship between the characters of Graham and Dollarhyde , noting , for example , that the film " chooses to emphasize the novel 's symbiotic relationships between Graham , Lecter and Dolarhyde [ sic ] by visual techniques and screen acting where subtlety plays a key role " . In his book Hearths of Darkness : The Family in the American Horror Film , Tony Williams praises the depth of the film 's characterizations , calling Dollarhyde a " victim of society " and his portrayal " undermining convenient barriers between monster and human " . Philip L. Simpson echoes this sentiment in his book Psycho Paths : Tracking the Serial Killer through Contemporary American Film , calling Manhunter a " profoundly ambiguous and destabilizing film " which creates " uncomfortable affinities between protagonist and antagonist " . Mark T. Conard 's The Philosophy of Film Noir follows this same idea , claiming that the film presents the notion that " what it takes to catch a serial killer is tantamount to being one " .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Manhunter was released in the United States on 15 August 1986 . It opened in 779 theaters and grossed $ 2 @,@ 204 @,@ 400 in its opening weekend . The film eventually grossed a total of $ 8 @,@ 620 @,@ 929 in the US , making it the 76th highest @-@ grossing film that year . Because of internal problems at De Laurentiis Entertainment Group , the UK premiere was postponed for over a year . It was screened in November 1987 as part of the London Film Festival and saw wide release on 24 February 1989 . In France , Manhunter was screened on 9 April at the 1987 Cognac Festival du Film Policier , where it was awarded the Critics Prize . It was also shown at the 2009 Camerimage Film Festival in Łódź , Poland . On 19 March 2011 , it was screened at Grauman 's Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood to celebrate the 25th anniversary of its release . Michael Mann was present for discussion at the event .
= = = Home media = = =
Manhunter was released in a widescreen edition on laserdisc in 1986 . It was released on VHS several times , including by BMG on 10 October 1998 and by Universal Studios in 2001 . It has also been available on DVD in various versions . Anchor Bay released a two @-@ DVD limited edition in 2000 . A standard edition , an individual release of the first disc from the two @-@ disc set , was also released at the same time . In 2003 Anchor Bay released the " Restored Director 's Cut " , which is very close to the " Director 's Cut " on the 2000 disc but omits one scene . It does , however , feature a commentary track by Mann .
MGM ( current holders of the rights to The Silence of the Lambs and Hannibal ) released the theatrical cut of Manhunter on DVD in a pan @-@ and @-@ scan format in 2004 . In January 2007 , the same version was released by MGM in a widescreen format , for the first time on DVD , as part of The Hannibal Lecter Collection , along with The Silence of the Lambs and Hannibal . Manhunter was also released by itself in September 2007 . The studio re @-@ released The Hannibal Lecter Collection on Blu @-@ ray in September 2009 .
= = Reception = =
On its release , Manhunter was met with widely mixed reviews . At first , it was seen as too stylish , owing largely to Mann 's 1980s trademark use of pastel colors , art @-@ deco architecture and glass brick . A common criticism in the initial reviews was that the film overemphasized the music and stylistic visuals . Petersen 's skill as a lead actor was also called into question . Particularly critical of the film 's stylistic approach was the New York Times , which called attention to Mann 's " taste for overkill " , branding his stylized approach as " hokey " and little more than " gimmicks " . Chicago Tribune writer Dave Kehr remarked that Mann " believes in style so much that he has very little belief left over for the characters or situations of his film , which suffers accordingly " , adding that the film 's focus on style serves to " drain any notion of credibility " from its plot . Sheila Benson of the Los Angeles Times was critical of the film 's visuals and soundtrack , comparing it unfavourably with Miami Vice and describing it as a " chic , well @-@ cast wasteland " that " delivers very little " . The film 's stylistic similarity to Miami Vice was also pointed out by Film Threat 's Dave Beuscher , who felt it was the chief reason for the film 's poor box office results . Writing for the San Francisco Chronicle , Steve Winn derided the film , claiming its lack of a strong lead role caused it to " fall apart like the shattered mirrors that figure in the crimes " . Time was more favorable in its review , praising the " intelligent camerabatics " and " bold , controlled color scheme " . Leonard Maltin gave the film three stars , calling it " gripping all the way through and surprisingly nonexploitive " , although adding that " the holes start to show through " if looked for " too carefully " . Manhunter was , however , nominated for the 1987 Edgar Award for Best Motion Picture .
Modern appreciation of the film has seen its standing among critics improve . Salon.com called Mann 's original the best of the Lecter series , and Slate magazine described it as " mesmerizing " , positing that it directly inspired television series such as Millennium and CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , though calling attention to its " Miami @-@ Vice @-@ like overreliance on synthesized sludge " . The Independent called it " the most aestheticised film of the 1980s " , and noted its " chilly integrity " . British television channel and production company Film4 called it " the most refined screen adaptation of Harris ' books " , although they found the film 's contemporary soundtrack " dated " . Sky Movies echoed this sentiment , summing up their review by saying " although it still remains a classic , the film has dated slightly . " Retrospective reviews tend to be less critical of the stylized visuals : the BBC 's Ali Barclay called the film " a truly suspenseful , stylish thriller " , awarding it four out of five stars , and Nathan Ditum described it in Total Film as " complex , disturbing and super @-@ stylish " , adding that the 2002 remake could not compete with it . Empire editor Mark Dinning gave the film five stars out of five , praising the " subtlety " of the acting and the " neon angst " of the visuals . Television channel Bravo named Dollarhyde 's interrogation of Freddy Lounds as one of its 30 Even Scarier Movie Moments in 2007 , and Noonan 's portrayal of Dollarhyde was praised by Simon Abrams of UGO Networks as " a highlight of his career " .
Despite the low gross on its initial release , Manhunter has grown in popularity in recent years and has been mentioned in several books and lists of cult films . These reappraisals often cite the success of Silence of the Lambs and its sequels as the reason for the increased interest in Manhunter , while still favoring the earlier film over its successors . Telling of this resurgence in appreciation are the film 's ratings on review aggregation sites such as Metacritic or Rotten Tomatoes . Compiled mostly from recent reviews for the film , Manhunter has a metascore of 78 on Metacritic , based on ten reviews , and a 94 % fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes , from 33 reviews .
= = Legacy = =
Manhunter 's focus on the use of forensic science in a criminal investigation has been cited as a major influence on several films and television series that have come after it — most notably CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , also featuring William Petersen , which was " inspired , or at least influenced " by the forensics scenes in Manhunter . Petersen 's sympathetic portrayal of profiler Will Graham has also been noted as helping to influence a " shift in the image of the pop @-@ culture FBI agent " that would continue throughout the 1980s and 90s . The film has also been noted as a thematic precursor to the series Millennium , John Doe , Profiler , and The X @-@ Files , and to films such as Copycat , Switchback , The Bone Collector , Seven and Fallen .
The Silence of the Lambs , a film adaptation of Harris ' next Lecter novel , was released in 1991 . However , none of the cast of Manhunter reprise their roles in the later film , although characters such as Lecter and Chilton return with new actors . Actors Frankie Faison and Dan Butler appear in both films , but as different and unrelated characters . The Silence of the Lambs earned several awards and accolades , including the Academy Award for Best Picture . It is one of only three films to have won the Academy Awards for Best Picture , Best Director , Best Actor and Actress , and Best Screenplay . The Silence of the Lambs was followed in turn by a sequel and two prequels : Hannibal , Red Dragon and Hannibal Rising , plus an NBC television series , Hannibal .
Of these later films , Red Dragon ( 2002 ) , adapted from the same novel as Manhunter , was released to a generally positive critical reception and successful box office receipts , making $ 209 @,@ 196 @,@ 298 on a $ 78 million budget . Based on recent reviews , Red Dragon currently has a 68 % rating from 183 reviews at Rotten Tomatoes , and a 60 % rating based on 36 reviews on Metacritic . Manhunter 's cinematographer Dante Spinotti also served as the director of photography on this version .
= Jacques Offenbach =
Jacques Offenbach ( French pronunciation : [ ʒak ɔfɛnbak ] ; German : [ ˈɔfn ̩ bax ] ; 20 June 1819 – 5 October 1880 ) was a German @-@ born French composer , cellist and impresario of the romantic period . He is remembered for his nearly 100 operettas of the 1850s – 1870s and his uncompleted opera The Tales of Hoffmann . He was a powerful influence on later composers of the operetta genre , particularly Johann Strauss , Jr. and Arthur Sullivan . His best @-@ known works were continually revived during the 20th century , and many of his operettas continue to be staged in the 21st . The Tales of Hoffman remains part of the standard opera repertory .
Born in Cologne , the son of a synagogue cantor , Offenbach showed early musical talent . At the age of 14 , he was accepted as a student at the Paris Conservatoire but found academic study unfulfilling and left after a year . From 1835 to 1855 he earned his living as a cellist , achieving international fame , and as a conductor . His ambition , however , was to compose comic pieces for the musical theatre . Finding the management of Paris ' Opéra @-@ Comique company uninterested in staging his works , in 1855 he leased a small theatre in the Champs @-@ Élysées . There he presented a series of his own small @-@ scale pieces , many of which became popular .
In 1858 , Offenbach produced his first full @-@ length operetta , Orphée aux enfers ( " Orpheus in the Underworld " ) , which was exceptionally well received and has remained one of his most played works . During the 1860s , he produced at least 18 full @-@ length operettas , as well as more one @-@ act pieces . His works from this period included La belle Hélène ( 1864 ) , La vie parisienne ( 1866 ) , La Grande @-@ Duchesse de Gérolstein ( 1867 ) and La Périchole ( 1868 ) . The risqué humour ( often about sexual intrigue ) and mostly gentle satiric barbs in these pieces , together with Offenbach 's facility for melody , made them internationally known , and translated versions were successful in Vienna , London and elsewhere in Europe .
Offenbach became associated with the Second French Empire of Napoleon III ; the emperor and his court were genially satirised in many of Offenbach 's operettas . Napoleon III personally granted him French citizenship and the Légion d 'Honneur . With the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1870 , Offenbach found himself out of favour in Paris because of his imperial connections and his German birth . He remained successful in Vienna and London , however . He re @-@ established himself in Paris during the 1870s , with revivals of some of his earlier favourites and a series of new works , and undertook a popular U.S. tour . In his last years he strove to finish The Tales of Hoffmann , but died before the premiere of the opera , which has entered the standard repertory in versions completed or edited by other musicians .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Offenbach was born Jacob or Jakob Offenbach to a Jewish family , in the German city of Cologne , which was then a part of Prussia . His birthplace in the Großen Griechenmarkt was a short distance from the square that is now named after him , the Offenbachplatz . He was the second son and the seventh of ten children of Isaac Juda Offenbach né Eberst ( 1779 – 1850 ) and his wife Marianne , née Rindskopf ( c . 1783 – 1840 ) . Isaac , who came from a musical family , had abandoned his original trade as a bookbinder and earned an itinerant living as a cantor in synagogues and playing the violin in cafés . He was generally known as " der Offenbacher " , after his native town , Offenbach am Main , and in 1808 he officially adopted Offenbach as a surname . In 1816 he settled in Cologne , where he became established as a teacher , giving lessons in singing , violin , flute and guitar , and composing both religious and secular music .
When Jacob was six years old , his father taught him to play the violin ; within two years the boy was composing songs and dances , and at the age of nine he took up the cello . As he was by then the permanent cantor of the local synagogue , Isaac could afford to pay for his son to take lessons from the well @-@ known cellist Bernhard Breuer . Three years later , the biographer Gabriel Grovlez records , the boy was giving performances of his own compositions , " the technical difficulties of which terrified his master " , Breuer . Together with his brother Julius ( violin ) and sister Isabella ( piano ) , Jacob played in a trio at local dance halls , inns and cafés , performing popular dance music and operatic arrangements . In 1833 , Isaac decided that the two most musically talented of his children , Julius ( then aged 18 ) and Jacob ( 14 ) needed to leave the provincial musical scene of Cologne to study in Paris . With generous support from local music lovers and the municipal orchestra , with whom they gave a farewell concert on 9 October , the two young musicians , accompanied by their father , made the four @-@ day journey to Paris in November 1833 .
Isaac had been given letters of introduction to the director of the Paris Conservatoire , Luigi Cherubini , but he needed all his eloquence to persuade Cherubini even to give Jacob an audition . The boy 's age and nationality were both obstacles to admission . Cherubini had several years earlier refused the 12 @-@ year @-@ old Franz Liszt admission on similar grounds , but he eventually agreed to hear the young Offenbach play . He listened to his playing and stopped him , saying , " Enough , young man , you are now a pupil of this Conservatoire . " Julius was also admitted . Both brothers adopted French forms of their names , Julius becoming Jules and Jacob becoming Jacques .
Isaac hoped to secure permanent employment in Paris but failed to do so and returned to Cologne . Before leaving , he found a number of pupils for Jules ; the modest earnings from those lessons , supplemented by fees earned by both brothers as members of synagogue choirs , supported them during their studies . At the conservatoire , Jules was a diligent student ; he graduated and became a successful violin teacher and conductor , and led his younger brother 's orchestra for several years . By contrast , Jacques was bored by academic study and left after a year . The conservatoire 's roll of students notes against his name " Struck off on the 2 December 1834 ( left of his own free will ) " .
= = = Cello virtuoso = = =
Having left the conservatoire , Offenbach was free from the stern academicism of Cherubini 's curriculum , but as the biographer James Harding writes , " he was free , also , to starve . " He secured a few temporary jobs in theatre orchestras before gaining a permanent appointment in 1835 as a cellist at the Opéra @-@ Comique . He was no more serious there than he had been at the conservatoire , and regularly had his pay docked for playing pranks during performances ; on one occasion , he and the principal cellist played alternate notes of the printed score , and on another they sabotaged some of their colleagues ' music stands to make them collapse in mid @-@ performance . Nevertheless , his earnings from his orchestral work enabled him to take lessons with the celebrated cellist Louis @-@ Pierre Norblin . He made a favourable impression on the composer and conductor Fromental Halévy , who gave him lessons in composition and orchestration and wrote to Isaac Offenbach in Cologne that the young man was going to be a great composer . Some of Offenbach 's early compositions were programmed by the fashionable conductor Louis Antoine Jullien . Offenbach and another young composer Friedrich von Flotow collaborated on a series of works for cello and piano . Although Offenbach 's ambition was to compose for the stage , he could not gain an entrée to Parisian theatre at this point in his career ; with Flotow 's help , he built a reputation composing for and playing in the fashionable salons of Paris .
Among the salons at which Offenbach most frequently appeared was that of the comtesse de Vaux . There he met Hérminie d 'Alcain ( 1827 – 1887 ) , the daughter of a Carlist general . They fell in love , but he was not yet in a financial position to propose marriage . To extend his fame and earning power beyond Paris , he undertook tours of France and Germany . Among those with whom he performed were Anton Rubinstein and , in a concert in Offenbach 's native Cologne , Liszt . In 1844 , probably through English family connections of Hérminie , he embarked on a tour of England . There , he was immediately engaged to appear with some of the most famous musicians of the day , including Mendelssohn , Joseph Joachim , Michael Costa and Julius Benedict . The Era wrote of his debut performance in London , " His execution and taste excited both wonder and pleasure , the genius he exhibited amounting to absolute inspiration . " The British press reported a triumphant royal command performance ; The Illustrated London News wrote , " Herr Jacques Offenbach , the astonishing Violoncellist , performed on Thursday evening at Windsor before the Emperor of Russia , the King of Saxony , Queen Victoria , and Prince Albert with great success . " The use of " Herr " rather than " Monsieur " , reflecting the fact that Offenbach remained a Prussian citizen , was common to all the British press coverage of Offenbach 's 1844 tour . The ambiguity of his nationality sometimes caused him difficulty in later life .
Offenbach returned to Paris with his reputation and his bank balance both much enhanced . The last remaining obstacle to his marriage to Hérminie was the difference in their professed religions ; he converted to Roman Catholicism , with the comtesse de Vaux acting as his sponsor . Isaac Offenbach 's views on his son 's conversion from Judaism are unknown . The wedding took place on 14 August 1844 ; the bride was 17 years old , and the bridegroom was 25 . The marriage was lifelong , and happy , despite some extramarital dalliances on Offenbach 's part . After Offenbach 's death , a friend said that Hérminie " gave him courage , shared his ordeals and comforted him always with tenderness and devotion " .
Returning to the familiar Paris salons , Offenbach quietly shifted the emphasis of his work from being a cellist who also composed to being a composer who played the cello . He had already published many compositions , and some of them had sold well , but now he began to write , perform and produce musical burlesques as part of his salon presentations . He amused the comtesse de Vaux 's 200 guests with a parody of Félicien David 's currently fashionable Le désert , and in April 1846 gave a concert at which seven operatic items of his own composition were premiered before an audience that included leading music critics . After some encouragement and some temporary setbacks , he seemed on the verge of breaking into theatrical composition when Paris was convulsed by the 1848 revolution , which swept Louis Philippe from the throne and led to serious bloodshed in the streets of the capital . Offenbach hastily took Hérminie and their recently born daughter to join his family in Cologne . He thought it politic to revert temporarily to the name Jacob .
Returning to Paris in February 1849 , Offenbach found the grand salons closed down . He went back to working as a cellist , and occasional conductor , at the Opéra @-@ Comique , but was not encouraged in his aspirations to compose . His talents had been noted by the director of the Comédie Française , Arsène Houssaye , who appointed him musical director of the theatre , with a brief to enlarge and improve the orchestra . Offenbach composed songs and incidental music for eleven classical and modern dramas for the Comédie Française in the early 1850s . Some of his songs became very popular , and he gained valuable experience in writing for the theatre . Houssaye later wrote that Offenbach had done wonders for his theatre . The management of the Opéra @-@ Comique , however , remained uninterested in commissioning him to compose for its stage . The composer Debussy later wrote that the musical establishment could not cope with Offenbach 's irony , which exposed the " false , overblown quality " of the operas they favoured – " the great art at which one was not allowed to smile " .
= = = Bouffes @-@ Parisiens , Champs @-@ Élysées = = =
Between 1853 and 1855 , Offenbach wrote three one @-@ act operettas and managed to have them staged in Paris . They were all well received , but the authorities of the Opéra @-@ Comique remained unmoved . Offenbach found more encouragement from the composer , singer and impresario Florimond Ronger , known professionally as Hervé . At his theatre , the Folies @-@ Nouvelles , which had opened the previous year , Hervé pioneered French light comic opera , or " opérette " . In The Musical Quarterly , Martial Teneo and Theodore Baker wrote , " Without the example set by Hervé , Offenbach might perhaps never have become the musician who penned Orphée aux Enfers , La belle Hélène , and so many other triumphant works . " Offenbach approached Hervé , who agreed to present a new one @-@ act operetta with words by Jules Moinaux and music by Offenbach , called Oyayaye ou La reine des îles . It was presented on 26 June 1855 and was well received . Offenbach 's biographer Peter Gammond describes it as " a charming piece of nonsense " . The piece depicts a double @-@ bass player , played by Hervé , shipwrecked on a cannibal island , who after several perilous encounters with the female chief of the cannibals makes his escape using his double @-@ bass as a boat . Offenbach pressed ahead with plans to present his works himself at his own theatre and to abandon further thoughts of acceptance by the Opéra @-@ Comique .
Offenbach had chosen his theatre , the Salle Lacaze in the Champs @-@ Élysées . The location and the timing were ideal for him . Paris was about to be filled between May and November with visitors from France and abroad for the 1855 Great Exhibition . The Salle Lacaze was next to the exhibition site . He later wrote :
In the Champs @-@ Élysées , there was a little theatre to let , built for [ the magician ] Lacaze but closed for many years . I knew that the Exhibition of 1855 would bring many people into this locality . By May , I had found twenty supporters and on 15 June I secured the lease . Twenty days later , I gathered my librettists and I opened the " Théâtre des Bouffes @-@ Parisiens " .
The description of the theatre as " little " was accurate : it could only hold an audience of 300 . It was therefore well suited to the tiny casts permitted under the prevailing licensing laws : Offenbach was limited to three speaking ( or singing ) characters in any piece . With such small forces , full @-@ length works were out of the question , and Offenbach , like Hervé , presented evenings of several one @-@ act pieces . The opening of the theatre was a frantic rush , with less than a month between the issue of the licence and the opening night on 5 July 1855 . During this period Offenbach had to " equip the theatre , recruit actors , orchestra and staff , find authors to write material for the opening programme – and compose the music . " Among those he recruited at short notice was Ludovic Halévy , the nephew of Offenbach 's early mentor Fromental Halévy . Ludovic was a respectable civil servant with a passion for the theatre and a gift for dialogue and verse . While maintaining his civil service career he went on to collaborate ( sometimes under discreet pseudonyms ) with Offenbach in 21 works over the next 24 years .
Halévy wrote the libretto for one of the pieces in the opening programme , but the most popular work of the evening had words by Moinaux . Les deux aveugles , " The Two Blind Men " is a comedy about two beggars feigning blindness . During rehearsals there had been some concern that the public might judge it to be in poor taste , but it was not only the hit of the season in Paris : it was soon playing successfully in Vienna , London and elsewhere . Another success that summer was Le violoneux , which made a star of Hortense Schneider in her first role for Offenbach . Aged 22 , when she auditioned for him , she was engaged on the spot . From 1855 she was a key member of his companies through much of his career .
The Champs @-@ Élysées in 1855 were not yet the grand avenue laid out by Baron Haussmann in the 1860s , but an unpaved allée . The public who were flocking to Offenbach 's theatre in the summer and autumn of 1855 could not be expected to venture there in the depths of a Parisian winter . He cast about for a suitable venue and found the Théâtre des Jeunes Élèves , known also as the Salle Choiseul or Théâtre Comte , in central Paris . He entered into partnership with its proprietor and moved the Bouffes @-@ Parisiens there for the winter season . The company returned to the Salle Lacaze for the 1856 , 1857 , and 1859 summer seasons , performing at the Salle Choiseul in the winter . Legislation enacted in March 1861 prevented the company from using both theatres , and appearances at the Salle Lacaze were discontinued .
= = = Salle Choiseul = = =
Offenbach 's first piece for the company 's new home was Ba @-@ ta @-@ clan ( December 1855 ) , a well @-@ received piece of mock @-@ oriental frivolity , to a libretto by Halévy . He followed it with 15 more one @-@ act operettas over the next three years . They were all for the small casts permitted under his licence , although at the Salle Choiseul he was granted an increase from three to four singers .
Under Offenbach 's management , the Bouffes @-@ Parisiens staged works by many composers . These included new pieces by Leon Gastinel and Léo Delibes . When Offenbach asked Rossini 's permission to revive his comedy Il signor Bruschino , Rossini replied that he was pleased to be able to do anything for " the Mozart of the Champs @-@ Élysées " . Offenbach revered Mozart above all other composers . He had an ambition to present Mozart 's neglected one @-@ act comic opera Der Schauspieldirektor at the Bouffes @-@ Parisiens , and he acquired the score from Vienna . With a text translated and adapted by Léon Battu and Ludovic Halévy , he presented it during the Mozart centenary celebrations in May 1856 as L 'impresario ; it was popular with the public and also greatly enhanced the critical and social standing of the Bouffes @-@ Parisiens . By command of the emperor , Napoleon III , the company performed at the Tuileries palace shortly after the first performance of the Mozart piece .
In a long article in Le Figaro in July 1856 , Offenbach traced the history of comic opera . He declared that the first work worthy to be called opéra @-@ comique was Philidor 's 1759 Blaise le savetier , and he described the gradual divergence of Italian and French notions of comic opera , with verve , imagination and gaiety from Italian composers , and cleverness , common sense , good taste and wit from the French composers . He concluded that comic opera had become too grand and inflated . His disquisition was a preliminary to the announcement of an open competition for aspiring composers . A jury of French composers and playwrights including Daniel Auber , Fromental Halévy , Ambroise Thomas , Charles Gounod and Eugène Scribe considered 78 entries ; the five short @-@ listed entrants were all asked to set a libretto , Le docteur miracle , written by Ludovic Halévy and Léon Battu . The joint winners were Georges Bizet and Charles Lecocq . Bizet became , and remained , a devoted friend of Offenbach . Lecocq and Offenbach took a dislike to one another , and their subsequent rivalry was not altogether friendly .
Although the Bouffes @-@ Parisiens played to full houses , the theatre was constantly on the verge of running out of money , principally because of what his biographer Alexander Faris calls " Offenbach 's incorrigible extravagance as a manager " . An earlier biographer , André Martinet , wrote , " Jacques spent money without counting . Whole lengths of velvet were swallowed up in the auditorium ; costumes devoured width after width of satin . " Moreover , Offenbach was personally generous and liberally hospitable . To boost the company 's finances , a London season was organised in 1857 , with half the company remaining in Paris to play at the Salle Choiseul and the other half performing at the St James 's Theatre in the West End of London . The visit was a success , but did not cause the sensation that Offenbach 's later works did in London .
= = = Orphée aux enfers = = =
In 1858 , the government lifted the licensing restrictions on the number of performers , and Offenbach was able to present more ambitious works . His first full @-@ length operetta , Orphée aux enfers ( " Orpheus in the Underworld " ) , was presented in October 1858 . Offenbach , as usual , spent freely on the production , with scenery by Gustave Doré , lavish costumes , a cast of twenty principals , and a large chorus and orchestra .
As the company was particularly short of money following an abortive season in Berlin , a big success was urgently needed . At first the production seemed merely to be a modest success . It soon benefited from an outraged review by Jules Janin , the critic of the Journal des Débats ; he condemned the piece for profanity and irreverence ( ostensibly to Roman mythology but in reality to Napoleon and his government , generally seen as the targets of its satire ) . Offenbach and his librettist Hector Crémieux seized on this free publicity , and joined in a lively public debate in the columns of the Parisian daily newspaper Le Figaro . Janin 's indignation made the public agog to see the work , and the box office takings were prodigious . Among those who wanted to see the satire of the emperor was the emperor himself , who commanded a performance in April 1860 . Despite many great successes during the rest of Offenbach 's career , Orphée aux enfers remained his most popular . Gammond lists among the reasons for its success , " the sweeping waltzes " reminiscent of Vienna but with a new French flavour , the patter songs , and " above all else , of course , the can @-@ can which had led a naughty life in low places since the 1830s or thereabouts and now became a polite fashion , as uninhibited as ever . "
In the 1859 season , the Bouffes @-@ Parisiens presented new works by composers including Flotow , Jules Erlanger , Alphonse Varney , Léo Delibes , and Offenbach himself . Of Offenbach 's new pieces , Geneviève de Brabant though initially only a mild success , was later revised and gained much popularity where the duet of the two gendarmes became a favourite number in England and France and the basis for the Marines ' Hymn in the U.S.
= = = Early 1860s = = =
The 1860s were Offenbach 's most successful decade . At the beginning of 1860 , he was granted French citizenship by the personal command of Napoleon III , and the following year he was appointed a Chevalier of the Légion d ’ Honneur ; this appointment scandalised those haughty and exclusive members of the musical establishment who resented such an honour for a composer of popular light opera . Offenbach began the decade with his only stand @-@ alone ballet , Le papillon ( " The Butterfly " ) , produced at the Opéra in 1860 . It achieved what was then a successful run of 42 performances , without , as the biographer Andrew Lamb says , " giving him any greater acceptance in more respectable circles . " Among other operettas in the same year , he finally had a piece presented by the Opéra @-@ Comique , the three @-@ act Barkouf . It was not a success ; its plot revolved around a dog , and Offenbach attempted canine imitations in his music . Neither the public nor the critics were impressed , and the piece survived for only seven performances .
Apart from that setback , Offenbach flourished in the 1860s , with successes greatly outnumbering failures . In 1861 he led the company in a summer season in Vienna . Encountering packed houses and enthusiastic reviews , Offenbach found Vienna much to his liking . He even reverted , for a single evening , to his old role as a cello virtuoso at a command performance before Emperor Franz Joseph . That success was followed by a failure in Berlin . Offenbach , though born a Prussian citizen , observed , " Prussia never does anything to make those of our nationality happy . " He and the company hastened back to Paris . Meanwhile , among his operettas that season were the full @-@ length Le pont des soupirs and the one @-@ act M. Choufleuri restera chez lui le ....
In 1862 , Offenbach 's only son , Auguste , was born , the last of five children . In the same year , Offenbach resigned as director of the Bouffes @-@ Parisiens , handing the post over to Alphonse Varney . He continued to write most of his works for the company , with the exception of occasional pieces for the summer season at Bad Ems . Despite problems with the libretto , Offenbach completed a serious opera in 1864 , Die Rheinnixen , a hotchpotch of romantic and mythological themes . The opera was presented with substantial cuts at the Vienna Court Opera and in Cologne in 1865 . It was not given again until 2002 , when it was finally performed in its entirety . Since then it has been given several productions . It contained one number , the " Elfenchor " , described by the critic Eduard Hanslick as " lovely , luring and sensuous " , which Ernest Guiraud later adapted as the Barcarolle in The Tales of Hoffmann . After December 1864 , Offenbach wrote less frequently for the Bouffes @-@ Parisiens , and many of his new works premiered at larger theatres .
= = = Later 1860s = = =
Between 1864 and 1868 , Offenbach wrote four of the operettas for which he is chiefly remembered : La belle Hélène ( 1864 ) , La vie parisienne ( 1866 ) , La Grande @-@ Duchesse de Gérolstein ( 1867 ) and La Périchole ( 1868 ) . Halévy was joined as librettist for all of them by Henri Meilhac . Offenbach , who called them " Meil " and " Hal " , said of this trinity : " Je suis sans doute le Père , mais chacun des deux est mon Fils et plein d 'Esprit , " a play on words loosely translated as " I am certainly the Father , but together they are the Son and the Wholly Spirited " .
For La belle Hélène , Offenbach secured Hortense Schneider to play the title role . Since her early success in his short operas , she had become a leading star of the French musical stage . She now commanded large fees and was notoriously temperamental , but Offenbach was adamant that no other singer could match her as Hélène . Rehearsals for the premiere at the Théâtre des Variétés were tempestuous , with Schneider and the principal mezzo @-@ soprano feuding , the censor fretting about the satire of the imperial court , and the manager of the theatre attempting to rein in Offenbach 's extravagance with production expenses . Once again the success of the piece was inadvertently assured by the critic Janin ; his scandalised notice was strongly countered by liberal critics and the ensuing publicity again brought the public flocking .
Barbe @-@ bleue was a success in early 1866 and was quickly reproduced elsewhere . La vie parisienne later in the same year was a new departure for Offenbach and his librettists ; for the first time in a large @-@ scale piece they chose a modern setting , instead of disguising their satire under a classical cloak . It needed no accidental boost from Janin but was an instant and prolonged success with Parisian audiences , although its very Parisian themes made it less popular abroad .
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thickness of 75 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) at its bottom edge . The deck armour ranged in thickness from 230 to 200 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) . The turrets were protected with an armour 650 millimetres ( 25 @.@ 6 in ) thick on the face , 250 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) on the sides , and 270 millimetres on the roof . The barbettes of the turrets were protected by armour 560 to 280 millimetres ( 22 @.@ 0 to 11 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and the turrets of the 155 mm guns were protected by 50 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) armour plates . The sides of the conning tower were 500 millimetres ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) thick and it had a 200 @-@ millimetre thick roof . Underneath the magazines were 50 @-@ to @-@ 80 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) armour plates to protect the ship from mine damage . Musashi contained 1147 watertight compartments ( 1065 underneath the armour deck , 82 above ) to preserve buoyancy in the event of battle damage .
= = = Aircraft = = =
Musashi was fitted with two catapults on her quarterdeck and could stow up to seven floatplanes in her below @-@ decks hangar . The ship operated Mitsubishi F1M biplanes and Aichi E13A1 monoplanes and used a 6 @-@ tonne ( 5 @.@ 9 @-@ long @-@ ton ) , stern @-@ mounted crane for recovery .
= = = Fire control and sensors = = =
The ship was equipped with four 15 @-@ metre ( 49 ft 3 in ) rangefinders , one atop her forward superstructure and one each in her main gun turrets , and another 10 @-@ metre ( 32 ft 10 in ) unit atop her rear superstructure . Each 15 @.@ 5 @-@ centimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) gun turret was equipped with an 8 @-@ metre ( 26 ft 3 in ) rangefinder . Low @-@ angle fire was controlled by two Type 98 fire @-@ control directors mounted above the rangefinders on the superstructure . Type 94 high @-@ angle directors controlled the 12 @.@ 7 mm AA guns , with Type 95 short @-@ range directors for the 25 mm AA guns .
Musashi was built with a Type 0 hydrophone system in her bow . It was only usable while stationary or at low speed . In September 1942 a Type 21 air @-@ search radar was installed on the roof of the 15 @-@ metre rangefinder at the top of the forward superstructure . Two Type 22 surface @-@ search radars were installed on the forward superstructure in July 1943 . During repairs in April 1944 , the Type 21 radar was replaced by a more modern version and a Type 13 early warning radar was fitted .
= = Construction = =
To cope with Musashi 's great size and weight , the construction slipway was reinforced , nearby workshops were expanded , and two floating cranes were built . The ship 's keel was laid down on 29 March 1938 at Mitsubishi 's Nagasaki shipyard , and was designated " Battleship No. 2 " . Throughout construction , a large curtain made of hemp rope weighing 408 t ( 450 short tons ) prevented outsiders from viewing construction .
Launching the Musashi presented its own problems . The ship 's 4 @-@ metre ( 13 ft 1 in ) thick launch platform , made of nine 44 cm ( 17 in ) Douglas fir planks bolted together , took two years to assemble ( from keel @-@ laying in March 1938 ) because of the difficulty in drilling perfectly straight bolt holes through four metres of fresh timber . The problem of slowing and stopping the massive hull once inside the narrow Nagasaki Harbour was addressed by attaching 570 tonnes ( 560 long tons ) of heavy chains divided evenly between the two sides of the hull to create dragging resistance in the water . The launch , like the ship itself , had to be concealed from prying eyes ; the most important means of accomplishing this was a citywide air @-@ raid drill staged on the launch day to keep everyone inside their homes . Musashi was successfully launched on 1 November 1940 , coming to a stop only 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in excess of the hull 's calculated 220 metres ( 720 ft ) travel distance across the harbour . The entry of such a large mass into the water caused a 120 cm ( 3 ft 11 in ) tsunami , which propagated throughout the harbour and up the local rivers , flooding homes and capsizing small fishing boats . Musashi was fitted out at nearby Sasebo , with Captain Kaoru Arima assigned as her commanding officer .
Towards the end of fitting out , the ship 's flagship facilities , including those on the bridge and in the admiral 's cabins , were modified to satisfy Combined Fleet 's desire to have the ship equipped as the primary flagship of the commander @-@ in @-@ chief , as her sister Yamato was too far along for such changes . These alterations , along with improvements in the secondary battery armour , pushed back completion and pre @-@ handover testing of Musashi by two months , to August 1942 .
= = Service = =
Musashi was commissioned at Nagasaki on 5 August 1942 , and assigned to the 1st Battleship Division together with Yamato , Nagato , and Mutsu . Beginning five days later , the ship conducted machinery and aircraft @-@ handling trials near Hashirajima . Her secondary armament of twelve 127 mm guns , 12 triple 25 mm gun mounts , and four 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machine guns was fitted from 3 – 28 September 1942 at Kure , as well as a Type 21 radar . The ship was working up for the rest of the year . Captain Arima was promoted to rear admiral on 1 November .
Musashi was assigned to the Combined Fleet , commanded by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , on 15 January 1943 and sailed for Truk three days later , arriving on 22 January . On 11 February , she replaced her sister ship Yamato as the fleet 's flagship . On 3 April , Yamamoto left Musashi and flew to Rabaul , New Britain to personally direct " Operation I @-@ Go " , a Japanese aerial offensive in the Solomon Islands . His orders were intercepted and deciphered by Magic , and American Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning fighters shot down his aircraft and killed him in Operation Vengeance while he was en route from New Britain to Ballale , Bougainville . On 23 April , his cremated remains were flown back to Truk and placed in his cabin on board Musashi .
On 17 May , in response to American attacks on Attu Island , Musashi — together with the carrier Hiyō , two heavy cruisers , and nine destroyers — sortied to the northern Pacific . When no contact was made with American forces , the ships sailed to Kure on 23 May , where Yamamoto 's ashes were taken from the vessel in preparation for a formal state funeral . Immediately afterwards , Musashi 's task force was significantly reinforced to counterattack American naval forces off Attu , but the island was captured before the force could intervene . On 9 June Arima was relieved by captain Keizō Komura . On 24 June , while being overhauled at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal , Musashi was visited by Emperor Hirohito and high @-@ ranking naval officers . From 1 to 8 July , the ship was fitted with a pair of Type 22 radars at Kure . She sailed for Truk on 30 July and arrived there six days later , where she resumed her position as fleet flagship for Admiral Mineichi Koga .
In mid @-@ October , in response to suspicions of planned American raids on Wake Island , Musashi led a large fleet — three carriers , six battleships , and 11 cruisers — to intercept American forces , but failed to make contact and returned to Truk on 26 October . She spent the remainder of 1943 in Truk Lagoon . Captain Komura was promoted to rear admiral on 1 November and transferred to the 3rd Fleet on 7 December as Chief of Staff , Captain Bunji Asakura assuming command of Musashi .
The ship remained in Truk Lagoon until 10 February 1944 , when she returned to Yokosuka . On 24 February , Musashi sailed for Palau , carrying one Imperial Japanese Army battalion and another of Special Naval Landing Forces and their equipment . After losing most of her deck cargo during a typhoon , she arrived at Palau on 29 February and remained there for the next month . On 29 March , Musashi departed Palau under cover of darkness to avoid an expected air raid , and encountered the submarine USS Tunny , which fired six torpedoes at the battleship ; five of them missed , but the sixth blew a hole 5 @.@ 8 metres ( 19 ft ) in diameter near the bow , flooding her with 3000 tonnes of water . The torpedo hit killed seven crewmen and wounded another eleven . After temporary repairs , Musashi sailed for Japan later that night and arrived at Kure Naval Arsenal on 3 April . From 10 to 22 April , she was repaired and her anti @-@ aircraft armament was substantially increased . When she undocked on 22 April , the ship 's secondary battery comprised six 15 @.@ 5 cm guns , twenty @-@ four 12 @.@ 7 cm guns , one hundred and thirty 25 mm guns , and four 13 @.@ 2 mm machine guns . She also received new radars ( which were still primitive compared to American equipment ) , and depth @-@ charge rails were installed on her fantail .
In May 1944 , captain Asakura was promoted to rear admiral and Musashi departed Kure for Okinawa on 10 May , then for Tawitawi on 12 May . She was assigned to the 1st Mobile Fleet , under the command of Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa , with her sister . On 10 June , the battleships departed Tawitawi for Batjan under the command of Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki , in preparation for Operation Kon , a planned counterattack against the American invasion of Biak . Two days later , when word reached Ugaki of American attacks on Saipan , his force was diverted to the Mariana Islands . After they rendezvoused with Ozawa 's main force on 16 June , the battleships were assigned to Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita 's 2nd Fleet . During the Battle of the Philippine Sea , Musashi was not attacked . Following Japan 's disastrous defeat in the battle ( also known as the " Great Marianas Turkey Shoot " ) , the Second Fleet returned to Japan . On 8 July , Musashi and her sister embarked 3 @,@ 522 men and equipment of the Army 's 106th Infantry Regiment of the 49th Infantry Division and sailed for Lingga Island , where they arrived on 17 July .
= = = Battle of Leyte Gulf = = =
Captain Toshihira Inoguchi relieved Asakura in command of Musashi on 12 August and was promoted to rear admiral on 15 October . Three days later , she sailed for Brunei Bay , Borneo , to join the main Japanese fleet in preparation for " Operation Sho @-@ 1 " , the counterattack planned against the American landings at Leyte . The Japanese plan called for Ozawa 's carrier forces to lure the American carrier fleets north of Leyte so that Kurita 's 1st Diversion Force ( also known as the Central Force ) could enter Leyte Gulf and destroy American forces landing on the island . Musashi , together with the rest of Kurita 's force , departed Brunei for the Philippines on 22 October .
The following day , the submarine USS Dace torpedoed and sank the heavy cruiser Maya near Palawan . The destroyer Akishimo rescued 769 survivors and transferred them to Musashi later in the day . On 24 October , while transiting the Sibuyan Sea , Kurita 's ships were spotted by a reconnaissance aircraft from the fleet carrier USS Intrepid . Just over two hours later , the battleship was attacked by eight Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers from Intrepid at 10 : 27 . One 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb struck the roof of Turret No. 1 , failing to penetrate . Two minutes later , Musashi was struck starboard amidships by a torpedo from a Grumman TBF Avenger , also from Intrepid . The ship took on 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) of water and a 5 @.@ 5 degree list to starboard that was later reduced to 1 degree by counterflooding compartments on the opposite side . During this attack two Avengers were shot down .
An hour and a half later , another eight Helldivers from Intrepid attacked Musashi again . One bomb hit the upper deck and failed to detonate ; another hit the port side of the deck and penetrated two decks before exploding above one of the engine rooms . Fragments broke a steam pipe in the engine room and forced its abandonment as well as that of the adjacent boiler room . Power was lost to the port inboard propeller shaft and the ship 's speed dropped to 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . Anti @-@ aircraft fire shot down two Helldivers during this attack . Three minutes later , nine Avengers attacked from both sides of the ship , scoring three torpedo hits on the port side . One hit abreast Turret No. 1 , the second flooded a hydraulic machinery room forcing the main turrets to switch over to auxiliary hydraulic pumps , and the third flooded another engine room . More counterflooding reduced the list to one degree to port , but the degree of flooding reduced the ship 's forward freeboard by 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . During this attack , Musashi fired sanshikidan anti @-@ aircraft shells from her main armament ; one shell detonated in the middle gun of Turret No. 1 , possibly because of a bomb fragment in the barrel , and wrecked the turret 's elevating machinery .
At 13 : 31 , the ship was attacked by 29 aircraft from the fleet carriers Essex and Lexington . Two Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters strafed the ship 's deck and Helldivers scored four more bomb hits near her forward turrets . Musashi was hit by four more torpedoes , three of which were forward of Turret No. 1 , causing extensive flooding . The ship was now listing one degree to starboard , and had taken on so much water that her bow was now down 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) and her speed had been reduced to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Two hours later nine Helldivers from Enterprise attacked with 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 450 kg ) armour @-@ piercing bombs , scoring four hits . The ship was hit by three more torpedoes , opening up her starboard bow and reducing her speed to 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . At 15 : 25 , Musashi was attacked by 37 aircraft from Intrepid , the fleet carrier Franklin and the light carrier Cabot . The ship was hit by 13 bombs and 11 more torpedoes during this attack for the loss of three Avengers and three Helldivers . Her speed was reduced to 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) , her main steering engine was temporarily knocked out and her rudder was briefly jammed 15 degrees to port . Counterflooding reduced her list to six degrees to port from its previous maximum of ten degrees . Musashi had been struck by a total of 19 torpedoes and 17 bombs .
Kurita left Musashi to fend for herself at 15 : 30 , and encountered her again at 16 : 21 after reversing course . The ship was headed north , with a list of 10 degrees to port , down 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) at the bow with her forecastle awash . He detailed a heavy cruiser and two destroyers to escort her while frantic efforts were made to correct her list , including flooding another engine room and some boiler rooms . Her engines stopped before she could be beached . At 19 : 15 her list reached 12 degrees and her crew was ordered to prepare to abandon ship , which they did fifteen minutes later when the list reached 30 degrees . Musashi capsized at 19 : 36 and sank in 4 @,@ 430 feet ( 1 @,@ 350 m ) at 13 ° 07 ′ N 122 ° 32 ′ E. Inoguchi chose to go down with his ship ; 1 @,@ 376 of her 2 @,@ 399 @-@ man crew were rescued . About half of her survivors were evacuated to Japan , and the rest took part in the defence of the Philippines . The destroyer Shimakaze rescued 635 of Maya 's survivors from Musashi .
= = Discovery = =
In March 2015 , the American philanthropist and Microsoft co @-@ founder , Paul Allen , and his team of researchers located the wreck of Musashi in the Sibuyan Sea using a remotely operated underwater vehicle deployed from the yacht Octopus . The ship lies at a depth of around 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . The wreck was revealed to be in several pieces with most of the hull amidships appearing to have been blown apart after leaving the surface . The bow section from the number one barbette forward is upright on the sea floor while the stern is upside down . The forward superstructure and funnel is detached from the rest of the ship and lies on its port side .
= Ontario Highway 7A =
King 's Highway 7A , commonly referred to as Highway 7A , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that serves as a bypass of Highway 7 . The highway begins in the community of Manchester , where Highway 7 is concurrent with Highway 12 , and travels east through Port Perry , Nestleton Station , Bethany and Cavan , ending at Highway 115 southwest of Peterborough . From there , Highway 7 can be reached via Highway 115 northbound . Near its midpoint the route is concurrent with Highway 35 for 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) .
Highway 7A is 48 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 30 @.@ 0 mi ) long , passing through the Regional Municipality of Durham , city of Kawartha Lakes and Peterborough County . Outside of the communities it serves , the highway passes through generally agricultural areas , though it enters the Oak Ridges Moraine near Highway 35 .
The highway was designated in the 1930s in downtown Peterborough and shortly thereafter was extended west to Manchester . The causeways over Lake Scugog date back to the 1850s , and were repeatedly reinforced over the course of a century to reach their current state . During the 1950s , the construction of Highway 115 caused the route of Highway 7A to be modified . At the end of the decade , the causeways were reconstructed for the final time . The eastern end of the highway was reconfigured several times before arriving at its current routing after the 1960s .
= = Route description = =
Highway 7A is a 48 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometre ( 30 @.@ 0 mi ) highway which serves as an alternative route to Highway 7 , bypassing Lindsay and providing a shorter and more direct southern route between Whitby and Peterborough . It begins in the community of Manchester at an intersection with Highway 7 and Highway 12 . West of this intersection , the road continues as Durham Regional Road 21 towards Stouffville . The highway travels northeast into the town of Port Perry , where it curves east and becomes Scugog Street . Passing through the town , the highway serves as a commercial strip , centring on Simcoe Street . In the east end of the town , the highway passes several big @-@ box retailers before crossing the western arm of Lake Scugog on the Scugog Causeway .
On Scugog Island now , the highway first passes Island Road ( Durham Regional Road 7 ) , which leads to Great Blue Heron Casino and the Mississaugas of Scugog Island reserve , then curves southeast and enters the Osler Marsh . It once continued east along what is now Reader Road and curved southeast at the end of that road . The modern route , constructed when the causeways were reinforced in the 1960s , lies south of the original route . The route continues southeast across the Cartwright Causeway , separating the eastern arm of Lake Scugog from the marsh . After approximately a kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 miles ) , the highway curves east and continues for 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) to the end of the causeway . For the next 3 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) , the highway travels straight to the east past farmland , then curves north near Blackstock . It intersects Durham Regional Road 57 , which travels south to Bowmanville . The two routes travels north concurrently with for 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) before Road 57 departs north towards Caesarea as Highway 7A gently curves east and passes through the former railway village of Nestleton Station .
Returning to farmland , the highway enters the northern tip of the Oak Ridges Moraine and the terrain begins to undulate near the border between Durham Region and Kawartha Lakes . Eventually , the farmland transitions into forests and the highway dives into and out of glacial ravines ; these form the headwaters of the Pigeon River . The route intersects Highway 35 approximately 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) east of Nesleton Station ; both highways travel south concurrently for 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) before Highway 7A branches east and Highway 35 continues south to Orono and Newcastle . A carpool parking lot is also available at this junction .
Highway 7A continues east through a valley @-@ ridden region containing a mix of thick deciduous forests and farmland . Shortly after passing the northern terminus of City Road 32 ( Porter Road ) , the highway enters the village of Bethany , where it crosses the Victoria Rail Trail and intersects the southern terminus of City Road 38 ( Ski Hill Road ) before curving southeast and entering Peterborough County . The highway curves back to the east and passes through a final ravine . It crosses through farmland before entering the community of Cavan , where it meets County Road 10 . Approximately 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) east of Cavan , Highway 7A ends at an interchange with Highway 115 , which itself intersects and becomes concurrent with Highway 7 approximately 4 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) northeast of this point , thereafter continuing into Peterborough .
= = History = =
The history of Highway 7A is largely connected to that of Lake Scugog , and has played an important role for over a century , although the highway was not designated until the 1930s . Joseph Bigelow , a businessman and later the Reeve of Port Perry and James Graham , Reeve of Scugog , played a significant role in the construction of two causeways across the lake – the Scugog and the Cartwright Causeways . These were gradually reinforced over the span of a century ( 1856 – 1960 ) before reaching their present state , and now carry Highway 7A .
= = = Development = = =
Lake Scugog was created when William Purdy and his sons dammed the Scugog River in Lindsay ( Upstream from the current dam and locks ) in 1834 to power his grist mill . With the raised water levels , the highlands of Scugog Township became an island , separated from Cartwright Township to the southeast , and from Port Perry and Reach Township to the west . As a result , residents were forced to ferry across the lake during the summer and across the ice during the winter . The periods between were precarious , with many carts falling through the thawing ice and into the marsh . In 1852 , Ontario County was formed , and residents began to petition the new government for construction of a bridge from Port Perry across to the island . Scugog Township passed Bylaw No. 2 on February 25 , 1856 , which granted $ 1000 towards construction of a floating bridge .
The bridge proved to be an expensive burden , and for many years the responsibility for maintaining it was repeatedly shifted from township to county and back again . Ice would often carry away entire sections of the bridge during the spring thaw , requiring replanking or complete reconstruction . In the spring of 1876 , work began to convert the first 180 metres ( 590 ft ) of the Port Perry side of the floating bridge into a permanent embankment . Logs were placed along both sides the bridge and various materials piled between them , sinking it into the soft soil below . Earth laid over top to provide a stable surface . The process also increased the width of the roadbed from 3 @.@ 7 metres ( 12 ft ) to 5 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft ) .
Further construction on the Scugog Causeway met fierce opposition from county officials , who argued that the new method had not even faced a winter season . It took until July 1878 for work to resume , when Port Perry Reeve Joshua Wright managed to manipulate the county council , convincing them " to strike out the magnificent $ 150 [ grant for seasonal maintenance which they had offered ] and stipulate that 600 feet be filled in on the east end of the bridge . " A contract for this work was tendered in June 1879 , and completed one year later . Finally , in early 1885 , work on the final 180 metres began . This work was completed in July , at which point repairs were carried out on the existing sections .
Construction of the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 6 mi ) Cartwright Causeway took place after nearly two decades of effort by its chief promoter , Joseph Bigelow . Bigelow witnessed the business opportunity that the Scugog Bridge opened up , and wished to construct a second structure towards Blackstock , opening the Port Perry markets to the fertile agricultural land of Cartwright Township . He first approached the Ontario County council in 1872 with his proposal , but was refused the funding . The council agreed to set up a committee , through which Bigelow sought out investors . In 1882 , the Lake Scugog Marsh Lands Drainage Company , which had purchased the marshlands south of the proposed causeway , approached Bigelow with an offer to build his causeway as part of their plans to drain the marsh . They required a small investment in order to proceed with the work , but council ultimately refused even this , forcing the company to sell off its lands .
Undeterred , Bigelow continued to accrue funds from other level of government and surrounding townships . By 1889 , he had enough to begin work . Unlike the Scugog Bridge , Bigelow ensured that his structure would be permanent from the beginning and constructed a majority of the causeway by removing the top layer of peat from the marsh , piling logs in lengthwise approximately a metre deep and covering the exposed surface with the same depth of earth . By early 1891 , the causeway was completed , and shortly thereafter trees were planted along both sides .
The combined 12 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) route quickly grew to be the main east – west transportation corridor in the area . However , due to the soft soils and clay on which the causeway was built , it sank at a continuous rate and still required maintenance to keep it above water during the spring thaw . In 1928 , both causeways were reinforced , widened and heightened in response to growing automobile usage .
= = = King 's Highway = = =
By 1934 , the Department of Highways assumed Lansdowne Street in Peterborough as Highway 7A , providing an alternate route south of downtown . At that point in time , Highway 7 entered Peterborough by following Lindsay Street east from Fowlers Corners to Chemong Road and curving southeast . It followed Chemong Road to Reid Street , which it then followed south . The route proceeded west along McDonnel Street and south along George Street to Lansdowne Street , which it followed east out of Peterborough . Highway 28 entered Peterborough from the west along Lansdowne Street , curving north at what is now Ford Street . It followed this onto what is now Clonsilla Avenue , and curved east onto Charlotte Street , which it followed to George Street . Highway 7A thus provided a direct route between Highway 28 and Highway 7 south of Peterborough .
In May 1938 , Highway 7A was extended west to Highway 7 and Highway 12 at Manchester via Bethany and Port Perry . This created a concurrency with Highway 28 and brought the length of the highway to 68 kilometres ( 42 mi ) . The new extension was a gravel road between Port Perry and Highway 28 , but the section between Port Perry and Blackstock was paved by October 1939 .
In late 1954 , Highway 115 was opened between Highway 35 at Enterprise Hill and Highway 28 south of Springville . As a result , Highway 7A was rerouted concurrently along a short section of the new highway . Several highways were rerouted in 1960 , including Highway 7 , which was redirected at Fowlers Corners to curve south and meet Highway 28 near Springville ; the former route became Highway 7B . During the spring of 2003 , Highway 7A was truncated at Highway 115 near Cavan , taking on its current routing .
During the late 1950s , spring flooding began to become problematic on both causeways , prompting the Department of Highways to reconstruct them and the approaches . Soil investigations were carried out over the length of the road in mid @-@ 1959 , and in August 1960 contracts were tendered for construction . The existing causeways were both closed as the adjacent marsh was excavated up to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) deep . Nearby properties were purchased for the sole purpose of excavating for earth for fill , which was trucked at a continuous rate . Over 8 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 230 @,@ 000 m3 ) of organic material was removed from the marsh and 12 @,@ 494 @,@ 574 cubic feet ( 353 @,@ 806 @.@ 9 m3 ) of fill placed over several years of construction . As a result of this , the roadbed no longer sinks into the marsh and spring melt no longer poses an issue .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 7A , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Rotavirus =
Rotavirus is the most common cause of severe vomiting and diarrhoea among infants and young children . It is a genus of double @-@ stranded RNA viruses in the family Reoviridae . Nearly every child in the world has been infected with rotavirus at least once by the age of five . Immunity develops with each infection , so subsequent infections are less severe ; adults are rarely affected . There are eight species of this virus , referred to as A , B , C , D , E , F , G and H. Rotavirus A , the most common species , causes more than 90 % of rotavirus infections in humans .
The virus is transmitted by the faecal @-@ oral route . It infects and damages the cells that line the small intestine and causes gastroenteritis ( which is often called " stomach flu " despite having no relation to influenza ) . Although rotavirus was discovered in 1973 by Ruth Bishop and her colleagues by electron micrograph images and accounts for up to 50 % of hospitalisations for severe diarrhoea in infants and children , its importance has been underestimated within the public health community , particularly in developing countries . In addition to its impact on human health , rotavirus also infects animals , and is a pathogen of livestock .
Rotavirus is usually an easily managed disease of childhood , but worldwide more than 450 @,@ 000 children under five years of age still die from rotavirus infection each year , most of whom live in developing countries , and almost two million more become severely ill . In the United States , before initiation of the rotavirus vaccination programme , rotavirus caused about 2 @.@ 7 million cases of severe gastroenteritis in children , almost 60 @,@ 000 hospitalizations , and around 37 deaths each year . Public health campaigns to combat rotavirus focus on providing oral rehydration therapy for infected children and vaccination to prevent the disease . The incidence and severity of rotavirus infections has declined significantly in countries that have added rotavirus vaccine to their routine childhood immunisation policies .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Rotaviral enteritis is a mild to severe disease characterised by nausea , vomiting , watery diarrhoea and low @-@ grade fever . Once a child is infected by the virus , there is an incubation period of about two days before symptoms appear . The period of illness is acute . Symptoms often start with vomiting followed by four to eight days of profuse diarrhoea . Dehydration is more common in rotavirus infection than in most of those caused by bacterial pathogens , and is the most common cause of death related to rotavirus infection .
Rotavirus A infections can occur throughout life : the first usually produces symptoms , but subsequent infections are typically mild or asymptomatic , as the immune system provides some protection . Consequently , symptomatic infection rates are highest in children under two years of age and decrease progressively towards 45 years of age . Infection in newborn children , although common , is often associated with mild or asymptomatic disease ; the most severe symptoms tend to occur in children six months to two years of age , the elderly , and those with immunodeficiency . Due to immunity acquired in childhood , most adults are not susceptible to rotavirus ; gastroenteritis in adults usually has a cause other than rotavirus , but asymptomatic infections in adults may maintain the transmission of infection in the community .
= = Transmission = =
Rotavirus is transmitted by the fæcal @-@ oral route , via contact with contaminated hands , surfaces and objects , and possibly by the respiratory route . Viral diarrhea is highly contagious . The faeces of an infected person can contain more than 10 trillion infectious particles per gram ; fewer than 100 of these are required to transmit infection to another person .
Rotaviruses are stable in the environment and have been found in estuary samples at levels up to 1 – 5 infectious particles per US gallon , the viruses survive between 9 and 19 days . Sanitary measures adequate for eliminating bacteria and parasites seem to be ineffective in control of rotavirus , as the incidence of rotavirus infection in countries with high and low health standards is similar .
= = Disease mechanisms = =
The diarrhoea is caused by multiple activities of the virus . Malabsorption occurs because of the destruction of gut cells called enterocytes . The toxic rotavirus protein NSP4 induces age- and calcium ion @-@ dependent chloride secretion , disrupts SGLT1 transporter @-@ mediated reabsorption of water , apparently reduces activity of brush @-@ border membrane disaccharidases , and possibly activates the calcium ion @-@ dependent secretory reflexes of the enteric nervous system . Healthy enterocytes secrete lactase into the small intestine ; milk intolerance due to lactase deficiency is a symptom of rotavirus infection , which can persist for weeks . A recurrence of mild diarrhoea often follows the reintroduction of milk into the child 's diet , due to bacterial fermentation of the disaccharide lactose in the gut .
= = Diagnosis and detection = =
Diagnosis of infection with rotavirus normally follows diagnosis of gastroenteritis as the cause of severe diarrhoea . Most children admitted to hospital with gastroenteritis are tested for rotavirus A. Specific diagnosis of infection with rotavirus A is made by finding the virus in the child 's stool by enzyme immunoassay . There are several licensed test kits on the market which are sensitive , specific and detect all serotypes of rotavirus A. Other methods , such as electron microscopy and PCR , are used in research laboratories . Reverse transcription @-@ polymerase chain reaction ( RT @-@ PCR ) can detect and identify all species and serotypes of human rotavirus .
= = Treatment and prognosis = =
Treatment of acute rotavirus infection is nonspecific and involves management of symptoms and , most importantly , management of dehydration . If untreated , children can die from the resulting severe dehydration . Depending on the severity of diarrhoea , treatment consists of oral rehydration therapy , during which the child is given extra water to drink that contains small amounts of salt and sugar . In 2004 , the WHO and UNICEF recommended the use of low @-@ osmolarity oral rehydration solution and zinc supplementation as a two @-@ pronged treatment of acute diarrhoea . Some infections are serious enough to warrant hospitalization where fluids are given by intravenous therapy or nasogastric intubation , and the child 's electrolytes and blood sugar are monitored . Probiotics have been shown to reduce the duration of rotavirus diarrhoea , and according to the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology " effective interventions include administration of specific probiotics such as Lactobacillus rhamnosus or Saccharomyces boulardii , diosmectite or racecadotril . " Rotavirus infections rarely cause other complications and for a well managed child the prognosis is excellent .
= = Epidemiology = =
Rotavirus A , which accounts for more than 90 % of rotavirus gastroenteritis in humans , is endemic worldwide . Each year rotavirus causes millions of cases of diarrhoea in developing countries , almost 2 million resulting in hospitalization and an estimated 453 @,@ 000 resulting in the death of a child younger than five , 85 percent of whom live in developing countries . In the United States alone — before initiation of the rotavirus vaccination programme — over 2 @.@ 7 million cases of rotavirus gastroenteritis occurred annually , 60 @,@ 000 children were hospitalised and around 37 died from the results of the infection . The major role of rotavirus in causing diarrhoea is not widely recognised within the public health community , particularly in developing countries . Almost every child has been infected with rotavirus by age five . It is the leading single cause of severe diarrhoea among infants and children , being responsible for about 20 % of cases , and accounts for 50 % of the cases requiring hospitalization . Rotavirus causes 37 % of deaths attributable to diarrhoea and 5 % of all deaths in children younger than five . Boys are twice as likely as girls to be
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held on for a draw .
Meckiff took a total of 3 / 50 in a seven @-@ wicket defeat of Western Australia before the return match against New South Wales , in which Victoria were 34 runs short of victory with seven wickets in hand when time ran out , Meckiff 's match figures being 6 / 121 . He had a final chance to push for Test selection in the second of his state 's two matches against England . The tourists batted first and made 375 ; Meckiff took 5 / 93 , dismissing Pullar , Peter Parfitt , Fred Titmus , David Allen and top @-@ scorer Tom Graveney , who had made 185 . He took 2 / 47 in the English second innings , removing Barry Knight and Ken Barrington . England set Victoria 287 for victory , and the hosts faced defeat before Meckiff batted late in the order to score 38 and help his side to a draw with one wicket in hand . Despite this continued run of prolific wicket @-@ taking and his success against England , Meckiff was overlooked for the Fifth Test . In his absence , Australia struggled to make inroads into the English batting , and the series ended 1 – 1 .
Victoria 's season ended with consecutive matches against Queensland . In the first , Meckiff took a total of 5 / 88 as his side completed an innings victory at home . In the final match in Brisbane , his slower ball was no @-@ balled in his fifth over of the second innings by umpire Bill Priem . Meckiff bowled 14 further overs without incident and ended the innings with 4 / 74 . Victoria drew the match and sealed their Sheffield Shield victory . Meckiff had been the state 's leading wicket @-@ taker and one of the key figures in their triumph , but his bowling action was the main talking point at the end of the match .
= = Test no @-@ ball = =
Meckiff 's performances as the leading wicket @-@ taker during the 1962 – 63 season meant that he could not be justifiably denied national selection on grounds of productivity , so the matter of his legitimacy had to be resolved . Meanwhile , the retirement of pace spearhead Davidson left a vacancy in the Australian team ahead of the 1963 – 64 home Test series against South Africa . In the opening Shield matches of the season in Melbourne , Meckiff took match figures of 5 / 102 and 6 / 107 against South and Western Australia respectively . His wickets included Test batsmen Les Favell , Garry Sobers , Keith Slater and Barry Shepherd . In the latter match he took the first five wickets in the innings to reduce Western Australia to 5 / 54 . Despite his contributions , Victoria were unable to secure victories against either of their opponents . However , as a result of these strong personal performances , Meckiff was selected for the First Test in Brisbane .
At the start of the season , the Australian Board of Control had issued a directive calling on the umpires to " get tough " in enforcing the laws of cricket , and asked the state associations to " back the umpires to the fullest extent " . In the lead @-@ up to the Test , Meckiff was the centre of media attention , and one report described him as cricket 's " bogey man " . The South Africans were reportedly stunned by Meckiff 's selection , giving the impression that they considered him an illegitimate bowler . Reaction in England was also hostile , ahead of Australia 's forthcoming tour in the English summer of 1964 . Colin Ingleby @-@ Mackenzie wrote in the News of the World : " there is no room in cricket for throwers . Let us hope that ... the Australian selectors realise this ... otherwise the throwing war will be waged in earnest " .
The Brisbane Test was dubbed " Meckiff 's Test " by the Australian media ; speculation abounded that the bowler was being chosen so he could be no @-@ balled as a public relations effort to promote Australia 's anti @-@ throwing credentials . Keith Miller described the left @-@ armer 's selection as having " peppered this once drab @-@ looking series into a curry hot @-@ pot , with all the excitement and trimmings of an Alfred Hitchcock thriller " . Miller further predicted that the umpires Egar and Lou Rowan would be having sleepless nights and predicted that the selectors would be biting their fingernails , adding that he hoped Meckiff was not being used as a scapegoat for the anti @-@ throwing movement . Former Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly — a correspondent for The Sydney Morning Herald — described the selection as " one of the most fantastic somersaults in cricket policies in our time " . As a close friend of the fast bowler , umpire Egar was in a difficult situation ; the duo had won a pairs lawn bowling competition just a few months earlier . Nevertheless , the paceman and umpire socialised freely at the pre @-@ match function .
= = = Incident = = =
In the Test match , which began on 6 December 1963 , Australia batted first ; Meckiff contributed seven runs before being bowled by Peter Pollock . On the second day , after the Australian innings ended on 435 , South Africa began to bat just after the luncheon interval . Bowling from the Stanley Street End , Graham McKenzie conceded 13 runs from the first over . Meckiff took the ball for the second over , bowling from the Vulture Street End to South African captain Trevor Goddard . At the same time , the South African manager Ken Viljoen set up a camera square of the wicket among the spectators and began filming the left @-@ armer 's bowling action . Meckiff was no @-@ balled four times by Egar — who was standing at square leg — in what would be his only over of the match . After the Victorian bowled a gentle " loosener " as his first ball ( and escaped a front @-@ foot no @-@ ball call ) , " the drama began " . Egar ruled the second , third , fifth and ninth balls to be throws , and therefore illegitimate . After the third and fifth balls — the latter a full toss that Goddard hit for four — Benaud came over to consult his fast bowler . After the ninth ball , Meckiff and Benaud had another meeting , and the remaining three balls were deemed to be fair . In the meantime , the crowd roared loudly , heckling Egar and supporting the beleaguered bowler . Meckiff had previously been passed in five countries , having played Tests in four of these nations . Egar had cleared his bowling on five previous occasions , in three Shield matches and two Tests ; the Victorian had bowled 119 @.@ 1 overs in these games without incident . Egar later said " My only judgement was what I saw at the time " . Benaud removed his paceman from the attack and Meckiff did not bowl again in the match , later saying he could not remember the over because he was absorbed by a feeling of complete deflation .
Meckiff conceded eight runs — Goddard 's boundary and the four no @-@ balls — from his solitary over and the tourists were eventually out for 346 . Meckiff did not bat in the second innings of the weather @-@ interrupted match ; Australia declared at 1 / 144 before South Africa reached 1 / 13 when the match ended as a draw . After his single over , Meckiff 's participation in the match was limited to his fielding , during which he caught Goddard from the bowling of Benaud in the South African first innings . He retired from all forms of cricket at the end of the game , but continued to proclaim that his bowling action was fair .
Barry Gibbs , the secretary of the Queensland Cricket Association and the manager of the Australian team , called the " humiliation " of Meckiff " without a doubt the most dramatic and emotion @-@ charged " sporting moment he had witnessed . Egar 's actions also ignited " one of the most emotional crowd displays in Test history " , as the public backed the paceman . During Meckiff 's over , the crowd expressed strong disapproval of the umpire 's calls . Half an hour before the close of the day 's play , proceedings were suspended for two minutes as the crowd repeatedly chanted " We want Meckiff " . When play ended , spectators stormed the field and carried the fast bowler off the arena on their shoulders , hailing him as a hero . They returned to the field and formed two lanes , booing Egar from the ground . After this incident , the Queensland Police escorted the umpire to and from the match venue . The police presence at the ground was increased because of fears the crowd might attack Egar or Benaud . During the Second Test , which was held in Meckiff 's home town of Melbourne , Egar was given a police escort throughout the match after receiving death threats .
= = = Reaction = = =
During a rest day after the second day 's play the media dissected the events of the previous afternoon . The majority of reporters believed all of Meckiff 's deliveries had been bowled with an identical action . Louis Duffus of the Johannesburg Star expressed " sympathy for Meckiff as well as admiration for Egar . " The South African writer Charles Fortune said that Meckiff 's action was " not according to the laws of cricket " although he would not call the Australian bowler a " chucker " . England captain Dexter implicitly accused Meckiff of throwing , saying : " One courageous Australian umpire has brought it to a timely end " .
Team manager Gibbs reported that at the end of the first day 's play the Australian dressing room was stunned into silence . Egar asked Benaud for permission to enter , and after the Australian captain allowed him in , the umpire sat quietly for a period before speaking to some other players and then to Meckiff . The pair were close friends , and shook hands before putting their arms around one another 's shoulders . The condemned bowler did not take Egar 's judgment personally and did not have hard feelings about the incident . Egar claimed to be " the second most upset person in the world " , and later added that he thought Meckiff 's first ball was suspect . He said that he could have called more deliveries , but was worried whether the over would ever end .
When asked why he had not asked Meckiff to bowl at the other end to gauge the judgment of the other umpire , Lou Rowan , Benaud replied " over the years I have always accepted the umpire 's decision " . The Australian captain was criticised for being acquiescent , and one of his predecessors Lindsay Hassett believed Meckiff should have been used at reduced speed . Rowan later indicated his concurrence with Egar , writing in his book The Umpire 's Story , " There is nothing I can now say that will alter the opinions already expressed that his [ Meckiff 's ] delivery was unfair " . For his part , Meckiff said : " the game is bigger than the individual " and he backed Benaud 's decision because doing otherwise " could only have added fuel to the controversy " .
Retired Test umpires Col Hoy and Les Townsend were watching at the ground when Meckiff was called . The day after the incident , both asserted that they would not have no @-@ balled the paceman . Hoy said he had never had any problem with the bowler 's action during matches in which he officiated . He described Meckiff 's action as " slightly different " but attributed this to an accentuated wrist action used in an attempt to get more life out of dead pitches , rather than his elbow . Townsend watched the paceman through binoculars and deemed all of his 12 deliveries to be identical . Townsend regarded Meckiff 's arm action as " peculiar " but felt he did not throw . Former Test spinners Ian Johnson and Doug Ring said Meckiff 's action was fair .
After his retirement , Meckiff agreed to put his name to a series of ghost @-@ written articles about the no @-@ ball incident . He said that Egar 's calls " hit him like a dagger in the back " , but described the umpire as " a fair and just man who acted according to his convictions " .
= = = Allegations of a conspiracy = = =
Sections of the cricket community believed Meckiff was no @-@ balled to prove that Australia was serious about dealing with the wave of complaints regarding suspected throwing in the 1950s and 1960s . Leading cricket historian David Frith wrote : " Meckiff was a popular Australian , and won much sympathy among those who believed him innocent or to have been victimised in a ' clean @-@ up campaign ' . " A dinner hosted by Don Bradman at his Adelaide home in January 1963 for visiting state captains was later cited to suggest that Meckiff may have been a sacrificial offering . At the dinner , attended by Bill Lawry of Victoria , Barry Shepherd , Ken Mackay and Benaud , Bradman had showed frame @-@ by @-@ frame slow motion film of Meckiff and other suspect Australian bowlers , which purportedly depicted incriminating actions . This indicated Bradman 's doubts over Meckiff 's legitimacy , yet Bradman was one of the selectors who agreed to the bowler 's inclusion in the Brisbane Test team .
Many members of the Australian media alleged a conspiracy against Meckiff . Ian McDonald of Melbourne 's Sporting Globe said the bowler 's action had not changed in the previous eight years and stated : " the whole affair smacks of a set @-@ up " . Sydney 's Mirror labelled the paceman " the most obvious fall @-@ guy in Australian cricket history " . On the third morning of the match , former first @-@ class cricketer Percy Beames , writing for Melbourne 's The Age , claimed Meckiff had been used as a " sacrificial goat " and called for the selectors ' resignation . Keith Miller wrote a column calling for Bradman 's and Jack Ryder 's removal from the selection panel , noting that they had watched Meckiff 's performance against Western Australia which prompted his Test selection . Miller felt that if the selectors deemed the bowler illegitimate , then they should not have allowed him to be " executed " by the umpires . Jack Pollard said : " there is little doubt Meckiff was sacrificed to end the long @-@ running controversy and the way it was done irked many cricket @-@ lovers . " Cricketer @-@ turned @-@ journalist Dick Whitington asserted that Benaud was aware his fast bowler had been set up , claiming that the Australian captain knew of Bradman 's views on Meckiff 's action . Whitington further cited the fact that Egar and Bradman had travelled from Adelaide to the Brisbane Test together as evidence of a plot . Others saw Bradman 's tea @-@ time conversation with Benaud after the no @-@ balling as proof of a conspiracy . Benaud repudiated allegations claiming he was involved in a set @-@ up .
Former Australian captain Hassett hinted at a conspiracy when he stated that , as the selectors must have considered Meckiff to be legitimate , then
If the selectors are right , Egar is wrong , and if he is incapable of interpreting the laws correctly , he should not stand in first @-@ class cricket . On the other hand if the selectors as a body threw Meckiff into this arena merely to be tested by the opinion of a single umpire , they are very much guilty of passing the buck , and of exposing both the bowler and the umpire to extreme embarrassment .
The records of the Australian Board of Control attest to board member Clem Jones 's protestations against Meckiff 's inclusion when the selectors ' proposed team list was submitted for approval . Jones cited the bowler 's questionable action but the Chairman Ewart Macmillan rejected his objection as unconstitutional . Two other board members attempted to overrule the chairman , but their motion was defeated .
More than 40 years after the Meckiff incident , Jones was sure the bowler 's fate had been predetermined . He said " They 'd decided to do it a week before the game , so the poor bloke had no hope ... I was chairman of the umpires selection committee . " Jones remained convinced of Bradman 's intention to have Meckiff called for throwing , something Bradman flatly denied . Gibbs remains suspicious of the motives for selecting Meckiff . He pointed out that although the pitch was conducive to spin bowling , Australia chose five specialist batsmen , two spinners and three fast bowlers . Gibbs speculated that the selection of an extra fast bowler — the most common strategy is to use four bowlers and six batsmen — instead of another batsman betrayed fears that Meckiff would be unable to complete the match . Alan Connolly remained adamant that his teammate 's action was legitimate and implied a conspiracy , saying " I wasn 't amazed [ by Egar 's call ] ... There was a good reason for that which I can 't disclose and won 't disclose . " Tom Veivers , who made his Test debut for Australia in Meckiff 's last match , hinted at the same . He recalled Rowan 's words at the pre @-@ match function : " It 's going to be a very interesting game " .
= = Outside cricket = =
After finishing high school , Meckiff worked as a hardware salesman and lived in Mentone until he married and moved to Beaumaris . The couple had a son . After his retirement , the former paceman worked in advertising , and as a cricket commentator . As of 2001 , he was a senior executive with Boyer Sports Media and frequently worked with cricket administrators . However , he refused to play the sport — even at social level — after the incident in Brisbane .
Meckiff played Australian rules football for Mentone in the Federal League , helping them win the premiership in 1956 . He received offers to play in the Victorian Football League , the top @-@ tier competition at the time , but declined contracts so he could pursue his cricket career . Meckiff also played golf in pennant competition and captained the Victoria Golf Club .
In retirement , the throwing issue continued to dog the former paceman . Former Australian captain and teammate Simpson wrote a book titled Captain 's Story in which he assailed various cricketers — Meckiff chief among them — for throwing . Meckiff sued for libel in a five @-@ year case , which ended with an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement and apology from Simpson . Despite this , Meckiff has continued to socialise with people involved in his last Test , including Simpson , Egar , Gibbs , Rowan and Peter van der Merwe , South Africa 's vice @-@ captain . He says that he never brings up the topic of the no @-@ ball with them . Victorian and Test teammate Lawry rated Meckiff " along with Graham McKenzie , Brian Booth , Peter Burge and one or two others as really nature 's gentlemen " and said his exit was " one of the saddest [ days ] of [ Lawry 's ] life " . Lawry credited his fellow Victorian for being dignified despite the torment and said the bowler was a " pretty fair example of the old expression that good guys run last " . Connolly said " ' Meckie ' was one of the nicest guys . It was to his great credit that he wasn 't soured by the whole incident . "
= Black dogfish =
The black dogfish ( Centroscyllium fabricii ) is a species of dogfish shark in the family Etmopteridae . It is common over the outer continental shelf and continental slope at depths of 180 – 2 @,@ 250 m ( 590 – 7 @,@ 380 ft ) . Females generally inhabit deeper water than males , and depending on the region , smaller sharks may occur at different depths than larger ones . This species is distributed widely in the Atlantic Ocean , from Greenland and Iceland to Virginia and West Africa in the north , and off southwestern Africa and Argentina in the south . The largest member of its family , the black dogfish , typically measures 60 – 75 cm ( 24 – 30 in ) long . It has a stocky , dark brown body that is darker below than above , and bears scattered , minute bioluminescent organs . Its two dorsal fins are preceded by stout spines , and the anal fin is absent .
Active and schooling , the black dogfish is an opportunistic predator and scavenger that mainly consumes bony fishes , crustaceans , and cephalopods . It is aplacental viviparous , with females producing litters of four to 40 pups that are sustained to term by a yolk sac . There is no well @-@ defined breeding season , and mating and birthing take place year @-@ round . The black dogfish contributes significantly to the bycatch of deep @-@ sea commercial fisheries operating in the North Atlantic ; it is of little commercial value and is usually discarded . As large portions of its range see little deepwater fishing activity and its northwestern Atlantic population seems to be stable , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed this species under Least Concern overall . It has been assessed as Near Threatened in the northeastern Atlantic , where its numbers may have declined from heavy fishing pressure .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The first known specimen of the black dogfish was collected near Julianehåb in Greenland and described by Danish zoologist Johannes Reinhardt in his 1825 Ichthyologiske bidrag . Reinhardt gave it the name Spinax fabricii in honor of missionary and naturalist Otto Fabricius , who pioneered the study of Greenlandic fishes . German biologists Johannes Müller and Jakob Henle , in their 1839 – 41 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen , created the new genus Centroscyllium for this species .
According to the IUCN , further taxonomic investigation is required to confirm the black dogfish in the North Atlantic and the southeastern Atlantic represent the same species . A 2010 phylogenetic study by Nicolas Straube and colleagues , based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA , found the black dogfish is the sister species of the whitefin dogfish ( C. ritteri ) , and the two are , in turn , sister to the clade formed by the granular dogfish ( C. granulatum ) and combtooth dogfish ( C. nigrum ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The black dogfish is a common species , with a wide but discontinuous distribution in the temperate waters of the Atlantic Ocean ; its range abuts , but does not extend into , the Arctic Ocean . In the northeast , it occurs from Iceland to Sierra Leone , including the Faroe Islands , southern Norway , and the Rockall Trough and Porcupine Seabight off Ireland . In the northwest , it is found from southern Greenland and Baffin Island to Virginia , being particularly abundant in the Laurentian Channel , and may occur further south to the Gulf of Mexico off Alabama . In the southeast , it is found off Namibia and South Africa as far as Cape Agulhas . In the southwest , it has been recorded from the Beagle Channel at the southern tip of Argentina .
Inhabiting the outer continental shelf and continental slope , the black dogfish is found mostly near the bottom in water 180 – 2 @,@ 250 m ( 590 – 7 @,@ 380 ft ) deep . It is most common at depths of 800 – 1 @,@ 200 m ( 2 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 900 ft ) off Iceland , 1 @,@ 250 – 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 100 – 4 @,@ 920 ft ) in the Rockall Trough , 500 – 1 @,@ 300 m ( 1 @,@ 600 – 4 @,@ 300 ft ) off Greenland , 350 – 500 m ( 1 @,@ 150 – 1 @,@ 640 ft ) off northern Canada , and below 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) off southern Africa . The species may venture closer to the surface in the northern extreme of its range , particularly during the dark , cold winter months . Depth segregation by sex has been documented in the North Atlantic , with females outnumbering males at depths greater than 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) . Depth segregation by size varies by region : larger sharks are generally found in deeper water off western Greenland , in shallower water off western Iceland , and without pattern with respect to depth off eastern Iceland . The black dogfish prefers water temperatures of 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 ° C ( 38 @.@ 3 – 40 @.@ 1 ° F ) , though off northern Canada , it is most abundant in water of 5 – 6 @.@ 5 ° C ( 41 @.@ 0 – 43 @.@ 7 ° F ) ; it can tolerate temperatures down to 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) . There is some evidence that this species conducts seasonal migrations , spending winter and spring in shallower water . Sharks off northern Canada perform development @-@ related movements ( see below ) not observed off western Greenland , suggesting the presence of two distinct stocks in the northwestern Atlantic .
= = Description = =
Adult black dogfish typically measure 60 – 75 cm ( 24 – 30 in ) in length and can reach 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) , making it the largest member of its family . Females attain a larger ultimate size than males . The shark has a rather stocky and laterally compressed body , with a moderately long , thick , and flattened snout that forms a very broad arch at the front . The sizable , horizontally oval eyes are a reflective green in life and lack nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) ; they are followed a short distance behind by much smaller spiracles ( accessory respratory openings ) . The nostrils are anteriorly placed and preceded by short flaps of skin . The mouth is wide and evenly arched , with thin lips and short but deep furrows around the corners . There are around 34 tooth rows in either side of both jaws ; each tooth has three ( occasionally up to five ) slender cusps , with the central one the longest .
Both dorsal fins are immediately preceded by stout , grooved spines , with the second much longer than the first . The small first dorsal fin has a rounded apex and a nearly straight trailing margin , with its origin lying behind the pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is rather angular and has about double the area of the first , with its origin located opposite the midpoint of the pelvic fin bases . The pectoral fins are small and rounded . The pelvic fins are about as large as the second dorsal fin , with rounded tips and nearly straight trailing margins . The caudal peduncle is short and leads to a broad caudal fin comprising less than a quarter of the total length ; the upper lobe has a convex upper margin leading to a squared @-@ off tip , while the lower lobe is indistinct . The skin is densely covered by tiny dermal denticles ; each one is recurved and thorn @-@ like , rising from an irregular star @-@ shaped base . This species is a plain dark brown above , darkening to almost black below , with white dorsal fin spines . Juvenile sharks have white edges on the dorsal , pectoral , and pelvic fins . Minute , luminescent dots are scattered about the skin without a regular pattern .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The black dogfish forms shoals or schools that tend to be larger during the winter and spring . Though fairly active , its swimming muscles exhibit lower activity of glycolytic enzymes and higher activity of creatine phosphokinase compared to the shallow @-@ water spiny dogfish ( Squalus acanthias ) , suggesting a lesser capacity for bursts of speed . The lipid @-@ filled liver comprises about one @-@ fifth of its total weight and functions in maintaining neutral buoyancy . Potential predators of the black dogfish are larger sharks and bony fishes . It is one of several deep @-@ sea sharks parasitized by the barnacle Anelasma squalicola , which attaches in front of the second dorsal fin and impairs the reproductive development of its host . Other known parasites of this species include the fluke Otodistomum cestoides , the copepods Neoalbionella fabricii and Neoalbionella centroscyllii , and the protozoans Haemogregarina delagei and Trypanosoma rajae .
Apparently opportunistic in feeding habits , the black dogfish typically hunts in open water , but also scavenges off the bottom . The bulk of its diet consists of a variety of bony fishes , including rattails , whitings , rockfishes , lanternfishes , and barracudinas , as well as pelagic crustaceans such as krill and shrimp , and cephalopods . Fish become a progressively more important food source as the shark ages , while crustaceans become less important . Infrequently , polychaete worms and jellyfish are also eaten . In the northwestern Atlantic , Greenland halibut ( Reinhardtius hippoglossoides ) and rattail offal discarded from fishing vessels have become a major source of food for this species , particularly for older sharks that are capable of consuming larger pieces such as heads .
= = = Life history = = =
Reproduction in the black dogfish occurs year @-@ round , with no well @-@ defined seasonal pattern . This species is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are retained inside the uterus and are sustained to term solely by yolk . Mature females have two functional ovaries and two functional uteruses . Fertilized eggs are ovulated into the uterus at a diameter of 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) , though a few may be retained in the ovary ; the eggs are not enclosed in a capsule . The external yolk sac is fully resorbed when the embryo is close to term , with the remaining yolk having been transferred to an internal yolk sac attached to the intestine . The internal yolk sac serves to provision the newborn shark until it learns to feed . The litter size ranges from four to 40 . Newborns measure 13 – 19 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) long .
Various authors have reported the size at maturity as between 46 and 63 cm ( 18 and 25 in ) for males and 51 and 70 cm ( 20 and 28 in ) for females , reflecting differences between geographical areas . Off northern Canada , females give birth in the portion of the Laurentian Channel less than 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) deep . As the young grow , they migrate into the deeper parts of the Channel , and eventually a long distance northward over the Grand Banks or the Labrador Shelf , to the deep continental slope . This movement pattern has not been observed in black dogfish inhabiting adjacent waters off western Greenland . A number of anomalous hermaphroditic specimens have been documented .
= = Human interactions = =
The black dogfish is harmless to humans and of little commercial value . Substantial numbers are caught incidentally by commercial deep @-@ sea trawl , gillnet , and longline fisheries operating throughout the North Atlantic , including the Icelandic Greenland halibut fishery , the French mixed @-@ species trawl fishery , and the Canadian Greenland halibut , crab , redfish , monkfish , and witch fisheries . Captured sharks are usually discarded , though in recent years this and other small deepwater sharks have been increasingly retained and used for fishmeal . Reported catches by European countries , of which France made the largest contribution , have followed a declining trend from 486 tons in 2001 to 35 tons in 2006 . The average catch by Canadian fisheries was 68 tons per year from 1996 to 2005 . The black dogfish occurs mostly too deep for fisheries off southern Africa ; in the remainder of its range , little information is available on fishery impact .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the black dogfish under Least Concern worldwide ; it is minimally affected by fishing activity across many parts of its range , while its population in the northwestern Atlantic presently seems to be stable and may have increased from 1978 to 1995 . By contrast , the intensity of deepwater fisheries in the northeastern Atlantic has led the IUCN to give this species a regional assessment of Near Threatened . The reproductive characteristics of the black dogfish , such as a large female maturation size , may render it susceptible to overfishing , though it is more fecund than other deep @-@ sea dogfish sharks . In the northeastern Atlantic , catches of this species are managed as part of the total allowable catch for deep @-@ sea sharks set by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea ( ICES ) .
= Box lacrosse =
Box lacrosse , also known as indoor lacrosse and sometimes shortened to boxla or simply box , is an indoor version of lacrosse played mostly in North America . The game originated in Canada , where it is the most popular version of the game played in contrast to the traditional field lacrosse game . It is played between two teams of five players and one goalie each , and is traditionally played on an ice hockey rink once the ice has been removed or covered . The playing area is called a box , in contrast to the open playing field of field lacrosse . The object of the game is to use a long handled racket , known as a lacrosse stick , to catch , carry , and pass the ball in an effort to score by ultimately hurling a solid rubber lacrosse ball into an opponent 's goal .
At the highest level , box lacrosse is represented by the Senior A divisions of the Canadian Lacrosse Association ( Western Lacrosse Association of the British Columbia Lacrosse Association and Major Series Lacrosse of the Ontario Lacrosse Association ) , and the National Lacrosse League ( NLL ) .
While there are thirty @-@ one total members of the Federation of International Lacrosse ( FIL ) , only fifteen have competed in international box lacrosse competition . Only Canada , Iroquois Nationals and the United States have finished in the top three places at the ILF World Indoor Lacrosse Championships .
= = History = =
Lacrosse is a traditional Indigenous people 's game which was first encountered by Europeans when French Jesuit missionaries in the St. Lawrence Valley witnessed the game in the 1630s . Lacrosse for centuries was seen as a key element of cultural identity and spiritual healing to Native Americans . It originated as a field game and was adopted first by Canadian , American , and English athletes as a field game , eventually settling on a 10 v 10 format .
Box lacrosse is a modern version of the game that was invented in Canada during the 1920s and 1930s . The roots of indoor lacrosse are obscure , but its invention has been attributed to one Paddy Brennan , a field lacrosse player and referee from Montreal , who , being annoyed by the constant slowing of play from balls going out of bounds in the field game , experimented with indoor games at the Mount Royal Arena during the early 1920s .
Joseph Cattarinich and Leo Dandurand , owners of the National Hockey League 's Montreal Canadiens in the 1920s , led the participating ice hockey arena owners to introduce the new sport . In the 1930s , 6 v 6 indoor lacrosse came to be played in the summer in unused hockey rinks . Canadians adopted the new version of the sport quickly . Eventually it became the more popular version of the sport in Canada , supplanting field lacrosse . This form was also adopted as the primary version of the game played on Native American reservations in the US and Canada by Iroquois and other Native peoples . , It is the only sport in which the American indigenous people are sanctioned to compete internationally , participating as the Iroquois Nationals . However , many field lacrosse enthusiasts viewed the new version of the sport with negativity .
The first professional box lacrosse games were held in 1931 . That summer the arena owners formed the International Lacrosse League featuring four teams : the Montreal Canadiens , Montreal Maroons , Toronto Maple Leafs , and Cornwall Colts . The league only lasted two seasons . In the wake of the original International Lacrosse League opened the American Box Lacrosse League featuring six teams : two in New York City , and one each in Brooklyn , Toronto , Boston , and Baltimore . The league played to small crowds on outdoor fields such as Yankee Stadium and Fenway Park , before closing midway through its inaugural season . Lacrosse was officially declared Canada 's National Summer Sport with the passage of the National Sports Act ( Bill C @-@ 212 ) on May 12 , 1994 .
The first box lacrosse match conducted in Australia came about as part of a fund raising appeal for the Queen Victoria Hospital in Melbourne . The Victorian Lacrosse Association was approached by the appeal committee to stage a lacrosse match as part of a multi sport carnival at the Plaza ( Wattle Path Palais ) ballroom at St Kilda on 1 July 1931 . After a lightning six @-@ a @-@ side ( outdoor ) tournament format was successfully carried out a few weeks prior , it was decided to play six @-@ a @-@ side for this exhibition game between MCC and a composite team from other clubs , with players wearing rubber shoes and using a softer ball for the match . Newspaper articles at the time suggest that the sport may have even been created in Australia , with P J Lally of the famous Canadian lacrosse stick manufacturing company requesting a copy of the rules of the game from the VLA Secretary . By 1933 , box lacrosse matches were being played in Adelaide , Brisbane , and Perth . This new version of the game however did not overtake the traditional version of lacrosse in popularity in Australia as happened in Canada .
The Canadian Lacrosse Association began sponsoring box lacrosse . In 1932 , the Mann Cup , the most prestigious lacrosse trophy in Canada , was contended for under box lacrosse rules for the first time . Previously , the national senior men 's lacrosse championship , awarded since 1901 , was competed for under field lacrosse rules . The Mann Cup is an annual tournament that presents the champion of the Western Lacrosse Association and Major Series Lacrosse in a best of seven national championship . A few years later , in 1937 , the Minto Cup , began being awarded under box lacrosse rules to the junior men 's champions . Currently the Canadian Lacrosse Association oversees the Mann Cup , the Minto Cup , the Presidents Cup ( Senior B national championship ) the Founders Cup ( Junior B national championship ) all under box lacrosse rules .
Briefly in 1939 , a professional box lacrosse league started up in California , called the Pacific Coast Lacrosse Association . This four team league also folded shortly after opening . Professional box lacrosse did not return to the United States again until 1968 when the Coquitlam Adanacs franchise played one Western Lacrosse Association season in Portland , Oregon .
A new professional indoor lacrosse league was created in the 1970s with the formation of the original National Lacrosse League . This league opened in 1974 with teams in Montreal , Toronto , Rochester , Syracuse , Philadelphia , and Maryland . For the 1975 season , Rochester moved to Boston , Syracuse moved to Quebec City , and Toronto moved to Long Island . Thus , by its second year , the original NLL was playing in all major league arenas : the Colisée de Québec , the Montreal Forum , the Boston Garden , Nassau Coliseum , the Spectrum , and the Capital Centre . When the two wealthier ' 75 NLL franchises , Philadelphia and Maryland , finished out of the playoffs , and with Montreal losing access to the fabled Montreal Forum in the upcoming season due to the 1976 Montreal Olympic Games , the league folded after two seasons due to financial uncertainty .
The rebirth of professional box lacrosse in the United States came on March 13 , 1986 , with the formation of the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League , which was incorporated by Russ Cline and Chris Fritz . The league originated with four teams : the Philadelphia Wings , New Jersey Saints , Washington Wave , and Baltimore Thunder , and unlike box lacrosse generally , was played during the winter . The league rebranded itself as the Major Indoor Lacrosse League ( MILL ) immediately after its second season , and in 1998 renamed itself again , this time to the NLL . In 1998 , the NLL entered into the Canadian market for the first time with the Ontario Raiders . Although 5 of the league 's 9 teams are based in American cities , more than two @-@ thirds of the players are Canadian .
= = Rules = =
= = = Players , equipment and officials = = =
During play , a team consists of six players : a goalkeeper and five " runners " . A runner is any non @-@ goalkeeper position player , including forwards , transition players , and defenders . When the sport originated teams played with six runners . However , in 1953 the sixth runner , a position called rover , was eliminated . Team rosters are typically a total of as many players as a team can carry . The goalkeeper can be replaced by another runner ( often when a penalty has been signaled by the referee or at the end of a quarter ) .
A player 's lacrosse stick must be between 40 inches ( 1 @.@ 0 m ) and 46 inches ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in length ( youth levels may use shorter sticks ) . In most box lacrosse leagues , the use of a traditional wooden stick is allowed . However , almost no lacrosse players use wooden sticks anymore , preferring aluminum or another metal , and a plastic head . In the NLL , wooden lacrosse sticks are not allowed . Besides a lacrosse stick , each player must also wear a certain amount of protective equipment , including a lacrosse helmet with facemask , lacrosse gloves , arm and shoulder pads , and back / kidney pads ( rib pads , optional in some leagues ) .
In some box leagues , especially the NLL , the five " runners " wear helmets specifically designed for box lacrosse . These helmets consist of a hockey helmet with a box lacrosse face mask attached instead of a hockey cage . Players who use these helmets often cite that they are lighter than field lacrosse helmets as the primary advantage .
During a typical game the number of officials can range from one to three , depending on the league and level of play . In most games there are at least two referees : a lead official and a trail official . In NLL games there are three officials per game .
= = = = Goaltender = = = =
The goaltender 's responsibility is to prevent the opposition from scoring goals by directly defending the net . Box lacrosse goaltenders equipment includes upper body gear ( measuring no more than 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) up and 5 inches ( 13 cm ) out off the shoulder — much larger than similar gear for field lacrosse or ice hockey goaltenders ) , large shin guards that must measure no more than 11 inches ( 28 cm ) at the knee , 9 inches ( 23 cm ) at the top of the shin and 7 inches ( 18 cm ) at the ankle , and a field lacrosse helmet or ice hockey goalie mask according to the rules set by the CLA for the 2012 season .
The 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) to 9 feet 3 inches ( 2 @.@ 82 m ) diameter area surrounding the net is called the " crease " . Players except for the goaltender may not enter the crease while playing the ball . Punishments for crease infractions include a change of possession , resetting of the time @-@ clock , or a possible two @-@ minute penalty depending on the infraction . Opposing players may not make contact with the goaltender while he is in the crease . Once he leaves the crease , however , he loses all goaltender privileges .
Even as box lacrosse grows in the United States , the American goalkeeper is a rarity . The skills required to be a successful field lacrosse goaltender and a successful box lacrosse goaltender are very different and do not lend well to one another .
= = = = Defenders = = = =
A defender is a player position whose primary responsibility is to prevent the opposing team from scoring . Unlike in field lacrosse where some defensive players carry " long poles " ( a lacrosse stick with a 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) shaft or handle ) , all box lacrosse defenders play with a maximum 46 inches ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) long stick . Defensive tactics include cross checking ( where a player uses the shaft of his stick to push the opposition player off balance ) , body checking ( where a player makes contact with the opposition player in order to slow him down ) , and stick checking ( where a player makes contact with the opposition player 's stick in order to knock the ball loose ) .
= = = = Transition = = = =
A transition player is a player whose responsibility is primarily to play during defensive situations with an offensive mindset . The goal of this player is to create fastbreaks and scoring opportunities .
= = = = Forwards = = = =
A forward is a player position on the field whose responsibility is primarily offensive . Typically , a forward is dominant throwing with one hand or the other , and will primarily play on that side of the floor . Some players , known as creasemen , do not focus on one side or the other . These players instead focus their offensive attention near the crease area in front of the goaltender .
= = = Playing area = = =
The playing area of box lacrosse is typically an ice hockey rink during the summer months . The playing surface is usually the concrete floor underneath the melted ice . Generally the playing area is 180 feet ( 55 m ) to 200 feet ( 61 m ) in length and 80 feet ( 24 m ) to 90 feet ( 27 m ) in width . The NLL plays on artificial turf placed on top of the ice . Some leagues , and teams that have dedicated box lacrosse arenas ( such as the Iroquois ) , have outfitted their playing surface with artificial turf similar to the NLL .
Box lacrosse goal dimensions are traditionally 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide by 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) tall . In the NLL , the dimensions are slightly larger at 4 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 45 m ) wide by 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) tall . These nets are significantly smaller than field lacrosse nets which measure 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide by 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall .
= = = Duration and tie @-@ breaking methods = = =
A traditional game played under the rules of the Canadian Lacrosse Association consists of three periods of 20 minutes each ( similar to ice hockey ) , with the teams changing ends each period . The NLL plays four 15 @-@ minute quarters rather than three periods . If the game is tied at the end of regulation play , a 5 @-@ minute overtime ( 15 in NLL ) can be played . Overtime may or may not be sudden victory , depending on the league .
= = = Ball in and out of play = = =
Each period , and after each goal scored , play is restarted with a face @-@ off . If a ball travels over the boards and outside of the playing area , play is restarted by possession being awarded to the opposing team to that which last touched the ball .
During play , teams may substitute players in and out freely . Sometimes this is referred to as " on the fly " substitution . Substitution must occur within the designated exchange area in front of the players bench in order to be legal . The sport utilizes a shot clock and the attacking team must take a shot on goal within 30 seconds of gaining possession of the ball . In additional , players must advance the ball from their own defensive end to the offensive half of the floor within 10 seconds ( 8 in NLL ) .
= = = Penalties = = =
For most penalties , the offending player is sent to the penalty box and his team has to play without him and with one less player for a short amount of time . Most penalties last for two minutes unless a major penalty has been assessed . The team that has taken the penalty is said to be playing shorthanded while the other team is on the power play .
A two @-@ minute minor penalty is often called for lesser infractions such as slashing , tripping , elbowing , roughing , too many players , illegal equipment , holding , or interference . Five @-@ minute major penalties are called for especially violent instances of most minor infractions that result in intentional injury to an opponent , as well as for fighting . Players are released from the penalty box when either the penalty time expires , or the opposition scores a goal ( or three goals for the instance of a major penalty ) .
At the officials ' discretion a ten @-@ minute misconduct penalty may be assessed . These are served in full by the penalized player , but his team may immediately substitute another player on the playing area unless a minor or major penalty is assessed in conjunction with the misconduct ( a " two @-@ and @-@ ten " or " five @-@ and @-@ ten " ) . In that case , the team designates another player to serve the minor or major ; both players go to the penalty box , but only the designee may not be replaced , and he is released upon the expiration of the two or five minutes . In addition , game misconducts are assessed for deliberate intent to inflict severe injury on an opponent . A player who receives a game misconduct is ejected and may not return to play . Receiving two major penalties in a game will result in a game misconduct .
A penalty shot , where a player from the non @-@ offending team is given an attempt to score a goal without opposition from any defending players except the goaltender , may be awarded under certain circumstances . By rule , teams must have at least three runners in play . If a team commits a third penalty resulting in a " three man down " situation a penalty shot is awarded in favor of having the offending player serve in the penalty box . A penalty shot may also be awarded , at the referee 's discretion , if a defensive player causes a foul to prevent a goal ( by throwing his stick , holding , tripping , or by deliberately displacing the goal , or a defensive player intentionally falls and covers a ball in his own team 's crease ) . In the NLL , a penalty shot is awarded against any team taking a too @-@ many @-@ men penalty in the final two minutes of the game or overtime .
= = = = Fighting = = = =
Similar to fighting in ice hockey , fighting is tolerated in professional box lacrosse . Professional players are not automatically subject to ejection , but incur a five @-@ minute major penalty . In CLA ( Canadian Lacrosse Association ) play , players are assessed a five @-@ minute major penalty plus a game misconduct . Fighting in youth or club level box lacrosse is typically penalized with expulsion and suspensions . In 1990 , when the Six Nations created the new Mohawk lacrosse league , fighting was specifically targeted as unacceptable . Violators were ejected from the game in which the altercation occurred and given a minimum three game suspension .
= = International competition = =
Box lacrosse is the most popular version of the sport in the Czech Republic . It is also played to a marginal degree in Australia , primarily by players who have played field lacrosse . Club level box lacrosse leagues in the United States have increased the number of players exposed to the sport , including the : Baltimore Indoor Lacrosse League , the Philadelphia Box Lacrosse Association , and the Metro Area Box Lacrosse League .
The first ever world championship of box lacrosse , " The Nations in 1980 " , was staged in several arenas in British Columbia , Canada in July 1980 involving teams representing the United States , Australia , Canada East , Canada West and the Iroquois Nationals . Canada West ( Coquitlam Adanacs ) defeated the Iroquois in the nationally televised world championship game from Pacific Coliseum in Vancouver . This was the first time in history that Indigenous peoples of the Americas people represented themselves in an athletic world championship competition . In a spirited contest at the other end of the bracket , the USA defeated Australia for bragging rights .
The second international box lacrosse tournament was held in 2003 , with the inaugural World Indoor Lacrosse Championships . The competitors were national teams from Australia , Canada , the Czech Republic , the Iroquois Nation , Scotland , and the United States .
The 2007 Championships had eight nations participating , the previous competitors plus England and Ireland .
The 2015 WILC was hosted by the Onondaga Nation which marks the first time an international sporting event has been held on indigenous land . 13 teams competed in the championship : Australia , Canada , Czech Republic , England , Finland , Germany , Haudenosaunee , Ireland , Israel , Serbia , Switzerland , Turkey , United States .
Canada , Iroquois Nationals and the United States have won gold , silver , and bronze respectively in each of the World Indoor Lacrosse Championships held . Canada has yet to lose a international game in Box Lacrosse .
Other international tournaments have been played . Annually , the European Lacrosse Federation holds the Aleš Hřebeský Memorial tournament in Prague . This is the largest European box lacrosse tournament . In 2002 and 2004 , the Heritage Cup was played between the United States and Canada featuring mostly players that were members of NLL teams .
= = Women = =
Historically , box lacrosse has been exclusively a men 's sport . Women who played the sport of lacrosse typically played the more genteel women 's field lacrosse version . Recently , Ontario , Alberta , Minneapolis , Nova Scotia and British Columbia have established girls ' and women 's box lacrosse leagues .
During the 2003 NLL season , goaltender Ginny Capicchioni appeared in two preseason and one regular season game to become the only woman to make an appearance in the NLL .
= Hermann Göring =
Hermann Wilhelm Göring ( or Goering ; German : [ ˈɡøːʁɪŋ ] ; 12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946 ) was a German politician , military leader , and leading member of the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) . A veteran World War I fighter pilot ace , he was a recipient of the coveted Pour le Mérite , also known as the " Blue Max " . He was the last commander of Jagdgeschwader 1 , the fighter wing once led by Manfred von Richthofen .
A member of the NSDAP from its earliest days , Göring was wounded in 1923 during the failed coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch . He became addicted to morphine after being treated with the drug for his injuries . After helping Adolf Hitler take power in 1933 , he became the second @-@ most powerful man in Germany . He founded the Gestapo in 1933 , and later gave command of it to Heinrich Himmler . Göring was appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Luftwaffe ( air force ) in 1935 , a position he held until the final days of World War II . By 1940 , he was at the peak of his power and influence ; as minister in charge of the Four Year Plan , he was responsible for much of the functioning of the German economy in the build @-@ up to World War II . Hitler promoted him to the rank of Reichsmarschall , a rank senior to all other Wehrmacht commanders , and in 1941 Hitler designated him as his successor and deputy in all his offices .
Göring 's standing with Hitler was reduced by the beginning of 1943 , when the Luftwaffe failed to stop the Allied bombing of German cities and was unable to resupply German forces trapped in the Battle of Stalingrad . Göring largely withdrew from the military and political scene and focused on the acquisition of property and artwork , much of which was taken from Jewish victims of the Holocaust . Informed on 22 April 1945 that Hitler intended to commit suicide , Göring sent a telegram to Hitler requesting permission to assume control of the Reich . Considering it an act of treason , Hitler removed Göring from all his positions , expelled him from the party , and ordered his arrest .
After World War II , Göring was convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg trials . He was sentenced to death by hanging , but committed suicide by ingesting cyanide the night before the sentence was to be carried out .
= = Early life = =
Göring was born on 12 January 1893 at the Marienbad Sanatorium in Rosenheim , Bavaria . His father , Heinrich Ernst Göring ( 31 October 1839 – 7 December 1913 ) , a former cavalry officer , had been the first Governor @-@ General of the German protectorate of South @-@ West Africa , ( modern @-@ day Namibia ) . Heinrich had five children from a previous marriage . Göring was the fourth of five children by Heinrich 's second wife , Franziska Tiefenbrunn ( 1859 – 15 July 1943 ) , a Bavarian peasant . Göring 's elder siblings were Karl , Olga , and Paula ; his younger brother was Albert . At the time that Göring was born , his father was serving as consul general in Haiti , and his mother had returned home briefly to give birth . She left the six @-@ week @-@ old baby with a friend in Bavaria and did not see the child again for three years , when she and Heinrich returned to Germany .
Göring 's godfather was Dr. Hermann Epenstein , a wealthy Jewish physician and businessman his father had met in Africa . Epenstein provided the Göring family , who were surviving on Heinrich 's pension , first with a family home in Berlin @-@ Friedenau , then in a small castle called Veldenstein , near Nuremberg . Göring 's mother became Epenstein 's mistress around this time , and remained so for some fifteen years . Epenstein acquired the minor title of Ritter von Epenstein through service and donations to the Crown .
Interested in a career as a soldier from a very early age , Göring enjoyed playing with toy soldiers and dressing up in a Boer uniform his father had given him . He was sent to boarding school at age eleven , where the food was poor and discipline was harsh . He sold a violin to pay for his train ticket home , and then took to his bed , feigning illness , until he was told he would not have to return . He continued to enjoy war games , pretending to lay siege to the castle Veldenstein and studying Teutonic legends and sagas . He became a mountain climber , scaling peaks in Germany , at the Mont Blanc massif , and in the Austrian Alps . At sixteen he was sent to a military academy at Berlin Lichterfelde , from which he graduated with distinction ( During the Nuremberg war @-@ crimes trials In 1946 , psychologist Gustave Gilbert measured him as having an intelligence quotient ( IQ ) of 138 . ) Göring joined the Prince Wilhelm Regiment ( 112th Infantry ) of the Prussian army in 1912 . The next year his mother had a falling @-@ out with Epenstein . The family was forced to leave Veldenstein and moved to Munich ; Göring 's father died shortly afterwards . When World War I began in August 1914 , Göring was stationed at Mulhouse with his regiment .
= = World War I = =
During the first year of World War I , Göring served with his infantry regiment in the area of Mülhausen , a garrison town less than 2 km from the French frontier . He was hospitalized with rheumatism , a result of the damp of trench warfare . While he was recovering , his friend Bruno Loerzer convinced him to transfer to what would become , by October 1916 , the Luftstreitkräfte ( " air combat force " ) of the German army , but his request was turned down . Later that year , Göring flew as Loerzer 's observer in Feldflieger Abteilung 25 ( FFA 25 ) – Göring had informally transferred himself . He was discovered and sentenced to three weeks ' confinement to barracks , but the sentence was never carried out . By the time it was supposed to be imposed , Göring 's association with Loerzer had been made official . They were assigned as a team to FFA 25 in the Crown Prince 's Fifth Army . They flew reconnaissance and bombing missions , for which the Crown Prince invested both Göring and Loerzer with the Iron Cross , first class .
After completing the pilot 's training course , Göring was assigned to Jagdstaffel 5 . Seriously wounded in the hip in aerial combat , he took nearly a year to recover . He then was transferred to Jagdstaffel 26 , commanded by Loerzer , in February 1917 . He steadily scored air victories until May , when he was assigned to command Jagdstaffel 27 . Serving with Jastas 5 , 26 , and 27 , he continued to win victories . In addition to his Iron Crosses ( 1st and 2nd Class ) , he received the Zaehring Lion with swords , the Friedrich Order , the House Order of Hohenzollern with swords third class , and finally , in May 1918 , the coveted Pour le Mérite . According to Hermann Dahlmann , who knew both men , Göring had Loerzer lobby for the award . He finished the war with 22 victories . A thorough post @-@ war examination of Allied loss records showed that only two of his claimed victories were doubtful . Three were possible and 17 were certain , or highly likely .
On 7 July 1918 , following the death of Wilhelm Reinhard , successor to Manfred von Richthofen , Göring was made commander of the famed " Flying Circus " , Jagdgeschwader 1 . His arrogance made him unpopular with the men of his squadron .
In the last days of the war , Göring was repeatedly ordered to withdraw his squadron , first to Tellancourt airdrome , then to Darmstadt . At one point , he was ordered to surrender the aircraft to the Allies ; he refused . Many of his pilots intentionally crash @-@ landed their planes to keep them from falling into enemy hands .
Like many other German veterans , Göring was a proponent of the Stab @-@ in @-@ the @-@ back legend , the belief which held that the German Army had not really lost the war , but instead was betrayed by the civilian leadership : Marxists , Jews , and especially the Republicans , who had overthrown the German monarchy .
= = After World War I = =
Göring remained in aviation after the war . He tried barnstorming and briefly worked at Fokker . After spending most of 1919 living in Denmark , he moved to Sweden and joined Svensk Lufttrafik , a Swedish airline . Göring was often hired for private flights . During the winter of 1920 – 1921 , he was hired by Count Eric von Rosen to fly him to his castle from Stockholm . Invited to spend the night , Göring may at this time have first seen the swastika emblem , which Rosen had set in the chimney piece as a family badge .
This was also the first time that Göring saw his future wife ; the count introduced his sister @-@ in @-@ law , Baroness Carin von Kantzow ( née Freiin von Fock ) . Estranged from her husband of ten years , she had an eight @-@ year @-@ old son . Göring was immediately infatuated and asked her to meet him in Stockholm . They arranged a visit at the home of her parents and spent much time together through 1921 , when Göring left for Munich to take political science at the university . Carin obtained a divorce , followed Göring to Munich , and married him on 3 February 1922 . Their first home together was a hunting lodge at Hochkreuth in the Bavarian Alps , near Bayrischzell , some 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) from Munich . After Göring met Adolf Hitler and joined the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) in 1922 , they moved to Obermenzing , a suburb of Munich .
= = Early Nazi career = =
Göring joined the Nazi Party in 1923 after hearing a speech by Hitler . He was given command of the Sturmabteilung ( SA ) as the Oberster SA @-@ Führer in 1923 . He was later appointed an SA @-@ Gruppenführer ( Lieutenant General ) and held this rank on the SA rolls until 1945 . At this time , Carin — who liked Hitler — often played hostess to meetings of leading Nazis , including her husband
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if it was his intention to make a movie about consumerism . His answer was it was not ; it was a way to answer the question of how would the Earth get to the state where one robot would be left to continue the cleanup by itself .
In " WALL @-@ E : from environmental adaption to sentimental nostalgia , " Robin Murray and Joseph Heuman explain the important theme of nostalgia in this film . Nostalgia is clearly represented by human artifacts , left behind , that WALL @-@ E collects and cherishes , i.e. Zippo lighters , hubcaps , and plastic sporks . These modern items that we use out of necessity , are made sentimental through the lens of the bleak future of Earth . Nostalgia is also expressed through the musical score , as the film opens with a camera shot of outer space that slowly zooms in to a waste filled Earth while playing " Put on Your Sunday Clothes " , reflecting on simpler and happier times in human history . This film also expresses nostalgia through the longing of nature and the natural world , as it is the sight and feeling of soil , and the plant brought back to the space ship by EVE , that make the captain decide it is time for humans to move back to Earth . WALL @-@ E expresses nostalgia also , by reflecting on romantic themes of older Disney and silent films .
Stanton describes the theme of the film as " irrational love defeats life 's programming " :
I realized the point I was trying to push with these two programmed robots was the desire for them to try and figure out what the point of living was ... It took these really irrational acts of love to sort of discover them against how they were built ... I realized that that 's a perfect metaphor for real life . We all fall into our habits , our routines and our ruts , consciously or unconsciously to avoid living . To avoid having to do the messy part . To avoid having relationships with other people or dealing with the person next to us . That 's why we can all get on our cell phones and not have to deal with one another . I thought , ' That 's a perfect amplification of the whole point of the movie . ' I wanted to run with science in a way that would sort of logically project that .
= = = Technology = = =
Stanton noted many commentators placed emphasis on the environmental aspect of humanity 's complacency in the film , because " that disconnection is going to be the cause , indirectly , of anything that happens in life that 's bad for humanity or the planet " . Stanton said that by taking away effort to work , the robots also take away humanity 's need to put effort into relationships . Christian journalist Rod Dreher saw technology as the complicated villain of the film . The humans ' artificial lifestyle on the Axiom has separated them from nature , making them " slaves of both technology and their own base appetites , and have lost what makes them human " . Dreher contrasted the hardworking , dirt covered WALL @-@ E with the sleek clean robots on the ship . However , it is the humans and not the robots who make themselves redundant . Humans on the ship and on Earth have overused robots and the ultra @-@ modern technology . During the end credits humans and robots are shown working alongside each other to renew the Earth . " WALL @-@ E is not a Luddite film , " he said . " It doesn 't demonize technology . It only argues that technology is properly used to help humans cultivate their true nature – that it must be subordinate to human flourishing , and help move that along . "
= = = Religion = = =
Stanton , who is a Christian , named EVE after the Biblical character because WALL @-@ E 's loneliness reminded him of Adam , before God created his wife . Dreher noted EVE 's biblical namesake and saw her directive as an inversion of that story ; EVE uses the plant to tell humanity to return to Earth and move away from the " false god " of BnL and the lazy lifestyle it offers . Dreher also noted this departure from classical Christian viewpoints , where Adam is cursed to labor , in that WALL @-@ E argues hard work is what makes humans human . Dreher emphasized the false god parallels to BnL in a scene where a robot teaches infants " B is for Buy n Large , your very best friend " , which he compared to modern corporations such as McDonald 's creating brand loyalty in children . Megan Basham of World magazine felt the film criticizes the pursuit of leisure , whereas WALL @-@ E in his stewardship learns to truly appreciate God 's creation .
During writing , a Pixar employee noted to Jim Reardon that EVE was reminiscent of the dove with the olive branch from the story of Noah 's Ark , and the story was reworked with EVE finding a plant to return humanity from its voyage . WALL @-@ E himself has been compared to Prometheus , Sisyphus , and Butades : in an essay discussing WALL @-@ E as representative of the artistic strive of Pixar itself , Hrag Vartanian compared WALL @-@ E to Butades in a scene where the robot expresses his love for EVE by making a sculpture of her from spare parts . " The Ancient Greek tradition associates the birth of art with a Corinthian maiden who longing to preserve her lover ’ s shadow traces it on the wall before he departed for war . The myth reminds us that art was born out of longing and often means more for the creator than the muse . In the same way Stanton and his Pixar team have told us a deeply personal story about their love of cinema and their vision for animation through the prism of all types of relationships . "
= = Release = =
Continuing a Pixar tradition , WALL @-@ E was paired with a short film for its theatrical release , Presto . The film was dedicated to Justin Wright ( 1981 – 2008 ) , a Pixar animator who had worked on Ratatouille and died of a heart attack before WALL @-@ E 's release .
Walt Disney Imagineering ( WDI ) built animatronic WALL @-@ E 's to promote the picture , which made appearances at Disneyland Resort , the Franklin Institute , the Miami Science Museum , the Seattle Center , and the Tokyo International Film Festival . Due to safety concerns , the 318 kg robots were always strictly controlled and WDI always needed to know exactly what they were required to interact with . For this reason , they generally refused to have their puppets meet and greet children at the theme parks in case a WALL @-@ E trod on a child 's foot . Those who wanted to take a photograph with the character had to make do with a cardboard cutout .
Very small quantities of merchandise were sold for WALL @-@ E , as Cars items were still popular , and many manufacturers were more interested in Speed Racer , which was a successful line despite the film 's failure at the box office . Thinkway , which created the WALL @-@ E toys , had previously made Toy Story dolls when other toy producers had not shown an interest . Among Thinkway 's items were a WALL @-@ E that danced when connected to a music player , a toy that could be taken apart and reassembled , and a groundbreaking remote control toy of him and EVE that had motion sensors that allowed them to interact with players . There were even plushies . The " Ultimate WALL @-@ E " figures were not in stores until the film 's home release in November 2008 , at a retail price of almost $ 200 , leading The Patriot @-@ News to deem it an item for " hard @-@ core fans and collectors only " . On February 4 , 2015 , Lego announced that a WALL @-@ E custom built by lead animator Angus MacLane was the latest design approved for mass production and release as part of Lego Ideas .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on November 18 , 2008 . The various editions included Presto , a new short film BURN @-@ E , the Leslie Iwerks documentary film The Pixar Story , shorts about the history of Buy n Large , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes special features , and a Digital Copy of the film that can be played through iTunes or Windows Media and compatible devices . This release sold 9 @,@ 042 @,@ 054 DVD units ( $ 142 @,@ 633 @,@ 974 ) in total becoming the second best @-@ selling animated DVD among those released in 2008 in units sold ( behind Kung Fu Panda ) , the best @-@ selling animated feature in sales revenue , and the third best @-@ selling among all 2008 DVD 's .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
WALL @-@ E grossed $ 223 @,@ 808 @,@ 164 in the USA and Canada and $ 297 @,@ 503 @,@ 696 overseas for a worldwide total of $ 521 @,@ 311 @,@ 860 , making it the ninth highest grossing film of 2008 .
The film premiered at the Greek Theatre in Los Angeles on June 23 , 2008 .
In the US and Canada , it opened in 3 @,@ 992 theaters on June 27 , 2008 . During its opening weekend , it topped the box office with $ 63 @,@ 087 @,@ 526 making this the fifth @-@ best opening weekend for a Pixar film and the fourth @-@ best opening among films released in June . The movie earned $ 94 @.@ 7 million in its first week and crossed the $ 200 million mark during its sixth weekend .
WALL @-@ E grossed over $ 10 million in Japan ( $ 44 @,@ 005 @,@ 222 ) , UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 41 @,@ 215 @,@ 600 ) , France and the Maghreb region ( $ 27 @,@ 984 @,@ 103 ) , Germany ( $ 24 @,@ 130 @,@ 400 ) , Mexico ( $ 17 @,@ 679 @,@ 805 ) , Spain ( $ 14 @,@ 973 @,@ 097 ) , Australia ( $ 14 @,@ 165 @,@ 390 ) , Italy ( $ 12 @,@ 210 @,@ 993 ) , and Russia and the CIS ( $ 11 @,@ 694 @,@ 482 ) .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
The American Film Institute named WALL @-@ E as one of the best films of 2008 ; the jury rationale states :
WALL • E proves to this generation and beyond that the film medium 's only true boundaries are the human imagination . Writer / director Andrew Stanton and his team have created a classic screen character from a metal trash compactor who rides to the rescue of a planet buried in the debris that embodies the broken promise of American life . Not since Chaplin 's " Little Tramp " has so much story — so much emotion — been conveyed without words . When hope arrives in the form of a seedling , the film blossoms into one of the great screen romances as two robots remind audiences of the beating heart in all of us that yearns for humanity — and love — in the darkest of landscapes .
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 96 % of critics gave the film positive reviews , based upon a sample of 244 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 5 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads " Charming , audacious , and timely , WALL @-@ E 's lighthearted magic and stellar visuals testify once again to Pixar 's ingenuity . " At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 94 based on 39 representing " universal acclaim " . indieWire named WALL @-@ E the third best film of the year based on their annual survey of 100 film critics , while Movie City News shows that WALL @-@ E appeared in 162 different Top 10 lists , out of 286 different critics lists surveyed , the most mentions on a Top 10 list of any film released in 2008 .
Richard Corliss of Time named WALL @-@ E his favorite film of 2008 ( and later of the decade ) , noting the film succeeded in " connect [ ing ] with a huge audience " despite the main characters ' lack of speech and " emotional signifiers like a mouth , eyebrows , shoulders , [ and ] elbows " . It " evoke [ d ] the splendor of the movie past " and he also compared WALL @-@ E and EVE 's relationship to the chemistry of Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn . Other critics who named WALL @-@ E their favorite film of 2008 included Tom Charity of CNN , Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune , Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly , A. O. Scott of The New York Times , Christopher Orr of The New Republic , Ty Burr and Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe , Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal , and Anthony Lane of The New Yorker .
Todd McCarthy of Variety called the film " Pixar 's ninth consecutive wonder " , saying it was imaginative yet straightforward . He said it pushed the boundaries of animation by balancing esoteric ideas with more immediately accessible ones , and that the main difference between the film and other science fiction projects rooted in an apocalypse was its optimism . Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter declared that WALL @-@ E surpassed the achievements of Pixar 's previous eight features and probably their most original film to date . He said it had the " heart , soul , spirit and romance " of the best silent films . Honeycutt said the film 's definitive stroke of brilliance was in using a mix of archive film footage and computer graphics to trigger WALL @-@ E 's romantic leanings . He praised Burtt 's sound design , saying " If there is such a thing as an aural sleight of hand , this is it . "
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times named WALL @-@ E " an enthralling animated film , a visual wonderment , and a decent science @-@ fiction story " and said the scarcity of dialogue would allow it to " cross language barriers " in a manner appropriate to the global theme , and noted it would appeal to adults and children . He praised the animation , describing the color palette as " bright and cheerful [ ... ] and a little bit realistic " , and that Pixar managed to generate a " curious " regard for the WALL @-@ E , comparing his " rusty and hard @-@ working and plucky " design favorably to more obvious attempts at creating " lovable " lead characters . He said WALL @-@ E was concerned with ideas rather than spectacle , saying it would trigger stimulating " little thoughts for the younger viewers . " He named it as one of his twenty favorite films of 2008 and argued it was " the best science @-@ fiction movie in years " .
The film was interpreted as tackling a topical , ecologically @-@ minded agenda , though McCarthy said it did so with a lightness of touch that granted the viewer the ability to accept or ignore the message . Kyle Smith of the New York Post , wrote that by depicting future humans as " a flabby mass of peabrained idiots who are literally too fat to walk " , WALL @-@ E was darker and more cynical than any major Disney feature film he could recall . He compared the humans to the patrons of Disney 's Parks and Resorts , adding , " I 'm also not sure I 've ever seen a major corporation spend so much money to issue an insult to its customers . " Maura Judkis of U.S. News & World Report questioned whether this depiction of " frighteningly obese humans " would resonate with children and make them prefer to " play outside rather than in front of the computer , to avoid a similar fate " . The interpretation led to criticism of the film by conservative commentators such as Glenn Beck , and contributors to National Review Online including Shannen W. Coffin and Jonah Goldberg ( although he admitted it was a " fascinating " and occasionally " brilliant " production ) .
A few notable critics have argued that the film is vastly overrated , claiming it failed to " live up to such blinding , high @-@ wattage enthusiasm " , and that there were " chasms of boredom watching it " , in particular " the second and third acts spiraled into the expected " . Other labels included " preachy " and " too long " . Child reviews sent into CBBC were mixed , some citing boredom and an inadequate storyline .
Patrick J. Ford of The American Conservative said WALL @-@ E 's conservative critics missed lessons in the film that he felt appealed to traditional conservatism . He argued that the mass consumerism in the film was not shown to be a product of big business , but of too close a tie between big business and big government : " The government unilaterally provided its citizens with everything they needed , and this lack of variety led to Earth 's downfall . " Responding to Coffin 's claim that the film points out the evils of mankind , Ford argued the only evils depicted were those that resulted from losing touch with our own humanity and that fundamental conservative representations such as the farm , the family unit , and wholesome entertainment were in the end held aloft by the human characters . He concluded , " By steering conservative families away from WALL @-@ E , these commentators are doing their readers a great disservice . "
Director Terry Gilliam praised the film as " A stunning bit of work . The scenes on what was left of planet Earth are just so beautiful : one of the great silent movies . And the most stunning artwork ! It says more about ecology and society than any live action film – all the people on their loungers floating around , brilliant stuff . Their social comment was so smart and right on the button . "
= = = Accolades = = =
WALL @-@ E won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and was nominated for Best Original Screenplay , Best Original Score , Best Original Song , Sound Editing , and Sound Mixing at the 81st Academy Awards , which it lost to Slumdog Millionaire ( Original Score , Original Song , Sound Mixing ) , The Dark Knight ( Sound Editing ) , and Milk ( Original Screenplay ) . Walt Disney Pictures also pushed for an Academy Award for Best Picture nomination , but it was not nominated , provoking controversy as to whether the Academy deliberately restricted WALL @-@ E to the Best Animated Feature category . Peter Travers commented that " If there was ever a time where an animated feature deserved to be nominated for best picture it 's Wall @-@ E. " Only three animated films , 1991 's Beauty and the Beast and Pixar 's next two films , 2009 's Up and 2010 's Toy Story 3 , have ever been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture . A reflective Stanton stated he was not disappointed the film was restricted to the Best Animated Film nomination because he was overwhelmed by the film 's positive reception , and eventually " The line [ between live @-@ action and animation ] is just getting so blurry that I think with each proceeding year , it 's going to be tougher and tougher to say what 's an animated movie and what 's not an animated movie . "
WALL @-@ E made a healthy appearance at the various 2008 end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ year awards circles , particularly in the Best Picture category , where animated films are often overlooked . It has won the award , or the equivalent of it , from the Boston Society of Film Critics ( tied with Slumdog Millionaire ) , the Chicago Film Critics Association , the Central Ohio Film Critics awards , the Online Film Critics Society , and most notably the Los Angeles Film Critics Association , where it became the first animated feature to win the prestigious award . It was named as one of 2008 's ten best films by the American Film Institute and the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures .
It won Best Animated Feature Film at the 66th Golden Globe Awards , 81st Academy Awards and the Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards 2008 . It was nominated for several awards at the 2009 Annie Awards , including Best Feature Film , Animated Effects , Character Animation , Direction , Production design , Storyboarding and Voice acting ( for Ben Burtt ) ; but was beaten out by Kung Fu Panda in every category . It won Best Animated Feature at the 62nd British Academy Film Awards , and was also nominated there for Best Music and Sound . Thomas Newman and Peter Gabriel won two Grammy Awards for " Down to Earth " and " Define Dancing " . It won all three awards it was nominated for by the Visual Effects Society : Best Animation , Best Character Animation ( for WALL @-@ E and EVE in the truck ) and Best Effects in the Animated Motion Picture categories . It became the first animated film to win Best Editing for a Comedy or Musical from the American Cinema Editors . In 2009 , Stanton , Reardon and Docter won the Nebula Award , beating The Dark Knight and the Stargate Atlantis episode " The Shrine " . It won Best Animated Film and was nominated for Best Director at the Saturn Awards .
At the British National Movie Awards , which is voted for by the public , it won Best Family Film . It was also voted Best Feature Film at the British Academy Children 's Awards . WALL @-@ E was listed at # 63 on Empire 's online poll of the 100 greatest movie characters , conducted in 2008 . In early 2010 , TIME ranked WALL @-@ E # 1 in " Best Movies of the Decade " . In Sight & Sound magazine 's 2012 poll for the greatest films of all time , WALL @-@ E is the second highest ranking animated film behind My Neighbor Totoro ( 1988 ) , while tying with the film Spirited Away ( 2001 ) .
It was nominated for the 2009 Kids ' Choice Awards , but lost to Madagascar : Escape 2 Africa .
= = Robotic recreations = =
In 2012 , Mike McMaster , an American robotics hobbyist , began working on his own model of Wall @-@ E. The final product was built with more moving parts than the Wall @-@ E which roams around Disneyland . McMaster 's four @-@ foot robot made an appearance at the Walt Disney Family Museum and was featured during the opening week of Tested.com a project headed up by Jamie Hyneman and Adam Savage of MythBusters . Since Wall @-@ E ’ s creation , Mike and the popular robot have made dozens of appearances at various events .
In 2012 , Mike Senna completed his Wall @-@ E build . He also created an Eve , that were to be found at a photo op at Disney 's D23 Expo 2015 .
= 6th Airlanding Brigade ( United Kingdom ) =
The 6th Airlanding Brigade was a airborne infantry brigade of the British Army during the Second World War . Created during May 1943 , the brigade was composed of three glider infantry battalions and supporting units , and was assigned to the 6th Airborne Division , alongside the 3rd Parachute Brigade and 5th Parachute Brigade .
During the Normandy landings of 6 June 1944 , the brigade took part in Operation Mallard , holding the southern flank of the bridgehead over the Orne River . In August 1944 , along with the rest of the 6th Airborne Division , it took part in the advance to the River Seine . Withdrawn to England in September , the brigade returned to mainland Europe to counter the surprise German offensive in the Ardennes , better known as the Battle of the Bulge . Their final airborne mission of the war was Operation Varsity in March 1945 , an assault crossing of the Rhine , after which they advanced through Germany , reaching the Baltic Sea at Wismar by the end of the war .
The brigade was withdrawn from Germany at the end of May 1945 and was sent , together with the rest of 6th Airborne Division in Palestine to provide internal security . Following the arrival of the 1st Parachute Brigade , however , the 6th Airlanding Brigade was no longer needed there and was returned to normal infantry duties , and renamed the 31st Independent Infantry Brigade .
= = Background = =
Impressed by the success of German airborne operations during the Battle of France , the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , directed the War Office to investigate the possibility of creating a force of 5 @,@ 000 parachute troops . As a result , on 22 June 1940 , No. 2 Commando assumed parachute duties , and on 21 November was re @-@ designated the 11th Special Air Service Battalion , with a parachute and glider wing . This later became the 1st Parachute Battalion .
On 21 June 1940 the Central Landing Establishment was formed at Ringway airfield near Manchester . Although tasked primarily with training parachute troops , it was also directed to investigate the use of gliders to transport troops into battle . At the same time , the Ministry of Aircraft Production contracted General Aircraft Ltd to design and produce a glider for this purpose . The result was the General Aircraft Hotspur , an aircraft capable of transporting eight soldiers , that was used for both assault and training purposes .
The success of the first British airborne raid , Operation Colossus , prompted the War Office to expand the airborne force through the creation of the Parachute Regiment , and to develop plans to convert several infantry battalions into parachute and glider battalions . On 31 May 1941 , a joint Army and RAF memorandum was approved by the Chiefs @-@ of @-@ Staff and Winston Churchill ; it recommended that the British airborne forces should consist of two parachute brigades , one based in England and the other in the Middle East , and that a glider force of 10 @,@ 000 men should be created .
= = Formation = =
On 23 April 1943 , the War Office gave permission to raise a second airborne division , the 6th Airborne . The division comprised the 3rd and 5th Parachute Brigades and the 6th Airlanding Brigade , giving it two parachute and one airlanding brigades , which became the standard British complement for an airborne division . In May 1943 Brigadier Hugh Kindersley was appointed as the airlanding brigade 's first Commanding Officer . Under his command he had two experienced battalions transferred from the 1st Airlanding Brigade : the 2nd Battalion , Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry ( 2nd OBLI ) and the 1st Battalion , Royal Ulster Rifles ( 1st RUR ) . They were joined by a unit newly transferred to the airborne forces , the 12th Battalion , Devonshire Regiment ( 12th Devons ) , a hostilities @-@ only unit formed during the war , as the brigade 's third infantry battalion . Other units assigned around the same time were the 53rd ( Worcestershire Yeomanry ) Airlanding Light Regiment , Royal Artillery , the 249th ( Airborne ) Field Company , Royal Engineers and the 195th ( Airlanding ) Field Ambulance , Royal Army Medical Corps .
The airlanding brigade was an important part of the airborne division , its strength being almost equal to that of the two parachute brigades combined . In particular , its infantry battalions were the " most heavily armed in the British Army . " Each airlanding battalion had an establishment of 1034 men , serving in four rifle companies , a support and a headquarters company . A rifle company was sub @-@ divided into four platoons , the support company into six : two anti @-@ tank platoons with four 6 pounder guns in each , two mortar platoons with twelve 3 inch mortars between them , and two Vickers machine gun platoons with four guns in each platoon . The headquarters company had signals , assault pioneer , transport and administration platoons .
Air transport for the brigade was normally the Airspeed Horsa glider , piloted by two soldiers from the Glider Pilot Regiment . With a wingspan of 88 feet ( 27 m ) and a length of 67 feet ( 20 m ) , the Horsa had a maximum load capacity of 15 @,@ 750 pounds ( 7 @,@ 140 kg ) — space for two pilots , and a maximum of either 28 troops or two jeeps , one jeep and a 6 pounder gun , or one jeep with a trailer . It required 62 Horsas and one General Aircraft Hamilcar glider to transport an airlanding battalion into action . The Hamilcar carried the battalion 's two Universal Carriers , which were used to support the mortar and machine @-@ gun platoons .
At the end of the war in 1945 , the 12th Battalion , Devonshire Regiment , formed during the war , was disbanded , and replaced by the 1st Battalion , Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders , of the Regular Army . Brigadier Roger Bower was also appointed to command the brigade for service in Palestine .
The 6th Airlanding Brigade had always been an integral part of the 6th Airborne Division , but when the 1st Airborne Division was disbanded , and its 1st Parachute Brigade was assigned to the 6th Airborne Division , the 6th Airlanding Brigade became surplus to the division 's requirements . On 15 April 1946 , the brigade ceased being part of the British airborne forces , and was renumbered the 31st Independent Infantry Brigade .
= = Operational history = =
From June to December 1943 , the 6th Airlanding Brigade , as part of the 6th Airborne Division , prepared for operations , and trained at every level from section up to division by day and night . Airborne soldiers were expected to fight against superior numbers of the enemy equipped with artillery and tanks . So training was designed to encourage a spirit of self @-@ discipline , self @-@ reliance and aggressiveness . Emphasis was given to physical fitness , marksmanship and fieldcraft . A large part of the training consisted of assault courses and route marching . Military exercises included capturing and holding airborne bridgeheads , road or rail bridges and coastal fortifications . At the end of most exercises , the troops would march back to their barracks , usually a distance of around 20 miles ( 32 km ) . An ability to cover long distances at speed was expected : airborne platoons were required to cover a distance of 50 miles ( 80 km ) in 24 hours , and battalions 32 miles ( 51 km ) .
In April 1944 , under the command of 1st Airborne Corps , the brigade took part in Exercise Mush . This was a three @-@ day exercise in the counties of Gloucestershire , Oxfordshire and Wiltshire , during which the entire 6th Airborne Division was landed by air . Unknown to the troops involved , the exercise was a full @-@ scale rehearsal for the division 's involvement in the imminent invasion of Normandy . In the invasion , the division 's two parachute brigades would land in the early hours of 6 June in Operation Tonga ; the airlanding brigade would not arrive until almost dusk on the same day . Their objective was to secure the left flank of the invasion area , between the rivers Orne and Dives .
= = = Normandy = = =
One of the first Allied units to land in Normandy was ' D ' Company of the 2nd Ox and Bucks Light Infantry , commanded by Major John Howard . The company , attached to the 5th Parachute Brigade , carried out Operation Deadstick , a coup de main assault on two bridges crossing the Caen Canal and the River Orne .
Almost 21 hours later the 6th Airlanding Brigade 's main air assault on Normandy , Operation Mallard , began . Included in the operation was the brigade , the 6th Airborne Division 's reconnaissance regiment , and one of its howitzer batteries . The combined force crossed the English Channel in 250 gliders , arriving at their landing zones at 21 : 00 6 June 1944 .
The gliders carrying the brigade headed for two separated landing areas , Landing Zone ' W ' ( LZ @-@ W ) to the east of Saint @-@ Aubin @-@ d 'Arquenay and Landing Zone ' N ' ( LZ @-@ N ) to the north of Ranville . The gliders landing on LZ @-@ W contained the remaining men of the 2nd OBLI , and ' A ' Company , 12th Devons landed at LZ @-@ W. Given the limited availability of aircraft , the remainder of the Devons battalion and the divisional troops were transported by sea , arriving at Sword Beach on 7 June . The brigade headquarters and 1st RUR landed at LZ @-@ N. LZ @-@ N was still within range of the German defenders , and the disembarking troops were subjected to light machine gun and mortar fire , however they only lost one man , who was killed by a sniper .
At 22 : 30 Brigadier Kindersley briefed the two battalion commanding officers , ordering the 2nd OBLI to capture the village of Escoville 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the south of Ranville , and the 1st RUR to capture Longueval , 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) south @-@ west of the Le Bas de Ranville , and Sainte @-@ Honorine .
By 04 : 30 7 June the 2nd OBLI had reached Herourvillette . Finding the village unoccupied they left a company behind to defend it , and at 08 : 30 the rest of the battalion headed for Escoville . They arrived at the village at 11 : 00 having only been confronted by sniper fire . The Germans assembling on the heights overlooking the village attacked at 15 : 00 . Fighting at close quarters and house to house , by 16 : 00 the battalion was forced to withdraw back to Herourvillette . The battle cost them 87 casualties , including the commanding officer .
It was not until 09 : 00 that the 1st RUR were in position to carry out a left flanking attack on Longuerval . The village was clear of Germans so they pressed on towards Sainte @-@ Honorine . When between the two villages , the battalion was engaged by German mortar , artillery and assault gun fire , and suffered several casualties . Two companies managed to reach Sainte @-@ Honorine , but with no artillery fire support of their own , and out of radio contact with their battalion headquarters , they were forced to withdraw back to Longueval .
Around the same time , the 12th Devons had arrived in the divisional area from the landing beaches and were ordered to take over the defence of the Bas de Ranville from the 12th Parachute Battalion . Because they were positioned behind the brigade front line , they were not directly attacked , but from 11 : 00 to 18 : 30 on 8 June they were subjected to a constant artillery bombardment .
On 9 June the 2nd OBLI sent a company back to Escoville to confirm if it was still held by the Germans . Finding it occupied by infantry with armour support , they withdrew back to Herourvillette . At 18 : 30 the battalion was attacked by Messerschmitt Bf 109 aircraft and at 19 : 00 the whole brigade 's position was bombarded by German artillery and mortar fire . This was followed by an infantry and tank assault . Supported by their own and the division 's anti @-@ tank guns and artillery , the battalion stopped the attack around 100 yards ( 91 m ) from their lines . By 21 : 30 the attack was over , and the Germans withdrew having lost eight tanks , two armoured cars and two self @-@ propelled guns .
At the same time , German tanks and infantry attacked the 12th Devons . By 20 : 30 they had advanced to within 50 yards ( 46 m ) of the battalion 's positions . With the airborne artillery regiment busy assisting the 2nd OBLI , the Devons had to call on the artillery from the British 3rd Infantry Division to break up the attack . Activity over the next few days was limited to skirmishes and patrol activity , until the night of the 13 June when the brigade was relieved by units of the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division . The brigade was repositioned in the area of Breville between the 5th Parachute Brigade and the commandos of the 1st Special Service Brigade . Here they remained in a defensive position until mid August , conducting patrols to hold the Germans ' attention .
= = = Advance to the Seine = = =
On 7 August the 6th Airborne division was ordered to prepare to move over to the offensive , with its objective being the mouth of the River Seine . The division began to advance as the Germans retreated from France following their defeat in the Battle of Falaise . The 6th Airlanding Brigade , now commanded by Brigadier Edward Flavell , had the 1st Belgian Infantry Brigade and the Royal Netherlands Motorized Infantry Brigade under its command . Together they would form the left flank of the division 's advance , moving along the French coast , while the remainder of the division advanced further inland .
The 6th Airlanding Brigade advance started on 17 August along two axes , with the 12th Devons on the left , the 2nd OBLI on the right , and the 1st RUR in reserve . At Longuemare the 12th Devons had to fight through the German rearguard , and the 1st RUR took over the advance on the left and reached Cabourg without meeting any further resistance .
The brigade group was moved to an area east of Troarn on 21 August . With the 12th Devons leading they advanced again , occupying Branville , Vauville and Deauville on 22 August . Attempts to cross the River Touques were repulsed by a force estimated to be around 1 @,@ 200 men . Outflanking the German position , the 2nd OBLI crossed the river at Touques on 24 August . Keeping the pressure on the retreating Germans on 25 August , Le Correspondence , Petreville and Malhortie were captured . However , the Germans had retained control of the bridge outside Malhortie and the high ground at Manneville @-@ la @-@ Raoult . The 2nd OBLI attacked and captured the bridge intact , but Mannerville @-@ la @-@ Raoult was only taken at dusk , at the cost of several casualties . The next day , 26 August , the battalion captured Foulbec on the River Seine at 19 : 00 , although not before the Germans had destroyed the bridge , and earlier that day the 1st RUR had captured Berville @-@ sur @-@ Mer . On 27 August the division was ordered to concentrate in the area between Honfleur and Pont Audemer .
In nine days of fighting the 6th Airborne Division had advanced 45 miles ( 72 km ) , despite , as the divisional commander Major @-@ General Richard Nelson Gale put it , his infantry units being " quite inadequately equipped for a rapid pursuit " . The division had captured 400 square miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km2 ) of territory and taken over 1 @,@ 000 German soldiers prisoner . Since landing on 6 June the division 's casualties were 4 @,@ 457 , of which 821 were killed , 2 @,@ 709 wounded and 927 missing . The 6th Airlanding Brigade suffered 115 men killed during the campaign . The division was withdrawn from France , and embarked for England at the beginning of September .
= = = Ardennes = = =
In England the brigade went into a period of recruitment and training , concentrating on house to house street fighting in the bombed areas of Southampton and Birmingham . The training programme culminated in Exercise Eve , an assault on the River Thames , which was intended to simulate the River Rhine in Germany .
By December the brigade was preparing for Christmas leave , when news of the German offensive in the Ardennes broke . As part of the First Allied Airborne Army , 6th Airborne Division was available as a component of the strategic reserve for the Allied forces in northwest Europe . The other two divisions available in reserve , the American 82nd and 101st Airborne , were already at Rheims in northern France , and the 6th Airborne was sent by sea to Belgium to assist the defence . With 29 German and 33 Allied divisions involved , the Battle of the Bulge was the largest single battle on the Western Front during the war . On Christmas Day the division moved up to take position in front of the spearhead of the German advance ; by Boxing Day they had reached their allocated places in the defensive line between Dinant and Namur . The 3rd Parachute Brigade were on the left , 5th Parachute Brigade on the right , and the airlanding brigade in reserve . Over the next days the German advance was halted and forced back , until at the end of January 1945 , the brigade crossed into the Netherlands . Here the division was made responsible for the area along the River Maas , between Venlo and Roermond . The brigade carried out patrols , on both sides of the river , against their opponents from the German 7th Parachute Division . Near the end of February the division returned to England to prepare for another airborne mission , to cross the River Rhine into Germany .
= = = Rhine = = =
Whereas all other Allied airborne landings had been a surprise for the Germans , the Rhine crossing was expected , and their defences were reinforced in anticipation . The airborne operation was preceded by a two @-@ day round @-@ the @-@ clock bombing mission by the Allied air forces . Then on 23 March 3 @,@ 500 artillery guns targeted the German positions . At dusk Operation Plunder , an assault river crossing of the Rhine by the 21st Army Group , began . For their part in Operation Varsity , the 6th Airborne Division was assigned to the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps alongside the U.S. 17th Airborne Division .
The 6th Airlanding Brigade , now commanded by Brigadier Hugh Bellamy , was given several objectives in the operation . The 2nd OBLI , landing in the north , had to secure the bridges over the River Issel . The 1st RUR had the main road bridge over the river from Hamminkeln to Brunen as their objective , and the 12th Devons were to capture the town of Hamminkeln .
As in Normandy , the division 's two parachute brigades were already on the ground before the 6th Airlanding Brigade started landing at 10 : 30 24 March 1945 . The German defenders had been alerted , and the gliders were met by a concentrated anti @-@ aircraft barrage . This caused the brigade around 40 per cent casualties in men and 50 per cent in equipment . Nevertheless , by 11 : 00 the 2nd OBLI and 1st RUR had captured their objectives . The 12th Devons landed amongst a German armoured formation , but managed to gather enough men together to begin their attack on Hamminkeln at 11 : 35 , and had secured the town by 12 : 00 .
At midnight the 2nd OBLI were attacked by a force of tanks and infantry . One of the battalion positions at the eastern side of the road bridge was overrun , and had to be recaptured with a counter @-@ attack . Another attack two hours later was in danger of capturing the bridge , so Brigadier Bellamy ordered it blown up . German infantry attempted to infiltrate the brigade 's positions throughout the night . At 05 : 30 German armour was detected approaching and the brigade called in close air support from Royal Air Force Typhoon fighter bombers , which destroyed several tanks . The main road bridge , held by 1st RUR , was attacked at 07 : 00 by infantry and two tanks . The attack failed when the tanks were destroyed by the division 's anti @-@ tank guns . Later that day infantry from the 15th Scottish Infantry Division , supported by tanks , had advanced to the divisional area and took over the brigade 's position . At the same time the division was ordered to prepare to advance eastwards from dawn on 26 March .
= = = Germany = = =
On 26 March the brigade advanced further into Germany , with the 1st RUR and the 12th Devons leading . The only opposition was German rearguard actions , and they reached Rhade by that evening and Limbeck the following day . They crossed the Dortmund – Ems Canal at dawn on 2 April , unopposed except for artillery fire . Later that day there was more resistance when they reached Lengerich . By 4 April the brigade was moving forward as fast as possible , supported by the 4th ( Armoured ) Battalion , Grenadier Guards , part of the 6th Guards Tank Brigade . Steinhuder Meer was reached on 10 April , then in the following days Ulzen and Lüneburg were captured . By 2 May they had reached the River Elbe . Expecting it to be defended in force , the division attacked at once , trying to catch the defenders unaware . The attack was successful and the river was crossed over a pontoon bridge left intact by the retreating Germans . That afternoon the leading troops of the 3rd Parachute Brigade reached Mecklenburg and made contact with the leading men from the Russian Army advancing from the east . Later that day the brigade reached Wismar on the Baltic Sea , and remained there until 7 May when news was received of the German surrender .
= = = Post war = = =
At the end of May 1945 , the division was pulled out of Germany and returned to England . It was initially intended to send them to India to form an airborne corps with the 44th Indian Airborne Division . The division ’ s advance party , formed around the 5th Parachute Brigade , had already arrived in India . Following the Japanese surrender , all these plans changed . The post @-@ war British Army only needed one airborne division , and the 6th Airborne was chosen to remain on strength . Reinforced by the 2nd Parachute Brigade , the division was sent to the Middle East as the Imperial Strategic Reserve .
On 10 October 1945 , the brigade arrived at the port of Haifa , and after disembarking moved to Gaza . After a short period of acclimatisation , the 6th Airlanding Brigade was deployed in the Samaria region , with the brigade headquarters at Lydda airfield . At the same time , the 6th Battalion , Gordon Highlanders , based at Tulkarm , came under the brigade 's command . The first incident in the brigade area was on 31 October , when parties of armed Jews planted explosives on rail lines , which killed four and wounded eight when they exploded . Following attacks on coastguard stations , believed to be by members of the Palmach , over the night of 24 / 25 November , the brigade carried out two operations to search settlements for those responsible . On 29 March 1946 the brigade was relocated to Jerusalem in preparation for leaving the division . On 3 April the 1st Parachute Brigade , which had been assigned to the division , arrived in Palestine . Their arrival made the glider formation surplus to requirements , so on 15 April the brigade was renumbered 31st Independent Infantry Brigade , and was no longer part of the British airborne forces .
= = Order of battle = =
Commanders
Brigadier Hugh Kindersley ( 1943 – 1944 )
Brigadier Edwin Flavell ( 1944 – 1945 )
Brigadier Hugh Bellamy ( 1945 )
Brigadier Roger Bower ( 1945 – 1946 )
Units assigned
2nd Battalion , Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry
1st Battalion , Royal Ulster Rifles
12th Battalion , Devonshire Regiment
1st Battalion , Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
53rd ( Worcestershire Yeomanry ) Airlanding Light Regiment – Royal Artillery
249th ( Airborne ) Field Company – Royal Engineers
195th ( Airlanding ) Field Ambulance – Royal Army Medical Corps
Units attached
1st Belgian Infantry Brigade
Royal Netherlands Motorized Infantry Brigade
6th Battalion , Gordon Highlanders
= Schlumbergera =
Schlumbergera is a small genus of cacti with six species found in the coastal mountains of south @-@ eastern Brazil . Plants grow on trees or rocks in habitats that are generally shady with high humidity , and can be quite different in appearance from their desert @-@ dwelling cousins . Most species of Schlumbergera have stems which resemble leaf @-@ like pads joined one to the other and flowers which appear from areoles at the joints and tips of the stems . Two species have cylindrical stems more similar to other cacti . In Brazil , the genus is referred to as Flor de Maio ( May flower ) , reflecting the period in which they flower in the Southern Hemisphere .
This genus contains the popular house plants known by a variety of names including Christmas Cactus , Thanksgiving Cactus , Crab Cactus and Holiday Cactus , which are Schlumbergera cultivars , and flower in white , pink , yellow , orange , red or purple . ( The Easter Cactus or Whitsun Cactus , which may also be called a Holiday Cactus and has vivid scarlet flowers in the most commonly grown form , is now placed in the genus Hatiora . ) The cultivars of Schlumbergera fall into two main groups :
The Truncata Group contains all cultivars with features derived mainly from the species S. truncata : stem segments with pointed teeth ; flowers held more or less horizontally , usually above the horizontal , whose upper side is differently shaped from the lower side ( zygomorphic ) ; and pollen which is yellow . They generally flower earlier than members of the Buckleyi Group and although common names are not applied consistently may be distinguished as Thanksgiving Cactus , Crab Cactus or Claw Cactus .
The Buckleyi Group contains all cultivars with at least some features clearly showing inheritance from S. russelliana : stem segments with rounded , more symmetrical teeth ; more or less symmetrical ( regular ) flowers which hang down , below the horizontal ; and pollen which is pink . They generally flower later than members of the Truncata Group and are more likely to be called Christmas Cactus .
= = Etymology = =
Botanist Charles Lemaire ( 1801 @-@ 1871 ) gave the name Schlumbergera to this genus in 1858 , honouring Frédéric Schlumberger ( 1823 @-@ 1893 ) , French cactus and other succulent plant collector .
= = Description = =
In the wild , the species of Schlumbergera grow either on trees ( epiphytic ) or on rocks ( epilithic ) and can form sizeable shrubs with woody bases ; a height of up to 1 @.@ 2 m ( 4 ft ) has been reported for one species ( S. opuntioides ) . They are leafless , the green stems acting as photosynthetic organs . The stems are composed of segments , which take one of two forms . In most species the segments are strongly flattened ( cladodes ) , being made up of a central core with two ( or more rarely three ) " wings " . Special structures characteristic of cacti , called " areoles " , then occur at the ends of the segments of the stem . In two species the stems are less flattened , more cylinder @-@ shaped , and the areoles are arranged in a more or less spiral pattern all over the segments . In both cases , the areoles , which may have wool and bristles , are where the flower buds appear .
The flowers either hang downwards and are almost regular ( radially symmetrical or actinomorphic ) or , as in most species , are held more or less horizontally with the higher side of the flower different from the lower side ( radially asymmetrical or zygomorphic ) . In those species whose flowers are held up , their angle with the horizontal is relatively constant and is characteristic of the species . Each flower has 20 – 30 tepals . The outer tepals – those closer to the base of the flower – are short and unconnected , and spread out or curve backwards . The inner tepals – those towards the tip of the flower – are longer and become progressively more fused together at the base to form a floral tube . In some species the difference between the outer and inner tepals creates the appearance of a " flower within a flower " . The flowers produce nectar in a chamber at the base of the floral tube .
The many stamens are arranged in two series , which is a distinctive characteristic of the genus . The inner stamens are fused at the base to form a short tubular structure . The outer stamens arise from along the floral tube . The style is usually dark red and has a stigma with 6 – 8 lobes ; the style plus stigma is roughly the same length as the stamens . If the flower is fertilized , a fleshy fruit forms , either smooth or with ribs . The brown or black seeds are about 1 mm in diameter .
= = Taxonomy = =
The genus is one of a small number belonging to a group of cacti classified as the tribe Rhipsalideae . Species of cacti belonging to this group are quite distinct in appearance and habit from most other cacti since they grow on trees or rocks as epiphytes or lithophytes . Although the species are easy to identify as members of the Rhipsalideae , for many years there was confusion as to how they should be divided into genera . This confusion extended to Schlumbergera , whose complicated taxonomic history has been detailed by McMillan and Horobin . The modern genus Schlumbergera was created by Charles Lemaire in 1858 . The name commemorates Frédéric Schlumberger , who had a collection of cacti at his chateau near Rouen . Lemaire placed only one species in his new genus – a plant discovered in Brazil in 1837 which had been named Epiphyllum russellianum by William J. Hooker . Lemaire renamed it Schlumbergera epiphylloides ( under the current rules of botanical nomenclature it should have been called Schlumbergera russelliana , which is its current name ) .
Lemaire noted the similarity of his Schlumbergera epiphylloides to a species first described as Epiphyllum truncatum by Adrian Hardy Haworth in 1819 , but did not accept that the two species should be included in the same genus . In 1890 , Karl Moritz Schumann created the new genus Zygocactus , transferring Epiphyllum truncatum to Zygocactus truncatus . Although he later placed it back in Epiphyllum , abandoning Zygocactus , the generic name Zygocactus continued to be widely used .
In 1913 , Nathaniel Britton and Joseph Rose followed Lemaire in keeping Schlumbergera russelliana and Zygocactus truncatus in separate genera . ( They also transferred the Easter Cactus – now Hatiora gaertneri – to Schlumbergera as S. gaertneri , initiating a lasting confusion between these two genera . )
In 1953 , Reid Venable Moran placed both Schlumbergera russelliana and Zygocactus truncatus in the genus Schlumbergera . Other species were added later by David Hunt , including those formerly placed in Epiphyllanthus , to form the modern total of six full species and a number of hybrids .
= = = Synonymy = = =
The following genera are now synonyms of Schlumbergera ( i.e. they have no species not moved into Schlumbergera ) :
Epiphyllanthus A.Berger
Opuntiopsis Knebel ( nom. inval . )
Zygocactus K.Schum.
Zygocereus Frič & Kreuz . ( orth. var . )
Epiphyllum Pfeiff. but not Epiphyllum Haw .
The case of Epiphyllum is complex . In 1753 Carl Linnaeus created the genus Cactus . As more species were discovered this proved too broad , and new genera were set up to subdivide the cacti . The genus Epiphyllum was created in 1812 by Haworth , based on Linnaeus 's Cactus phyllanthus . In 1831 Johann Link created the genus Phyllocactus based on the same species . Following Ludwig Pfeiffer in 1837 , the European tradition was to use Phyllocactus for epiphytic cacti with large regular flowers and Epiphyllum for the irregular @-@ flowered species now called Schlumbergera truncata . Under modern rules , Phyllocactus is an illegitimate name , as is Epiphyllum in the sense of Pfeiffer ; thus Epiphyllum Pfeiff. is a synonym of Schlumbergera . The true genus Epiphyllum Haw. now has around 19 species .
= = = Species = = =
Six species are currently recognized . Only synonyms which have been widely used ( and their basionyms ) are given in the list below .
Schlumbergera kautskyi ( Horobin & McMillan ) N.P.Taylor
syn . S. truncata subsp. kautskyi Horobin & McMillan
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20 March 2015 . Caja Rural – Seguros RGA , the only Spanish @-@ registered Professional Continental team , was one of those invited , along with two French teams , Cofidis and Team Europcar . MTN – Qhubeka were invited for the second consecutive year after also securing their first ever entry into the Tour de France . The final team to be invited was Colombia . One prominent team to miss out on an entry was UnitedHealthcare .
The team presentation took place in Benahavís on the evening before the first stage . The number of riders allowed per squad was nine , therefore the start list contained a total of 198 riders . The riders represented 37 different countries , with the largest numbers coming from France ( 30 ) , Spain ( 27 ) and Italy ( 20 ) . The average age of riders in the Vuelta was 29 @.@ 13 years , ranging from the 20 @-@ year @-@ old Matej Mohorič ( Cannondale – Garmin ) to the 38 @-@ year @-@ old Haimar Zubeldia ( Trek Factory Racing ) .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The top four riders from the 2015 Tour de France all chose to start the Vuelta . These were Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) , Nairo Quintana and Alejandro Valverde ( both Movistar Team ) and Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) , all of whom had previously won Grand Tours . The most notable absentee from among the general classification contenders was Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , the winner of the 2014 Vuelta . Oleg Tinkov , the owner of the Tinkoff @-@ Saxo team , had challenged Contador , Froome , Nibali and Quintana to attempt to ride all three Grand Tours in 2015 ; none of the riders took up the challenge . Froome , Nibali and Quintana all declined to ride the Giro and , as Contador was attempting to win both the Giro d 'Italia and the Tour , he did not aim to ride the Vuelta . Valverde and Nibali were the only two previous winners of the race to start the 2015 edition .
Froome , who had been second in the 2011 and 2014 Vueltas , had had a strong season , with victories in the Vuelta a Andalucía , the Critérium du Dauphiné and the Tour de France . He was attempting to become the first rider since Bernard Hinault in 1978 to win both the Tour and the Vuelta in the same season , though it was expected that he would be tired following his victory in the Tour . The individual time trial was expected to favour Froome , who is strong in the discipline . Before the race , however , Froome was uncertain about his form and his ability to win the race . Quintana 's only stage race victory of the season had come in the Tirreno – Adriatico , but he had performed strongly in the Alps in the Tour 's final stages and the mountainous route of the Vuelta was expected to suit him .
Vincenzo Nibali , who had won the Vuelta in 2010 , had struggled in the opening stages of the Tour , but had recovered to take a stage victory in the final week . The Astana team also included Fabio Aru and Mikel Landa , second and third respectively at the Giro d 'Italia ; while this made a strong team it was unclear which rider would be favoured by the team and given the assistance of his teammates . There was a similar situation at Movistar , as Valverde , who had won the Vuelta in 2009 and had finished on the podium on four other occasions , was also in strong form and was well suited to the course . Also among the general classification contenders were Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) , Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) and Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) .
Other notable riders to take part in the race included several sprinters . One of these was Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , four times the winner of the points classification in the Tour de France and winner of three stages in the 2011 Vuelta , who was preparing for the World Championships road race the following month . Sagan was considered particularly strong on the easier uphill finishes in the first week . John Degenkolb ( Giant – Alpecin ) had won four stages and the points classification in 2014 as well as five stages in 2012 . Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) , who had crashed out of the Tour , was expected to compete with Degenkolb in the flat sprints .
= = Route and stages = =
The first announcement of the route for the 2015 Vuelta a España came in October 2014 , when Javier Guillén , the race director , announced that the first stage would take place in Puerto Banús near Marbella on 22 August . It had been decided that the stage would be either an individual time trial or a team time trial . More news came the following month , when Guillén revealed that he had been involved in conversations with Chris Froome and had promised him that the race would include a fairly flat individual time trial of around 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) . He also said that the race would feature " explosive finals and summit finishes " . The official route announcement came on 10 January 2015 in Torremolinos , along the coast from the start of the first stage in Puerto Banús .
The first five stages took place in and around Andalusia in southern Spain ; the 2014 Vuelta had also started there . The first stage was a team time trial along the coast from Puerto Banús to Marbella . The next four stages were fairly flat , although Stage 2 finished on a moderately difficult climb . The sixth stage started in Córdoba and finished in Sierra de Cazorla in Jaén on another moderately difficult climb . The seventh stage then returned to Andalusia for the first major difficulty of the race : the first @-@ category summit finish at La Alpujarra . The route then continued along the eastern coast of Spain , with a medium @-@ mountain seventh stage and another first @-@ category summit finish at Benitachell on Stage 9 . There was one more medium @-@ mountain stage on Stage 10 , taking the riders into the Province of Castellón . This was followed by a transfer that took the riders into Andorra for a three @-@ day spell , beginning with the first rest day . The eleventh stage took place entirely in Andorra ; though it was only 138 kilometres ( 86 mi ) in length , it included six categorised climbs , including a summit finish , and was described by Eusebio Unzué ( the manager of the Movistar team ) as " the toughest Vuelta stage that he has seen in more than 30 years " . Stage 12 took the riders back into Spain for a fairly flat stage , before three consecutive stages with summit finishes . These took place in the mountains of Cantabria and Asturias and were followed by the race 's second rest day . The final week of the race included no summit finishes : the first stage was a 38 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 24 @.@ 0 mi ) individual time trial in Burgos and was then followed by three mixed stages that took the riders nearer to the final stage of the race , a sprint stage in Madrid . For the first time , the race organisers also held a women 's race on the same day as the final stage , using the same circuit . This race – called La Madrid Challenge by La Vuelta – was won by Shelley Olds .
The 2015 Vuelta included nine summit finishes , none of which had previously been used in the race . Unusually , the principal difficulties of the race came in the first two weeks , including all nine summit finishes . It was therefore expected that the climbers would need to attack early in the race , in order to build up a significant lead ahead of the lengthy time trial on Stage 17 . The race organisers also hoped to encourage sprinters to take part by including seven fairly flat stages .
Each road stage ( that is , all the stages except the team time trial and the individual time trial ) included an intermediate sprint . This was a point where the leading riders in the stage were awarded points in the points classification and time bonuses in the general classification . Many of the stages also included climbs that were categorised by the race organisers according to their difficulty ; the leading riders over each of these climbs were awarded points in the mountains classification , with the most difficult climbs earning the most points .
In the days before the beginning of the race , there was controversy over the first stage . On arriving at the start , the teams discovered that the route used a variety of road surfaces , crossed sandy sections and included several ramps . As a result , the race organisers decided to neutralise the stage : the teams therefore competed only for the stage victory and for the team classification , not for the general classification .
= = Race overview = =
The team time trial was won by BMC Racing Team and Peter Velits took the red jersey as the first rider across the line . Since the stage had been neutralised for the general classification , all 198 riders began the second stage on the same time . The stage finished on a moderate climb , where Esteban Chaves ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) attacked early and took both the stage victory and the lead of the race . A major crash in the final 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) brought down several riders and most riders in the peloton ( the main group ) were held up , including Fabio Aru and Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) . Aru quickly rejoined the peloton ; Nibali was forced to chase for a long time . After the stage , a video emerged of Nibali holding on to his team car as it accelerated him back to the peloton . Nibali was therefore fined and excluded from the race .
The next stage was a moderately difficult stage that ended in a bunch sprint . Peter Sagan won his first Grand Tour stage in over two years ahead of Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) and John Degenkolb ( Giant @-@ Alpecin ) . The fourth stage again included an uphill finish . This stage was also decided in a sprint finish , this time won by Alejandro Valverde . Sagan , who came second , took over the lead of the points classification . A third consecutive bunch sprint came on the fifth stage , which ended on a slight incline . The relatively straightforward stage was won by Caleb Ewan ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) , who was riding his first Grand Tour , ahead of Degenkolb and Sagan . There were splits in the peloton at the finish ; Chaves lost six seconds to Tom Dumoulin ( Giant – Alpecin ) , who therefore took over the red jersey of the race leader by one second . This lead did not last long . The sixth stage finished on another moderate climb . Chaves again attacked early in the climb and took his second stage victory , with Dan Martin ( Cannondale – Garmin ) second and Dumoulin third . Chaves therefore took back the red jersey .
The seventh stage was the most significant uphill finish of the race so far , finishing on the climb of the Alto de Capileira . It was won by Bert @-@ Jan Lindeman ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) from the breakaway . Most of the general classification favourites finished together , though Fabio Aru gained seven seconds in the final kilometre and Chris Froome lost nearly half a minute . The following stage was a moderately difficult stage : it was too difficult for the pure sprinters to reach the finish line with the main group of riders , but not difficult enough to create gaps between those riding for the overall victory . The most notable event was a large crash 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) from the finish . Four riders were immediately forced to withdraw from the race with injuries , including Dan Martin , who had been in the top ten . The stage was won in a reduced bunch sprint by Jasper Stuyven ( Trek Factory Racing ) , who had been among the riders injured in the earlier crash . He was forced to withdraw from the race after the stage with a broken scaphoid . Stage 9 ended with a difficult climb . There was a series of attacks on the early part of the mountain , with many riders dropped from the lead group . Tom Dumoulin eventually took a solo win in the stage , two seconds ahead of Chris Froome , and took back the red jersey as Chaves lost significant time . Froome had originally been dropped , but rode at a steady tempo and came close to the stage victory . Stage 10 , the final stage before the first rest day , ended in another bunch sprint , which was won by Kristian Sbaragli ( MTN – Qhubeka ) .
The eleventh stage , the first after the rest day , was the difficult stage in Andorra , with six difficult climbs and almost no flat roads . The stage was won from a breakaway by Mikel Landa ( Astana ) . Fabio Aru , Landa 's teammate , took second place and moved into the race lead . Chris Froome fell from his bike at the beginning of the stage and lost several minutes to Aru ; the following morning it was revealed that he had broken his foot in the fall and he withdrew from the race . Nairo Quintana also lost several minutes on the stage . The following stage , which took the riders from Andorra back into Spain , was won in a sprint by Danny van Poppel ( Trek Factory Racing ) after the day 's breakaway was caught in the final kilometre . Van Poppel won the stage despite puncturing his tyre with 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining . The thirteenth stage – the last one before a series of three consecutive summit finishes – was won from a breakaway by Nelson Oliveira ( Lampre – Merida ) , with no impact on the general classification .
The first of the three summit finishes – Stage 14 – was won by Alessandro De Marchi ( BMC Racing Team ) , who had been in the day 's breakaway . Quintana gained several seconds back , while Aru , Rodríguez , Chaves and Majka all gained time on Dumoulin . Rodríguez attacked strongly on the final climb to win Stage 15 and gained time on all his rivals , putting himself just one second behind Aru . Dumoulin lost further time to Aru , Majka and Chaves . The final stage with a summit finish was Stage 16 : it was a difficult stage including seven climbs and was won by Fränk Schleck ( Trek Factory Racing ) . On the final climb , Rodríguez gained two seconds on Aru in the final metres to put himself into the race lead for the final rest day , while Dumoulin lost more time and was nearly two minutes back .
After the rest day came the race 's individual time trial . It was won by Dumoulin , who was more than a minute ahead of all the other riders in the race . His time was good enough to put him into the overall race lead . Aru rode strongly , and was only three seconds behind Dumoulin in the general classification after the stage . Rodríguez lost over three minutes to Dumoulin . Majka also lost significant time to Aru and Dumoulin and fell to fourth place .
Following the time trial , there were three mountainous stages , although none of them had a summit finish . All three were won by riders from breakaways . Nicolas Roche ( Sky ) won Stage 18 , beating Haimar Zubeldia ( Trek Factory Racing ) in a two @-@ man sprint . After his team had put pressure on the peloton through the whole stage , Aru attacked Dumoulin six times on the final climb , and Valverde put in three more attacks . Dumoulin , however , did not lose any time and retained his three @-@ second lead . Stage 19 ended with a short , cobbled climb into Ávila . It was won by Alexis Gougeard ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , who had escaped from the breakaway group on the previous climb . The day 's racing also produced another crash : this time Aru fell to the ground . Although he had to make several trips to the medical car , he did not seem seriously injured . At the end of the stage , Dumoulin used his team to put him in a strong position for the cobbled climb and he increased his lead over Aru to six seconds . Stage 20 was the final day of mountainous terrain , including four difficult climbs . It was won by Rubén Plaza ( Lampre @-@ Merida ) after a 117 @-@ kilometre ( 73 mi ) solo breakaway that lasted over three hours . Aru 's Astana team rode hard in the second half of the stage and , with a strong team effort , they were eventually able to drop Dumoulin on the penultimate climb of the day ; he dropped further back on the final climb and lost nearly four minutes , dropping to sixth place overall . Quintana and Majka gained nearly a minute on the other general classification rivals . This meant that Aru took the race lead , with Rodríguez second and Majka third .
The final stage of the race was a flat stage that finished in Madrid . It was won in a sprint by Degenkolb . During the stage , Valverde took advantage of a puncture for Rodríguez and won the intermediate sprint to give him the points jersey . Although Aru lost a little time in a split in the peloton at the finish line , the rest of the standings were unchanged . Aru therefore won the race , his first Grand Tour victory .
= = Classification leadership = =
The 2015 Vuelta a España included four principal classifications . The first of these was the general classification , which was calculated by adding up each rider 's times on each stage and applying the relevant time bonuses . These were 10 seconds for the stage winner , 6 seconds for the rider in second , and 4 seconds for the rider in third , and 3 , 2 and 1 seconds for the first three riders at each intermediate sprint ; no bonuses were awarded on the time trial stages . The rider with the lowest cumulative time was the winner of the general classification and was considered the overall winner of the Vuelta . The rider leading the classification wore a red jersey .
The second classification was the points classification . Riders were awarded points for finishing in the top fifteen places on each stage and in the top three at each intermediate sprint . The first rider at each stage finish was awarded 25 points , the second 20 points , the third 16 points , the fourth 14 points , the fifth 12 points , the sixth 10 points , down to 1 point for the rider in fifteenth . At the intermediate sprints , the first three riders won 4 , 2 and 1 points respectively . The rider with the most points won the classification and wore a green jersey .
The third classification was the mountains classification . Most stages of the race included one or more categorised climbs . Stages were categorised as third- , second- , first- and special @-@ category , with the more difficult climbs rated higher . The most difficult climb of the race , the Alto Ermita de Alba on Stage 16 , was given its own category as the Cima Alberto Fernández . Points were awarded for the first riders across the summit of each climb ; the rider with the most accumulated points won the classification and wore a white jersey with blue polka dots .
The final individual classification was the combination classification . This was calculated by adding up each rider 's position on the other three individual classifications . The rider with the lowest cumulative score was the winner of the classification and wore a white jersey .
The final classification was a team classification . This was calculated by adding together the times of each team 's best three riders on each stage . The team with the lowest cumulative time was the winner of the classification . There was also a combativity prize awarded on each stage ; three riders were chosen on each stage by a race jury to recognise the rider " who displayed the most courageous effort " . There was then a public vote to decide which rider should be awarded the prize ; the rider wore a red dossard ( race number ) the following day . An identical procedure took place on the final stage to decide the most combative rider of the whole Vuelta .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= Get Me Bodied =
" Get Me Bodied " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her second studio album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . It was written by Beyoncé , Kasseem " Swizz Beatz " Dean , Sean Garrett , Makeba Riddick , Angela Beyincé , and Solange Knowles , while the production was handled by Dean , Beyoncé Knowles and Sean Garrett . Beyoncé was inspired by her sister , Solange , and former Destiny 's Child band @-@ mates Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams for the writing process . Columbia Records released " Get Me Bodied " as the album 's seventh and final single in the US on July 10 , 2007 .
" Get Me Bodied " is an R & B and bounce song with dancehall and reggae influences . It features Beyoncé as the female protagonist going out an evening in the right dress and the right hair , to steam up any dance floor and make sure her call to " get her bodied " is irresistible . The song was generally well received by contemporary music critics , who complimented its party sound and Beyoncé 's vocals . The American Society of Composers , Authors , and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized it as the best R & B and Hip @-@ Hop song of 2007 . " Get Me Bodied " initially reached number 68 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in 2007 , but due to a viral video reached a new peak of 46 in 2013 .
Its accompanying music video was co @-@ directed by Beyoncé and Anthony Mandler , and inspired by The Frug from Bob Fosse 's film adaptation of the Broadway musical Sweet Charity . Solange , Rowland , and Williams make cameo appearances . The clip was nominated for Video of the Year at the 2007 VH1 Soul Vibe Awards . " Get Me Bodied " was promoted by Beyoncé with live performances on her world tours and at the 2007 BET Awards . In April 2011 , Beyoncé re @-@ recorded the song and re @-@ titled it as " Move Your Body " for the Let 's Move ! Flash Workout campaign . An instructional video of the exercise routine was filmed for distribution to participating schools .
= = Background and release = =
Beyoncé Knowles began working on her second solo album B 'Day following the conclusion of filming for Dreamgirls . She revealed : " [ When filming ended , ] I had so many things bottled up , so many emotions , so many ideas " . Beyoncé contacted American songwriter @-@ producer Sean Garrett , and booked him at the Sony Music Studios in New York City , where " Get Me Bodies " was recorded . She also called American hip hop producer @-@ rapper Kasseem " Swizz Beatz " Dean , her sister and singer , Solange , her cousin Angela Beyincé , and songwriter Makeba Riddick . Beyoncé took inspiration from Solange , who helped in the writing process of the song , and former Destiny 's Child band @-@ mates Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams . In " Get Me Bodied " , she mentioned " three best friends " because she was thinking of them while writing . While working on the lyrics , Swizz Beatz and the other producers in the team handled its production .
" Get Me Bodied " and " Green Light " were planned to be released as the next two singles from B 'Day , following the lead single " Déjà Vu " . Beyoncé aimed the tracks at the international markets and opted for " Ring the Alarm " as the second US @-@ only single , which peaked at number eleven on the US Billboard Hot 100 . However , Irreplaceable " ( 2006 ) was officially serviced as the album 's second international and third US single . Instead , " Get Me Bodied " was released as the seventh overall and final US single after the release of the album 's deluxe edition 's lead single , " Beautiful Liar " ( 2007 ) . A two @-@ track CD single was released on July 10 , 2007 in the United States containing the radio edit and the extended mix of the song . A " Get Me Bodied " ringle was released on October 23 , 2007 .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Get Me Bodied " is a moderate R & B , and bounce song , which displays influences of dance @-@ pop , dancehall , and funk music . Jim DeRogatis of Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that it is a musical mixture of double Dutch rhyming and reggae @-@ rap . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is written in the key of G minor , and is set in common time at a moderate groove of 100 beats per minute . Beyoncé 's vocals range from the note of B ♯ b3 to F5 . " Get Me Bodied " progresses on a lurching and turgid beat . Its instrumentation includes drum patterns , surging horns , and synthesizers . The song also utilizes handclaps and syncopated interlocked clicks , which are interspersed with background chants , vocal exclamations , vocal gymnastics , and Texas twang . Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker commented that some notes which begin as " legato exhalations " constrict into shouts . Mike Joseph of PopMatters noted that " Get Me Bodied " is " the glorified version " of Gwen Stefani 's " Hollaback Girl " ( 2005 ) .
According to Bill Lamb of About.com , the song " crackle [ s ] with the spirit and power of a woman who carries her sexuality and spirit with authority . " " Get Me Bodied " features Beyoncé as the female protagonist going out an evening ; she is suitably dressed to make a lasting impression and get what she is looking for . She is determined to steam up any dance floor she steps onto and make sure that no one resists her call to " get [ her ] bodied " . The lyrics are constructed in the traditional verse @-@ chorus form . " Get Me Bodied " begins with Beyoncé telling her birthdate " 9 @-@ 4 @-@ 8 @-@ 1 " , followed by a group of male voices singing " hey 's " and " jump 's " for four bars ; the first verse then begins . The verses are written like a list where she sings her missions before going to party . It is followed with the chorus and the hook , where Beyoncé sings : " Can you get me bodied ? I want to be myself tonight . " The second verse follows , the chorus repeats giving way to the bridge , and Beyoncé sings the chorus again , ending the song with " hey ! " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Get Me Bodied " received acclaim from music critics who praised its party sound and Beyoncé 's vocals . Chris Richards of The Washington Post referred to the track a " club @-@ hungry come @-@ ons " with a " dexterous melody " . He further stated that the " skeletal " track " keeps Beyoncé tethered to the ground " . Jody Rosen of Entertainment Weekly commented that " a piddly home hi @-@ fi can hardly capture the thunderous grandeur of ' Get Me Bodied , ' which sets Beyoncé 's harmonies above a pummeling track overseen by rap producer Swiss Beatz " . Tim Finney of Pitchfork Media called the track a " percussive , Diwali @-@ esque jam " . Us Weekly described " Get Me Bodied " a " snappy dance number . " Sasha Frere @-@ Jones of The New Yorker noted that the song sounds " anxious . " Mike Joseph of PopMatters noted that the song is very similar to Gwen Stefani 's " Hollaback Girl " ( 2005 ) and expressed further praise about " Get Me Bodied " , writing : " [ ' Get Me Bodied ' is ] Beyonce ’ s glorified version of a ' Hollaback Girl ' -type song . [ ... ] But listen to way she wails and shouts throughout the song ! Gwen Stefani certainly isn ’ t capable of vocal gymnastics like this . When she sings [ ... ] you can visualize beads of perspiration coming off of her as she shakes to this song . "
Spence D. of IGN Music added that Beyoncé 's " crisp voice " seems at odds with the beats featured in the song . However , he continued saying that it " when it gets muted and overlapped on the chorus , it sounds purely hypnotical . " Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music described the track as a " driving " and " strutting " one . Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated : " [ ... ] rhythm @-@ driven songs , especially ' Get Me Bodied ' , could be high @-@ tech upgrades of an old African @-@ American form , the ring shout [ ... ] " . Darryl Sterdan , writing for the Canadian website Jam ! , said that the song manages dancing into a contact sport with the help of cheerleader hand @-@ claps . Dave de Sylvia of Sputnikmusic considered " Get Me Bodied " as one of the three production triumphs on B 'Day . Richard Cromelin of Los Angeles Times wrote that " Get Me Bodied " sounds " like fun " for Beyoncé , connecting her with deep , vital cultural roots . He also went on saying that " the playful chant " suggests both children 's street game and traditional work song , and the whiff of Louisiana in the beat taps her own Creole heritage .
In 2007 , Shaheem Reid , Jayson Rodriguez and Rahman Dukes of MTV News placed the song at number five on his year @-@ end list of 27 Essential R & B Songs of 2007 . Beyoncé earned the R & B and Hip @-@ Hop Song accolade for " Get Me Bodied " at the 2008 American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers Awards . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the extended remix of the song at number four on their list of ten best Beyoncé 's songs . The same year , the writers of Complex magazine put " Get Me Bodied " at number 9 on their list of 25 best Beyoncé 's songs . Heather Haynes writing for the magazine , concluded that the song was a proof that Beyoncé could " kill any and every dance song " further adding , " There 's no way you don 't start dancing or slow @-@ winding when ' Get Me Bodied ' comes on " .
= = Chart performance = =
Prior to the release of the single , it debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 on May 26 , 2007 at number ninety @-@ eight while " Beautiful Liar " and " Irreplaceable " were still charting . It was lurking below top fifty approaching its physical release . On August 4 , 2007 , " Get Me Bodied " peaked at number sixty @-@ eight , and spent a total of eighteen weeks on Hot 100 . " Get Me Bodied " fared better on one of Billboard 's component charts ; peaking at number ten on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . It reached number eighty @-@ eight on the US Pop 100 chart . The song also received heavy rotation from the urban radio stations in the United States . " Get Me Bodied " was ranked at number 26 on the US Hot R & B / Hip Hop Songs year @-@ end chart . In 2013 , a video of a woman named Deborah Cohan and her doctors breaking out dancing to the song before she underwent a double mastectomy was posted on YouTube and went viral . Due to Billboard 's new 2013 streaming rules , the song became eligible to chart on the Hot 100 , giving it a new peak of number 46 for the week of November 23 , 2013 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and release = = =
" Get Me Bodied " was one of the music videos shot during the two @-@ week filming for B 'Day Anthology Video Album . It was conceptualized by Beyoncé and co @-@ directed by Anthony Mandler . The version of the song used in the clip is the extended mix , which is featured on the deluxe edition of B 'Day . The video was shot over two days and choreographed by Rhapsody , Todd Sams , Clifford McGhee and Bethany Strong . For the shoot , Beyoncé asked former Destiny 's Child band @-@ mates Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams , and sister Solange to appear with her in the video . She said that it " sets the tone of the video " . Beyoncé 's mother and stylist , Tina created over 60 outfits for Beyoncé and the 50 extras featured in the video . The instructional dance @-@ oriented video was inspired by the 1960s choreographies . Beyoncé cited influences from the Broadway director @-@ choreographer Bob Fosse , Southern and Jamaican movement and the Frug from the musical Sweet Charity ; Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine further noted that the video was inspired by the scene " Rich Man 's Frug " from the movie . She said : " It tells you how to do all the dances — it 's modern , it 's retro , it 's vintage , it 's stylized , it 's all of those things put together . " The story moves from a tony party reminiscent of the jet set style of the sixties , followed with dance sequences . The video was released to US iTunes Store as a Video Triple on September 4 , 2007 . A re @-@ edit of the video was produced for the Timbaland remix featuring Voltio . Although Voltio does not actually appear in the video , unused footages of the original video were replaced during the parts he sings . The re @-@ edited video was posted on the MTV Overdrive on July 26 , 2007 . It was included on the DVD for Irreemplazable ( 2007 ) .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Beyoncé writing the sequence 9 @-@ 4 @-@ 8 @-@ 1 and B 'Day on the mirror with her lipstick . As the song begins , she briefly dances in a silver dress around a red room and later answers a telephone on a black couch . She , Solange , Rowland and Williams then walk across a multi @-@ colored room to a black door where they all pose for the camera . As the chorus begins , Beyoncé , Solange , Rowland and Williams step out of a black limousine ; they are all sporting matching silver dresses . They execute some dance steps as they walk inside , where people are partying . As the chorus ends , the song is paused while Beyoncé enters a room , where everyone begin to ask who she is , before she answers , " It 's B ! " and snaps her fingers to start back the music .
She then walks past several people , dances with several men and women in white and black suits and dresses , as the second chorus begins . Beyoncé and the dancers perform a dance routine together , and soon she meets a man , who dances with her . A particular scene shows all the dancers crouch down to the floor , and follow Beyoncé as she walks , before she blows them back . The bridge starts , and the video moves to Beyoncé in a red room , where she and her dancers dance in short skirts , fishnets and black sparkling dresses . The group is later dance in the red and white rooms together . Leading into the final chorus , Beyoncé dances back in the room with the dancers , while Rowland , Williams and her sister sit on a black couch . As the video ends , Beyoncé stands in front of the mirror she was at the start and fades to black as she stares at the viewer through it .
Direct references to the " Rich Man 's Frug " include a nearly shot @-@ for @-@ shot recreation of the " who is it ? " introduction , the cage and Greek sculptures surrounding a large stage , the two ladies back @-@ to @-@ back parting to reveal Beyonce with two male dancers , and many dance steps from " The Heavyweight " portion of Fosse 's choreography .
= = = Reception = = =
MTV 's Tamar Anitai reviewed the video positively , describing it as a " swashbuckling showstopper " and adding , " But , sorry ladies , B shines brightest front and center , looking glittery , glorious and , of course , gorgeous , and more glam than ever before . " Anitai further wrote that the " seriously sick " dance sequence in the video spans the history of late 20th @-@ century modern dance , from Jerome Robbins , Bob Fosse , Janet Jackson and Fatima Robinson . He added that the video showcases Beyoncé 's metamorphosis into a " highly sophisticated " dancer , and one who can seriously shake it in sky @-@ high stilettos to boot . Anitai concluded his review by writing that Beyoncé unveiled her onstage alter ego Sasha Fierce for the mini movie with " epic " dance scenes while channeling her inner Lena Horne , Chita Rivera and Tina Turner . The music video for " Get Me Bodied " was nominated in the category for Video of the Year at the 2007 VH1 Soul Vibe Awards . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the video at number two on their list of Beyoncé 's ten best music videos writing that " She wears a slinky silver dress and has a ponytail ready for whipping , so yeah , she 's hot . "
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé first performed " Get Me Bodied " at the 2007 BET Awards on June 27 . She was wearing a gold robot gear , which she whittled down to sleek gold lame pants and a matching bra top . As she continued singing , her sister @-@ singer Solange Knowles and fellow Destiny Child member Michelle Williams appeared onstage as her back @-@ up dancers . A few moments later , Beyoncé introduced Kelly Rowland to the stage to perform her solo hit " Like This " ( 2007 ) with American rapper Eve . After her performance , Beyoncé and Williams appeared onstage with Rowland to complete the Destiny 's Child reunion . Sandy Cohen of the Associated Press described Beyoncé 's performance as " show @-@ stopping " . A writer of Rap @-@ Up wrote that Beyoncé " killed it " with the " best performance of the night " . Despite the televised live performance , " Get Me Bodied " was a part of the set list on three of Beyoncé 's world tours .
For the performance of the song during The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) , Beyoncé sported a robot outfit similar to the one she wore at the BET Awards ; however , this time she was dressed in yellow and black like a bumblebee . As she started , she declared that she was the " queen bee — or Queen B " . During the end of the performance , Beyoncé led the crowd in a dance routine calling out a series of movements and then executing them . While reviewing the performance of the song on August 5 , 2007 , at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan , Shaheem Reid of MTV News called it " another roof @-@ burner " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times also complimented the performance , writing that the concert was a showcase for Beyoncé 's consistently expanding music like the kinetic dance beats of " Get Me Bodied " . Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter included the " raising version " of " Get Me Bodied " as a highlight of the evening . While reviewing the concert in Anaheim in September , Lee Hildebrand from the San Francisco Chronicle felt that none of the supporting dancers could upstage Beyoncé during the performance of the " infectiously syncopated " song . Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times described the performance of the song during the tour as " rowdy " noting that it " foregrounded the connection between Beyoncé 's percussive vocal style and her love of street dance " . " Get Me Bodied " was included on Beyoncé 's live album The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) which was filmed during her concert in Los Angeles during the tour .
" Get Me Bodied " was also included in the set list of the I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) and the revue I Am ... Yours which was also part of the tour . Prior to the performance of the song , Beyoncé asked the crowd " Are ya 'll ready to dance ? " and went on singing it wearing a sequin dress with a big bow on the back while performing dance routines with her background dancers . While reviewing Beyoncé 's performance at the O2 Arena in London , Michael Cragg of the website musicOMH noted that the song was executed with " in double @-@ quick time " . A writer of Billboard magazine noted that the song was performed with high energy during Beyoncé 's concert at the Madison Square Garden . However , while reviewing Beyoncé 's concert in Perth in September , 2009 , Jay Hana from The Sunday Times felt that the show was " only let down by weaker , less melodic songs such as Get Me Bodied " . The song was included on the live albums I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) which contained performances filmed during the tour and I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas filmed during the eponymous revue . In late May , 2012 , Beyoncé performed " Get Me Bodied " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . During the performance Beyoncé and her back @-@ up dancers performed a swing dance and formations inspired by Bob Fosse . Chuck Darrow of The Philadelphia Inquirer was positive about the performance of the song during the revue , saying , " As for the music , Beyonce kept the needle in the red zone for much of the show , dealing primarily in such full @-@ throttle , groove @-@ intensive signature tracks as ... ' Get Me Bodied ' " . Brad Wete of Complex magazine wrote that Beyoncé was " shimmying " while performing " Get Me Bodied " . In 2013 , " Get Me Bodied " was added to the set list of The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour .
= = Cover versions = =
Girl Talk included a sample of " Get Me Bodied " in the song " No Pause " from his album Feed the Animals ( 2008 ) . During the finale of the tenth season of American Idol on May 25 , 2011 , the lady contestants joined together onstage to perform " Get Me Bodied " along with a medley of Beyoncé 's other hit singles . Adam Graham from MTV News noted that " each singer [ was ] working the stage with maximum ' tude . "
= = " Move Your Body " = =
= = = Let 's Move ! Flash Workout = = =
Beyoncé reworked her original " Get Me Bodied " into a new song titled " Move Your Body " ( 2011 ) . She joined forces with US First Lady Michelle Obama and the National Association of Broadcasters Education Foundation to promote the national Let 's Move ! campaign , which aims to combat child obesity by prompting youngsters to become more active . Beyoncé actually reworked " Get Me Bodied " and renamed it " Move Your Body " for the Let 's Move ! Flash Workout initiative itself . A Spanish version was also created entitled " Mueve el Cuerpo " . Concerning the campaign , Beyoncé expressed herself :
" It 's all about promoting the benefits of healthy eating and exercise ... But what we want to do is make it fun by doing something that we all love to do , and that 's dance . I am excited to be part of this effort that addresses a public health crisis . First Lady Michelle Obama deserves credit for tackling this issue directly , and I applaud the NAB Education Foundation for trying to make a positive difference in the lives of our schoolchildren . "
The lyrics of the original song were switched to fit the cause . The new lyrics include the line : " A little sweat ain ’ t hurt nobody [ ... ] Don 't just stand there on the wall , everybody just move your body , move your body , move your body . " The song is a step @-@ by @-@ step flash dance @-@ style workout that combines elements of hip hop music , Latin music as well as dancehall moves with traditional exercise . Nicole James of MTV Buzzworthy described " Move Your Body " as a " kid @-@ friendlier " version of the original . Risa Dixon of Newsday praised the reworked version , calling it " a fun , yet cardio @-@ intensive workout song to get young people excited about exercising . "
= = = Music video = = =
The staff members of Idolator showed high favoritism for the acclaimed the campaign , further stating the fact that " when Beyonce tells people to dance , they tend to listen " and so they considered that it was " a pretty genius move " on Michelle Obama ’ s part to get Beyoncé in on her ' Let 's Move ! ' campaign to fight childhood obesity . On April 9 , 2011 , an instructional video featuring a group of teenagers dancing to " Move Your Body " was released online . After a few days , Beyoncé has said that she " would record her own version of the exercise routine " to show kids how it is done by shooting a new music video featuring a series of fun workouts to accompany the track . On April 26 , 2011 , Beyoncé released a video directed by Melina Matsoukas for " Move Your Body " . In the video , students join Beyoncé to perform choreography by Frank Gatson . In the choreography , Beyoncé and the students mix salsa , dancehall , The Running Man , Dougie , stomp . The music video for " Move Your Body " takes place as a four @-@ minute long flash mob . The video begins during lunch hour at what looks like a junior high cafeteria . Everything is normal until Beyoncé , wearing short shorts and green knee @-@ high socks , enters the cafeteria doors to begin the song . After Beyoncé 's entry , all the kids jump to their feet , following along as Beyoncé leads the group through all kinds of dances .
The instructional video was distributed to participating schools across the country on May 3 , 2011 , during a ' dance @-@ in ' . Beyoncé was at P.S. 161 middle school in Harlem on that particular date . She taught students the moves from her " Move Your Body " video . Beyoncé appeared in the gym much to the delight of her young fans , who danced alongside her and took photos . Lauretta Charlton of Black Entertainment Television ( BET ) gave the video a positive review stating that " It 's impossible to watch without wanting to , well , move your body . " Nicole James of MTV Buzzworthy showed great interest in the video and its message , stating that Beyoncé gets kids heart pumping , " in more ways than one " . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club added that " if anything can help curb the nation 's childhood obesity problem , it is the galvanizing power of Beyoncé Knowles dancing " , and further praised how " [ the ] bunch of cute kids [ were ] doing the Running Man and The Dougie in the cafeteria with Beyoncé . " A writer of Rap @-@ Up described Beyoncé 's dance moves in the video as " hot " . Mike Barthel of The Village Voice described the video as " adorable " and classified it as an " important moment in the relationship between politics and culture " . Barthel also praised the patriotic scene where Beyoncé and the kids wave the American flag , saying that " It doesn 't feel jingoistic , or pandering , or aggressive ; it just feels celebratory , like they are actually kinda happy about America . "
= = Track listings = =
US CD single
" Get Me Bodied " ( Radio Edit ) – 4 : 00
" Get Me Bodied " ( Extended Mix ) – 6 : 18
US CD Maxi Single
" Get Me Bodied " ( Extended Mix ) – 6 : 21
" Get Me Bodied " ( Timbaland Remix featuring Voltio ) – 6 : 17
" Get Me Bodied " ( Timbaland Remix featuring Fabolous ) – 4 : 50
= = Credits and personnel = =
Source :
= = Charts = =
= Harry Kizirian =
Harry Kizirian ( Armenian : Հէրի Գիզիրեան ; July 13 , 1925 – September 13 , 2002 ) was an Armenian American member of the United States Marine Corps who served during World War II . Kizirian 's service lasted from February 1944 to February 1946 , during which he spent seventeen months overseas . Kizirian took part in the Battle of Okinawa , where he landed during the first assault wave while heading a Marine fire team .
Having been awarded the Navy Cross , the Rhode Island Cross , the Bronze Star with Combat " V " , and the Purple Heart twice , Kizirian is considered one of the most decorated marines of World War II . He is also the most decorated serviceman from Rhode Island . In 1961 he was appointed by John F. Kennedy as the postmaster of Providence , becoming ( at age 36 ) one of the youngest postmasters in the United States . During his postmastership , Kizirian was instrumental in establishing the first automated post office in the country , which made the Providence post office an operational model for the United States and worldwide .
Kizirian is widely known in the state of Rhode Island , where a post office , a plaza , and an elementary school are named in his honor . The Harry Kizirian Post Office became the first United States federal building named after an Armenian American . Inducted in the Rhode Island Hall of Fame in 1978 , Kizirian is regarded as a " national treasure " and has been honored by numerous organizations .
= = Life = =
Kizirian , a first generation Armenian American , was born in his home on July 13 , 1925 at 134 Chad Brown St. Providence , Rhode Island . He was the only son of Toros and Hripsime Kizirian , who were born in Goydun ( Govdun ) , near Sivas , in the Ottoman Empire . Kizirian 's mother came to the United States in the 1920s after losing her first husband and seven children during the Armenian Genocide . His father was employed by the Rhode Island Tool Company and his mother was a housewife .
Kizirian , who was active in sports , was offered a scholarship to LaSalle Academy . He declined the offer so that he could attend the local Mt . Pleasant High School and be closer to his friends . Kizirian became a top athlete in his class ; he played on the football team for three years and became captain in his senior year .
When Kizirian was 15 years old , his father died . Harry became responsible for the care of himself and his mother . To take care of the family 's immediate needs , Kizirian worked at a meat packing plant unloading sides of beef from freight cars . He then got a temporary position at the Providence post office for two years while finishing high school .
On February 23 , 1944 — the day after his graduation from high school — Kizirian enlisted in the United States Marine Corps . He was sent overseas on October 6 , 1944 and was assigned to the 6th Marine Division
After spending seventeen months overseas , Kizirian returned to Providence , where he married Hazel Serabian of Massena , New York . For the first four years after his return , Kizirian underwent treatment for wounds he suffered during battle . In spite of undergoing several major surgeries , Kizirian was left with permanent disabilities .
After recovering from a life @-@ threatening illness in which surgeons removed 95 percent of his stomach , Kizirian entered a career in the Postal Service . He first returned to the Providence post office as a substitute clerk . In 1954 , he was appointed foreman , the first of several promotions he received throughout his life . In 1961 , he was made Postmaster of Providence by President John F. Kennedy . Congress unanimously confirmed the appointment . At age 36 , Kizirian was one of the youngest postmasters in the country . During his tenure , Kizirian was instrumental in establishing the first automated post office . The Providence post office would be an exemplary model for post offices around the world . Kizirian later remarked , " There is no nation on this earth that didn 't send representatives to see the new post office . "
In 1986 , Kizirian was removed from his position amid opposition from Senators John Chafee and Claiborne Pell . Despite protests from the employees who wore pins that said " We Love Harry " , Kizirian 's position was eliminated and he subsequently retired .
Kiziran and his wife had five children : Joanne , Thomas , Janice , Shakay , and Richard .
Kizirian died on September 13 , 2002 at age 77 . His funeral procession was held at the Saint Vartanants Armenian Apostolic Church in Providence and he is buried at the Swan Point Cemetery .
= = World War II = =
= = = Battle of Okinawa = = =
Krrizian joined the Marine Corps on February 23 , 1944 . He was sent overseas after training and assigned to Company E , 2nd Battalion , 22nd Marines , 6th Marine Division on Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands . Serving as a fire team leader , he participated in the invasion of Okinawa on April 1 , 1945 , landing with the first assault wave . On May 11 , he charged an enemy machine gun position that had pinned down members of another unit of his platoon and forced the enemy to withdrawal so the other Marine unit could continue its advance on the enemy . Wounded during his attack on the enemy , he and his fire team joined up with the other Marine unit in its advance on the Japanese . Company E moved east the same day toward Shuri Ridge . On May 14 , Company E attacked and seized the Japanese air strip , then stopped for a short rest . Kizirian 's injuries on May 11 included shell fragments in his shoulders and arms . Despite his wounds he continued fighting . He was awarded the Bronze Star Medal with Combat " V " and the Purple Heart Medal for his actions on May 11 . His Bronze Star citation reads :
For heroic achievement in connection with operations against the Japanese enemy on Okinawa Shima , Ryukyu Islands , on May 11 , 1945 . While serving as a fire team leader in a Marine rifle company , Corporal Kizirian , seeing a unit of his advancing platoon pinned down by enemy machine gun fire , courageously charged the enemy emplacement , thus enabling the trapped unit to continue to advance . Although painfully wounded , he fearlessly closed in on the emplacement , firing rapidly into the embrasure and succeeded in driving the enemy from their weapon . Meanwhile , men of the trapped unit continued to move out in the assault , and Corporal Kizirian , still leading his fire team , joined them . By this prompt and heroic action , Corporal Kizir
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Room , and a concert at the Apple Store in SoHo , New York , which was recorded and released as a live extended play ( EP ) , iTunes Live from SoHo , exclusively sold through the iTunes Store . Since completing promotion for Taylor Swift and its corresponding singles , Swift has performed " Our Song " on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , on Studio 330 Sessions , on The Today Show , at the 2009 CMA Music Festival , as a duet with English rock band Def Leppard on CMT Crossroads , the episode was released as a DVD exclusively through Wal @-@ Mart stores in the United States , at the 2009 V Festival , and at the Australian charity concert Sydney Sound Relief .
Swift performed the song on all venues of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour , which extended from April 2009 to June 2010 . During each performance , she donned a sparkly cocktail dress and black , leather boots . Swift skipped across the stage performing , playing a rhinestoned acoustic guitar . Jim Harrington of The San Jose Mercury News reported the song 's performance at the April 11 , 2010 at HP Pavilion at San Jose in San Jose , California received a large positive reaction from the audience : " Moms and daughters , as well as groups of teens and couples out for a date night , sang along with equal gusto as Swift detailed young romance in ' Our Song ' . " Molly Trust of Billboard attended the performance at the tour 's final concert on June 5 , 2010 at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough , Massachusetts and stated , " Swift contrasted her slower songs with intense performances of ' Forever & Always ' [ ... ] and ' Our Song ' " . " Our Song " was performed in the North American leg of the Speak Now World Tour , the only song from Swift 's debut album .
= = Track listings = =
U.S. Maxi @-@ CD Single
" Our Song " - 3 : 22
" Our Song " ( CD @-@ ROM video ) - 3 : 33
= = Official Versions = =
Album Version - 3 : 24
Radio Single Remix ( New Album Version ) - 3 : 24
Pop Mix - 3 : 24
International Version - 3 : 21
Karaoke Version - 3 : 24
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Polled Dorset =
The Polled Dorset is a breed of sheep developed for meat at the North Carolina State University Small Ruminant Unit in 1956 . The name refers to the fact that it is a hornless variation of the Horned Dorset breed . The Polled Dorset is the result of a genetic mutation by which some of the offspring of a certain ram grew no horns . After some years of breeding work , a strain of Dorset was developed which had lost the characteristic horns and which bred true .
Polled Dorsets are an all @-@ white , medium @-@ sized sheep , prolific and able to breed out of season . The carcases are muscular with good conformation and the adults produce a thick fleece , which is free from dark fibers . Since its development , the number of Polled Dorsets registered in the United States has grown to exceed the number of Horned Dorsets . Without horns the sheep are easier to handle and there is much less risk of the rams hurting themselves or others by butting . The Polled Dorset is sometimes confused with the Australian Poll Dorset , but that breed did not start as a genetic mutation but resulted from the introduction of Corriedale and Ryeland blood into the Dorset breeding program .
= = History = =
In 1949 , four hornless lambs were sired from a Horned Dorset on a farm at North Carolina State University in Raleigh , North Carolina . Over the next five years , as part of their normal breeding program , those four ewes and the other ewes on the farm were bred to the Horned Dorset . Eventually , a ewe gave birth to twin rams . NCSU 401 was a regular horned Dorset , but his brother , " NCSU 402 " , was born polled , without horns , due to a genetic mutation . Thus , the Polled Dorset was born . NCSU 402 was the official name given to the first true Polled Dorset sheep . It was named in accordance with the naming system that has been used at the NCSU Small Ruminant Unit since it started its breeding program .
After research and testing were done to confirm that the Polled Dorset carried the same characteristics as the Horned Dorset and was able to pass on these traits , the Continental Dorset Club , formed in 1898 , registered the very first Polled Dorset sheep in 1956 . Livestock scientists , the late Dr. Lemuel Goode and the late Sam Buchanan , are credited with identifying and developing the hornless sheep . The offspring of NCSU 402 were bought by other breeders and within twenty years , seventy percent of all registered Dorsets were polled . The success of the Polled Dorset has made it considered to be the second most popular sheep breed in the United States . A polled strain of Dorsets were also developed in Australia in the 1900s , however , these were not as a result of a genetic mutation but resulted from the introduction of Corriedale and Ryeland blood into the Dorset Horn .
= = Conformation = =
Polled Dorsets are a medium @-@ sized sheep that are long lived and prolific , heavy milkers . They produce hardy lambs with moderate growth and maturity that yield heavily muscled carcasses . Their fleece is very white , strong , close , free from dark fiber and extends down the legs . When shorn , fleece averages between five and nine pounds ( 2 @.@ 23 to 4 kg ) in ewes and fifty to seventy percent of their fleece can be used . The staple length ranges from 2 @.@ 5 to 4 inches ( 6 to 10 cm ) with a numeric count of 46 's @-@ 58 's . The fiber diameter ranges from 27 @.@ 0 to 33 @.@ 0 microns . At maturity , ewes weigh between 150 and 200 pounds ( 67 to 91 kg ) , some weighing more in show condition . Mature rams range in weight from 225 to 275 pounds ( 102 to 125 kg ) . Dorsets are noted for their ability to be bred more than once per year and are commonly used in crossbreeding to produce females for out @-@ of @-@ season breeding . They are one of the few breeds that have this characteristic . Multiple births are common and they work well in commercial operations , including programs where rams are specifically used to sire lambs for slaughter . These rams are known as terminal sires since their genetics are more suitable for slaughter than breeding purposes .
Since the breed first became commercial , it has spread to Canada and become a major contributor in the commercial lamb industry . The breed adapts well to confinement and is readily used in accelerated crossbreeding programs . Polled Dorsets thrive under grass @-@ based and feedlot conditions and are more suitable on small farms that are intensely managed .
= = Polled versus Horned Dorsets = =
The Dorset is an ancient breed that was most likely developed from horned sheep that lived in the valleys and pastures of southwestern England . Dorset Horn sheep were imported into the United States in 1860 , and the first U.S. national flock book was formed in 1891 . Today , the Dorset is found in two varieties globally , Horned and Polled . In the Horn variety , both ewes and rams have horns , while the polled variety have no horns at all . Polled Dorsets are ideal for commercial settings because they do not have horns that can get caught in fencing or cause damage when they butt .
Polled Dorsets are the most popular white @-@ faced breed in North America , while the much less @-@ common Dorset Horn is listed as " threatened " by The Livestock Conservancy in the United States . In essence , the difference between the two breeds is that one has horns and the other does not .
= Russian battleship Sissoi Veliky =
Sissoi Veliky ( Russian : Сисой Великий ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1890s . The ship 's construction was marred by organizational , logistical and engineering problems and dragged on for more than five years . She was commissioned in October 1896 with an appalling number of design and construction faults , and only a few of them were fixed during her lifetime . Immediately after sea trials , Sissoi Veliky sailed to the Mediterranean to enforce the naval blockade of Crete during the Greco @-@ Turkish War . On March 15 [ O.S. March 3 ] , 1897 she suffered a devastating explosion of the aft gun turret that killed 21 men . After nine months in the docks of Toulon for repairs , the ship sailed to the Far East to reinforce the Russian presence there . In the summer of 1900 , Sissoi Veliky supported the international campaign against the Boxer Rebellion in China . Sailors from Sissoi Veliky and the battleship Navarin participated in the defence of the International Legations in Beijing for more than two months .
In 1902 the ship returned to Kronstadt for repairs , but very little was achieved until the early losses of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 caused the formation of the Second Pacific Squadron to relieve the Russian forces blockaded in Port Arthur . Sissoi Veliky sailed for the Far East with the rest of the Baltic battleships and participated in the Battle of Tsushima on May 27 [ O.S. May 14 ] 1905 . She survived the daytime artillery duel with Admiral Heihachirō Tōgō 's ships , but was badly damaged and taking on water . During the night Japanese destroyers scored a torpedo hit on the ship that damaged her steering . The next morning the ship was unable to maintain speed because of flooding , and her crew surrendered to Japanese armed merchant cruisers . The ship capsized later that morning with the loss of 47 crewmen .
= = Background = =
In 1881 a committee of admirals headed by General Admiral Alexei Alexandrovich drafted an ambitious program of rearming the Baltic Fleet with 16 ocean @-@ going battleships and 13 cruisers . The man in charge of shipbuilding , Admiral Ivan Shestakov , saw little value in building uniform ship classes and regularly changed design and construction targets to match foreign novelties of the day . In 1885 the program was reduced to nine battleships ; the freed funds were reallocated to torpedo boats in response to German advances with these weapons . The first ten years of the 1881 program were marked by indecision , bureaucracy and a shortage of funds , and only two battleships were actually built ( Imperator Aleksandr II , Imperator Nikolai I , and one coastal defense ship Gangut ) . These were relatively small and slow ships , each with a single frontal barbette housing 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns ( in case of Gangut , a single gun ) .
The fourth ship ( the future Navarin ) was planned as an even cheaper and smaller ( 6 @,@ 400 long tons ( 6 @,@ 500 t ) ) ship . However , the superiority of the German Brandenburg @-@ class battleship compelled the Imperial Navy to lift cost and size constraints and build a large battleship with two main gun turrets . The Franco @-@ Russian Works hastily proposed a draft based on the British Trafalgar class . The Navy hesitated , and awarded the contract to the private company only after a push from Tsar Alexander III . Navarin , laid down in July 1889 and launched in 1891 , set the standard configuration for all Russian pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , but in 1890 , when the Navy discussed plans for the fifth battleship , the future was uncertain . The admirals were still discussing whether the Navy should concentrate on large battleships , smaller coastal defence ships or on the ocean @-@ going cruisers .
= = Design and description = =
In September 1890 the Naval Technical Committee ( MTK ) rolled out a proposal for a medium @-@ size ( 8 @,@ 500 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 8 @,@ 600 t ) , 331 @-@ foot ( 100 @.@ 9 m ) long ) battleship armed with three single 12 @-@ inch guns mounted in barbettes . Codenamed Gangut No. 2 , it attempted to blend the hull of Alexander II and the armament of Navarin in a tightly budgeted , compromised design . None of the admirals who reviewed the proposal was satisfied with it , and the MTK was overwhelmed with a flurry of contradicting suggestions . The four main guns were to be mounted in two barbettes covered with 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 64 mm ) armoured cupolas . The choice of secondary armament caused another round of debate . The MTK initially proposed a combination of Russian Model 1877 6 @-@ inch guns and Armstrong 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns . Admirals Stepan Makarov and Vladimir Verkhovsky advised against the use of weapons of two different sizes ( as this caused problems with fire control and direction ) , and against using the obsolete 1877 guns . The MTK did just the opposite , dropping the modern Armstrong guns in favor of the 1877 model , probably as a result of not wanting to use foreign @-@ built weaponry . In March 1891 the MTK presented a revised proposal that increased displacement to 8 @,@ 880 long tons ( 9 @,@ 020 t ) and the main armament to four 12 @-@ inch guns that was accepted by Admiral Chikachev .
The ship was 332 feet 6 inches ( 101 @.@ 3 m ) long at the waterline and 345 feet ( 105 @.@ 2 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 68 feet ( 20 @.@ 7 m ) and a draught of 25 feet 6 inches ( 7 @.@ 8 m ) . She displaced 10 @,@ 400 long tons ( 10 @,@ 600 t ) , over 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 t ) more than her designed displacement of 8 @,@ 880 long tons ( 9 @,@ 020 t ) . The ship had a partial double bottom and a centreline bulkhead separated the engine and boiler rooms . Sissoi Veliky 's crew initially consisted of 27 officers and 555 enlisted men , but grew to a total of 686 by 1905 .
Sissoi Veliky had two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one four @-@ bladed propeller . They had a total designed output of 8 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 300 kW ) using steam provided by 12 cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . The ship 's designed speed was 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) , but she reached a top speed of 15 @.@ 65 knots ( 28 @.@ 98 km / h ; 18 @.@ 01 mph ) during her sea trials on October 17 [ O.S. 5 October ] , despite 8 @,@ 635 ihp ( 6 @,@ 439 kW ) from her engines . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of coal at full load that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 440 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 220 km ; 5 @,@ 110 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Like many Russian ships before and after it , Sisoi Veliky was plagued by regular " improvements " of the original design that delayed construction for years . In the beginning of 1893 , over a year after construction began , the MTK again redesigned Sisoi Veliky 's artillery . The two pairs of 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ calibre guns were changed from barbette mountings to French @-@ style center @-@ pivot twin turrets . These guns had a maximum elevation of + 15 ° and the ship carried 80 rounds per gun for them . Their rate of fire was intended to be one round per 1 @.@ 5 minutes , but it was one shot per 2 @.@ 5 – 3 minutes in reality . They fired a 731 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 331 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 598 ft / s ( 792 m / s ) to a range of 12 @,@ 010 yards ( 10 @,@ 980 m ) at an elevation of 10 ° .
The secondary armament was replaced by six quick @-@ firing six @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) , 45 @-@ calibre , Canet guns that were mounted in casemates on the main deck . Each gun was provided with 200 rounds of ammunition . Alterations of the shell hoists to accommodate the larger rounds for the Canet guns began only in December 1895 . They fired shells that weighed 91 @.@ 27 lb ( 41 @.@ 40 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 790 m / s ) . The guns had a maximum range of 12 @,@ 600 yards ( 11 @,@ 500 m ) when fired at maximum elevation .
The ship 's anti @-@ torpedo boat armament was changed more than once and , in the end , consisted of twelve 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) and ten 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . The 47 mm guns were mounted on the top of the superstructure and on the upper deck above the six @-@ inch casemates . They fired a 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 476 ft / s ( 450 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 2 @,@ 020 yards ( 1 @,@ 850 m ) . The ten 37 mm guns were mounted in the fighting top . They fired a 1 @.@ 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 450 ft / s ( 440 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute to a range of 3 @,@ 038 yards ( 2 @,@ 778 m ) . Sissoi Veliky carried six above @-@ water 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , one each in the bow and stern and two on each broadside . The ship also could carry 50 mines .
= = = Armour = = =
The ship 's armour scheme was based on that of Navarin although it used nickel steel rather than the compound armour of the older ship . The maximum thickness of the waterline armour belt was 16 inches ( 406 mm ) over the machinery spaces which reduced to 12 inches abreast the magazines . It covered 227 feet ( 69 @.@ 2 m ) of the ship 's length and was 7 feet 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) high . It tapered to a thickness of 6 – 8 inches ( 152 – 203 mm ) at the bottom edge . The upper 3 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 0 m ) of the belt was intended to be above the waterline , but the ship was significantly overweight and the entire belt was submerged at normal load . The belt terminated in a 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) and 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) transverse bulkheads , fore and aft , respectively .
The casemate was above the belt , 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick on all sides , 152 feet ( 46 @.@ 3 m ) long and 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) high , and protected the six @-@ inch guns . The sides of the turrets were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick and their roofs were 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick . Above the casemate , the bases of the turrets were protected by 10 inches of armour ; inside the casemate , only five inches of armour protected them . The conning tower 's sides were nine inches thick . The armour deck connected to the top of the waterline belt and was 2 @.@ 5 inches thick above the belt , but fore and aft of the belt it was 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick .
= = Construction = =
The MTK rushed Gangut No. 2 into production and , contrary to established practice , ordered structural steel and armour before the project was properly authorized . Construction began on August 7 [ O.S. July 25 ] , 1891 in the wooden shed of the Franco @-@ Russian Works in Saint Petersburg . On January 3 1892 [ O.S. December 21 , 1891 ] she was officially named Sissoi Veliky to commemorate the victory in the Battle of Hogland which coincided with the day of St. Sisoes the Great of Egypt in the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar . The ship was formally laid down on May 7 [ O.S. May 19 ] , 1892 .
The management of the construction was flawed from the start : the stem and sternposts , rudder frame , and propeller shaft brackets were not ordered in time , and the late discovery of this omission substantially delayed progress . Verkhovsky , having no time to place orders with reliable foreign suppliers , contracted the job to local plants already known for poor discipline and quality that were already loaded down with other Navy jobs . The industrial capacity of the Saint Petersburg area could not sustain even the modest rate of naval rearmament that the government was willing to finance . In April 1893 minor grievances evolved in a full @-@ scale conflict between Verkhovsky and the board of the Alexandrovsky Steel Works , a ridiculous charge of 25 roubles nearly brought the work to a full stop . The savvy admiral always blamed the suppliers but did not even attempt to fix the disarray in his own office .
Nevertheless , in April 1894 the completed hull passed static pressure tests . It was launched June 2 [ O.S. May 20 ] , 1894 during a fleet review attended by Tsar Nicholas II . The commissioning of Sissoi Veliky was scheduled for September 1896 , but an examination in August revealed that the steering gear , water pumps , ventilation system and one of the turrets were still missing or defective . The builders hastily equipped the ship with rudder controls built for Poltava and delivered the ship for her sea trials on October 6 [ O.S. September 23 ] , 1896 . The Navy desperately needed Sissoi Veliky in the Mediterranean and she was commissioned regardless of her known faults .
= = Service = =
= = = Mediterranean = = =
Immediately after the trials Sissoi Veliky was ordered to join the Mediterranean Squadron which was engaged in the naval blockade of Crete in the wake of the 1896 Cretan riots and the Hamidian massacres . Her maiden voyage revealed more problems ; the lack of ventilation in the steering compartment was so appalling that during the first port call the captain purchased electric fans with his own money and the electrical systems failed one by one before reaching Gibraltar . The copper rings for sealing the portholes were left in Kronstadt and were not found until February 1897 .
On December 27 [ O.S. December 14 ] , 1896 the leaking Sissoi Veliky reached Algiers . The captain planned to stay there for at least 20 days to complete the most urgent repairs , but five days later a telegram from Saint Petersburg forced him to leave for Piraeus . There the crew managed to seal the seams between the armour plates and repair the electrical systems . In February 1897 Sissoi Veliky steamed for Crete and she had her first gunnery exercise ten miles off the shore of Souda Bay , Crete at the end of the month . The second exercise , held on March 15 [ O.S. March 3 ] , ended in disaster when the rear turret exploded after an hour of target practice . The explosion blew the roof of the turret over the mainmast so that it struck the base of the foremast , crushing one 37 mm gun and a steam cutter . The explosion killed 16 men and wounded another 15 ; 6 of these later died of their wounds . The badly damaged Sissoi Veliky headed to Toulon for repairs .
Investigation revealed both mechanical and organizational causes of the accident . The chain of events , as it was reconstructed in Toulon , started with a failure of the hydraulic breech @-@ locking mechanism of the left @-@ hand gun . The turret crew then disabled the hydraulics and resorted to manual operation . The gunner responsible for closing and locking the breech failed to do so and the concussion of the right @-@ hand gun firing unlocked it . The turret commander , ultimately responsible for checking the breech before firing , was too busy with calculating the firing solution and training the gun to be concerned with this matter . He delegated the checkup routine to an enlisted man , but this gunner had to attend his own station and was physically unable to look after the breech lock and attend to his own duties . The panel eventually dropped the charges against the captain and recommended introduction of mechanical fail @-@ safe interlocks to prevent firing until the breech was properly locked .
Sissoi Veliky was repaired by Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée . The French engineers openly ridiculed the quality of Russian workmanship manifested in a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch @-@ wide ( 38 mm ) open seam between the belt armour and the ship 's hull . This could have completely negated the battleship 's protection if a shell had struck it . The Russian investigators reported a horrifying number of less obvious faults and deemed the ship unfit for sailing . The internal decks of the secondary armament casemates were particularly dangerous since the 152 mm shells easily fell through the cracks and holes in the deck . The Saint Petersburg admirals dismissed these concerns , arguing that the gap between armour plates was an inevitable feature of the design , and that the decks and other faults could be fixed by the crew " in their spare time " .
= = = Far East = = =
After nine months in the dock at Toulon , the repaired Sissoi Veliky was assigned to Admiral Fyodor Dubasov 's Far Eastern Squadron ( Navarin , Sissoi Veliky , and the armoured cruisers Rossia and Vladimir Monomakh ) and sailed for the Far East . The British , alerted by the sudden movement of Russian battleships , dispatched the battleship HMS Victorious to shadow the Russian ship . Sissoi Veliky , assisted by a flotilla of tugs , barely passed the shallow entrance to the Suez Canal , but Victorious ran aground near Port Said and abandoned pursuit . Aside from this incident , the east @-@ bound voyage was uneventful , and the ship safely reached Port Arthur on March 16 [ O.S. March 4 ] , 1898 .
In the summer of 1898 Sissoi Veliky sailed to Nagasaki for repairs and returned to her new base in Vladivostok where she stayed for the rest of 1898 and 1899 . In April 1900 the fleet sailed to Port Arthur for a massive landing exercise intended to intimidate the Boxers . The warning was not heeded , and the Boxer Rebellion intensified , compelling the Russian government to intervene . On May 28 [ O.S. May 15 ] , 1900 the Viceroy of the Russian Far East , Admiral Yevgeni Alekseyev , dispatched the Far Eastern Squadron from Port Arthur to the Taku Forts . Sissoi Veliky , the battleship Petropavlovsk , the armoured cruiser Dmitrii Donskoi and a host of other European ships blockaded the mouth of the Hai River and the smaller gunboats moved up the river to protect amphibious landings which began on May 29 [ O.S. May 16 ] . The incursion provoked the Boxer siege of Beijing ; the Russians responded by sending a company of sailors from Sissoi Veliky and Navarin to defend the embassy in Beijing .
The company reached the city without meeting any opposition and at first it seemed that the European troops in Beijing could easily defend the Embassy Row from the disorganized mob . On June 3 [ O.S. May 21 ] the rebels received reinforcements from the regular Chinese Army and , on the afternoon of June 19 [ O.S. June 6 ] , they began a massive assault on the diplomatic missions . One month later the Chinese managed to burn down the Austrian , Dutch and Italian legations . The sailors stood their ground with American and French Marines until the arrival of reinforcements on August 5 [ O.S. July 23 ] . During the seven weeks of the siege , three men from Sissoi Veliky were killed in action , one died of disease , and twelve were wounded .
Sissoi Veliky remained in the Far East for another year ; in December 1901 an accumulation of mechanical troubles that could not be fixed in Far Eastern docks compelled the fleet commander to send her back to the Baltic . She returned to Libau via Nagasaki , Hong Kong and Suez in April 1902 .
= = = The last voyage = = =
In May 1902 Sissoi Veliky attended a fleet review honouring the state visit of President of France , Émile Loubet . In June she was moved into a drydock in Kronstadt . All available financing was diverted to the completion of the Borodino @-@ class battleship and the new cruisers , so the repairs of Sissoi Veliky proceeded at a slow pace . She had her artillery , boilers and ventilation system completely replaced , but once again it turned out that the repairs were not up to scratch and needed a thorough rework .
The Russo @-@ Japanese War broke out in the Pacific on February 10 [ O.S. January 27 ] 1904 . In March the navy assigned Sissoi Veliky to the Second Pacific Squadron bound for the Pacific with Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky in command . Despite the urgency , calls to speed up repairs of Sissoi Veliky and completion of the new ships were stonewalled by the Ministry of the Navy until the shocking loss of Petropavlovsk on April 13 [ O.S. March 31 ] . Admiral Aleksei Birilev , the new Governor of Kronstadt , hastened the repairs by striking out " unnecessary " jobs . Sissoi Veliky went into action with new rangefinders , searchlights and small @-@ calibre guns , but her damaged internal decks were never mended . Manuil Ozerov , the captain of Sissoi Veliky , expressed concern about her stability , but on at least three occasions Birilev suppressed his reports , arguing that past experience is sufficient proof of the ship 's seaworthiness .
On August 25 [ O.S. August 13 ] the Second Pacific Squadron sailed from Saint Peterburg to Reval where it wasted nearly a whole month in preparation for a fleet review . Tsar Nicholas II personally visited each battleship and harangued the crews in anticipation of a victory over Japan . On October 14 [ O.S. October 2 ] the squadron departed Libau , and sailed to Tangier . Here , Rozhestvensky split his forces . The newer battleships continued their way past the Cape of Good Hope and Rear Admiral Dmitry von Fölkersam 's squadron of cruisers and transports were ordered to rendezvous with Black Sea Fleet ships in Souda Bay and then take the short route via the Suez Canal . Rozhestvensky initially planned to keep Sissoi Veliky and Navarin with his main force , but assigned them to von Fölkersam instead . The ship rejoined Rozhestvesky 's fleet at Nosy Be , Madagascar on January 9 , 1905 [ O.S. December 27 , 1904 ] where they stayed for two months , training while Rozhestvensky finalized coaling arrangements for the next leg of the journey . Despite regular exercise , the gunners of the new Borodino @-@ class ships could not match the level of Sissoi Veliky and other old ships . The squadron sailed for Camranh Bay , French Indochina , on March 16 [ O.S. March 3 ] and reached it almost a month later to await the obsolete ships of the 3rd Pacific Squadron , commanded by Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov . The latter ships reached Camranh Bay on May 9 [ O.S. April 26 ] and the combined force sailed for Vladivostok five days later . The voyage from Madagascar to Camranh Bay took 28 days at an average speed of 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) , and again Sissoi Veliky 's mechanical problems evidenced themselves , slowing down the squadron . In less than a month she suffered twelve failures of her boiler tubes and heat exchangers . The steering gear alone failed no less than four times .
= = = Tsushima = = =
May 14 [ O.S. May 1 ] , 1905 the squadron began the last leg of its journey to Tsushima . Sissoi Veliky was sailing in the left column of the Russian order of battle , second in line after Oslyabya . At 13 : 15 May 27 [ O.S. May 14 ] the Russians sighted the Japanese fleet . Twenty @-@ four minutes later Sissoi Veliky opened fire simultaneously with the flagship Knyaz Suvorov . Sissoi Veliky started firing at the armoured cruisers Kasuga and Nisshin and later engaged the armoured cruiser Iwate , hitting her with a single 12 @-@ inch shell .
At 14 : 40 a heavy shell exploded next to Sissoi Veliky 's bow , damaging the bow torpedo tube . Shortly afterward a 12 @-@ inch and a 6 @-@ inch shell hit the belt armour near the water line , causing flooding in the forward compartments . In the following hour the ship was hit by one 12 @-@ inch , three 8 @-@ inch and three 6 @-@ inch shells , which disabled her forward turret hydraulics , set the casemates afire and simultaneously severed the firefighting water supply . At 15 : 40 Ozerov steered the burning Sissoi Veliky away from the line of fire and joined the unengaged Russian cruiser formation . By 17 : 00 the crew had extinguished the fires and the ship returned to action with a heavy list to port . She took her place in line behind Navarin at the moment when the Japanese battleships ceased fire and the Russians hoped to leave the battlefield without further casualties . One hour later Admiral Kamimura re @-@ established contact and engaged the fleeing Russians . Sissoi Veliky survived this phase of the battle unharmed . After sunset she joined the group of survivors assembled by Nebogatov , but was unable to keep pace with Nebogatov 's flagship Imperator Nikolai I. Sissoi Veliky and Navarin fell back , supporting Admiral Ushakov with gunfire . At 19 : 30 the ship sighted Japanese destroyers fanning out for an attack .
The destroyers attacked at close range ( under 600 yards ( 550 m ) ) in uncoordinated groups . Sissoi Veliky beat off the first ( 19 : 45 ) and the second ( 22 : 30 ) attacks , but the third one , by the Fourth Destroyer Flotilla under command of Kantarō Suzuki , which had already sunk Navarin and Knyaz Suvorov . , scored a torpedo hit 45 minutes later that damaged her rudder and propellers . The ship could still be steered by using her engines at varying speeds , but the flooding intensified and by 03 : 15 the next morning the bow was submerged to the point where forward movement was no longer possible . Ozerov realized that Sissoi Veliky could not make it to Vladivostok ; he ordered " all astern " , reversed the engines and headed crabwise to Tsushima Island , hoping to beach his crippled ship with the intent of using her as a fixed gun emplacement .
By 06 : 00 flooding forced Ozerov to telegraph " all stop " , shutting down the vessel 's engines . The crippled Vladimir Monomakh passed by Sissoi Veliky , unable to offer any assistance . At 07 : 20 the Japanese armed merchant cruisers Shinano Maru and Dainan Maru converged on the stationary ship . When they came within 6 @,@ 600 yards ( 6 @,@ 000 m ) from Sissoi Veliky , Ozerov signalled : " I am sinking , request assistance . " The Japanese responded with a straightforward question , " Do you surrender ? " Ozerov hoisted the white flag in response . At 08 : 15 the Japanese boarding party of one officer and 31 enlisted men boarded the battleship and raised the Japanese flag , but failed to pull down the Russian flag . The Japanese attempted to tow their prize to safety , but soon realized the effort was futile . They moved the Russian prisoners onto their ships and retrieved their flag . At 10 : 05 Sissoi Veliky capsized and sank , still flying the Russian flag . Sissoi Veliky lost 47 men killed during the battle ; 613 of her crew were rescued .
= Moonrise ( novel ) =
Moonrise is a children 's fantasy novel , the second book in the Warriors : The New Prophecy series . The book , which follows the adventures of four groups of anthropomorphic wild cats ( called Clans ) , was written by Erin Hunter ( a pseudonym used by Victoria Holmes , Cherith Baldry , Kate Cary , and Tui T. Sutherland ) , with cover art by Wayne McLoughlin . Moonrise follows six cats , Brambleclaw , Squirrelpaw , Crowpaw , Feathertail , Stormfur , and Tawnypelt , as they return to their forest home from a journey to the ocean . They travel through the mountains , where they meet the Tribe of Rushing Water , a new group of cats first introduced in this novel . The Tribe cats are being attacked by a savage mountain lion called Sharptooth . Although reluctant at first , the Clan cats agree to help the Tribe get rid of Sharptooth . Series editor Victoria Holmes drew inspiration from locations such as the New Forest and the Scottish Highlands .
Moonrise has been released in hardcover , paperback , and e @-@ book formats , and has been translated into French , Russian , Chinese , Japanese , and German . The book received mostly positive comments from reviews published in Booklist and Horn Book Review , which praised the plot and cliffhanger ending . However , a reviewer for Kirkus Reviews criticized the characters ' confusing names and the writing style . Moonrise held the number two spot on The New York Times Best Seller list for children 's chapter books for two weeks .
= = Development = =
= = = Inspirations , influences , and style = = =
The authors of the series drew inspiration from several natural locations in the United Kingdom . The four Clans ( WindClan , RiverClan , ThunderClan , and ShadowClan ) share a fictional forest based on England 's New Forest . Loch Lomond is another location that influenced the setting of Moonrise . Some other sources of inspiration for the series include the works of authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis .
Cherith Baldry , one of the people who write using the pen name Erin Hunter , said that it was hard to write the death of Feathertail at the end of Moonrise because they had to present it in a way suitable for the book 's younger target audience .
Moonrise is written in an alternating third @-@ person limited narrative , with the exception of the prologue , which is written in a third @-@ person objective perspective . The point @-@ of @-@ view alternates between the characters Stormfur , who is with the questing cats , and Leafpaw , describing her experiences as the destruction of the forest begins .
= = = Publication history = = =
Moonrise was written by Erin Hunter , a pseudonym used by authors Cherith Baldry , Kate Cary , Tui Sutherland , and series editor Victoria Holmes . The pseudonym is used so that the individual novels in the series would not be shelved in different places in libraries . Victoria Holmes chose the name Erin because she liked the name , and Hunter because it matched the theme of feral cats . It also ensured that the books were shelved near those of Brian Jacques , an author that the writers , collectively known as " the Erins " , liked .
Moonrise was published as a hardcover by HarperCollins on July 25 , 2005 , in Canada , and August 2 , 2005 , in the US and UK . The book was released as a paperback on July 25 , 2006 , and as an e @-@ book on November 6 , 2007 . Moonrise has been translated into various foreign languages : it was released in Russian on October 18 , 2005 , by OLMA Media Group , in Japanese on March 18 , 2009 , by Komine Shoten , and in French on March 5 , 2009 , by Pocket Jeunesse . The Chinese version of Moonrise was published on April 30 , 2009 , by Morning Star Group . It was packaged with a 3 @-@ D trading card depicting Feathertail , with some biographical information on the reverse side . The German translation was published on February 19 , 2011 , by Verlagsgruppe Beltz .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Moonrise takes place in several locations inspired by similar locales in the United Kingdom . With the exception of a disused mine , the forest in which the cats live is based largely on the New Forest . In addition , parts of the story take place by the ocean and in a fictitious mountain range .
The main characters each come from one of four Clans : ThunderClan , RiverClan , ShadowClan , and WindClan . All Clan cats share a belief in StarClan , a group of spirits usually represented by the stars , who are their ancestors and provide them with guidance . The Clans also follow identical hierarchy structures : Clans each have one leader , a deputy who is second @-@ in @-@ command , and a medicine cat who heals Clanmates in addition to communicating with StarClan . The bulk of each Clan consists of warriors , who carry out hunting for food , patrol borders , and fight battles when they occur . Apprentices are younger cats who are in training to become warriors , or more rarely , medicine cats .
= = = Plot = = =
In the previous book in the series , Midnight , StarClan , the warrior cats ' ancestors , sent four cats ( one from each Clan — Brambleclaw , Crowpaw , Feathertail , and Tawnypelt ) on a quest . Squirrelpaw and Stormfur went with them . At the end of their journey , they arrived at the ocean and found an unusually intelligent badger named Midnight . Midnight told the cats that the Clans would have to leave their forest home and find a new place to live , as humans were going to cut down the forest and build a new " Thunderpath " ( the cats ' word for a road ) .
On the return journey , the Clan cats decide , after consultation with Midnight , to go through a mountain range which they had avoided in their initial travels . There , they meet a Clan @-@ like group of cats called the Tribe of Rushing Water , who have their own set of ancestors : the Tribe of Endless Hunting . The Tribe takes the traveling cats in and gives them food and shelter . The Clan cats discover that the Tribe cats have a prophecy : a silver cat will save them from Sharptooth , a savage lion @-@ like creature that has been killing many members of the Tribe . The Tribe thinks that Stormfur is the silver cat from the prophecy , and he is therefore expected to protect the Tribe from Sharptooth . Although reluctant at first , Stormfur eventually agrees to help the Tribe .
Together , the Clan cats succeed in leading Sharptooth into a trap in a cave . However , their plan to poison Sharptooth goes awry , and Feathertail jumps up to the roof of the cave onto a stalactite , causing it to fall . Both Feathertail and Sharptooth are killed by the impact . The Tribe then realizes that Feathertail was the silver cat in their prophecy , not her brother Stormfur , as they had previously thought . The five remaining cats then continue their journey . The book ends with Squirrelpaw noticing Highstones , which is at the edge of WindClan territory ; they are almost home .
Meanwhile , back in the forest , the Clans begin to experience the effects of the humans ' intrusion into their territories , including lost and poisoned prey , destruction of the forest and cats being abducted .
Moonrise is followed by Dawn , which details the events following the questing cats ' return to the forest , and their subsequent journey to find a new home .
= = Critical reception and sales = =
Moonrise received mostly positive reviews from critics . Sally Estes , writing for Booklist , praised Moonrise for its " cliffhanger " ending " that will leave readers eager for the next installment " , as well as the suspenseful possibility of the destruction of the forest . A reviewer for Horn Book Review gave a positive review , praising the plot , characters , and writing . The reviewer stated that " Hunter successfully weaves character , plot , and good writing into another readable story " . Hilary Williamson , writing for BookLoons , gave Moonrise a positive review , calling it " exciting " and a " gripping epic " . A reviewer for Kirkus Reviews criticized the novel for mundane writing , easy @-@ to @-@ confuse names , and the use of the words " meowed " and " mewed " instead of " said " . The reviewer thought that the plot was " marred by the same preciousness of its predecessor " , but praised the plot for its " enhanced complexity " and suspenseful writing , saying that " a small plot twist is refreshing and suspense builds steadily towards the final installment " . The novel has also been mentioned for containing " magic , fantasy , and heroic adventure " , and was recommended to fans of Harry Potter as possible reading material after that series ' end . Moonrise reached The New York Times bestseller list for children 's chapter books , holding the number two spot for two weeks . It was also ranked 121st on USA Today 's bestseller list during the week of August 11 , 2005 . The work was also a success in Canada , reaching number seven on the Leader @-@ Post children 's bestseller list , and remaining in the top 15 for seven weeks . In a Fairfield , Greater Victoria store , Moonrise was reportedly more popular than Harry Potter .
= Weather forecasting =
Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location . Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia , and formally since the nineteenth century . Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere at a given place and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will change .
Once an all @-@ human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure , current weather conditions , and sky condition , weather forecasting now relies on computer @-@ based models that take many atmospheric factors into account . Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon , which involves pattern recognition skills , teleconnections , knowledge of model performance , and knowledge of model biases . The chaotic nature of the atmosphere , the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere , error involved in measuring the initial conditions , and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made ( the range of the forecast ) increases . The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome .
There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts . Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property . Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture , and therefore to traders within commodity markets . Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days . On an everyday basis , people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day . Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain , snow and the wind chill , forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events , and to plan ahead and survive them .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient forecasting = = =
For millennia people have tried to forecast the weather . In 650 BC , the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology . In about 340 BC , Aristotle described weather patterns in Meteorologica . Later , Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting , called the Book of Signs . Chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BC , which was also around the same time ancient Indian astronomers developed weather @-@ prediction methods . In 904 AD , Ibn Wahshiyya 's Nabatean Agriculture discussed the weather forecasting of atmospheric changes and signs from the planetary astral alterations ; signs of rain based on observation of the lunar phases ; and weather forecasts based on the movement of winds .
Ancient weather forecasting methods usually relied on observed patterns of events , also termed pattern recognition . For example , it might be observed that if the sunset was particularly red , the following day often brought fair weather . This experience accumulated over the generations to produce weather lore . However , not all of these predictions prove reliable , and many of them have since been found not to stand up to rigorous statistical testing .
= = = Modern methods = = =
It was not until the invention of the electric telegraph in 1835 that the modern age of weather forecasting began . Before that , the fastest that distant weather reports could travel was around 100 miles per day ( 160 km / d ) , but was more typically 40 – 75 miles per day ( 60 – 120 km / day ) ( whether by land or by sea ) . By the late 1840s , the telegraph allowed reports of weather conditions from a wide area to be received almost instantaneously , allowing forecasts to be made from knowledge of weather conditions further upwind .
The two men credited with the birth of forecasting as a science were officer of the Royal Navy Francis Beaufort and his protégé Robert FitzRoy . Both were influential men in British naval and governmental circles , and though ridiculed in the press at the time , their work gained scientific credence , was accepted by the Royal Navy , and formed the basis for all of today 's weather forecasting knowledge .
Beaufort developed the Wind Force Scale and Weather Notation coding , which he was to use in his journals for the remainder of his life . He also promoted the development of reliable tide tables around British shores , and with his friend William Whewell , expanded weather record @-@ keeping at 200 British Coast guard stations .
Robert FitzRoy was appointed in 1854 as chief of a new department within the Board of Trade to deal with the collection of weather data at sea as a service to mariners . This was the forerunner of the modern Meteorological Office . All ship captains were tasked with collating data on the weather and computing it , with the use of tested instruments that were loaned for this purpose .
A storm in 1859 that caused the loss of the Royal Charter inspired FitzRoy to develop charts to allow predictions to be made , which he called " forecasting the weather " , thus coining the term " weather forecast " . Fifteen land stations were established to use the new telegraph to transmit to him daily reports of weather at set times leading to the first gale warning service . His warning service for shipping was initiated in February 1861 , with the use of telegraph communications . The first daily weather forecasts were published in The Times in 186
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1 . In the following year a system was introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at the principal ports when a gale was expected . The " Weather Book " which FitzRoy published in 1863 was far in advance of the scientific opinion of the time .
As the electric telegraph network expanded , allowing for the more rapid dissemination of warnings , a national observational network was developed which could then be used to provide synoptic analyses . Instruments to continuously record variations in meteorological parameters using photography were supplied to the observing stations from Kew Observatory – these cameras had been invented by Francis Ronalds in 1845 and his barograph had earlier been used by FitzRoy .
To convey accurate information , it soon became necessary to have a standard vocabulary describing clouds ; this was achieved by means of a series of classifications first achieved by Luke Howard in 1802 , and standardized in the International Cloud Atlas of 1896 .
= = = Numerical prediction = = =
It was not until the 20th century that advances in the understanding of atmospheric physics led to the foundation of modern numerical weather prediction . In 1922 , English scientist Lewis Fry Richardson published " Weather Prediction By Numerical Process " , after finding notes and derivations he worked on as an ambulance driver in World War I. He described therein how small terms in the prognostic fluid dynamics equations governing atmospheric flow could be neglected , and a finite differencing scheme in time and space could be devised , to allow numerical prediction solutions to be found .
Richardson envisioned a large auditorium of thousands of people performing the calculations and passing them to others . However , the sheer number of calculations required was too large to be completed without the use of computers , and the size of the grid and time steps led to unrealistic results in deepening systems . It was later found , through numerical analysis , that this was due to numerical instability . The first computerised weather forecast was performed by a team led by the mathematician John von Neumann ; von Neumann publishing the paper Numerical Integration of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation in 1950 . Practical use of numerical weather prediction began in 1955 , spurred by the development of programmable electronic computers .
= = = Broadcasts = = =
The first ever daily weather forecasts were published in The Times on 1 August 1861 , and the first weather maps were produced later in the same year . In 1911 , the Met Office began issuing the first marine weather forecasts via radio transmission . These included gale and storm warnings for areas around Great Britain . In the United States , the first public radio forecasts were made in 1925 by Edward B. " E.B. " Rideout , on WEEI , the Edison Electric Illuminating station in Boston . Rideout came from the U.S. Weather Bureau , as did WBZ weather forecaster G. Harold Noyes in 1931 .
The world 's first televised weather forecasts , including the use of weather maps , were experimentally broadcast by the BBC in 1936 . This was brought into practice in 1949 after World War II . George Cowling gave the first weather forecast while being televised in front of the map in 1954 . In America , experimental television forecasts were made by James C Fidler in Cincinnati in either 1940 or 1947 on the DuMont Television Network . In the late 1970s and early 80s , John Coleman , the first weatherman on ABC @-@ TV 's Good Morning America , pioneered the use of on @-@ screen weather satellite information and computer graphics for television forecasts . Coleman was a co @-@ founder of The Weather Channel ( TWC ) in 1982 . TWC is now a 24 @-@ hour cable network .
= = How models create forecasts = =
The basic idea of numerical weather prediction is to sample the state of the fluid at a given time and use the equations of fluid dynamics and thermodynamics to estimate the state of the fluid at some time in the future . The main inputs from country @-@ based weather services are surface observations from automated weather stations at ground level over land and from weather buoys at sea . The World Meteorological Organization acts to standardize the instrumentation , observing practices and timing of these observations worldwide . Stations either report hourly in METAR reports , or every six hours in SYNOP reports . Sites launch radiosondes , which rise through the depth of the troposphere and well into the stratosphere . Data from weather satellites are used in areas where traditional data sources are not available . Compared with similar data from radiosondes , the satellite data has the advantage of global coverage , however at a lower accuracy and resolution . Meteorological radar provide information on precipitation location and intensity , which can be used to estimate precipitation accumulations over time . Additionally , if a pulse Doppler weather radar is used then wind speed and direction can be determined .
Commerce provides pilot reports along aircraft routes , and ship reports along shipping routes . Research flights using reconnaissance aircraft fly in and around weather systems of interest such as tropical cyclones . Reconnaissance aircraft are also flown over the open oceans during the cold season into systems which cause significant uncertainty in forecast guidance , or are expected to be of high impact 3 – 7 days into the future over the downstream continent .
Models are initialized using this observed data . The irregularly spaced observations are processed by data assimilation and objective analysis methods , which perform quality control and obtain values at locations usable by the model 's mathematical algorithms ( usually an evenly spaced grid ) . The data are then used in the model as the starting point for a forecast . Commonly , the set of equations used to predict the known as the physics and dynamics of the atmosphere are called primitive equations . These equations are initialized from the analysis data and rates of change are determined . The rates of change predict the state of the atmosphere a short time into the future . The equations are then applied to this new atmospheric state to find new rates of change , and these new rates of change predict the atmosphere at a yet further time into the future . This time stepping procedure is continually repeated until the solution reaches the desired forecast time . The length of the time step is related to the distance between the points on the computational grid .
The length of the time step chosen within the model is related to the distance between the points on the computational grid , and is chosen to maintain numerical stability . Time steps for global models are on the order of tens of minutes , while time steps for regional models are between one and four minutes . The global models are run at varying times into the future . The UKMET Unified Model is run six days into the future , the European Centre for Medium @-@ Range Weather Forecasts model is run out to 10 days into the future , while the Global Forecast System model run by the Environmental Modeling Center is run 16 days into the future . The visual output produced by a model solution is known as a prognostic chart , or prog . The raw output is often modified before being presented as the forecast . This can be in the form of statistical techniques to remove known biases in the model , or of adjustment to take into account consensus among other numerical weather forecasts . MOS or model output statistics is a technique used to interpret numerical model output and produce site @-@ specific guidance . This guidance is presented in coded numerical form , and can be obtained for nearly all National Weather Service reporting stations in the United States . As proposed by Edward Lorenz in 1963 , long range forecasts , those made at a range of two weeks or more , are impossible to definitively predict the state of the atmosphere , owing to the chaotic nature of the fluid dynamics equations involved . In numerical models , extremely small errors in initial values double roughly every five days for variables such as temperature and wind velocity .
Essentially , a model is a computer program that produces meteorological information for future times at given locations and altitudes . Within any modern model is a set of equations , known as the primitive equations , used to predict the future state of the atmosphere . These equations — along with the ideal gas law — are used to evolve the density , pressure , and potential temperature scalar fields and the velocity vector field of the atmosphere through time . Additional transport equations for pollutants and other aerosols are included in some primitive @-@ equation mesoscale models as well . The equations used are nonlinear partial differential equations which are impossible to solve exactly through analytical methods , with the exception of a few idealized cases . Therefore , numerical methods obtain approximate solutions . Different models use different solution methods : some global models use spectral methods for the horizontal dimensions and finite difference methods for the vertical dimension , while regional models and other global models usually use finite @-@ difference methods in all three dimensions .
= = Techniques = =
= = = Persistence = = =
The simplest method of forecasting the weather , persistence , relies upon today 's conditions to forecast the conditions tomorrow . This can be a valid way of forecasting the weather when it is in a steady state , such as during the summer season in the tropics . This method of forecasting strongly depends upon the presence of a stagnant weather pattern . It can be useful in both short range forecasts and long range forecasts .
= = = Use of a barometer = = =
Measurements of barometric pressure and the pressure tendency ( the change of pressure over time ) have been used in forecasting since the late 19th century . The larger the change in pressure , especially if more than 3 @.@ 5 hPa ( 2 @.@ 6 mmHg ) , the larger the change in weather can be expected . If the pressure drop is rapid , a low pressure system is approaching , and there is a greater chance of rain . Rapid pressure rises are associated with improving weather conditions , such as clearing skies .
= = = Looking at the sky = = =
Along with pressure tendency , the condition of the sky is one of the more important parameters used to forecast weather in mountainous areas . Thickening of cloud cover or the invasion of a higher cloud deck is indicative of rain in the near future . At night , high thin cirrostratus clouds can lead to halos around the moon , which indicates an approach of a warm front and its associated rain . Morning fog portends fair conditions , as rainy conditions are preceded by wind or clouds which prevent fog formation . The approach of a line of thunderstorms could indicate the approach of a cold front . Cloud @-@ free skies are indicative of fair weather for the near future . A bar can indicate a coming tropical cyclone . The use of sky cover in weather prediction has led to various weather lore over the centuries .
= = = Nowcasting = = =
The forecasting of the weather within the next six hours is often referred to as nowcasting . In this time range it is possible to forecast smaller features such as individual showers and thunderstorms with reasonable accuracy , as well as other features too small to be resolved by a computer model . A human given the latest radar , satellite and observational data will be able to make a better analysis of the small scale features present and so will be able to make a more accurate forecast for the following few hours . However , there is now expert systems using those data and mesoscale numerical model to make better extrapolation , including evolution of those features in time .
= = = Use of forecast models = = =
In the past , the human forecaster was responsible for generating the entire weather forecast based upon available observations . Today , human input is generally confined to choosing a model based on various parameters , such as model biases and performance . Using a consensus of forecast models , as well as ensemble members of the various models , can help reduce forecast error . However , regardless how small the average error becomes with any individual system , large errors within any particular piece of guidance are still possible on any given model run . Humans are required to interpret the model data into weather forecasts that are understandable to the end user . Humans can use knowledge of local effects which may be too small in size to be resolved by the model to add information to the forecast . While increasing accuracy of forecast models implies that humans may no longer be needed in the forecast process at some point in the future , there is currently still a need for human intervention .
= = = Analog technique = = =
The analog technique is a complex way of making a forecast , requiring the forecaster to remember a previous weather event which is expected to be mimicked by an upcoming event . What makes it a difficult technique to use is that there is rarely a perfect analog for an event in the future . Some call this type of forecasting pattern recognition . It remains a useful method of observing rainfall over data voids such as oceans , as well as the forecasting of precipitation amounts and distribution in the future . A similar technique is used in medium range forecasting , which is known as teleconnections , when systems in other locations are used to help pin down the location of another system within the surrounding regime . An example of teleconnections are by using El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) related phenomena .
= = Communicating forecasts to the public = =
Most end users of forecasts are members of the general public . Thunderstorms can create strong winds and dangerous lightning strikes that can lead to deaths , power outages , and widespread hail damage . Heavy snow or rain can bring transportation and commerce to a stand @-@ still , as well as cause flooding in low @-@ lying areas . Excessive heat or cold waves can sicken or kill those with inadequate utilities , and droughts can impact water usage and destroy vegetation .
Several countries employ government agencies to provide forecasts and watches / warnings / advisories to the public in order to protect life and property and maintain commercial interests . Knowledge of what the end user needs from a weather forecast must be taken into account to present the information in a useful and understandable way . Examples include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Weather Service ( NWS ) and Environment Canada 's Meteorological Service ( MSC ) . Traditionally , newspaper , television , and radio have been the primary outlets for presenting weather forecast information to the public . Increasingly , the internet is being used due to the vast amount of specific information that can be found . In all cases , these outlets update their forecasts on a regular basis .
= = = Severe weather alerts and advisories = = =
A major part of modern weather forecasting is the severe weather alerts and advisories which the national weather services issue in the case that severe or hazardous weather is expected . This is done to protect life and property . Some of the most commonly known of severe weather advisories are the severe thunderstorm and tornado warning , as well as the severe thunderstorm and tornado watch . Other forms of these advisories include winter weather , high wind , flood , tropical cyclone , and fog . Severe weather advisories and alerts are broadcast through the media , including radio , using emergency systems as the Emergency Alert System which break into regular programming .
= = = Low temperature forecast = = =
The low temperature forecast for the current day is calculated using the lowest temperature found between 7pm that evening through 7am the following morning . So , in short , today 's forecasted low is most likely tomorrow 's low temperature .
= = Specialist forecasting = =
There are a number of sectors with their own specific needs for weather forecasts and specialist services are provided to these users .
= = = Air traffic = = =
Because the aviation industry is especially sensitive to the weather , accurate weather forecasting is essential . Fog or exceptionally low ceilings can prevent many aircraft from landing and taking off . Turbulence and icing are also significant in @-@ flight hazards . Thunderstorms are a problem for all aircraft because of severe turbulence due to their updrafts and outflow boundaries , icing due to the heavy precipitation , as well as large hail , strong winds , and lightning , all of which can cause severe damage to an aircraft in flight . Volcanic ash is also a significant problem for aviation , as aircraft can lose engine power within ash clouds . On a day @-@ to @-@ day basis airliners are routed to take advantage of the jet stream tailwind to improve fuel efficiency . Aircrews are briefed prior to takeoff on the conditions to expect en route and at their destination . Additionally , airports often change which runway is being used to take advantage of a headwind . This reduces the distance required for takeoff , and eliminates potential crosswinds .
= = = Marine = = =
Commercial and recreational use of waterways can be limited significantly by wind direction and speed , wave periodicity and heights , tides , and precipitation . These factors can each influence the safety of marine transit . Consequently , a variety of codes have been established to efficiently transmit detailed marine weather forecasts to vessel pilots via radio , for example the MAFOR ( marine forecast ) . Typical weather forecasts can be received at sea through the use of RTTY , Navtex and Radiofax .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Farmers rely on weather forecasts to decide what work to do on any particular day . For example , drying hay is only feasible in dry weather . Prolonged periods of dryness can ruin cotton , wheat , and corn crops . While corn crops can be ruined by drought , their dried remains can be used as a cattle feed substitute in the form of silage . Frosts and freezes play havoc with crops both during the spring and fall . For example , peach trees in full bloom can have their potential peach crop decimated by a spring freeze . Orange groves can suffer significant damage during frosts and freezes , regardless of their timing .
= = = Forestry = = =
Weather forecasting of wind , precipitations and humidity is essential for preventing and controlling wildfires . Different indices , like the Forest fire weather index and the Haines Index , have been developed to predict the areas more at risk to experience fire from natural or human causes . Conditions for the development of harmful insects can be predicted by forecasting the evolution of weather , too .
= = = Utility companies = = =
Electricity and gas companies rely on weather forecasts to anticipate demand which can be strongly affected by the weather . They use the quantity termed the degree day to determine how strong of a use there will be for heating ( heating degree day ) or cooling ( cooling degree day ) . These quantities are based on a daily average temperature of 65 ° F ( 18 ° C ) . Cooler temperatures force heating degree days ( one per degree Fahrenheit ) , while warmer temperatures force cooling degree days . In winter , severe cold weather can cause a surge in demand as people turn up their heating . Similarly , in summer a surge in demand can be linked with the increased use of air conditioning systems in hot weather . By anticipating a surge in demand , utility companies can purchase additional supplies of power or natural gas before the price increases , or in some circumstances , supplies are restricted through the use of brownouts and blackouts .
= = = Other commercial companies = = =
Increasingly , private companies pay for weather forecasts tailored to their needs so that they can increase their profits or avoid large losses . For example , supermarket chains may change the stocks on their shelves in anticipation of different consumer spending habits in different weather conditions . Weather forecasts can be used to invest in the commodity market , such as futures in oranges , corn , soybeans , and oil .
= = = Military applications = = =
= = = = United Kingdom Armed Forces = = = =
Royal Navy
The UK Royal Navy , working with the UK Met Office , has its own specialist branch of weather observers and forecasters , as part of the Hydrographic and Meteorological ( HM ) specialisation , who monitor and forecast operational conditions across the globe , to provide accurate and timely weather and oceanographic information to submarines , ships and Fleet Air Arm aircraft .
= = = = Royal Air Force = = = =
A mobile unit in the RAF , working with the UK Met Office , forecasts the weather for regions in which British , allied servicemen and women are deployed . A group based at Camp Bastion provides forecasts for the British armed forces in Afghanistan .
= = = = United States Armed Forces = = = =
= = = = US Navy = = = =
Similar to the private sector , military weather forecasters present weather conditions to the war fighter community . Military weather forecasters provide pre @-@ flight and in @-@ flight weather briefs to pilots and provide real time resource protection services for military installations . Naval forecasters cover the waters and ship weather forecasts . The United States Navy provides a special service to both themselves and the rest of the federal government by issuing forecasts for tropical cyclones across the Pacific and Indian Oceans through their Joint Typhoon Warning Center .
= = = = US Air Force = = = =
Within the United States , Air Force Weather provides weather forecasting for the Air Force and the Army . Air Force forecasters cover air operations in both wartime and peacetime operations and provide Army support ; United States Coast Guard marine science technicians provide ship forecasts for ice breakers and other various operations within their realm ; and Marine forecasters provide support for ground- and air @-@ based United States Marine Corps operations . All four military branches take their initial enlisted meteorology technical training at Keesler Air Force Base . Military and civilian forecasters actively cooperate in analyzing , creating and critiquing weather forecast products .
= = = Meteorological agencies = = =
These are academic or governmental meteorology organizations . Most provide at least a limited forecast for their area of interest on their website .
The World Meteorological Organization
European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting ( ECMWF )
European Meteorological Satellites EUMETSAT
Australian Bureau of Meteorology
Royal Meteorological Institute of Belgium
Environment Canada Weather Office
Finnish Meteorological Institute
French National Meteorological Service
Indian Meteorological Department ( IMD )
National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecast ( NCMRWF )
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology ( IITM )
National Atmospheric Research Laboratory ( NARL )
Pakistan Meteorological Department
The Hellenic National Meteorological Service ( Greece )
Hong Kong Observatory
Met Éireann ( Ireland )
Italian Air Force ( Aeronautica Militare ) Meteorological Service
Korea Meteorological Administration
New Zealand MetService
South African Weather Service
Meteo Suisse ( Swiss Weather Agency ) ( English )
The Met Office of the UK
yr.no ( a joint online weather service from the Norwegian Meteorological Institute ( met.no ) and the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation ( NRK ) )
Unidad de Meteorología - IVIC ( Meteorology Unit - Venezuela Institute of Scientific Research ) ( Spanish )
Instituto Nacional de Hidrometeorología ( Spanish )
National Meteorological Service of Slovenia based on Academa Application server and WebMet
Centro de Previsão de Tempo e Estudos Climáticos at INPE ( Brazil )
National Weather Service United States of America
= = = Other external links = = =
Economic history and impact of weather forecasting from EH.net
Dynamic Weather Forecaster Iowa State University 's online educational tool for weather forecasting
" World Weather News by Radio " Popular Mechanics , January 1930 , pp. 50 – 55 , article on international weather report systems set up after World War One , using wireless broadcasting from various stations and ships worldwide
New Technology Allows Better Extreme Weather Forecasts ; New technology that increases the warning time for tornadoes and hurricanes could potentially save hundreds of lives every year April 17 , 2012
Current aviation weather charts for the Americas , Europe , Asia , Africa , the Atlantic and Pacific oceans
Windyty.com , wind and weather visualization
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= The Lastest Gun in the West =
" The Lastest Gun in the West " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ’ thirteenth season . It first aired on the Fox network on February 24 , 2002 . In the episode , Bart , after being chased by a vicious dog , runs into a retired Western star named Buck McCoy , who soon becomes Bart 's idol . After McCoy shows the Simpsons some of the films he starred in , the family decides to help him get back into acting .
The episode was directed by Bob Anderson and written by John Swartzwelder , who based the script on a story idea pitched by fellow Simpsons writer Ron Hauge . The episode features Dennis Weaver as the retired Western actor Buck McCoy , as well as Frank Welker as the vicious dog , and Karl Wiedergott as an alcoholic resembling Walter Brennan . When it was first broadcast , " The Lastest Gun in the West " was seen by 5 @.@ 9 % of the American population between ages 18 and 49 . It has since been negatively received by fans and has garnered mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
When a vicious dog chases Bart , he takes refuge in the garden of a house belonging to former Western actor Buck McCoy . Buck shows Bart a trick to calm the dog down , making it friendly towards him , and Bart begins to hero @-@ worship Buck . Naturally , Homer learns about Bart 's new idol and demands he worship him instead .
To help him out , Bart gets Buck a job on Krusty the Clown 's show , but Buck gets drunk and makes a fool of himself on air , crushing Bart. Seeing this , Marge and Homer decide to help Buck overcome his alcoholism , so they clean out Buck 's house and enroll him in an Alcoholics Anonymous program . Despite making progress , Buck is not restored to hero @-@ status for Bart , but Homer has an idea .
Homer plans a bank robbery , but when he , Buck and Bart arrive at the bank , a robbery led by Snake is already underway . Buck leaps into action , subdues the bank robbers and becomes a hero in Bart 's eyes once again . Bart acknowledges everything Homer has done and declares him to be a hero as well . At the end Bart gets chased by the vicious dog again .
= = Production = =
” The Lastest Gun in the West ” was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Bob Anderson . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on February 24 , 2002 .
= = = Writing = = =
The idea for the episode was pitched by Simpsons writer Ron Hauge , who thought it would be interesting to see an episode in which Bart would run into a retired Western film star in the neighborhood and " think he was the coolest guy in the world " , although the actor had seen better days . Hauge suggested that Swartzwelder , who is an avid Western fan , would be the appropriate writer for the episode . Swartzwelder also pitched the plot idea about the angry dog who chases Bart in the episode .
= = = Animation = = =
The design for Buck McCoy was primarily based on Dennis Weaver , who portrayed him in the episode , as well as aspects of other western actors such as Roy Rogers and John Wayne . McCoy 's costume in the fictional television show McTrigger was based on the attire worn by the main character in real @-@ life television series McCloud . The design for the dog went through several different model changes until the Simpsons staff settled on the " very angry bull @-@ terrier design " seen in the episode . A scene in the episode shows McCoy showcasing an array of films he starred in to the Simpson family through a movie projector . In order to achieve the strobe light effect done by the projector , the animators painted every other frame white and then blank .
= = = Casting = = =
The episode features American actor Dennis Weaver , famous for his role in the television show Gunsmoke , in a guest role as the Western actor Buck McCoy . Al Jean , the show runner for the episode , stated in the DVD commentary that Weaver was very funny , a ” terrific guy ” , and that it was an honor to meet him . Karl Wiedergott , an actor who usually fills in for unavailable male cast members during table reads for The Simpsons episodes , portrayed an alcoholic resembling Walter Brennan . The dog was played by voice artist Frank Welker .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode title , which is often wrongfully referred to as " The Latest Gun In the West " , is a pun based on the term " the fastest gun in the west " . A scene in the episode shows McCoy auditioning for a spot in the Krusty the Clown show . To showcase his skills , McCoy shoots a Krusty cardboard cutout in the crotch . The scene is a reference to an incident on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson , in which Ed Ames hit a mannequin in the crotch while demonstrating a tomahawk throw . Carson 's quips during the incident are referenced in Krusty 's line " Ooh , right in the panhandle . " Carson can also be seen in one of the clips before Krusty 's show in the episode , along with poet Robert Frost . The inside of McCoy 's house is loosely based on the inside of Will Rogers ' house in Will Rogers State Historic Park . " McTrigger " , the last TV series McCoy starred in , is a parody of the American television police drama McCloud , in which Weaver played the lead ; McCoy claims the series was eventually retooled into Room 222 . In one scene , Homer shows Bart a poster of himself dressed as Farrah Fawcett .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on February 24 , 2002 , " The Lastest Gun In the West " , along with a rerun of Malcolm in the Middle , put Fox in second place for the night among adults between ages 18 and 49 . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode received a 5 @.@ 9 rating , meaning it was seen by 5 @.@ 9 % of the population in said demographic . On August 24 , 2010 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons : The Thirteenth Season DVD and Blu @-@ ray set .
Following its television broadcast , " The Lastest Gun in the West " received a lot of negative feedback from The Simpsons fans . The Simpsons staff — who , according to Jean , are susceptible to criticism — were surprised by the amount of scorn the fans showed towards the episode . Jean , who thought the episode was " great " , stated in the DVD commentary for the episode that he " [ has ] never been able to quite figure [ why the fans disliked the episode ] out " , and speculated that , since Westerns have not been popular since the 1960s , " they [ The Simpsons fans ] just don 't care about them at all . "
Following the home video release of the thirteenth season of The Simpsons , reviews of " The Lastest Gun in the West " were mixed . On the negative side , describing the episode as a " clunker " , Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict stated that the episode is " frightfully thin " and criticized the premise as being " lazy " . Nate Boss of Project : Blu criticized the premise as well , writing that the episode was " just a couple jokes thrown together " rather than a complete story . Writing for Blu @-@ ray.com , Casey Broadwater described the episode as being " just plain dull " . On the other hand , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide praised the episode as " offer [ ing ] good laughs " and wrote that , while the episode was not " brilliant " , it was overall " an enjoyable experience . " Giving the episode a positive review as well , Ron Martin of 411Mania described the episode as being " easily one of the best of the season " .
= Doc Adams =
Daniel Lucius " Doc " Adams ( November 1 , 1814 – January 3 , 1899 ) was an American baseball player and executive who is regarded by historians as an important figure in the sport 's early years . For most of his career he was a member of the New York Knickerbockers . He first played for the New York Base Ball Club in 1840 and started his Knickerbockers career five years later , continuing to play for the club into his forties and to take part in inter @-@ squad practice games and matches against opposing teams . Researchers have called Adams the creator of the shortstop position , which he used to field short throws from outfielders . In addition to his playing career , Adams manufactured baseballs and oversaw bat production ; he also occasionally acted as an umpire .
From 1847 to 1861 , the Knickerbockers selected Adams as their president six times , and as a vice president , treasurer , or director in six other years . As president of the club , Adams was an advocate of rule changes in baseball that resulted in nine @-@ man teams and nine @-@ inning games . When the National Association of Base Ball Players ( NABBP ) was formed in 1858 , he led the rules and regulations committee of the new organization . In his role , Adams ruled that the fields ' bases should be 90 feet ( 27 m ) apart , the modern distance , and supported the elimination of the " bound rule " , which allowed for balls caught after one bounce to be recorded as outs . He resigned from his positions with the Knickerbockers and NABBP in 1862 . Adams ' contributions in creating baseball 's rules went largely unrecognized for decades after his 1899 death , but in 1980 a letter about him appeared in The New York Times ; by 1993 , researcher John Thorn had written about Adams ' role . Other historians have given him credit for helping to develop the sport , and Thorn has called Adams " first among the Fathers of Baseball " .
A graduate of Yale University and Harvard Medical School , Adams began working in the medical field in the late 1830s , and practiced in New York City during his time as a member of the Knickerbockers . In 1865 , he left medicine and later became a bank president and member of the Connecticut legislature . He and his wife had five children .
= = Early life = =
Born in Mont Vernon , New Hampshire , on November 1 , 1814 , Adams was the fourth of Daniel and Nancy Adams ' five children . The elder Daniel Adams was a physician and author ; he wrote a math textbook that was widely used in the United States in the early- to mid @-@ 1800s . After being schooled at Kimball Union Academy in New Hampshire from 1826 to 1828 and Amherst , Massachusetts ' Mount Pleasant Classical Institution , Adams attended three colleges from 1831 to 1838 . He studied at Amherst College for two years , then transferred to Yale University , where he acquired a bachelor 's degree upon his graduation in 1835 . Nancy Adams , Daniel 's sister , indicated in a letter penned in the early 1830s that he began playing with " bats and balls " by this time .
Adams continued his studies at Harvard Medical School through 1838 , obtaining an MD . Following his time in college , he joined his father 's medical practice . The pair worked in Mont Vernon , before the younger Adams relocated twice , first to Boston and then to New York City . Adams also worked for the New York Dispensaries , which provided medical care to poor residents . He offered his assistance when outbreaks of cholera affected New York City . For providing vaccinations , Adams received yearly pay of $ 400 for a time . His field of employment gave rise to his nickname of " Doc " , which was given as " Dock " at the time .
= = Playing career = =
According to baseball historian John Thorn , 1839 is the year Adams became a baseball player . In an 1896 interview in The Sporting News , Adams said that " soon after going to New York I began to play base ball just for exercise , with a number of other young medical men . " Starting in 1840 , he was a player with the New York Base Ball Club . This team began play five years earlier than the New York Knickerbockers , who are credited in several baseball histories as pioneering the modern version of baseball . Adams played an early form of the game , but Thorn writes that he " understood [ it ] to be baseball , no matter what it was called " .
Adams received an invitation to become a member of the Knickerbockers a month or so after the team 's September 23 , 1845 , creation . He accepted and joined the club along with other men in the medical field ; he later said that players from the New York Base Ball Club were behind the formation of the Knickerbockers . Records of the club 's practice games indicate that he was a member of the Knickerbockers by November 18 , 1845 . In an inter @-@ squad game held that day , which was the Knickerbockers ' last of the year , Adams scored nine runs for his team as they defeated a side picked by William R. Wheaton , 51 – 42 . The club organized its first game against outside opposition in 1846 ; at a June 5 meeting Adams was selected to a three @-@ man committee whose aim was to set up a game against the New York Base Ball Club . The committee 's efforts were successful , and a game was scheduled on June 19 . Adams participated in the contest , which the Knickerbockers lost 23 – 1 . Batting second in the Knickerbockers ' lineup , he made one out and did not score a run .
The Knickerbockers did not play any known games against other clubs from 1847 to 1850 . During these years , the team split its players into two squads , which played against each other twice per week . According to Adams , he often attempted to compel members of the Knickerbockers to attend the sessions . He was only occasionally successful , and when few Knickerbockers came , they played variants of baseball that required fewer players than regular games . Twice in June 1851 , the club played against the Washington Base Ball Club , winning by scores of 21 – 11 and 22 – 20 . No individual statistics are available for the first game ; Adams scored twice for the Knickerbockers in the second . In 1853 , Adams played in two games against the Gotham Ball Club , tallying seven runs in a pair of victories . The two clubs met three times from June to October 1854 , and Adams had one run in each game . After splitting the first two contests , their October 26 , 1854 , game lasted 12 innings before being suspended due to darkness with the score tied 12 – 12 ; both teams fell short of the 21 runs that were required to win a game under the rules of the time .
Following two November games against the Eagle Base Ball Club that Adams is not known to have participated in , he returned to the Knickerbockers ' lineup for a June 1 , 1855 , game against Gotham and scored three times , although Gotham prevailed , 21 – 12 . He took part in two other 1855 games against Eagle and Gotham , respectively , scoring five runs total as the Knickerbockers won both contests . Adams competed four times for the club
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off in fashion of the Mare 's Leg – were later reused in the science fiction television series Firefly .
= = = Music = = =
Stephen Graziano and Velton Ray Bunch composed original music for the series . Composed by Randy Edelman , the distinctive theme music gained recognition beyond the show 's following ; in the mid @-@ 1990s , the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) hired Edelman to provide music for its sports coverage , including National Football League games and the Olympics . The music samples Edelman sent NBC included the Brisco theme , and by 1996 it was being used during coverage of the Olympics . NBC used it again as the theme for their coverage of the 1997 World Series . Edelman said , " It was original , and it seemed to have the right spirit . It 's got a very flowing melody , it 's triumphant , and it has a certain warmth . And it has at the end of it , what all television things like this have , a ' button , ' an ending flourish that works really well if they need to chop it down into a 15 @-@ second thing . " Cary Darling said that the " booming " theme song was " part Magnificent Seven , part Aaron Copland and as grand and wide as ' Big Sky Country ' " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Pilot episode = = =
In July 1993 , Brisco 's two @-@ hour pilot was screened for television critics in Los Angeles . Initial critical reaction to the pilot was positive and focused on the humor and the science fiction plot points . USA Today 's Matt Roush enjoyed the campy humor and the cast of the show , saying it worked on many levels and would " please all but the family curmudgeon . " Calling Brisco " one of the best shows of the fall season " , Jennifer Stevenson of the St. Petersburg Times praised the show 's " intelligent , satirical asides " . Kay Gardella wrote in the New York Daily News that the pilot set itself " apart from others of genre " with its humorous script and sight gags . The Los Angeles Times called Brisco " gratifying nonsense " , and praised Campbell and the supporting cast for supplying humor without " going over the top " . Some critics , such as Walter Goodman of The New York Times and David Hiltbrand of People , found the supporting characters " weakly cast " and not as strong as Campbell in the lead . Other reviewers praised the overall look of the show , such as Todd Everett of Variety , who approved of the " strong comic @-@ book visual style " and the pilot 's high production values . Writing in the Washington Post , Tom Shales said that the pilot 's production was " more movielike than serieslike " .
The pilot 's science @-@ fiction plot elements were appreciated by New York magazine , which wrote favorably about the " millenarianism " of the show , including Brisco 's use of a rocket to travel on railroad tracks . While Rod Dreher of the Washington Times liked the " nifty " Orb subplot , some critics responded negatively to the Orb . The Washington Post 's Shales called the Orb " hokey supernatural bunk " . Other reviewers complained generally about the broad mix of genres and number of subplots in the pilot . While TV Guide 's Jeff Jarvis roundly praised the quality of the pilot and called Brisco his favorite Fox show of 1993 , he criticized the pilot for being " padded with outlaws and mysterious orbs " . Diane Werts of Newsday similarly said that Brisco " just about hits the bulls eye " with its " sharp wit " and " thrill a minute " action , although she noted that the pilot was over @-@ packed with characters and subplots . Writing in The New York Times , Goodman said , " The writers try everything , including some business involving raiders of a lost orb , without much of a payoff . "
Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker enjoyed the " nervy attempt to do something different with the TV Western " in the pilot and said that " Brisco County is less a satire of the Western 's cliches than a revitalization of them . " Writing in the Toronto Star , Greg Quill said that the pilot introduced Brisco as " a western in the loosest use of the term " . Quill noted that the pilot includes " every cliche in the western movie arsenal " , but that " everything , from characters to plot turns , is skewed away from the norm " , and that the pilot episode rose above the level of western spoof to become an " outrageously confident tribute to ... the best of the genre " .
= = = Broadcast run = = =
During the broadcast run of The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr . , TV Guide featured a positive review of the show in its Couch Critic column and wrote , " It 's as funny as it is exciting , which is not an easy combo to pull off ... it 's fresh and funny and different , and that 's why we like it . " The magazine twice listed Brisco as a family @-@ friendly TV program : " Back when some of us grew up , Westerns were synonymous with great family entertainment , but – let 's be honest – some of them were dull as dust . Not this one . Brisco is a Western with a sense of humor , filled with impish action for kids and adults . "
The Wall Street Journal reviewed a host of Westerns from 1992 and 1993 and said that Brisco was " the most sheer fun of the bunch " , calling it " a period piece with slick production values and a mix of drama and humor , fast pace and high camp . " In an article on the 1993 television season , the Toronto Star 's Greg Quill wrote that Brisco was a program that represented " American TV craft at the top of its form " . In contrast , Elvis Mitchell of Spin magazine gave Brisco a scathing review , calling the show 's premise a " tedious ... rickety gimmick " . Mitchell acknowledged the show 's " quick reflexes " , but said the humor was " uncomfortable " with a " cynical quickness " . He added , " Brisco County relieves us of the burden of laughing . It spends too much time looking at itself in the mirror , admiring its own adorable dimpled half @-@ smile . "
Viewership figures for Brisco fell as its season progressed and in 1994 , it was listed in TV Guide 's annual " Save Our Shows " article . Readers were requested to write in and vote to save one of the four listed shows – one from each television network – that were in danger of being cancelled . The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr . , won with 34 @.@ 7 percent of the 72 @,@ 000 votes cast . Cuse said the vote " reaffirms for me a feeling I 've had – namely that the Nielsens aren 't accurately reflecting people 's interest in this show , " adding that , given Fox 's then relatively small share of the market , it was notable that the show got more votes than any of the programs from NBC , CBS , and ABC .
Writing in USA Today , Matt Roush encouraged readers to watch the low @-@ rated show , saying that families should watch it rather than " that interchangeable T.G.I.F. tripe " . He said , " Brisco is mighty lavish but even more mightily loony , happily saddled with broad sight gags and tortured puns . " Bruce Fretts of Entertainment Weekly speculated that mainstream success eluded the show because of its mixing of genres . He said , " Brisco refuses to behave like a normal Western , mixing in sci @-@ fi , slapstick , and ... kung fu . " The Chicago Tribune 's Scott Williams praised Brisco for its " strong supporting cast " and " superb physical comedy and crisp dialogue " . He said the show should have been a hit , but that the Friday night time slot hampered its ratings .
= = = Level of violence = = =
Brisco was criticized early on for the violence it portrayed ; meant to be comical , a scene in the pilot in which four villains accidentally kill each other in a crossfire troubled critics instead . Cuse insisted that the show was still appropriate for children , saying , " I think we 're very conscious of violence and I think we 've made an effort to avoid violence in the pilot and in the future episodes " . Halfway through the season , U.S. Senator Byron Dorgan singled out Brisco as the most violent show on television based on a study at Minnesota 's Concordia University , in which students watched 132 hours of network and cable programming , during the week of September 28 to October 4 , 1993 . The students tallied each act of violence , and found that Brisco had 117 violent acts per hour . The study deemed Brisco more violent than the film Beverly Hills Cop , which was also viewed for the study . Cuse called the criticism " patently ridiculous , " noting that only one episode of the show was viewed , in which a boxing match takes place . Each punch and jab was counted as an act of violence . Cuse spoke out against legislation to curb television violence , saying that politicians were " chasing a false objective . " He said it was the job of a show 's producer to control the moral content of a television program and the parents ' duty to monitor what their children watch .
The Los Angeles Times printed a story about Senator Dorgan 's efforts to elicit a response from the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) with the title " Fox Tops Tally of Violence on Major TV Networks Media : Study of a week of prime @-@ time shows also lists ' Brisco County ' as bloodiest series . Senator wants FCC to issue report card , name sponsors . " Cuse responded by writing a letter to the editor . In the letter , entitled " ' Brisco County ' Is a Family @-@ Oriented Series " , Cuse objected to the newspaper story title labeling Brisco as the " bloodiest series " . He said that Senator Dorgan 's press release did not mention blood and that the show 's violence should be viewed in context . Cuse added the show had been listed as family friendly in other publications , and that he read every viewer letter sent regarding the show . " The overwhelming majority praise " Brisco County " for being a show that the entire family can watch together . After 15 original airings , I have not received one single letter criticizing the show on the grounds of violence or violent content . " When the US Senate discussed forcing broadcast and cable networks to regulate violent programming , Cuse said that self @-@ regulation within the industry was a positive move . As he operated on his " own internal moral principles " , the measures would not affect his week @-@ to @-@ week work .
= = = Post @-@ cancellation = = =
Writing in People magazine in 1995 , Craig Tomashoff said the cancellation of Brisco was " one of the tragedies going into [ the 1994 – 1995 ] TV season " . Tomashoff suggested that the show influenced UPN 's Legend , another Western series with comedy and science fiction elements . Reflecting on the show in the Orange County Register in 1996 , critic Cary Darling lamented Brisco 's cancellation , saying that the show " stood way out from the rest of the broadcast pack . " Darling reviewed the show , describing it as " a witty , multiracial Western that tempered its fisticuffs with fantasy , its innocence with irony , and its romantic vision of the Old West with an abiding New World faith in the future 's infinite possibilities . " Writing in Entertainment Weekly , Ken Tucker called the show a " one season wonder " that was " ahead of its time " .
When the series was released on DVD , critics remembered it fondly . Video Librarian called Brisco " criminally short @-@ lived " and " wildly entertaining . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave the series an " A- " , calling the show " smart @-@ alecky and witty , suspenseful and absurd . " IGN DVD called the DVD set " impressive " and said that the series was " a satisfying show that hits its mark " . Auxiliary Magazine called Brisco " one of the greatest sci @-@ fi / Western epics in television history " and compared it favorably to the more well @-@ known sci @-@ fi / Western shows , Firefly and The Wild Wild West . In its 2006 gift guide , the Christian Science Monitor gave Brisco a positive review , saying , " Folks , there are so few comic sci @-@ fi / Westerns , they should be celebrated , not canceled prematurely . "
= = Broadcast history = =
The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr . , premiered on the Fox network at 8 : 00 pm on Friday , August 27 , 1993 , with a two @-@ hour pilot movie . To bolster viewer interest in the show , Fox rebroadcast the pilot two days later at 7 : 00 pm . Both airings of the pilot returned strong ratings . Brisco 's ratings for the pilot and first episode were high , particularly with the demographic of adults aged 18 – 49 . The series was aired in Canada , including on Global Toronto ( channel 29 ) .
The pilot movie was followed by 26 episodes , each 45 minutes long and airing at 8 : 00 pm on Fridays . Fox Entertainment chief Sandy Grushaw openly touted Brisco and its star Bruce Campbell . The network fully expected the show to be its breakout hit of the year , a distinction which eventually went to Brisco 's follow @-@ up , The X @-@ Files . Hoping that more viewers would follow Brisco as it progressed , Fox approved producing an entire season of the show , despite post @-@ pilot low ratings . Subsequent episodes failed to attract more viewers and the show was cancelled at end of its first and only season . After the series ended , Fox retransmitted the show on Sunday nights at 8 : 00 pm during July and August 1994 . The show was later broadcast for a short time in syndication , airing on the U.S. cable channel TNT .
= = = Episodes = = =
= = = Cancellation = = =
As the season progressed , the ratings declined , greatly hurting the show 's chances of being renewed . Writer John McNamara partially blamed Brisco 's low ratings on its Friday 8 : 00 p.m. time slot . He said not many people watch television at that time , so " fighting for numbers " then was " like being stuck on Normandy beach " . Grushaw acknowledged the high quality of the show and the vocal support from its small fan base . " Obviously the viewers are very passionate about the show ... and when you read some of the things they have to say , it gives you real pause , " Grushaw told USA Today in 1994 . By May of that year , Grushaw said renewing Brisco was a 50 – 50 call . At the end of its season , Brisco was one of the lowest rated shows of the year , and Fox confirmed its cancellation in June .
Brisco 's writers were planning for another season before the show 's cancellation . They had not penned the ending of the first season as a finale for the series and had broad ideas for the second season , which would have featured Brisco settling in as the sheriff of a small town . In his autobiography , Campbell mused , " To explain why a TV show is canceled is almost impossible . Ironically Brisco , with its off @-@ kilter humor , wouldn 't have been developed on any other network , yet the appeal of ' Westerns ' was still rural – not the side Fox 's urban bread was buttered on . "
Writer and supervising producer Brad Kern reflected on the show 's cancellation , saying , " Ten years later , everybody you talk to ... they all love the show . I think that was the biggest disappointment about the show not coming back . We knew we were doing something special . " Told of the show 's success in the TV Guide " Save Our Shows " poll , Sandy Grushow said , " Obviously I 'm happy and not entirely surprised , " but added , " You can 't dismiss a season 's worth of ratings . " Kim Manners , director on nearly a third of the Brisco episodes , said working on the series gave him an opportunity to grow creatively . He told writer Joe Nazzaro , " It really woke me up as a director , almost spiritually , " and that directing for Brisco was a large contributing factor to his success as a regular director on The X @-@ Files . Manners said , " When they didn 't give it a second year , I was devastated , " adding that he wished Cuse would have made a feature film based on Brisco . Considering the show 's short life , Cuse later commented , " If the show could have survived into a second season , I think it could have ended up running for actually a long time . Some shows just sort of fall through the cracks in the right away and they kind of stay on the air long enough to aggregate an audience . I think if circumstances had been different , Brisco could have had a much longer life . " Cuse also said the Friday night time slot hurt Brisco 's chances of building an audience , saying , " We were on at 8 p.m. on Friday night , which is sort of a death slot – I mean people do still go bowling – few shows have succeeded in that slot . "
= = Home media = =
In 2005 , Kirthana Ramisetti of Entertainment Weekly posted that The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr . , deserved to be released on DVD . Gord Lacey , the creator of the website TVShowsonDVD.com , told the New York Daily News that Brisco was among the five most requested shows on the site . Lacey spent several years lobbying industry contacts to get Brisco released on DVD . This led to correspondence with Cuse , who also wanted to get a DVD set produced . On July 18 , 2006 , Warner Home Video released The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr . : The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1 , an 8 @-@ disc DVD set that contains all 27 episodes of the series . The release includes commentary tracks from Campbell and Cuse ; an interactive menu of Brisco 's signature references narrated by Campbell ; The History of Brisco County , Jr . , documentary ; a feature called A Reading from the Book of Bruce ; and another gallery hosted by Campbell focusing on the gadgets from the show .
= California State Route 282 =
State Route 282 ( SR 282 ) is an east – west state highway entirely within the city of Coronado , California . It is a spur of SR 75 and connects the rest of the state highway system with Naval Air Station North Island . The road is part of a link connecting to the metropolitan area of San Diego via SR 75 and the Coronado Bay Bridge . The entire route uses a one @-@ way couplet , with Third Street in the westbound direction and Fourth Street in the eastbound direction .
Third and Fourth streets , as part of the Coronado street system , have existed since the 19th century , and were paved in the early 20th century . SR 282 was designated in 1968 , around the time the San Diego – Coronado Bridge was opened . Attempts to build first a highway , and later a tunnel , to allow base traffic to bypass the Coronado city streets , were rejected by voters in 1974 and 2010 , respectively .
= = Route description = =
SR 282 begins at Alameda Boulevard as a one @-@ way couplet consisting of Third and Fourth streets . The portion of Alameda Boulevard between Third and Fourth streets is also part of SR 282 westbound . McCain Boulevard and Tow Way continue west from the Fourth and Third street intersections with Alameda Boulevard into Naval Air Station North Island , respectively . Third and Fourth streets continue through the intersections of I – J avenues , Palm Avenue , and D – H avenues , passing through a residential area . Third Street goes by Palm Park , and Fourth Street by Triangle Park ; both are at the intersections with Palm Avenue . SR 282 travels slightly southeast towards its terminus at SR 75 ( Orange Avenue ) .
SR 282 is part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2013 , SR 282 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 13 @,@ 300 on Fourth Avenue between J Avenue and Alameda Boulevard , and 24 @,@ 200 on Alameda Boulevard between Third and Fourth Streets , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
The intersection of Third Street and Orange Avenue dates back to at least 1890 . Coronado began to commission the paving of much of its street system in the early 1910s . In November 1911 , the board of trustees in Coronado approved the paving of Third Street from Orange Avenue to what was K Avenue . It soon became the goal of the city to have all streets paved before the 1915 San Diego World Exposition . The streets west of Orange Avenue were to be handled in one contract , using " decomposed granite and oil . " Third Street had already been paved with this material by 1913 .
SR 282 was initially designated in 1967 solely along Fourth Street from SR 75 to the Naval Air Station ; however , it was not to be in effect until the San Diego – Coronado Bridge was completed . Nevertheless , before the bridge opened , the designation was added in the 1968 legislative session , along with the portion of Orange Avenue from the Coronado Ferry landing to Fourth Street , which was to be removed once the Coronado Bay Bridge opened . The designation came into effect on February 21 , 1969 . In April , plans were under way to repave Fourth and Third Streets and add signals at the Orange Avenue intersections . The bridge opened on August 3 , 1969 . In September , the City of Coronado added Third Street as a truck route going westbound to the base , in addition to the already @-@ existing Fourth Street truck route leaving the base .
In 1974 , Proposition N was proposed to attempt to resolve concerns regarding traffic in Coronado . The plan was to build another highway along the northern and eastern shore of Coronado Island , to bypass the busy residential and commercial districts and provide easy access to the North Island Naval Air Station from the western end of the bridge . The proposition asked voters whether the City Council should " actively pursue " the matter . Previous proposals had included widening Fourth Street to be able to handle traffic in both directions . Critics contended that the highway would block the view of the San Diego Bay . Coronado Mayor Rolland McNelly opposed the proposal in early November 1974 as it would require approval from over 30 government agencies and would force the city to continue with it , although some declared the road " impossible to build . " The voters rejected this plan , and the City Council then voted to keep traffic along Third and Fourth streets , closing the gate at First and Second streets . The bridge and the resulting traffic continued to be a hotly debated issue in the early 1980s . A plan in 1981 to convert Fourth Street into an expressway leading to the naval station was strongly opposed by the public due to the required demolition of structures and a lack of evidence that the plan would succeed in reducing traffic ; by this time , Third and Fourth streets had been converted into one @-@ way streets between the bridge and the naval station .
In April 2006 , the Navy commenced construction on an entrance to the Naval Air Station from the intersection of Third Street and Alameda Boulevard . The new entrance was completed in July 2007 , and the existing entrance and exit on Fourth Street was made an exit @-@ only station . Before then , traffic entering the base had to continue southwest on Alameda Boulevard , making a left on Fourth Street . This change was expected to reduce congestion in downtown Coronado .
The City of Coronado has attempted to have a tunnel built from the Coronado bridge to the San Diego Naval Base numerous times , and hired Ledford Enterprises to help with the lobbying process in 2002 and 2006 . The city endorsed a proposed study in 2004 to determine possible alternatives to resolve the traffic issues , which included keeping the status quo . On June 8 , 2010 , Coronado voters decided against Proposition H , which would have advised the city to undergo further investigation into building a tunnel between the Coronado bridge and the San Diego Naval Base . This concluded ten years of studies and proposals by the city of Coronado to find a way to reduce traffic to the naval station during rush hour . Critics of the proposal did not believe that the tunnel would resolve the traffic issues . Following this , the Coronado City Council voted to abolish the Tunnel Commission .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Coronado , San Diego County .
= Marc Ravalomanana =
Marc Ravalomanana , GCSK ( Malagasy : [ raˌvaluˈmananə ̥ ] ) ( born 12 December 1949 ) is a Malagasy politician who was the President of Madagascar from 2002 to 2009 . Born into a farming Merina family in Imerinkasinina , near the capital city of Antananarivo , Ravalomanana first rose to prominence as the founder and CEO of the vast dairy conglomerate TIKO , later launching successful wholesaler MAGRO and several additional companies .
He entered politics upon founding the Tiako Iarivo political party in 1999 and successfully ran for the position of mayor of Antananarivo , holding the position from 1999 to 2001 . As mayor he improved sanitary and security conditions in the city . In August 2001 he announced his candidacy as an independent in the December 2001 presidential election . He then took office as President in 2002 amidst a dispute over election results in which he successfully pressed his claim to have won a majority in the first round . Under the leadership of Jacques Sylla , Ravalomanana 's Prime Minister from 2002 to 2007 , the political party Tiako i Madagasikara ( TIM ) was founded in 2002 to support Ravalomanana 's presidency and came to dominate legislative and local elections . He was re @-@ elected in December 2006 , again with a majority in the first round .
During Ravalomanana 's presidency , Madagascar made significant advances toward development targets and experienced an average of seven per cent growth per year . His administration oversaw the construction of thousands of new schools and health clinics . Road rehabilitation aided in improving rural farmers ' access to markets . The establishment of the independent anti @-@ corruption agency BIANCO , and the adoption of diverse supporting policies resulted in a decline in government corruption . The acreage of natural areas under protection expanded in fulfillment of Ravalomanana 's " Madagascar Naturally " development program . The 2007 release of Ravalomanana 's comprehensive development strategy , the Madagascar Action Plan , set targets and goals for national development over his second term in the areas of governance , infrastructure , agriculture , health , economy , environment and national solidarity .
Opposition members criticized Ravalomanana in the later period of his presidency , accusing him of increasing authoritarianism and the mixing of public and private interests . In addition , the benefits of the country 's growth were not evenly spread , leading to increased wealth inequality , inflation and a decline in purchasing power for the lower and middle classes . In 2008 a controversial land lease agreement with Korean agricultural firm Daewoo , the purchase of a costly presidential jet and the closure of media channels owned by opposition leader and mayor of Antananarivo , Andry Rajoelina , strengthened popular disapproval of his policies . Rajoelina rallied popular support for the opposition , leading to a popular uprising that began in January 2009 and ended two months later with Ravalomanana 's resignation under pressure and Rajoelina taking control with military support in a power transfer viewed by the international community as a coup d 'état .
From 2009 to 2012 Ravalomanana lived in exile in South Africa , where he was engaged in active negotiations with Rajoelina and former heads of state Albert Zafy and Didier Ratsiraka to organize national elections . In December 2012 he declared he would not present himself as a candidate , then a precondition to the elections being viewed as legitimate by the international community . TGV candidate Hery Rajaonarimampianina was elected president in January 2014 , defeating Jean @-@ Louis Robinson , the candidate of Marc Ravalomanana 's camp . Upon attempting to return to Madagascar in October 2014 he was arrested , having been sentenced in absentia to lifelong hard labour for abuses of power by the Rajoelina administration . After his sentence was lifted and he was freed from house arrest in May 2015 , Ravalomanana announced the re @-@ opening of the Tiko business group and was re @-@ elected the president of TIM .
= = Early years = =
The youngest of eight siblings , Marc Ravalomanana was born on 12 December 1949 to a farming family of humble means in the village of Imerinkasinina , 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) east of Antananarivo in Manjakandriana District . Ravalomanana 's parents worked as peddlers before opening a small shop in a rural village in Tamatave Province . Anticipating the regional violence that erupted during the 1947 Malagasy Uprising against French colonial rule , the family relocated to a village near their ancestral lands outside Antananarivo . Once resettled in the highlands , Ravalomanana 's mother worked as a seamstress in addition to assisting her husband with farming their land .
Ravalomanana 's family origins are Merina , the island 's largest and most politically prominent ethnic group . The Ravalomanana family tomb is outside the historic walls of the village , a placement that would typically indicate the family 's origins lie with the hova ( commoners ' caste ) , rather than the andriana — the traditional ruling caste among the Merina that continues to exert considerable influence over political affairs in modern Madagascar . His later entry into the political sphere has made the question of his caste background one of popular interest and ongoing debate among the Malagasy public and press . Biographer Vivier ( 2007 ) maintains that the Ravalomanana family is andriana in origin .
From a young age he regularly attended the Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar ( FJKM ) , a Reformed Protestant church and , with 2 @.@ 5 million adherents , the most important religious association in Madagascar . As a youth he sang in the choir and later taught catechism .
From age five he began attending Anjeva public primary school , located 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from Imerinkasinina . He walked this distance daily , often departing early with baskets of watercress to sell to train passengers at the nearby station . He completed his upper primary schooling at the Protestant missionary @-@ run Vinet private school in Ambohimalaza , where his mother arranged for him to live with a host family . After completing his primary studies he attended the Swedish missionary @-@ run technical secondary school in Ambatomanga . He lived with one of his brothers and began producing and selling yogurt in individual serving pots to local villagers and students as a means to subsidize his studies . During this time he met his future wife , Lalao Rakotonirainy , a classmate at the secondary school . In 1972 , in a climate of increasing political instability and widespread school @-@ based protests against the Tsiranana administration , Ravalomanana dropped out of the school 's eleventh grade program at the age of 23 ; he then pursued further technical training in Fianarantsoa . He participated in NGO @-@ sponsored entrepreneurship training in Sweden and Germany , and business studies in Denmark underwritten by the Danish ambassador . After returning to Madagascar , he wed Lalao on 12 November 1974 ; their marriage produced one daughter and three sons .
= = Entrepreneur = =
Upon completing his studies , Ravalomanana returned to Manjakandriana District , where he and his family began making and selling homemade yogurts , a common artisanal product in the highlands region . On his bicycle , he collected milk from farmers in neighboring towns , gradually increasing his production and clientele . He opened his first yogurt and cheese production center in 1977 in Sambaina on land he named Rova @-@ Tiko ( " Tiko Palace " ) , where he would build the first Tiko factory several years later . His wife handled the administrative and accounting side of the business from Ankadivato , where the storage facility for finished products was located . By the end of the 1970s , Ravalomanana 's dairy business employed five salaried staff members and was distributing its products in stores across Antananarivo .
Ravalomanana solicited a loan from the Agence Française de Développement to further expand his business , but this request was denied , souring his view of France . His subsequent request to the World Bank for 1 @.@ 5 million US dollars was approved , and in 1982 he founded the Tiko company . The representative of the World Bank to Madagascar at the time , José Broffman , secured the loan with exceptionally favorable reimbursement conditions that enabled Ravalomanana to sell his products at a lower cost than other small dairy producers , which gradually put his most significant competitors out of business . Broffman later left his post at the World Bank to become a principal investor in the company , joined by private investors from South Africa , Germany and the United States . As Tiko continued to grow , the entrepreneur began incorporating imported ingredients such as powdered milk from South Africa ( constituting 80 per cent of the composition of Tiko dairy products ) and surplus butter from Europe , further improving the profitability of his business and enabling additional diversification . Tiko Group first concentrated exclusively on the production of dairy products before expanding into fruit juices , ice cream , cooking oil and carbonated beverages . The Tiko slogan printed on many of the group 's products , Vita Malagasy ( " Made in Madagascar " ) , reflected Ravalomanana 's national pride and his vision that Madagascar should develop a larger capacity to produce quality goods for distribution for national and international markets .
Ravalomanana cultivated political relationships to facilitate the continued growth of Tiko in spite of an economic climate non @-@ conducive to free enterprise under the Socialist administration of Ratsiraka . Early support in the 1980s came from the Supreme Counselor of the Revolution Manandafy Rakotonirina , then @-@ Minister of Finance Rakotovao Razakaboana , and another minister , Justin Rarivoson . By the mid @-@ 1980s , the profitability of his Tiko enterprise enabled Ravalomanana to purchase a costly villa formerly owned by French colonial governor Leon Reallon in the central Faravohitra neighborhood of Antananarivo .
In 1997 , under the pretext of concern about mad cow disease , Ratsiraka obstructed Ravalomanana 's plans to build a farm stocked with imported high @-@ yield milk cows . Ravalomanana overcame the objection by breeding high @-@ yield cows locally , thereby further boosting Tiko production . Later that same year , Ratsiraka 's daughters began competing with Tiko by importing and reselling vegetable oil under the brand name " Eden " . When Norbert Ratsirahonana declared himself a candidate in the 1997 presidential elections against Ratsiraka and Albert Zafy , Ravalomanana provided significant financial contributions to the Ratsirahonana campaign in return for tax exemptions on his edible oil products for a period of five years . The profits he consequently earned were reinvested to create the Magro wholesale company in 1998 . By 2001 , over a dozen principal warehouses throughout the country enabled widespread distribution of Tiko products to urban and rural areas , with a flagship warehouse in the Akorandrano neighborhood of Antananarivo .
The Ratsiraka administration launched an inquiry into Tiko business practices in September 2000 and issued an executive decision in June 2001 that the company should be shut down for failure to adhere to a 1996 agreement requiring Tiko to create jobs and produce low @-@ cost vegetable oil ; this ruling was overturned by the Supreme Court on 16 October 2002 . A number of lawsuits have been filed over Ravalomanana 's business practices , including a court judgment on the eve of the 2001 presidential election requiring the payment of between 200 and 363 billion Malagasy francs in Tiko back taxes , but all were either dismissed or ended in an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement ; none resulted in a criminal conviction .
At its height during the period of Ravalomanana 's presidency , Tiko provided direct salaried employment to between 1 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 staff and indirect employment to over 10 @,@ 000 . The group was the largest dairy producer in the country and a leader in the national agribusiness sector . The success of his enterprises made Ravalomanana a wealthy man . In the mandatory self @-@ disclosure of wealth submitted to the High Constitutional Court in 2000 by all presidential candidates , Ravalomanana declared ownership of 27 properties valued at over two billion Malagasy francs . He owned 90 per cent of Tiko Inc . , 80 per cent of Tiko Agri and 50 per cent of Tiko Oil Products , a portfolio worth 13 @.@ 1 billion Malagasy francs , and declared 77 million Malagasy francs in annual revenues . Vivier ( 2007 ) demonstrates that the valuation of Ravalomanana 's holdings and his annual revenue in particular were significantly underestimated .
= = Mayor of Antananarivo = =
In 1999 , Ravalomanana decided to register as an independent candidate in the Antananarivo mayoral election rather than finance a representative from another party . The president of the Judged By Your Work Party ( AVI ) , Norbert Lala Ratsirahonana , had met the entrepreneur several years prior in relation to Tiko business matters . The two discussed the possibility that Ravalomanana could run as an AVI candidate , but this idea was abandoned . His principal opponent , former Prime Minister Guy Willy Razanamasy of the Association for the Rebirth of Madagascar ( AREMA party ) , suffered from low popularity , leading Ratsiraka to tacitly support Ravalomanana 's candidature against the representative of his own party . By contrast , Ravalomanana was an unknown , attracting attention primarily for his considerable success in employment and wealth creation through Tiko , and his esteemed role as Vice President of the Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar , which was vocal in its support for the candidate .
Supporters among Ravalomanana 's high @-@ level Tiko staff established a group to promote his campaign , which he named Tiako Iarivo ( " I Love Antananarivo " ) . The candidate spent over 700 million Malagasy francs on the campaign , drawn from the proceeds of his business and private donations . His campaign staff widely distributed promotional posters featuring the candidate 's face , name and slogan , and handed out free Tiko yogurts and boxes of milk to the public . Ravalomanana 's campaign posters often featured the Tiko logo and images of the candidate riding a bicycle laden with milk canisters to play on his image as a simple and poor farmer who , through intelligence , determination and responsible management , succeeded in developing a thriving business and would apply these same skills to develop the capital city . The Ravalomanana campaign received support on the basis of his evident success as a manager , his leadership in the Christian community and his non @-@ alignment with Ratsiraka 's AREMA party , as well as his relative youthfulness and physical attractiveness to female voters . The campaign opened on 2 November 1999 , and by 8 November Ravalomanana held a led in the polls . In the 14 November municipal elections , Ravalomanana was elected mayor of Antananarivo with 45 per cent of the votes .
Upon being elected mayor , Ravalomanana prioritized sanitation , security and public administration in the capital city . Provided a budget of approximately 11 million US dollars to manage Antananarivo , Ravalomanana took initiative to secure additional funds . He established a bank account for public and business contributions to city improvement projects , raising over $ 700 @,@ 000 in six months . He obtained funds from international donors to establish garbage collection and disposal systems , restore dilapidated infrastructure such as roads and marketplaces and replant public gardens . He received regular guidance and council from Kurt Schmoke , recently Mayor of Baltimore , Maryland , with whom he had developed a friendship through his biannual business trips to the United States as CEO of Tiko . To improve sanitation conditions in the city , he constructed public latrines in densely populated or highly frequented areas . During his tenure , construction in the capital increased sharply , with twelve new supermarkets constructed in two years . Ravalomanana launched an initiative to install or repair street lights throughout the city to improve nighttime safety . He increased the number of police officers on the streets , leading to a drop in crime . His relationship with President Ratsiraka remained good through his early tenure as mayor , although his decision on 28 June 2001 to eliminate " red zones " – areas of the city where public assembly and protests were prohibited – provoked Ratsiraka 's strong disapproval .
In an August 2000 interview with the San Francisco Chronicle , Ravalomanana expressed the belief that development in Madagascar would require greater personal responsibility among the Malagasy populace , a better business environment , environmental protection and reduced corruption . In response to increasing media speculation that he could be a strong candidate for the presidency , he stated that he was ambivalent toward the prospect , declaring " I miss the freedom of business , the ease of getting things done . "
= = Presidency = =
= = = Presidential election of 2001 = = =
On 5 August 2001 , in front of the FJKM church in his village of birth , Ravalomanana announced his intent to run for President in the election to be held on 16 December . His campaign promoted his image as a self @-@ made man who would draw upon his business acumen to develop the country and played upon his relative youth ( he was then aged 52 ) and his non @-@ alliance with the elderly " political dinosaurs " who had dominated politics over the previous three decades . His humble origins as a village farmer inspired support among rural voters , who made up over four @-@ fifths of the population . He was seen as the embodiment of the meritocracy many voters wished to see established in Madagascar in place of corrupt power networks dominated by nepotism . The Counsel of Christian Churches of Madagascar ( FFKM ) rallied behind Ravalomanana , whose electoral slogan was " Don 't be afraid , but have faith . " Ravalomanana received counsel and support for his campaign from the former mayor of Baltimore and a director of former US President Bill Clinton 's campaign .
Ravalomanana 's announcement sparked retaliatory actions by the Ratsiraka administration , resulting in frequent defamatory attacks in the press and a court judgment fining him 300 billion Malagasy francs ( 55 @.@ 6 million Euros ) in unpaid back taxes , and two other lawsuits in relation to his management of Tiko , which were later settled out of court . These attacks were denounced by spokesmen for Ravalomanana 's campaign support network , Tiako iMadagasikara ( TIM ) , and in speeches the candidate delivered in urban and rural areas across the island , with travel made possible by his considerable personal wealth and the airplane and seven distribution helicopters registered to Tiko . Tiko distribution channels were used to distribute posters , baseball caps , tee @-@ shirts and other promotional materials .
October 2001 polls showed Ravalomanana ahead of Ratsiraka . Following the December election , official results put Ravalomanana in first place , with 46 per cent , against Ratsiraka 's 40 per cent ; without a majority , a run @-@ off would be required between the two candidates . Ravalomanana , claiming to have won a majority in the first round , refused to participate in a run @-@ off , instead demanding that the High Constitutional Court review the votes . Ratsiraka 's supporters then blockaded the capital , which Ravalomanana 's supporters controlled . Ravalomanana declared himself president on 22 February 2002 . After a recount , on 29 April 2002 the High Constitutional Court pronounced Ravalomanana the winner of an absolute majority in the first round of the election , and he was sworn in on 6 May . Ravalomanana dispatched soldiers to bring pockets of resistance under control , with incidents of unrest continuing until Ratsiraka fled into exile on 5 July 2002 after losing control of most of the country
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vast warehouses and repair war time bomb damage . Structural surveys carried out by the MDC found the brickwork and foundations to be in very good condition and it was considered a testament to the strict build quality of Hartley 's design that a building almost 150 years old was still in such good condition .
Development within the Albert Dock was rapid and the newly renovated Edward Pavilion ( formerly north east stack ) was ready in time for the 1984 Cutty Sark Tall Ship Race . The race was a big success for the city with over one million visitors into Liverpool over a period of four days , of which 160 @,@ 000 visited the Albert Dock . In total it is estimated that the two flagship regeneration schemes of the MDC , the tall ships race and International Garden Festival , attracted over 3 @.@ 5 million visitors to Liverpool in 1984 . Also completed in 1984 was the renovation of the dock traffic office , which was fitted out and leased to Granada Television .
Spurred by the success of the tall ships race and the International Garden Festival , Arrowcroft pushed on with the Albert Dock 's renovation . With the Edward Pavilion refurbishment a success soon the company started on the Britannia and Atlantic pavilions ( formerly the south and south east stacks ) , the latter of which required major structural repairs because of bomb damage it received during World War II . In 1986 the Merseyside Maritime Museum completed its move into the Albert Dock , having moved some exhibitions into the building in 1984 . The museum , developed by Merseyside County Council had previously been located in the pilotage building and a salvage shed nearby . Also in 1986 work began on the largest of the dock warehouses , the Colonnades ( formerly west stack ) . Ground floor shops were created with office space on the mezzanine level and apartments on the remaining floors . The first 37 of these apartments were completed by 1988 and the speed with which they sold was likened to ' sales day at Harrods ' .
The Albert Dock was officially re @-@ opened in 1988 by The Prince of Wales , the great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Prince Albert , the man who had originally opened the docks . It was timed to coincide with the opening of the newly finished Tate Liverpool , which was dubbed the ' Tate of the north ' and at the time the only one outside London . The decision to locate a Tate gallery in Liverpool was seen as a major success for the city , as it made Liverpool home to the National Collection of modern art in the North of England .
In 1988 ITV 's new morning television show This Morning , hosted by Richard and Judy , began broadcasting from a studio inside the Albert Dock . As part of the show weather presenter Fred Talbot used a floating map of the British Isles to report the forecast . Two years later in 1990 The Beatles Story museum opened , the only Beatles themed visitor attraction in Britain , providing yet another draw to the Albert Dock .
Throughout the 1990s development continued including a new hotel and the conversion of vacant space for use by larger companies such as Telewest ( Now Virgin Media ) . Finally in 2003 , some 22 years after the renovation of the Albert Dock started , the last remaining undeveloped space was brought into use with the opening of a new Premier Lodge hotel in the Britannia Pavilion .
= = Structural design and construction = =
When it was constructed the Albert Dock was considered a state of the art docking system . Built almost entirely from cast iron , stone and brick , the Albert Dock was designed to be fireproof , and on completion was the world 's first non @-@ combustible warehouse system . It provided 1 @,@ 290 @,@ 000 square feet ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) of warehouse space and its dock basin had a water area of 7 @.@ 75 acres ( 3 @.@ 14 ha ) . In its construction over 23 million bricks were used and 47 @,@ 000 tonnes of mortar . In total it cost £ 782 @,@ 265 ( approximately £ 41m today ) , whilst today its estimated to be worth £ 230 million .
The building 's design complements many existing construction techniques with , what were considered at the time , radical solutions . The warehouses are supported by large load @-@ bearing walls that range from being 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick at the base to 19 inches ( 480 mm ) on the fourth level . One of the most advanced architectural features is the use of stressed skin roofing , which at the time of construction was virtually unheard of . Huge iron trusses are crossed with rivetted and galvanised wrought iron plates , creating a shape similar to an upturned boat hull that acts to support the roof above . The floors in the warehouses are supported by large iron columns and the spaces between were considered ' highly flexible ' , as new windows , stairwells and lift shafts could be added without risk to the building 's structural integrity .
The advanced design stretches far beyond what can be seen from the ground . The structures are free from wood , but their foundations contain 13 @,@ 729 piles of timber , which would stretch for 48 miles ( 77 km ) in length if laid end to end . Such heavily supportive foundations were needed because the construction land was reclaimed from the River Mersey to build on . Given the ' quicksand ' nature of the Mersey 's tidal silt the piles were needed to provide maximum stability . The resultant effect of the dock being constructed where it was is that the north and west stacks ( now Merseyside Maritime Museum and Colonnades ) rise and fall with every tide .
One of the most notable features of the Albert Dock are the huge cast iron columns that line the quayside . At 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high and almost 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) in circumference , the columns are based upon the Greek Doric style of architecture . Hartley 's decision to use cast iron was an economic one as at the time it was cheaper than granite . Nonetheless , because of the huge dock walls that were built , the Albert Dock 's construction required so much granite that the dock trustee 's had to open their own mine in Kirkcudbrightshire in Scotland . The quality of the build materials used as well as the docks sheer size are considered a strong illustration of the great prosperity that the Port of Liverpool afforded the city at the time and the building 's style is described as cyclopean classicism .
= = Albert Dock today = =
Today the Albert Dock is one of Liverpool 's most important tourist attractions and a vital component of the city 's UNESCO world heritage Maritime Mercantile City . As well as being the number one tourist attraction in Liverpool , the Albert Dock is also the most visited multi @-@ use attraction in the United Kingdom outside London , with in excess of four million visitors per year . Amongst the many attractions at the Albert Dock are the Merseyside Maritime Museum , the Beatles Story and the Tate Liverpool . There are also two hotels within the Albert Dock : a Holiday Inn and Premier Inn both located in the Britannia Pavilion . All the five warehouses around the dock , referred to as A , B , C , D and E , are Grade I listed buildings . Also listed Grade I is the former dock traffic office . Other buildings around the dock are listed Grade II ; they are the former hydraulic pumping station , and the swing bridge leading from the dock towards the Pierhead . As at June 2009 Albert Dock 's north @-@ side car park and entrance from Mann Island is closed off and is a building site to build a new museum .
In the aftermath of the dock 's regeneration in the 1980s a policy had been adopted to try to attract retailers into the newly created premises within . However , after many years of struggling to compete with other major shopping areas in the city , the Albert Dock Company Ltd announced in 2007 a shift into attracting more bars and restaurants . As of 2008 , bars and restaurants resident in the Albert Dock include Panam Bar & Restaurant , Revolution Bar , Spice Lounge , Circo and Whats Cooking ?
= = Gallery = =
= Hamilton Disston =
Hamilton Disston ( August 23 , 1844 – April 30 , 1896 ) , was an industrialist and real @-@ estate developer who purchased four million acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km ² ) of Florida land in 1881 , an area larger than the state of Connecticut , and reportedly the most land ever purchased by a single person in world history . Disston was the son of Pennsylvania @-@ based industrialist Henry Disston who formed Disston & Sons Saw Works , which Hamilton later ran and which was one of the largest saw manufacturing companies in the world .
Hamilton Disston 's investment in the infrastructure of Florida spurred growth throughout the state . His related efforts to drain the Everglades triggered the state 's first land boom with numerous towns and cities established through the area . Disston 's land purchase and investments were directly responsible for creating or fostering the towns of Kissimmee , St. Cloud , Gulfport , Tarpon Springs , and indirectly aided the rapid growth of St. Petersburg , Florida . He furthermore oversaw the successful cultivation of rice and sugarcane near the Kissimmee area .
Although Disston 's engineered canals aided water transport and steamboat traffic in Florida , he was ultimately unsuccessful in draining the Kissimmee River floodplain or lowering the surface water around Lake Okeechobee and in the Everglades . He was forced to sell much of his investments at a fraction of their original costs . However , his land purchase primed Florida 's economy and allowed railroad magnates Henry Flagler and Henry Plant to build rail lines down the east coast of Florida , and another joining the west coast , which directly led to the domination of the tourist and citrus industries in Florida . Disston 's immediate impact was in the Philadelphia area , where he was active in Republican politics and a philanthropist , but his legacy is often associated with the draining and development of Florida .
= = Early life and business = =
Hamilton Disston was born in Philadelphia , the eldest son of nine children born to Mary Steelman and Henry Disston , an English immigrant and descendant of French nobility . Disston 's father was a successful industrialist who rose from being orphaned just days after arriving in the United States to running the Keystone Saw Works when Hamilton was a child . Henry Disston was responsible for multiple machining and saw patents , and in the spirit of Victorian @-@ era paternalism , envisioned and engineered a community around his steel factory in Tacony , Pennsylvania . After attending public school , Hamilton left at 15 years old , opting for an apprenticeship at the saw factory which , by that time , was a $ 500 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ year international venture . His father threatened to fire him for repeatedly leaving the factory to work for a volunteer fire department . Hamilton twice joined the Union Army only to have Henry purchase his release , but Hamilton organized a Company of saw factory employees during the Gettysburg Campaign . Henry finally agreed to support the " Disston Volunteers " financially .
After the American Civil War , Disston returned to work in his father 's factory as an executive . In 1878 , following the death of Henry Disston , Hamilton and his brothers Horace , William , and Jacob inherited the company which had been renamed to Henry Disston & Sons . Hamilton became the controlling member of the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ employee company and expanded production to 1 @.@ 4 million hacksaws and three million files per year . Only a month after Henry 's death , Hamilton gave President Rutherford B. Hayes a tour of the factory where an unshaped piece of steel was manufactured into a 26 @-@ inch ( 660 mm ) hand saw in only 42 minutes , and was presented to the president at the end of the tour — etched with his name .
While the saw manufacturing business continued growing , Disston branched out , investing in a chemical firm , a Chinese railroad , real estate in Atlantic City , New Jersey and mining in the western United States .
= = Disston Land Purchase = =
In the 1840s and 1850s , the sparsely populated state of Florida came to own approximately 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 61 @,@ 000 km2 ) of mostly swamp land , granted by the U.S. Congress to states with wetlands for the purpose of reclaiming the land under water by constructing canals and levees . In Florida , consolidated grants for the purpose of building rail infrastructure and reclaiming wetlands were placed in a trust called the Internal Improvement Fund of the State of Florida ( IIF ) . The trust fund was managed by the Governor of Florida and four state officials . The fund pledged land to railroad companies and guaranteed bonds issued by the railroad companies on the land . When the high costs associated with the American Civil War and Reconstruction caused railroad companies to default on the bonds , the fund became liable and rapidly sank into debt and eventually into Federal Court receivership . By the time Governor George Franklin Drew took office in 1877 , the fund was nearly $ 1 million in debt . The state constitution forbade issuing bonds to repay it ; investors were not interested in Florida , no rail lines were built , and progress in the state stalled .
In 1877 , diplomat Henry Shelton Sanford invited Disston , an avid sport fisherman , on a fishing trip through Florida . During the trip , Disston realized the possibility that enormous tracts of land could be reclaimed for agriculture by using canals to drain Florida 's Lake Okeechobee .
An application for foreclosure of the IIF and its land was filed in federal court in 1880 . Negotiations to relieve the debt were held with various potential investors , including Sanford and Alexander St. Clair @-@ Abrams , but did not come to fruition . Disston and five associates , meanwhile , entered into a land reclamation contract with the Internal Improvement Fund in January 1881 . The contract stipulated that Disston and associates would be deeded half of whatever land his Atlantic and Gulf Coast Canal and Okeechobee Land Company reclaimed around Lake Okeechobee , the Kissimmee , Caloosahatchee and Miami Rivers . Congressman and Disston family friend , William D. " Pig Iron " Kelley , described Disston 's first contract : " He instituted broad preliminary investigations from which he received satisfactory reports ; he surveyed the entire field of the proposed work , and with Napoleonic instinct and foresight saw in the proposition an opportunity to promote his country 's welfare by the reclamation of a more than kingly domain .
Disston stood to gain up to 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 49 @,@ 000 km2 ) with his drainage contract , although it would displace numerous squatters . Florida 's Armed Occupation Act of 1842 had granted land to squatters in order to force the local Seminole Indians off the land , but Disston 's contract would force the squatters off any land that Disston could show was submerged . The drainage contract , however , was in jeopardy because it did not affect the massive debt bearing down on the Internal Improvement Fund . Court orders related to the debt threatened to derail the contract so Governor William D. Bloxham visited Disston in Philadelphia to persuade him to relieve the debt . During the visit , Disston tentatively agreed to purchase four million acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km ² ) of Internal Improvement Fund land for 25 cents per acre , an agreement which became a formal contract on June 1 , 1881 . Disston signed the contract on June 14 and The New York Times described the transaction with , " What is claimed to be the largest purchase of land ever made by a single person in the world " . It made him the largest landowner in the United States . On December 17 , 1881 , Disston sold two million acres ( 8 @,@ 000 km ² ) of his land to English Member of Parliament , Sir Edward James Reed , for $ 600 @,@ 000 .
= = Promotion and politics = =
While some in Florida disapproved of the sale for giving away the land too cheaply , it had positive effects . In the four years following Disston 's purchase , four times as many rail lines were added than the 20 preceding years . Land sales multiplied six times after the sale and the state 's taxable property value doubled . Around 150 @,@ 000 tourists came to Florida during the winter of 1884 alone .
To lure people to Florida , Disston opened real estate offices across America as well as England , Scotland , Germany , Italy , Sweden and Denmark . He promoted himself as owning two @-@ thirds of the entire state . These efforts drew people to the Orlando area ; and the major cities of Sarasota and Naples , Florida grew out of land sold by Disston . Fort Myers became the base of his Caloosahatchee River dredging efforts and its population rapidly increased . Disston 's headquarters were on the shores of Lake Tohopekaliga and became the city of Kissimmee .
Disston " recreationed " in politics , starting as early as 1876 in local issues . He and three other industrialists in Philadelphia — James McManes , William Leeds , and David Lane — were known as the " Big Four " , controlling Republican nominations and appointments to city positions in a machine system until new political bosses replaced them in 1890 . His wealth allowed him to associate with tycoons and political celebrities , and he was often sought after to advise politicians though he refused to run for office . He publicly supported future president Benjamin Harrison , Congressman William D. Kelley , and political boss Matthew Quay .
In 1883 , he arranged for President Chester A. Arthur , a fellow Republican , to take a fishing trip to Kissimmee as part of a large publicity campaign for the city . Disston founded a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 81 km2 ) sugarcane plantation , out of which sprang the city of St. Cloud . Refineries for the plantation were constructed in Kissimmee and near Lake Okeechobee .
The key to Disston 's Florida plans was a massive dredging effort to drain the Kissimmee River floodplain that flows into Lake Okeechobee , to remove the surface water in the Everglades and the surrounding lands regardless of season . The canals were engineered to guide the overflow of Lake Okeechobee into the St. Lucie River and then into the Atlantic Ocean in the east ; the Caloosahatchee River overflow was directed to the Gulf of Mexico in the west , and eventually canals were to be constructed south through the Everglades . Disston was advised to begin with a large canal connecting Lake Okeechobee with the St. Lucie but the prohibitive costs forced him to begin with smaller dredging operations to straighten the Kissimmee River and to connect Lake Okeechobee with the Caloosahatchee . Dredging commenced around Lake Okeechobee during the winter of 1881 – 1882 . In June 1883 , a report concluded that the Kissimmee valley was indeed drying up as Disston planned , and another report a year later reported further drainage with nearly 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 12 @,@ 000 km2 ) of reclaimed land credited to Disston .
= = Disston City = =
In addition to dredging , Disston 's plans included the creation of a major city in the Tampa Bay area to rival the budding city of Tampa . By 1884 , he established the Lake Butler Villa Company , one of four land companies he operated . Disston founded the town of Tarpon Springs , much of which was built by Lake Butler Villa Company , including a commercial pier and two hotels , using lumber from his sawmill in Atlantic City , New Jersey . After deciding that Tarpon Springs would not become the metropolis he hoped for , Disston shifted his efforts south and established a town he called Disston City . He invested heavily in steamboats and built a wharf , a school , and the area 's first hotel . In 1885 , a Maryland doctor declared the area to be the healthiest in the world which drew many investors and developers including F. A. Davis , who partnered with Disston 's brother , Jacob , in further developing the Pinellas peninsula , where Pinellas County was established .
In the mid @-@ 1880s , Russian developer Peter Demens was building the Orange Belt Railway across central Florida with a planned western terminus in the Tampa Bay area . On December 1 , 1886 , Disston offered Demens approximately 60 @,@ 000 acres ( 240 km2 ) of land to stretch his railroad to Disston City . Demens countered with a demand of an additional 50 @,@ 000 acres ( 200 km2 ) but Disston refused , mistakenly believing that Disston City would thrive if the railroad merely came close to the area . Instead Demens terminated his railway at St. Petersburg , which he named after Saint Petersburg , his home city in Russia . While Disston City never met Disston 's expectations and became the small city of Gulfport , St. Petersburg reaped the rewards of Demens 's railway and became one of the largest cities in Florida .
= = Disappointment = =
Disston 's success at draining peninsular Florida quickly turned to disappointment . The positive report of his drainage results in 1883 was followed by a dreadful report in 1887 . While it still credited Disston with draining parts of the upper Kissimmee valley , it credited a drought with drying the area north of Lake Okeechobee . Meanwhile , Lake Okeechobee — which typically rises and falls seasonally , and is affected by the frequent flooding and droughts associate with the Florida climate — was inundated despite Disston 's canals , and the only canal out of the lake that Disston actually completed resulted in the Caloosahatchee River flooding the surrounding area . Furthermore , Disston 's planned canals to the east and south out of Lake Okeechobee had not materialized .
The 1887 commission concluded that Disston had received 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 900 km2 ) which he had not earned . Disston , however , reached a compromise whereby he would keep land that he had been given in return for spending $ 200 @,@ 000 to improve drainage including improving the flow of the canals he had already dug . In total , he dug over 80 miles ( 130 km ) of canals and received 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 500 km2 ) of land under the terms of his first drainage contract of January 1881 . Although he never finished his canal plans for Lake Okeechobee , and the Everglades remained relatively unaffected by the structures intended to drain them , he was formally credited with reclaiming large portions of land and generally improving the drainage of peninsular Florida .
Regardless of the lack of success in Disston 's canals , the money he paid to the Internal Improvement Fund allowed other industrialists to take an interest in the development of Florida . In the early 1880s , railroad tycoon Henry Morrison Flagler spent a vacation in the town of St. Augustine , a brief distance south of Jacksonville , and , enchanted with it , decided to build an opulent hotel there . He extended the rail line — renaming it the Jacksonville , St. Augustine & Indian River Railway — to Daytona Beach , and then to Palm Beach . As the railroad was built , citrus farms followed , and Flagler constructed hotels down the east coast , envisioning a version of the French Riviera in Florida . A friendly competition developed between Flagler and another railroad magnate named Henry Bradley Plant . While Flagler oversaw the construction of rail lines and hotels along the east coast , Plant concentrated on extending the railroad from Sanford to Tampa , crossing the state and connecting the coasts . At the terminus of this line he built the exquisite Tampa Bay Hotel , opened in 1891 .
= = Death = =
Disston himself continued living in Disston City until more bad fortune prompted his return to Philadelphia . The financial Panic of 1893 , the Wilson @-@ Gorman Tariff Act of 1894 and two devastating freezes ( see Great Freeze for details ) caused financial difficulties and he mortgaged his Florida assets for $ 2 million .
On April 30 , 1896 , Disston had dinner with the mayor of Philadelphia and attended a theatre production with his wife in Philadelphia . The following morning , he was found dead at age 51 . Although some claim that Disston committed suicide in his bathtub with a self @-@ inflicted gunshot to the head , almost every obituary , as well as the official coroner 's report , stated that he died of heart disease in bed . The New York Times further reported that , several months before his death , Disston suffered from a bout of typhoid pneumonia .
He was poignantly mourned in Philadelphia as a benevolent employer of over 3 @,@ 000 and a rare businessman who treated his employees exceptionally well . The Chicago Tribune wrote that he was " peculiar in his ideas . His hand was always in his pocket and his influence always for his less successful fellow @-@ men to whom he took a fancy . " He was reported in 1889 to give $ 17 @,@ 000 in Christmas gifts to his employees . His philanthropy branched out in other areas as well . In 1882 he sponsored the immigration of approximately 40 or 50 Russian Jewish families and purchased homes for them , assuring they would settle in Pennsylvania .
At the time of his death , Disston 's estate was valued at $ 100 @,@ 000 but he also carried a $ 1 million life insurance policy , the second largest in the United States . His family had no interest in Florida and creditors foreclosed on his Florida mortgage four years after his death . Henry Flagler 's railroad reached a settlement of a little more than 500 people named Miami the year Disston died .
= = Personal = =
Disston was married with a son and two daughters , all of whom survived him . He was a Presbyterian and a Mason . He was described as a fun @-@ loving socialite as evidenced by a yacht he owned named Mischief . But he was also known as a hard @-@ working executive whose gentle facial features were balanced with intense eyes described by one reporter as : " like that of the great eagle in the cage at the Tampa Bay Hotel , that can look straight at the sun without a tear , or even a blink . "
= = Places named after Disston = =
Several places have been named after Disston in Pennsylvania and Florida such as :
Hamilton Disston School in Philadelphia .
Hamilton Disston School in Gulfport , Florida .
Lake Disston in Flagler County , Florida at 29 ° 17 ′ N 81 ° 23 ′ W.
Lake Disston in St. Petersburg , Florida at 27 ° 46 ′ 30 ″ N 82 ° 43 ′ 4 ″ W.
Disston Avenue in Tarpon Springs , Florida at 28 ° 8 ′ 8 ″ N 82 ° 44 ′ 54 ″ W.
Disston Avenue in Clermont , Florida at 28 ° 34 ′ 28 ″ N 81 ° 45 ′ 0 ″ W.
Disston Avenue in Tavares , Florida at 28 ° 48 ′ 27 ″ N 81 ° 43 ′ 29 ″ W.
Disston Street in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania
Disston Drive in St. Cloud , Florida at 28 ° 16 ′ 22 ″ N 81 ° 14 ′ 25 ″ W.
Disston Street in Tallahassee , FL https : / / maps.google.com / ? ll = 30 @.@ 46714 , -84.256856 & spn = 0 @.@ 49714 @,@ 0 @.@ 451813 & t = h & z = 11
= Northumberland Avenue =
Northumberland Avenue is a street in the City of Westminster , Central London , running from Trafalgar Square in the west to the Thames Embankment in the east . The road was built on the site of Northumberland House , the London home of the Percy family , the Dukes of Northumberland between 1874 and 1876 , and on part of the parallel Northumberland Street .
When built , the street was designed for luxury accommodation , including the seven @-@ storey Grand Hotel , the Victoria and the Metropole . The Playhouse Theatre opened in 1882 and become a significant venue in London . From the 1930s onwards , hotels disappeared from Northumberland Avenue and were replaced by offices used by departments of the British Government , including the War Office and Air Ministry , later the Ministry of Defence . The street has been commemorated in the Sherlock Holmes novels including The Hound of the Baskervilles , and is a square on the British Monopoly board .
= = Geography = =
The street is around 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 320 m ) long and part of the A400 , a local road connecting Westminster to Camden Town . It runs from Trafalgar Square eastwards towards the Thames Embankment . At the eastern end are the Whitehall Gardens and the Golden Jubilee Bridges over the River Thames .
The nearest bus route is London Bus Route 91 and the nearest tube stations are Charing Cross and Embankment .
= = History = =
The area which is now occupied by Northumberland Avenue was originally called Hartshorn Lane . It was formed around 1491 after the Abbott of Westminster granted land to the grocer , Thomas Walker , including an inn known as the Christopher and stables . The land was sold to Humfrey Cooke in 1516 , then to John Russell in 1531 . In 1546 , it was sold back to Henry VIII .
In 1608 – 09 , Henry Howard , 1st Earl of Northampton built a house on the eastern side of the former Chapel and Hospital of St. Mary Rounceval , at Charing Cross , including gardens running to the River Thames and adjoining Scotland Yard to the west . The estate became the property of Algernon Percy , 10th Earl of Northumberland when he married Howard 's great @-@ great niece , Lady Elizabeth , in 1642 , whereupon it was known as Northumberland House . In turn , the street was named Northumberland Street . The house was damaged in the Wilkes ' election riots of 1768 , but was saved after its owner , Hugh Percy , 1st Duke of Northumberland opened the nearby Ship Ale House , driving off rioters .
By the 18th century , Northumberland Street was primarily used as a thoroughfare between markets in the West End of London and the wharfs along the Thames . In 1720 , historian John Strype wrote that Northumberland Street was " much clogged and pestered with Carts repairing to the Wharfs " .
In June 1874 , the whole of Northumberland House was purchased by the Metropolitan Board of Works and demolished to form Northumberland Avenue , which would accommodate hotels . Contemporary planning permissions forbade hotels to be taller than the width of the road they were on ; consequently Northumberland Avenue was built with a wide carriageway . Part of the parallel Northumberland Street was demolished in order to make way for the avenue 's eastern end . The street was open by 1876 . The hotels were popular for American visitors as they were near to the West End , government buildings on Whitehall and all the mainline stations .
By the 1930s , accommodation on Park Lane and Piccadilly was more popular , leading to closures on Northumberland Avenue . The seven floor Grand Hotel at No. 8 became a retail headquarters . It is now an events venue for corporations including Marks & Spencer . The venue is the first in Europe to install amBX lighting .
= = Properties = =
Several British government departments have been located in buildings on Northumberland Avenue ; the Ministry of Defence and the Air Ministry formerly occupied the triangular @-@ shaped Hotel Metropole on the street . Other buildings include the Nigerian High Commission at No. 9 and a London School of Economics halls of residence .
The Playhouse Theatre on Northumberland Avenue was built by Sefton Parry and opened in 1882 as the Avenue Theatre . George Alexander produced his first play here . In 1905 , the theatre was destroyed after part of Charing Cross Station fell on it , and was rebuilt two years later . Alec Guinness first performed on stage at the theatre . It was used for BBC broadcasts from 1951 to 1975 , broadcasting radio comedies such as The Goon Show and several sessions by the Beatles .
The Grand Hotel was built between 1882 and 1887 . It had seven floors , 500 rooms and a large ballroom which has largely survived intact from its original design . The original reception room was renamed the Mayflower Room in 1923 , and is now called the Salon . Unlike other hotels on Northumberland Avenue that were taken over by the War Office , the Grand has survived as an entertainment and exhibition venue .
The Hotel Metropole was designed by Frederick Gordon and constructed between 1883 and 1885 . Prince Albert , later King Edward VII , was a regular visitor to the hotel , entertaining guests in its Royal Suite . It had become one of the most popular hotels in London by the turn of the 20th century , being described by the War Office in 1914 as " of world @-@ wide reputation " , and was the original location of the Aero Club and Alpine Club . In 1936 , it was leased to the Government for £ 300 @,@ 000 ( now £ 18 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 ) to provide temporary accommodation for various departments . During World War II , room 424 was used as the headquarters of MI9 , the principal section of military intelligence supporting Allied prisoners of war . The hotel continued to be operated as a government building after the war , and began to be used by the Air Ministry in 1951 .
The Hotel Victoria opened in 1887 , its name commemorating the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria held that year . It held 500 bedrooms and was the second largest hotel in London of its type on opening , overrunning its budget by around £ 520 @,@ 000 ( now £ 44 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 ) . The hotel was self @-@ powered , generating its own electricity from dynamos . It was bought by Frederick Gordon in 1893 , giving him a monopoly on all hotels on Northumberland Avenue . A refurbishment was started in 1911 , though delayed due to the First World War , which resulted in a new annexe , the Edward VII Rooms . It closed in 1940 and was used by the War Office in need of extra accommodation . The War Office bought the building outright in 1951 , renaming it the Victoria Buildings . It was subsequently renamed Northumberland House .
Thomas Edison 's British headquarters , Edison House , was situated on the road . Several prominent personalities of the late 19th century had their voices recorded there by phonograph , including Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone and poet Robert Browning . Mary Helen Ferguson , the first English female audio typist , worked at Edison House and supervised all musical recordings . In 1890 , retired military trumpeter Martin Lanfried recorded at Edison House using a bugle he believed to have been sounded at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and the Charge of the Light Brigade in 1854 .
The Royal Commonwealth Society is at No. 18 Northumberland Avenue . It was founded in 1868 as the Colonial Society to improve relationships with colonies in the British Empire including Canada and Australia , and moved to its current premises in 1885 . The current name dates from 1958 , reflecting the change from the Empire to the Commonwealth of Nations . The Commonwealth Club opened on the premises in 1998 and features the only suspended glass dining room in London . The Royal African Society was based at the same location , before moving to the School of Oriental and African Studies in Russell Square .
= = Cultural references = =
Northumberland Avenue is referenced several times in Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes novels , including The Greek Interpreter and The Hound of the Baskervilles . The stories refer to wealthy Oriental visitors staying in hotels along the avenue , including the Grand , the Metropole and the Victoria . The Northumberland Arms , at the junction of Northumberland Street and Northumberland Avenue , a public house , was renamed the Sherlock Holmes in 1957 , and contains numerous Holmes @-@ related exhibits from the 1951 Festival of London .
The street is part of a group of three on the London Monopoly board , with Pall Mall and Whitehall . All three streets connect at Trafalgar Square .
Northumberland Avenue formed part of the marathon course of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games . The women 's Olympic marathon took place on 5 August and the men 's Olympic marathon on 12 August , with the Paralympics following on 9 September .
= Minecraft =
Minecraft is a sandbox video game originally created by Swedish programmer Markus " Notch " Persson and later developed and published by Mojang . The creative and building aspects of Minecraft enable players to build constructions out of textured cubes in a 3D procedurally generated world . Other activities in the game include exploration , resource gathering , crafting , and combat . Multiple gameplay modes are available , including survival mode where the player must acquire resources to build the world and maintain health , a creative mode where players have unlimited resources to build with and the ability to fly , an adventure mode where players can play custom maps created by other players , and a spectator mode where players can fly around and clip through blocks , but cannot place or destroy any . The PC version of the game is renowned for its third @-@ party mods , which add various new items , characters , worlds , and quests to the game .
Minecraft received five awards during the 2011 Game Developers Conference . Of the Game Developers Choice Awards , it won the Innovation Award , Best Downloadable Game Award , and Best Debut Game Award ; from the Independent Games Festival , it won the Audience Award and the Seumas McNally Grand Prize . In 2012 , Minecraft was awarded a Golden Joystick Award in the category Best Downloadable Game . As of June 2016 , over 106 million copies had been sold , with more than 40 million unique Minecraft players each month across all the various platforms the game is available on making it the best @-@ selling PC game to date and the second best @-@ selling video game of all time behind Tetris . On 15 September 2014 , Microsoft announced a deal to buy Mojang and the Minecraft intellectual property for US $ 2 @.@ 5 billion ; the acquisition was completed on 6 November 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Minecraft is an open world game that has no specific goals for the player to accomplish , allowing players a large amount of freedom in choosing how to play the game . However , there is an achievement system . Gameplay by default is first person , but players have the option to play in third person mode . The core gameplay revolves around breaking and placing blocks . The game world is composed of rough 3D objects — mainly cubes — arranged in a fixed grid pattern and representing different materials , such as dirt , stone , various ores , water , lava , tree trunks , etc . While players can move freely across the world , objects can only be placed at fixed locations on the grid . Players can gather these material blocks and place them elsewhere , thus allowing for various constructions .
At the start of the game , the player is placed on the surface of a procedurally generated and virtually infinite game world . The world is divided into biomes ranging from deserts to jungles to snowfields . Players can walk across the terrain consisting of plains , mountains , forests , caves , and various water bodies . The in @-@ game time system follows a day and night cycle , with one full cycle lasting 20 real @-@ time minutes . Throughout the course of the game , players encounter various non @-@ player characters known as mobs , including animals , villagers and hostile creatures . Non @-@ hostile animals — such as cows , pigs , and chickens — can be hunted for food and crafting materials , and spawn in the daytime . By contrast , hostile mobs — such as large spiders , skeletons , and zombies — spawn during nighttime or in dark places , such as caves . Some Minecraft @-@ unique creatures have been noted by reviewers , such as the Creeper , an exploding creature that sneaks up on the player ; and the Enderman , a creature with the ability to teleport and pick up blocks .
The game world is procedurally generated as players explore it , using a map seed which is obtained from the system clock at the time of world creation unless manually specified by the player . Although there are limits on movement up and down , Minecraft allows for an infinitely large game world to be generated on the horizontal plane , only running into technical problems when extremely distant locations are reached . The game achieves this by splitting the game world data into smaller sections called " chunks " , which are only created or loaded into memory when players are nearby .
The game 's physics system has often been described by commentators as unrealistic . Most solid blocks are not affected by gravity . Liquids flow from a source block , which can be removed by placing a solid block in its place , or by scooping it into a bucket . Complex systems can be built using primitive mechanical devices , electrical circuits , and logic gates built with an in @-@ game material known as redstone .
Minecraft features two alternate dimensions besides the main world — the Nether and the End . The Nether is a hell @-@ like dimension accessed via player @-@ built portals that contains many unique resources and can be used to travel great distances in the overworld . The End is a barren land in which a boss dragon called the Ender Dragon dwells . Killing the dragon cues the game 's ending credits , written by Irish author Julian Gough . Players are then allowed to teleport back to their original spawn point in the overworld , and will receive " The End " achievement . There is also a second boss called " The Wither " , which upon defeat drops a specific material needed to build a placeable beacon that can enhance certain abilities of all nearby players .
The game primarily consists of four game modes : survival , creative , adventure , and spectator . It also has a changeable difficulty system of four levels ; the easiest difficulty ( peaceful ) prevents hostile creatures from spawning .
= = = Survival mode = = =
In this mode , players have to gather natural resources ( such as wood and stone ) found in the environment in order to craft certain blocks and items . Depending on the difficulty , monsters spawn in darker areas outside a certain radius of the character ,
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requiring the player to build a shelter at night . The mode also features a health bar which is depleted by attacks from monsters , falls , drowning , falling into lava , suffocation , starvation , and other events . Players also have a hunger bar , which must be periodically refilled by eating food in @-@ game , except in " Peaceful " difficulty , in which the hunger bar does not drain . If the hunger bar is depleted , automatic healing will stop and eventually health will deplete . Health replenishes when players have a nearly full hunger bar , and also regenerates regardless of fullness if players play on the " Peaceful " difficulty .
There are a wide variety of items that players can craft in Minecraft . Players can craft armour , which can help mitigate damage from attacks , while weapons such as swords can be crafted to kill enemies and other animals more easily . Players may acquire resources to craft tools , such as axes , shovels , or pickaxes , used to chop down trees , dig soil , and mine ores , respectively ; tools made of iron perform their tasks more quickly than tools made of stone or wood and can be used more heavily before they break . Players may also trade goods with villager mobs through a bartering system involving trading emeralds for different goods . Villagers often trade with emeralds , wheat or other materials .
The game has an inventory system , and players can carry a limited number of items . Upon dying , items in the players ' inventories are dropped , and players re @-@ spawn at the current spawn point , which is set by default where players begin the game , but can be reset if players sleep in a bed . Dropped items can be recovered if players can reach them before they despawn . Players may acquire experience points by killing mobs and other players , mining , smelting ores , breeding animals , and cooking food . Experience can then be spent on enchanting tools , armour and weapons . Enchanted items are generally more powerful , last longer , or have other special effects .
= = = Hardcore mode = = =
Players may also play in hardcore mode , this being a variant of survival mode that differs primarily in the game being locked to the hardest gameplay setting as well as featuring permanent death ; upon players ' death , their world is deleted . When a player dies on a server set to hardcore mode , the player is banned from that server .
= = = Creative mode = = =
In creative mode , players have access to all of the resources and items in the game through the inventory menu , and can place or remove them instantly . Players , who are able to fly freely around the game world , do not take environmental or mob damage , and are not affected by hunger . The game mode helps players focus on building and creating large projects .
= = = Adventure mode = = =
Adventure mode was added to Minecraft in version 1 @.@ 3 ; it was designed specifically so that players could experience user crafted custom maps and adventures . Gameplay is similar to survival mode but introduces various player restrictions , which can be applied to the game world by the creator of the map . This is so that players can obtain the required items and experience adventures in the way that the mapmaker intended . Another addition designed for custom maps is the command block ; this block allows mapmakers to expand interactions with players through certain server commands .
= = = Spectator mode = = =
Spectator mode allows players to fly around through blocks and watch gameplay without interacting . In this mode , the hotbar becomes a menu that allows the player to teleport to players in the world . It is also possible to view from the point of view of another player or creature . Some things may look different from another creature 's point of view .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Multiplayer on Minecraft is available through player @-@ hosted and business @-@ hosted servers and enables multiple players to interact and communicate with each other on a single world . Players can run their own servers or use a hosting provider . Single @-@ player worlds have local area network support , allowing players to join worlds on locally interconnected computers without a server setup . Minecraft multiplayer servers are guided by server operators , who have access to server commands such as setting the time of day and teleporting players around . Operators can also set up restrictions concerning which usernames or IP addresses are allowed to enter the server . Multiplayer servers offer players a wide range of activities , with some servers having their own unique rules and customs . Player versus player ( PvP ) can also be enabled to allow fighting between players . Many servers today have custom plugins that enable the player and the server to do many different things that are not normally possible . In 2013 , Mojang announced Minecraft Realms , a server hosting service intended to enable players to run server multiplayer games easily and safely without the hassle of setting up their own . Realms varies from a standard server in that only invited players can join the server , and that they do not use a server IP . Realms server owners can invite up to twenty people to play on their realm ; however , the server can only have ten people online at a time , and does not support user @-@ made plugins . At announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2016 , Realms will enable Minecraft to support cross @-@ platform play between Windows 10 , iOS , and Android versions starting in June 2016 , with Xbox One support to come later in 2016 and eventually support for virtual reality devices .
= = Development = =
Markus " Notch " Persson began developing the game as a project . He was inspired to create Minecraft by several other games such as Dwarf Fortress , Dungeon Keeper , and later Infiniminer . At the time , he had visualised an isometric 3D building game that would be a cross between his inspirations and had made some early prototypes . Infiniminer heavily influenced the style of gameplay , including the first @-@ person aspect of the game , the " blocky " visual style and the block @-@ building fundamentals . However , unlike Infiniminer , Persson wanted Minecraft to have RPG elements .
Minecraft was first released to the public on 17 May 2009 , as a developmental release on TIGSource forums , later becoming known as the Classic version . Further milestones dubbed as Survival Test , Indev and Infdev were released between September 2009 and February 2010 , although the game saw updates in @-@ between . The first major update , dubbed alpha version , was released on 28 June 2010 . Although Persson maintained a day job with Jalbum.net at first , he later quit in order to work on Minecraft full @-@ time as sales of the alpha version of the game expanded . Persson continued to update the game with releases distributed to users automatically . These updates included features such as new items , new blocks , new mobs , survival mode , and changes to the game 's behaviour ( e.g. , how water flows ) .
To back the development of Minecraft , Persson set up a video game company , Mojang , with the money earned from the game . On 11 December 2010 , Persson announced that Minecraft was entering its beta testing phase on 20 December 2010 . He further stated that users who bought the game after this date would no longer be guaranteed to receive all future content free of charge as it " scared both the lawyers and the board . " However , bug fixes and all updates leading up to and including the release would still be free . Over the course of the development , Mojang hired several new employees to work on the project .
Mojang moved the game out of beta and released the full version on 18 November 2011 . The game has been continuously updated since the release , with changes ranging from new game content to new server hosts . On 1 December 2011 , Jens " Jeb " Bergensten took full creative control over Minecraft , replacing Persson as lead developer . On 28 February 2012 , Mojang announced that they had hired the developers of the popular server platform " CraftBukkit " to improve Minecraft 's support of server modifications . This acquisition also included Mojang apparently taking full ownership of the CraftBukkit modification , although the validity of this claim was questioned due to its status as an open @-@ source project with many contributors , licensed under the GNU General Public License and Lesser General Public License . On 15 September 2014 , Microsoft announced a $ 2 @.@ 5 billion deal to buy Mojang , along with the ownership of the Minecraft intellectual property . The deal was suggested by Persson when he posted a tweet asking a corporation to buy his share of the game after receiving criticism for " trying to do the right thing . " It was completed on 6 November 2014 , and led to Persson becoming one of Forbes ' " World 's Billionaires " .
= = = Audio = = =
Minecraft 's music and sound effects were produced by German sound designer Daniel " C418 " Rosenfeld . The background music in Minecraft is non @-@ lyrical ambient music . On 4 March 2011 , Rosenfeld released a soundtrack , titled Minecraft – Volume Alpha ; it includes most of the tracks featured in Minecraft , as well as other music not featured in the game . The video game blog Kotaku chose the music in Minecraft as one of the best video game soundtracks of 2011 . On 9 November 2013 , Rosenfeld released the second official soundtrack , titled Minecraft – Volume Beta , which includes the music that was added in later versions of the game . A physical release of Volume Alpha , consisting of CDs , black vinyl , and limited @-@ edition transparent green vinyl LPs , was issued by acclaimed indie electronic label Ghostly International on 21 August 2015 .
= = Platforms = =
= = = Personal computer versions = = =
The PC was the original platform for Minecraft ; the game runs on multiple operating systems including Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux . Apart from the main version , there are other versions of Minecraft available for PC , including Minecraft Classic and Minecraft 4k .
Minecraft Classic is an older version of Minecraft , available online for players . Unlike newer versions of Minecraft , the classic version is free to play , though it is no longer updated . It functions much the same as creative mode , allowing players to build and destroy any and all parts of the world either alone or in a multiplayer server . There are no computer creatures in this mode , and environmental hazards such as lava will not damage players . Some blocks function differently since their behaviour was later changed during development .
Minecraft 4k is a simplified version of Minecraft similar to the classic version that was developed for the Java 4K game programming contest " in way less than 4 kilobytes " . The map itself is finite — composed of 64 × 64 × 64 blocks — and the same world is generated every time . Players are restricted to placing or destroying blocks , which consist of grass , dirt , stone , wood , leaves , and brick .
Minecraft : Windows 10 Edition is a version exclusive to Microsoft 's Windows 10 operating system . The beta for it launched on the Windows Store on 29 July 2015 . This version features the ability to play with Xbox Live friends ( but not with those who have the Xbox One version ) , and to play local multiplayer with owners of the Pocket Edition . Other features include the ability to use multiple control schemes , such as a controller ( preferably an Xbox controller ) , keyboard , or touchscreen ( for Windows Phone and Microsoft Surface ) , and to record and take screenshots in @-@ game via the built @-@ in GameDVR .
= = = Console versions = = =
The Xbox 360 version of the game , developed by 4J Studios , was released on 9 May 2012 . On 22 March 2012 , it was announced that Minecraft would be the flagship game in a new Xbox Live promotion called Arcade NEXT . The game differs from the home computer versions in a number of ways , including a newly designed crafting system , the control interface , in @-@ game tutorials , split @-@ screen multiplayer , and the ability to play with friends via Xbox Live . The version 's crafting interface does not require players to place items in the correct place in a crafting menu , however , this option was added in a later update . The interface shows the blocks required to craft the selected item , and crafts it if the players have enough blocks . The worlds in the Xbox 360 version are also not " infinite " , and are essentially barricaded by invisible walls . The Xbox 360 version was originally similar in content to older PC versions , but is being gradually updated to bring it closer to the current PC version .
At Gamescom 2013 , Sony announced that Minecraft would be released as a PlayStation 4 launch title , and would later be released as for the PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 3 . However , the game was later delayed and the PlayStation 4 version did not launch alongside the console . It was released on the PlayStation 3 on 17 December 2013 , on the PlayStation 4 on 4 September 2014 , and on the PlayStation Vita on 14 October 2014 in North America , and in Europe the next day . Like the Xbox versions , the PlayStation versions were developed by 4J Studios , and are nearly identical to the Xbox 360 version .
During their E3 2013 press conference Microsoft showed a trailer for Minecraft : Xbox One Edition . It is similar to Minecraft : Xbox 360 Edition but features larger worlds , expanded multiplayer features , and other enhancements . This version released on 5 September 2014 .
On 17 December 2015 , Minecraft : Wii U Edition was released . The Wii U version received a physical release on 17 June 2016 in North America , in Japan on 23 June 2016 , and in Europe on 30 June 2016 .
= = = Pocket Edition = = =
On 16 August 2011 , Minecraft : Pocket Edition was released for the Xperia Play on the Android Market as an early alpha version . It was then released for several other compatible devices on 8 October 2011 . An iOS version of Minecraft was released on 17 November 2011 , at the price of $ 6 @.@ 99 per download .
A port was made available for Windows Phones shortly after Microsoft acquired Mojang . The port concentrates on the creative building and the primitive survival aspect of the game , and does not contain all the features of the PC release . On his Twitter account , Jens Bergensten noted that the Pocket Edition of Minecraft is written in C + + and not Java , due to iOS not being able to support Java . Gradual updates are periodically released to bring the port closer to the PC version . On 10 December 2014 , in observance of Mojang 's acquisition by Microsoft , a port of Pocket Edition was released for Windows Phone 8 @.@ 1 .
On 2 April 2014 , a version of Minecraft based on the Pocket Edition was released for the Amazon Fire .
Minecraft : Pocket Edition is currently at version 0 @.@ 15 @.@ 0 , with a Realms alpha test for Android users .
= = = Raspberry Pi = = =
A version of Minecraft for the Raspberry Pi was officially revealed at MineCon 2012 . Mojang stated that the Pi Edition is similar to the Pocket Edition except that it is downgraded to an older version , and with the added ability of using text commands to edit the game world . Players can open the game code and use programming language to manipulate things in the game world . The game was leaked on 20 December 2012 , but was quickly pulled off . It was officially released on 11 February 2013 .
= = = Virtual reality = = =
On 27 April 2016 , Mojang released version compatible with the Samsung Gear VR onto the Oculus store .
= = User @-@ generated and downloadable content = =
A wide variety of user @-@ generated content for Minecraft , such as modifications , texture packs and custom maps , are available for download from the Internet . Modifications of the Minecraft code , called " mods , " add a variety of gameplay changes , ranging from new blocks , new items , new mobs to entire arrays of mechanisms to craft . The modding community is responsible for a substantial supply of mods from ones that enhance gameplay , such as minimaps , waypoints , and durability counters , to ones that add to the game elements from Pokémon , Portal , and The Hunger Games . To make mods easier to create and install , Mojang announced in November 2012 that it plans to add an official modding API . As of 2015 , Mojang has yet to reveal more about their modding API .
Texture packs that customise the game 's graphics are also available . In version 1 @.@ 6 , texture packs were replaced with " resource packs " . These play the same role as texture packs , but allow custom sounds as well . Custom maps have become popular as well . Players can create their own maps , which often contain rules , challenges , puzzles and quests , and share them for others to play . In version 1 @.@ 3 , Mojang added adventure mode for custom maps and in 1 @.@ 4 , Mojang added command blocks , which were created specially for custom maps . Command blocks allow the player to put a command to do specific tasks . There are ' One @-@ Block Commands ' where a user uses only one command ( for command blocks ) to make a modification to the game . You can use a One @-@ Block Command by copying a One @-@ Block Command and then pasting it into a command block . Finally , you activate it with something called redstone . In 1 @.@ 9 , Mojang added 2 new versions ( Repeat , and Chain ) of the classic command block , which were also created specifically for custom maps .
The Xbox 360 Edition supports downloadable content , which is available to purchase via the Xbox Games Store ; these content packs usually contain additional character skins . It later received support for texture packs in its twelfth title update while introducing " mash @-@ up packs " , which combines texture packs with skin packs and changes to the game 's sounds , music and user interface . The first mash @-@ up pack ( and by extension , the first texture pack ) for the Xbox 360 Edition was released on 4 September 2013 , and is themed after the Mass Effect franchise . Unlike the PC version , however , the Xbox 360 Edition does not support player @-@ made mods or custom maps . On May 9 , 2016 , Mojang announced that a mash @-@ up pack based on the Super Mario franchise will be released on May 17 , 2016 exclusively for the Wii U Edition .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial = = =
On 12 January 2011 , Minecraft passed 1 million purchases less than a month after entering its beta phase . At the same time , the game had no publisher backing and has never been commercially advertised except through word of mouth , and various unpaid references in popular media such as the Penny Arcade webcomic . By April 2011 , Persson estimated that Minecraft had made € 23 million ( US $ 33 million ) in revenue , with 800 @,@ 000 sales of the alpha version of the game , and over 1 million sales of the beta version . In November 2011 , prior to the game 's full release , Minecraft beta surpassed 16 million registered users and 4 million purchases . By March 2012 , Minecraft had become the 6th best @-@ selling PC game of all time . As of 10 October 2014 , the game has sold 17 million copies on PC , becoming the best @-@ selling PC game of all time . As of 10 October 2014 , the game has sold approximately 60 million copies across all platforms , making it one of the best @-@ selling video games of all time . On 25 February 2014 , the game reached 100 million registered users.As of June 2016 , over 106 million copies had been sold , making it the best @-@ selling PC game to date and the second best @-@ selling video game of all time behind Tetris .
The Xbox 360 version of Minecraft became profitable within the first 24 hours of the game 's release in 2012 , when the game broke the Xbox Live sales records with 400 @,@ 000 players online . Within a week of being on the Xbox Live Marketplace , Minecraft sold upwards of 1 million copies . GameSpot announced in December 2012 that Minecraft sold over 4 @.@ 48 million copies since the game debuted on Xbox Live Arcade in May 2012 . In 2012 , Minecraft was the most purchased title on Xbox Live Arcade ; it was also the fourth most played title on Xbox Live based on average unique users per day . As of 4 April 2014 , the Xbox 360 version has sold 12 million copies . In addition , Minecraft : Pocket Edition has reached a figure of 21 million in sales . The PlayStation 3 version sold one million copies in five weeks . The release of the game 's PlayStation Vita version boosted Minecraft sales by 79 % , outselling both PS3 and PS4 debut releases and becoming the largest Minecraft launch on a PlayStation console . The PS Vita version sold 100 @,@ 000 digital copies in Japan within the first two months of release , according to an announcement by SCE Japan Asia . By January 2015 , 500 @,@ 000 digital copies of Minecraft were sold in Japan across all PlayStation platforms , with a surge in primary school children purchasing the PS Vita version . Minecraft helped improve Microsoft 's total first @-@ party revenue by $ 63 million for the 2015 second quarter .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Minecraft has been praised for the creative freedom it grants players in @-@ game , as well as the ease of enabling emergent gameplay . Critics have praised Minecraft 's complex crafting system , commenting that it is an important aspect of the game 's open @-@ ended gameplay . Most publications were impressed by the game 's " blocky " graphics , with IGN describing them as " instantly memorable " . Reviewers also liked the game 's adventure elements , noting that the game creates a good balance between exploring and building . The game 's multiplayer feature has been generally received favourably , with IGN commenting that " adventuring is always better with friends . " Jaz McDougall of PC Gamer commended Minecraft , deeming it " intuitively interesting and contagiously fun , with an unparalleled scope for creativity and memorable experiences " . It has been regarding as having introduced millions of children to the digital world , insofar as its basic game mechanics are logically analogous to computer commands .
Reviewers have criticised the game 's lack of in @-@ game tutorials and instructions , making it difficult for new players to learn how to play the game . IGN was disappointed about the troublesome steps needed to set up multiplayer servers , calling it a " hassle " . Critics also noted visual glitches that occur periodically . In 2009 , GameSpot maintained that the game has an " unfinished feel " , adding that " some game elements seem incomplete or thrown together in haste . "
A review of the alpha version , by Scott Munro of the Daily Record , called it " already something special " and urged readers to buy it . Jim Rossignol of Rock , Paper , Shotgun also recommended the alpha of the game , calling it " a kind of generative 8 @-@ bit Lego Stalker " . On 17 September 2010 , gaming webcomic Penny Arcade began a series of comics and news posts about the addictiveness of the game .
The Xbox 360 version was generally received positively by critics , but did not receive as much praise as the PC version . Although reviewers were disappointed by the lack of features such as mod support and content from the PC version , they acclaimed the port 's addition of a tutorial and in @-@ game tips and crafting recipes , saying that they make the game more user @-@ friendly .
Minecraft : Pocket Edition initially received mixed reviews from critics . Although reviewers appreciated the game 's intuitive controls , they were disappointed by the lack of content . The inability in the game to collect resources and craft items , as well as the game 's lack of hostile mobs and limited types of blocks , were especially criticised . Recently , though , it has started receiving positive reviews , due to the game 's updates adding more content . In addition to the controls , reviewers have complimented the graphics , though still note the lack of content . In update 0 @.@ 9 @.@ 0 , the Pocket Edition received an update with an unlimited world size , alleviating some of the reviewer 's concerns .
= = = Awards = = =
In July 2010 , PC Gamer listed Minecraft as the fourth @-@ best game to play at work . In December of that year , Good Game selected Minecraft as their choice for Best Downloadable Game of 2010 , Gamasutra named it the eighth best game of the year as well as the eighth best indie game of the year , and Rock , Paper , Shotgun named it the " game of the year " . Indie DB awarded the game the 2010 Indie of the Year award as chosen by voters , in addition to two out of five Editor 's Choice awards for Most Innovative and Best Singleplayer Indie . It was also awarded Game of the Year by PC Gamer UK . The game was nominated for the Seumas McNally Grand Prize , Technical Excellence , and Excellence in Design awards at the March 2011 Independent Games Festival and won the Grand Prize along with community @-@ voted Audience Award . At Game Developers Choice Awards 2011 , Minecraft won awards in the categories for Best Debut Game , Best Downloadable Game and Innovation Award , winning every award for which it was nominated . It has also won GameCity 's videogame arts prize . On 5 May 2011 , Minecraft was selected as one of the 80 games that would be displayed at the Smithsonian American Art Museum as part of The Art of Video Games exhibit that opened on 16 March 2012 . At the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards , Minecraft won the award for Best Independent Game and was nominated in the Best PC Game category . In 2012 , at the British Academy Video Games Awards , Minecraft was nominated in the GAME Award of 2011 category and Notch received The Special Award . In 2012 , Minecraft XBLA was awarded a Golden Joystick Award in the Best Downloadable Game category , and a TIGA Games Industry Award in the Best Arcade Game category . In 2013 it was nominated as the family game of the year at the British Academy Video Games Awards . Minecraft Console Edition won the award for TIGA Game Of The Year in 2014 . In 2015 , the game placed 6th on USgamer 's The 15 Best Games Since 2000 list .
Minecraft was nominated for the 2013 Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite App , but lost to Temple Run . It was nominated for the 2014 Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Video Game , but lost to Just Dance 2014 . Minecraft won the prize for the Most Addicting Game at the 2015 Kids ' Choice Awards .
= = MineCon = =
MineCon is an official Minecraft convention . The first one was held on 18 – 19 November 2011 , at Mandalay Bay Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas , Nevada . All 4 @,@ 500 tickets for MineCon 2011 were sold out by 31 October . The event included the official launch of Minecraft ; keynote speeches , including one by Persson ; building and costume contests ; Minecraft @-@ themed breakout classes ; exhibits by leading gaming and Minecraft @-@ related companies ; commemorative merchandise ; and autograph and picture times with Mojang employees and well @-@ known contributors from the Minecraft community . After MineCon , there was an Into The Nether after @-@ party with electronic musician deadmau5 . Free codes were given to every attendee of MineCon that unlocked alpha versions of Mojang 's other upcoming game , Scrolls , as well as an additional non @-@ Mojang game , Cobalt , developed by Oxeye Game Studios . Similar events occurred in MineCon 2012 , which took place in Disneyland Paris from 24 – 25 November . The tickets for the 2012 event sold out in less than two hours . The 2013 MineCon was held in Orlando , Florida , in the United States , on 2 – 3 November . MineCon 2015 was held in London , Great Britain , from 4 – 5 July .
= = Spin @-@ off games = =
= = = Minecraft : Story Mode = = =
Minecraft : Story Mode , an episodic spin @-@ off game developed by Telltale Games in collaboration with Mojang , was announced in December 2014 . Consisting of five episodes plus three additional downloadable episodes , the standalone game will be narrative and player choice @-@ driven , and it was released on Microsoft Windows , OS X , iOS , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 and Xbox One via download on 13 October 2015 . A physical disc that grants access to all episodes was released for the aforementioned four consoles on 27 October . A Wii U version was also confirmed in an August 2015 interview with The Verge . The first trailer for the game was shown at MineCon on 4 July 2015 , revealing some of the game 's features . In Minecraft : Story Mode , players control Jesse ( voiced by Patton Oswalt and Catherine Taber ) , who sets out on a journey with his or her friends to find The Order of the Stone — four adventurers who slayed an Ender Dragon — in order to save their world . Brian Posehn , Ashley Johnson , Scott Porter , Martha Plimpton , Dave Fennoy , Corey Feldman , Billy West and Paul Reubens portray the rest of the cast .
= = = Minecraft : Education Edition = = =
In January 2016 , Microsoft announced a new tool for education , called Minecraft : Education Edition or MinecraftEDU , planned to be released in 2016 . Minecraft has already been used in classrooms around the world to teach subjects ranging from core STEM topics to arts and poetry . Minecraft : Education Edition will be designed specifically for classroom use . The Education Edition gives teachers the tools they need to use Minecraft on an everyday basis .
There are few differences between Minecraft and MinecraftEDU . The main concept is the same , an open sandbox world . The student ’ s characters in MinecraftEDU will be able to retain characteristics . Students will also be able to download the game at home , without having to buy their own version of the game . Finally the last large difference is that students can take in @-@ game photos . These photos will be stored in an online notebook with the students online notes . These online notebooks will be shareable with other students .
= = Merchandise = =
A Lego set based on Minecraft called Lego Minecraft was released on 6 June 2012 . The set , called " Micro World " , centres around the game 's default player character and a Creeper . Mojang submitted the concept of Minecraft merchandise to Lego in December 2011 for the Lego Cuusoo program , from which it quickly received 10 @,@ 000 votes by users , prompting Lego to review the concept . Lego Cuusoo approved the concept in January 2012 and began developing sets based on Minecraft . Two more sets based on the Nether and village areas of the game were released on 1 September 2013 . A fourth Micro World set , the End , was released in June 2014 . Six more sets will be available November 2014 .
Mojang collaborates with Jinx , an online game merchandise store , to sell Minecraft merchandise , such as clothing , foam pickaxes , and toys of creatures in the game . By May 2012 , over 1 million dollars were made from Minecraft merchandise sales . T @-@ shirts and socks were the most popular products . In March 2013 Mojang signed a deal with the Egmont Group , a children 's book publisher , to create Minecraft handbooks , annuals , poster books , and magazines .
= = Popular culture and social media = =
Social media sites such as YouTube , Facebook , and Reddit played a significant role in popularising Minecraft . Research conducted by the University of Pennsylvania 's Annenberg School of Communication showed that one @-@ third of Minecraft players learned about the game via Internet videos . In 2010 , Minecraft @-@ related videos began to gain affluence on YouTube , often made by commentators . The videos usually contain screen @-@ capture footage of the game and voice @-@ overs . Common coverage in the videos includes creations made by players , walkthroughs of various tasks , and parodies of works in popular culture . By May 2012 , over 4 million Minecraft @-@ related YouTube videos had been uploaded . Some popular commentators have received employment at Machinima , a gaming video company that owns a highly watched entertainment channel on YouTube . The Yogscast is a British organisation that regularly produces Minecraft videos ; their YouTube channel has attained billions of views , and their panel at MineCon 2011 had the highest attendance . Other well known YouTube personnel include Jordan Maron , who has created many Minecraft parodies , including " Minecraft Style " , a parody of the internationally successful single " Gangnam Style " by South Korean rapper PSY . Herobrine is a major community icon of Minecraft , who first appeared as a single image on 4chan 's / v / board . According to rumours , Herobrine appears in players ' worlds and builds strange constructions . However , Mojang has confirmed that Herobrine has never existed in Minecraft , and there are no plans to add Herobrine .
Minecraft has been referenced by other video games , such as RuneScape , Torchlight II , Borderlands 2 , Choplifter HD , Super Meat Boy , The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim , The Binding of Isaac , Team Fortress 2 , and FTL : Faster Than Light . It was also referenced by musician deadmau5 in his performances . A simulation of the game was featured in Lady Gaga 's " G.U.Y. " music video , along with the command " / gamemode ARTPOP " . After the release of Minecraft , some video games were released with various similarities with Minecraft , and some have been called " clones " of the game . There have been a few Minecraft @-@ like and Minecraft @-@ inspired games across various gaming platforms since the game became popular . Examples include Ace of Spades , CastleMiner , CraftWorld , FortressCraft , Terraria , and Total Miner . David Frampton , designer of The Blockheads , reported that one failure of his 2D game was the " low resolution pixel art " that too closely resembled the art in Minecraft which resulted in " some resistance " from fans .
Additionally , in response to Microsoft 's acquisition of Mojang and their Minecraft IP , various developers suddenly announced even further clone titles that are being developed specifically for Nintendo 's consoles , as they were the only major platforms to not officially receive Minecraft at the time , despite early rumours that the game was in development for the Wii U. These clone titles are either in development for Wii U , such as UCraft ( Nexis Games ) , Cube Life : Island Survival ( Cypronia ) , and Discovery ( noowanda ) , the Nintendo 3DS , such as Battleminer ( Wobbly Tooth Games ) and Cube Creator 3D ( Big John Games ) , or for both Wii U and Nintendo 3DS , such as Stone Shire ( Finger Gun Games ) . In an interview Kotaku had with Shigeru Miyamoto and Shinya Takahashi in regards to Minecraft coming to Nintendo 's platforms , Miyamoto stated that the Wii U GamePad is a " good fit " for the title , and Nintendo could have popularised the game in Japan . In a July 2015 interview with Mojang COO Vu Bui , it was revealed that the company is still interested in releasing the game on more platforms , including Nintendo 's , and declared that even Microsoft 's acquisition would not hinder that prospect . According to Bui , he has " never heard a reason why [ they ] haven 't ended up on Wii U or 3DS . It just hasn 't happened yet . " In August 2015 , Telltale Games confirmed to The Verge that the spin @-@ off title Minecraft : Story Mode is coming to Wii U , making it the first game in the franchise on a Nintendo console . A Wii U version of Minecraft was announced on 7 December 2015 . It was released on 17 December 2015 .
In 2012 , Mojang received offers from Hollywood producers who want to produce Minecraft @-@ related TV shows ; however , Mojang stated that they would engage in such projects when " the right idea comes along . " A documentary about the development of Mojang and Minecraft was released in December 2012 . Titled Minecraft : The Story of Mojang , the film was produced by 2 Player Productions . The second episode of the seventeenth season of the animated television series South Park titled " Informative Murder Porn " , features the boys distracting their parents from fighting each other with Minecraft . In the South Park episode , gruff character Corey Lanskin explained the Minecraft game by noting , " Minecraft , it don 't got no winner , it don 't got no objective . You 're just f * * * * in ' buildin ' s * * * ! " On 27 February 2014 , Notch revealed that Mojang is in talks with Warner Bros. regarding a Minecraft film to be produced by Roy Lee and Jill Messick . On 8 October 2014 , Mojang COO Vu Bui stated that the movie was " in its early days of development " , saying that it was a " large @-@ budget " production , and also said that it might not be released until 2018 . On 16 October 2014 , the studio announced that it had hired Shawn Levy to direct the film . In July 2015 , it was announced the studio had hired Rob McElhenney to direct the film . The studio announced that the film will be released on May 24 , 2019 .
= = Applications = =
The possible applications of Minecraft have been discussed extensively , especially in the fields of computer @-@ aided design and education . In a panel at MineCon 2011 , a Swedish developer discussed the possibility of using the game to redesign public buildings and parks , stating that rendering using Minecraft was much more user @-@ friendly for the community , making it easier to envision the functionality of new buildings and parks . In 2012 , a member of the Human Dynamics group at the MIT Media Lab , Cody Sumter , said that " Notch hasn 't just built a game . He 's tricked 40 million people into learning to use a CAD program . " Various software has been developed to allow virtual designs to be printed using professional 3D printers or personal printers such as MakerBot and RepRap .
In September 2012 , Mojang began the Block By Block project in cooperation with UN Habitat to create real @-@ world environments in Minecraft . The project allows young people who live in those environments to participate in designing the changes they would like to see . Using Minecraft , the community has helped reconstruct the areas of concern , and citizens are invited to enter the Minecraft servers and modify their own neighbourhood . Carl Manneh , Mojang 's managing director , called the game " the perfect tool to facilitate this process , " adding that " the three @-@ year partnership will support UN @-@ Habitat 's Sustainable Urban Development Network to upgrade 300 public spaces by 2016 . " Mojang signed Minecraft building community , FyreUK , to help render the environments into Minecraft . The first pilot project began in Kibera , one of Nairobi 's informal settlements , and is in the planning phase . The Block By Block project is based on an earlier initiative started in October 2011 , Mina Kvarter ( My Block ) , which gave young people in Swedish communities a tool to visualise how they wanted to change their part of town . According to Manneh , the project was a helpful way to visualise urban planning ideas without necessarily having a training in architecture . The ideas presented by the citizens were a template for political decisions .
In April 2014 the Danish Geodata Agency generated all of Denmark in a scale of 1 : 1 in Minecraft based on their own free geodata . This is possible because Denmark is one of the flattest countries with the highest point at 171 meters ( ranking as the country with the 30th smallest elevation span ) where the limit in default Minecraft is about 192 meters above in @-@ game sea level .
Minecraft has also been used in educational settings . In 2011 , an educational organisation named MinecraftEdu was formed with the goal of introducing Minecraft into schools . The group works with Mojang to make the game affordable and accessible to schools . In September 2012 , MinecraftEdu said that approximately 250 @,@ 000 students around the world have access to Minecraft through the company . A wide variety of educational activities involving the game have been developed to teach students various subjects , including history , language arts and science . For an example , one teacher built a world consisting of various historical landmarks for students to learn and explore .
In September 2014 , the British Museum in London announced plans to recreate its building along with all exhibits in Minecraft in conjunction with members of the public .
= David Lovering =
David Lovering ( born December 6 , 1961 ) is an American musician and magician . He is best known as the drummer for the alternative rock band Pixies , which he joined in 1986 . After the band 's breakup in 1993 , Lovering drummed with several other acts , including The Martinis , Cracker , Nitzer Ebb and Tanya Donelly . He also pursued a magic career as The Scientific Phenomenalist ; performing scientific and physics @-@ based experiments on stage . When the Pixies reunited in 2004 , Lovering returned as the band 's drummer .
As a drummer Lovering was inspired by bands from a variety of genres , including Rush and Steely Dan .
= = Biography = =
= = = Youth and college = = =
David Lovering was born in Burlington , Massachusetts . He learned to play drums during his teenage years and joined his high school 's marching band . According to his friend John Murphy , Lovering was always very " drum oriented " in his musical taste . In his high school yearbook entry , Lovering stated his three main ambitions : to be in a rock band , to be an electrical engineer , and to tour with Rush , his favorite band . After graduating from high school , Lovering studied electronic engineering at the Wentworth Institute of Technology in Boston . He got a job at a Radio Shack store with Murphy , and the pair often played practical jokes while at work . One such incident involved Lovering wiring the store toilet to a fire alarm . After graduating from Wentworth with a bachelor 's degree in 1982 , he took a job building lasers , and continued to drum in local bands such as Iz Wizard and Riff Raff . A number of different genres of music have influenced him , including bands Steely Dan , Led Zeppelin , and Devo .
= = = Pixies = = =
On Memorial Day 1985 , Lovering attended Murphy and Kim Deal 's wedding service . In January 1986 Deal was hired to play bass in the newly formed Pixies , an alternative rock band formed by Charles " Black Francis " Thompson and Joey Santiago . Murphy suggested that Lovering audition for the band – who were still without a drummer . Lovering had stopped drumming by this point and was at first unimpressed by the trio 's performance of the band 's songs . However , after playing along he agreed to join . Lovering and the band wrote and rehearsed material throughout 1985 and 1986 and performed at small venues in Boston . The band decided to record 18 songs for a demo tape in 1987 . Lovering co @-@ wrote one of the tape 's songs , " Levitate Me " ( his only major writing contribution to any Pixies song ) and appeared on the cassette 's front cover , jogging naked with his back turned to the camera . " Levitate Me " later appeared on the band 's first release Come on Pilgrim , which included seven other songs taken from the demo tape .
The Pixies entered the studio again in 1988 to record their second album Surfer Rosa . Lovering 's contribution on songs such as " Bone Machine " – which begins with a 10 @-@ second drum solo – " Break My Body " and " River Euphrates " established his steady , accurate style . Doolittle , the band 's major label debut , followed in 1989 . During the album 's recording sessions , Thompson convinced Lovering to sing on " La La Love You " , which had been written as a " dig at the very idea of a love song " . The album 's producer Gil Norton later said that during the sessions Lovering " went from not wanting to sing a note to ' I can 't get him away from the microphone ' . He was such a showman " . In addition to drums and vocals , Lovering played bass guitar on the album 's penultimate track , " Silver " .
After the release of Doolittle , the relationship between the band members became strained because of constant touring and the pressure of releasing three albums in two years . After the final date of the Doolittle " Fuck or Fight " tour in November 1989 , the band was too exhausted to attend their end @-@ of @-@ tour party the following night and shortly afterwards announced a hiatus . After the band reconvened in mid @-@ 1990 , Lovering moved to Los Angeles along with the rest of the band . The Pixies released two more albums , Bossanova ( 1990 ) and Trompe le Monde ( 1991 ) . Lovering sang lead vocals on the " Velouria " B @-@ side " Make Believe " ; a song about his admitted " obsession " with US singer @-@ songwriter Debbie Gibson . The Pixies toured sporadically throughout 1991 and 1992 . They eventually broke up in 1992 , mostly due to tensions between Thompson and Deal , although it was not publicly announced until 1993 .
= = = The Scientific Phenomenalist and other projects = = =
Following the Pixies ' breakup , Lovering drummed with several artists , including Nitzer Ebb , but turned down an invitation to join the Foo Fighters . Lovering then joined Santiago 's band The Martinis , appearing on their song " Free " on the soundtrack of Empire Records . However , he soon left the band to become a touring drummer for Cracker . Lovering moved from band to band , drumming with Tanya Donelly 's group on 1997 's Lovesongs for Underdogs and with Boston band Eeenie Meenie . After facing difficulty finding new work , Lovering gave up the drums and moved into a rented house that banned drumming .
Towards the end of the 1990s , Lovering 's friend Grant @-@ Lee Phillips took him to a magic convention . Lovering was very impressed by some of the illusions , and later said " I had to learn how to do it " . Mutual friend Carl Grasso invited them to a show at the Magic Castle , a magic @-@ oriented nightclub in Los Angeles . There Lovering met Possum Dixon frontman Rob Zabrecky , and the pair soon became friends . Zabrecky convinced Lovering to apply for a performers ' membership to the Magic Castle . After gaining his membership , Lovering reinvented himself as " The Scientific Phenomenalist " . His act combined his electrical engineering knowledge with his stage performance experience . His decision to pursue a career in magic was influenced by the fact that as a musician , he " couldn 't top the Pixies " .
As the Scientific Phenomentalist , Lovering performs science and physics experiments in a lab coat while on stage . He shuns traditional magic tricks , and prefers " things that are more mental , using mental powers " . He later explained : " It 's all kind of upbeat , really weird physics experiments that you 'll never see . [ ... ] I 'd rather have them [ the audience ] going ' Is it [ magic ] or isn 't it ? ' rather than ' It 's all science ' or ' It 's all magic ' . So I do kinda weird things that other magicians don 't do " . Lovering cites sleight @-@ of @-@ hand artist Ricky Jay , mind reader Max Maven and Eugene Burger as influences on his technique . His performances often involve intricate self @-@ built machines .
Lovering became part of The Unholy Three , a trio of magicians that resides at the Magic Castle , and performs " a new wave , alternative , avant @-@ garde kind of magic " . He toured his act across the United States as the opener for Frank Black ( the new stage name of former Pixies band @-@ mate Thompson ) , Grant @-@ Lee Phillips , The Breeders and Camper Van Beethoven . He performed his act at the Shellac @-@ curated All Tomorrow 's Parties music festival in 2002 . He later commented that his performance at the festival was " perhaps my greatest achievement " . Lovering resumed drumming , appearing at some Frank Black and the Catholics shows . He also appeared on one track of The Martinis ' 2004 album The Smitten Sessions .
= = = Pixies reunion = = =
By the summer of 2003 , Lovering was feeling depressed . In a 2004 interview , he commented : " I remember I was on the way to the bank , and I was just bummed out — everything , financially , was really a mess for me . I was involved in this relationship that was absolutely terrible . I was bottoming out . And I 'm on the way to the bank and my cellphone rings . It 's Joe [ Santiago ] ; he says , ' Guess what ? ' " Santiago had just received a call from Thompson stating his desire to reunite the Pixies . Lovering was overjoyed at the news . He added that " the saddest thing is that when I sat down to rehearse for the Pixies , I couldn 't believe that I had given up something that I loved " . In 2004 Lovering and the band recorded their reunion single , " Bam Thwok " .
Lovering appeared in the 2006 documentary loudQUIETloud , which covered the Pixies ' 2004 reunion tour . His father died midway during the tour , and Lovering began drinking heavily as a result . According to Thompson , Lovering " messed up a couple of songs " during a number of live shows . " It was all caught on film " , said Thompson , " but they re @-@ edited this to look like it happened in the middle of our tour and it looked like this whole tour careened into this drunken stupor with David . It really wasn 't like that at all " . He toured with the Pixies throughout 2005 and 2006 , while performing at the Magic Castle on Friday nights with The Unholy Three . In 2007 , Lovering played a benefit concert for Wally Ingram as part of The Martinis . Later that year , he formed a new band called The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , with Los Angeles musicians Amit Itelman and Oscar Rey .
= = Discography = =
= = = Pixies = = =
Come on Pilgrim ( 1987 )
Surfer Rosa ( 1988 )
Doolittle ( 1989 )
Bossanova ( 1990 )
Trompe le Monde ( 1991 )
Indie Cindy ( 2014 )
= = = With Tanya Donelly = = =
Lovesongs for Underdogs ( 1997 )
= = = With The Martinis = = =
The Smitten Sessions ( 2004 )
= = = With The Everybody = = =
Avatar ( 2009 )
= Robert de Bethune =
Robert de Bethune ( sometimes Robert de Betun , or Robert de Béthune , or Robert of Bethune ; died 1148 ) was a medieval Bishop of Hereford . The son of a knight , he became a teacher before becoming a canon , a type of monk , by 1115 . He was elected prior of Llanthony Priory in the middle 1120s , and was named bishop by King Henry I of
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0 million Hispanics in the U.S. does not include the 3 @.@ 9 million residents of Puerto Rico , thereby making the people of Hispanic origin the nation 's largest ethnic or race minority as of July 1 , 2005 .
Amongst the Hispanic pioneers in the Coast Guard were the Andreu family of Florida ; Joseph Ximenez , the first Hispanic @-@ American to command a Coast Guard vessel ; and Detlef Frederick Argentine de Otte , the first Hispanic to graduate from Revenue Cutter Service School of Instruction . The Coast Guard can be transferred to the Department of the Navy by the President or Congress during time of war . During World War I , Hispanics served in the United States Revenue Cutter Service and U.S. Life @-@ Saving Service ; and during World War II , Hispanics served aboard ships guarding the shores of the United States and the Atlantic Ocean against enemy submarines . However some men , such as Jose R. Zaragoza , served on missions on lonely atolls . Hispanics have served in every major conflict , and continue to do so . Coast guard service is not limited to armed conflicts with other nations ; the Coast Guard also plays a vital role in the apprehension of illegal immigrants and drug smugglers .
Hispanic men and women have reached the top ranks of the Coast Guard , serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign shores . In 1991 , LTJG Katherine Tiongson became the first Hispanic @-@ American female to command an afloat unit . In 2006 , Ronald J. Rábago was the first Hispanic @-@ American promoted to Rear Admiral ( lower half ) . In 2009 , Rear Admiral Joseph R. Castillo became the first Hispanic @-@ American district commander in the U.S. Coast Guard . Hispanics currently account for 11 % of the enlisted personnel , and 9 % of the United States Coast Guard Academy 's student body .
= = History = =
= = = 1800 – 1900 = = =
The United States Coast Guard was formed in 1915 when its predecessors – the United States Life @-@ Saving Service and the United States Revenue Cutter Service , which was established in 1790 by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton as an armed maritime law enforcement service – were merged . According to Dr. William H. Thiesen , Ph.D. , Atlantic Area Historian of the United States Coast Guard , the following events involving Hispanics occurred in the early years of the Coast Guard its predecessor services .
The first Hispanic to serve in the United States Revenue Cutter Service , predecessor to the Coast Guard , was Juan Andreu who from 1824 to 1845 served as the Keeper of the St. Augustine Lighthouse in Florida , thus making him also the first Hispanic to oversee a U.S. federal installation of any kind . Maria Andreu ( a.k.a. Maria Mestre de los Dolores ) , a family member , followed in his footsteps and served as Keeper of the same lighthouse from 1859 to 1862 , becoming the first Hispanic @-@ American woman to serve in the Coast Guard ( USRCS ) and the first Hispanic @-@ American woman to command a U.S. federal shore installation .
The first Hispanic @-@ American to command a Coast Guard vessel ( USRCS ) was Joseph Ximenez , who took command of the Carysfort Reef Lightship in Florida in 1843 . He was not , however , the first Hispanic officer . That distinction belongs to Domingo Castrano , who is listed by the United States Revenue Cutter Service Register as having served aboard USRC Grant in 1872 , as an engineering officer . The first known Hispanics to have served in the U.S. Life @-@ Saving Service were Surfmen Telesford Pena and Ramon Delgado who , in 1897 , served at the Brazos Life @-@ Saving Station in Texas .
Born in Buenos Aires , Argentina , Detlef Frederick Argentine de Otte entered the Revenue Cutter Service Academy in 1889 and graduated in 1891 . During his career he served aboard the USRC Levi Woodbury as Second Lieutenant . During the Spanish – American War he served with the North Atlantic Squadron , which took part in the blockade of Havana . Cuba . He later assumed command of several cutters ; served as Captain of the Port for Brest , France , during World War I ; and became the first Commander of the service ’ s Norfolk District , now known as Coast Guard District " 5 . " He rose to the rank of Commodore and received a promotion to Rear Admiral in retirement .
= = = 1900 – 1941 = = =
In 1914 , the schooner Isaiah K. Stetsen sank off the coast of Massachusetts during a storm . Mess Attendant First Class Arthur J. Flores and Seaman John E. Gomez , assigned to USRC Acushnet , volunteered to save survivors of the schooner and were awarded the Silver Lifesaving Medal for their heroism . That same year , USRC Algonquin , which was stationed in the Caribbean , set sail with fifteen Hispanic @-@ Americans ( a fourth of the cutter 's complement ) to San Juan , Puerto Rico to assist the Puerto Ricans battling fires that threatened to destroy parts of that city . In 1915 , the City of San Juan , Puerto Rico , paid tribute to the crew of the cutter Algonquin and presented them with an Official Resolution of Thanks . The Coast Guard was already formed by September 1918 , with the merger of United States Revenue Cutter Service and United States Life @-@ Saving Service , when Seaman Richard E. Cordova became the first Hispanic Coast Guardsman to perish in a military conflict when his cutter , the USCGC Tampa , was torpedoed and sunk with all its crew by a German U @-@ Boat during World War I. The Coast Guard can be transferred to the Department of the Navy by the President or Congress during time of war . Boatswains Mate First Class Pablo Valent and Surfman Indalecio Lopez , members of the Texas Brazos Life @-@ Saving Station crew were awarded the Coast Guard Silver Lifesaving Medal and The Grand Cross Medal from the American Cross of Honor Society for their assistance in the rescue of the crew of the schooner Cape Horn on September 16 , 1919 . In 1935 , Chief Boatswains Mate Pablo Valent was given command of the Port Isabel ( Texas ) Boat Station , becoming the first Hispanic @-@ American to do so .
On September 28 , 1925 , Chief Warrant Officer 2 Joseph B. Aviles , Sr. ( 1897 – 1990 ) , born in a farm near the town of Naranjito , Puerto Rico when the island was still a Spanish colony , became the first Hispanic chief petty officer in the Coast Guard . During World War II he received a war @-@ time promotion to chief warrant officer , becoming the first Hispanic to reach that level as well . Aviles joined the United States Navy in 1915 and served seven years and eight months , eventually reaching the rank of Chief Gunner 's Mate . During the years that he served in the Navy , the United States Congress passed the Jones – Shafroth Act ( 1917 ) which conferred United States citizenship on all citizens of Puerto Rico . On September 28 , 1925 , he entered the United States Coast Guard with the rate of chief gunners mate and served for two years before re @-@ enlisting on September 11 , 1928 .
= = = World War II = = =
During World War II , the Coast Guard was transferred to the Department of the Navy and as such many men saw action in said conflict . During the invasion of Saipan , which began on June 15 , 1944 , Valentin R. Fernandez , a landing craft coxswain , was awarded a Silver Lifesaving Medal for maneuvering a Marine landing party ashore under constant Japanese attack . The first known Hispanic @-@ American Coast Guardsman to be awarded with a Bronze Star Medal was Louis Rua , whose craft , a U.S. Army large tug en route to the Philippines , went to the rescue of another ship which had been torpedoed by enemy action and helped saved 277 survivors from the abandoned ship , while serving aboard a U.S. Army large tug en route to the Philippines .
Upon the outbreak of World War II , Joseph B. Aviles , Sr. received a war @-@ time promotion to chief warrant officer ( November 27 , 1944 ) , thus becoming the first Hispanic American to reach that level as well . He retired from the Coast Guard on July 27 , 1946 and worked as a security guard at a hospital in Baltimore until 1962 when at the age of 65 he retired . Aviles died at his residence in Columbia , Maryland , on February 22 , 1990 and was buried with full military honors in Plot D O 2220A of the Baltimore National Cemetery at Catonsville , MD .
Lieutenant Junior Grade Clarence Samuels , born on Bohio , Panama , enlisted in the Coast Guard on July 16 , 1920 and became a naturalized citizen of the United States on July 21 , 1923 . On May 12 , 1939 he was appointed a chief photographer 's mate becoming not only the first Hispanic of African descent photographer in the Guard , but also only the second photographer in the entire history of the Service . On July 29 , 1944 , he assumed command of Lightship No. 115 , operating in the Panama Sea Frontier . Thus , he became the first admitted Hispanic of African descent to command a cutter , as well as the first one to be an officer @-@ in @-@ charge of a Coast Guard vessel during wartime . Samuels entered the Coast Guard as a seaman 2nd Class and reached the rank of lieutenant ( as a part of the massive demobilization of the Coast Guard following the end of hostilities , his lieutenancy was revoked and he was dis @-@ rated to chief photographer 's mate ) . Samuels retired from the Coast Guard on September 1 , 1947 .
Gunner 's Mate Second Class Joseph Tezanos , a native of Santander , Spain , was aboard LST 20 in Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , when an explosion on board one of the armada ’ s LSTs set off a chain reaction . Tezanos along with a gang of several other hastily assembled volunteers scrambled on board a rescue boat . Tezanos and his shipmates rescued men from the water in danger of drowning and evacuated others from the burning ships . He was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for " distinguished heroism while serving as a volunteer member of a boat crew engaged in rescue operations during a fire in Pearl Harbor , Oahu , T.H. on 21 May 1944 . Under conditions of great personal danger from fire and explosions and with disregard of his own safety he assisted in the rescuing of approximately 42 survivors some of whom were injured and exhausted from the water and from burning ships . " Tezanos saw action at Kiska , Alaska ; Tarawa Atoll in the Gilbert Islands ; and Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands . Tezanos was sent to New London , Connecticut , at the Coast Guard Academy to take the four @-@ month program , from which he graduated in 1945 , becoming the first known Hispanic American to complete the service ’ s Reserve Officer Training Program and one of the very first Hispanic American officers in the United States Coast Guard . After the war he built a successful career in the international business world .
In December 1942 , Lt. Juan del Castillo became the first Hispanic American to receive an officer ’ s commission upon his graduation from the Officer ’ s Candidate School . Del Castillo , who enlisted in June 1942 , served on convoys in the Caribbean and on board cutters in the North Pacific . He also received training at the Naval Communications School at Harvard University . After he retired he worked for the U.S. Department of Agriculture and developed " CSM , " a high @-@ protein food substance used in disaster relief , famines and mass feeding operations .
Another USCGA graduate was Lieutenant John Gazzo Martinez , who was born in New Orleans and entered the service during World War II . He received an Academy appointment in 1946 , and in 1951 was commissioned an ensign in the Coast Guard . From 1954 to 1956 LTjg . Martinez served as commanding officer at the LORAN Transmitting Station in Yonago , Japan . Martinez prepared and delivered classes in LORAN ( Long Range Aids to Navigation ) procedures at the U.S. Air Force 34th Bombardment Squadron which was stationed nearby . He was later assigned as advisor in the U.S. Naval Mission to the Haitian Garde @-@ Cotes d 'Haiti . He taught classes for the Haitian military leadership and later oversaw the overhaul of Garde @-@ Cotes patrol vessels .
Not everyone served aboard ships during the war . Some men like Jose R. Zaragoza served on missions on some lonely atolls . When 19 @-@ year @-@ old Zaragoza , a native of Los Angeles , California , joined the Coast Guard , he was sent on patrols in the Pacific coast of the United States to defend against sabotage and invasion from the Japanese . Later he received instructions in the then @-@ emerging and secretive field of LORAN navigation and was sent to Ulithi atoll , located between Guam and the Philippines . He assisted with LORAN research and development , and served on Ulithi for 15 months .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
During the Vietnam War , Fireman Heriberto S. " Ed " Hernandez from San Antonio , Texas , enlisted in the Coast Guard . In 1968 , he was deployed for duty with Coast Guard Squadron One in Vietnam and was assigned to the USCGC Point Cypress , an 82 @-@ foot ( 25 m ) cutter . On December 5 , 1968 Point Cypress was attacked and Hernandez was killed during small boat operations . He was posthumously awarded the Bronze Star Medal with a combat " V " for valor and a Purple Heart Medal . Vice Admiral Elmo R. Zumwalt wrote : " Fireman Hernandez 's heroic actions under enemy fire were instrumental to the success of friendly forces in harassing and destroying the enemy 's morale and feeling of security . Fireman Hernandez 's professional skill , courage under enemy fire , and devotion to duty reflected great credit upon himself , and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service . " The first Hispanic @-@ American Coast Guardsman to receive the Silver Star Medal for combat action in Vietnam was Engineman Second Class Larry D. Villareal on January 21 , 1969 .
= = = Post – Vietnam War = = =
On September 16 , 2000 , Seaman Apprentice William Ray " Billy " Flores , was posthumously awarded the Coast Guard Medal in a ceremony near Ft . Worth , Texas . The Coast Guard Medal is awarded to any service member who , while serving in any capacity with the United States Coast Guard , distinguishes themselves by heroism not involving actual conflict with an enemy . On January 28 , 1980 , Flores ' cutter , USCGC Blackthorn , collided with the tanker Capricorn . After the ships collided , Blackthorn capsized , and Flores and another crew member threw life @-@ jackets to their shipmates who had jumped into the water . As the Blackthorn began to submerge , Flores used his own belt to strap open the life @-@ jacket locker door , allowing additional life @-@ jackets to float to the surface . He remained aboard to assist trapped shipmates and to comfort those who were injured and disoriented . Flores died in the line of duty .
In 2006 , Ronald J. Rábago became the first person born in the United States of Hispanic American descent to be promoted to Rear Admiral ( lower half ) in the Coast Guard . He was the Coast Guard 's Program Executive Officer ( PEO ) and Director of Acquisition Programs . On July 13 , 2007 , Rábago relieved Rear Adm. Gary T. Blore as the program executive officer of the U.S. Coast Guard 's largest recapitalization and modernization initiative , the $ 24 billion , 25 @-@ year programmed Integrated Deepwater System Program . The Integrated Deepwater System Program ( IDS Program ) , or " Deepwater , " is the 25 @-@ year program to recapitalize the United States Coast Guard 's aircraft , ships , logistics , and command and control systems . The $ 24 billion program includes equipment that will be used across all missions . Rábago not only acted as program executive officer of Deepwater , but also as director of all Coast Guard acquisition programs . His office oversaw all major acquisitions of cutters , aircraft , C4ISR and boats .
= = Apprehending illegal immigrants and drug smugglers = =
The Coast Guard is focusing on retaining Hispanic and Spanish @-@ speaking front @-@ line workers as it aims to intercept illegal immigrants . The current Coast Guard workforce meets both diversity goals and operational demands for having Spanish @-@ speaking workers on hand to communicate with apprehended illegal immigrants and human traffickers . These traffickers often pack people into boats and race along the Florida coastline , in an attempt to elude American enforcement .
The need for Spanish speaking Coast Guardsmen was emphasized on September 17 , 2008 , when two cocaine @-@ laden semi @-@ submarines from Colombia were captured en route to the eastern Pacific coast of the United States . Just five days later , a 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) semi @-@ submersible was seized about 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) south of Guatemala . As the boarding team unloaded the last few bales , the Coast Guard said , the unstable vessel began to take on water through its exhaust vents and sank . The U.S. Navy , Coast Guard and Drug Enforcement Administration officials say South American drug cartels are turning to semi @-@ submersible vessels , which have a low profile to avoid detection , because of the government 's success at thwarting other smuggling techniques , including the use of fishing trawlers and speed boats .
= = The U.S. Coast Guard Academy = =
The U.S. Coast Guard Academy , located in New London , Connecticut , accepts about 250 young men and women into its program each year . The four @-@ year academic program leads to a Bachelor of Science degree in a variety of majors .
Detlef Frederick Argentine de Otte , born in Buenos Aires , Argentina , entered the Revenue Cutter Service School of Instruction ( as the USCGA was previously known ) in 1889 and graduated in 1891 . He is the first Hispanic to the reach the rank of Commodore and to receive a promotion to Rear Admiral in retirement .
Paul Powers Perez , class of 1945 , was the first person born in the United States of Hispanic American descent to graduate from the academy . He was followed by John Gazzo Martinez , class of 1951 . In 2002 , Cadet 1 / c Sarah Salazar became the first Hispanic female Regimental Commander at the Coast Guard Academy .
At 9 % of the total student body , Hispanics are the largest minority group in the academy . As of 2010 the ethnic and racial breakdown of the student body in the academy is as follows : 81 % White / Non @-@ Hispanic , 9 % Hispanic , 2 % Black / Non @-@ Hispanic , 3 % Asian / Pacific Islander and 1 % American Indian / Alaskan Native . The Coast Guard is actively promoting U.S. Coast Guard college and career opportunities amongst Hispanics . Captain Adolfo Ramirez is an in @-@ house Executive on Loan at the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities at San Antonio , Texas , which represents more than 330 colleges and universities . His job is to explain the college programs , and military and civilian career opportunities that the Coast Guard can provide to Hispanic communities in education , and in service to the United States .
= = Population representation = =
According to the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense , in 2003 , Hispanic representation in the Coast Guard 's NPS active component enlisted accessions was at 11 percent . Also in 2003 , Hispanics represented slightly over 6 percent of the Coast Guard 's active component officer accessions , and 13 percent of the Coast Guard 's reserve enlisted accessions .
= = Chronological list of personal Hispanic accomplishments in the USCG = =
The following Hispanic @-@ Americans are the first in their respective USCG fields to accomplish the following :
YNC Grisel Hollis was the first Hispanic @-@ American female advanced to chief petty officer on May 1 , 1991 .
In 1991 , LTJG Katherine Tiongson became the first Hispanic @-@ American female to command an afloat unit when she took command of USCGC Bainbridge Island . She was also the first Hispanic @-@ American female intelligence officer in the Coast Guard .
In 1992 , Sonia Colon became the second Hispanic American female advanced to chief petty officer .
The first Hispanic to command a TACLET ( Tactical Law Enforcement Team ) , was then @-@ Lieutenant Jose L. Rodriguez when he took command of TACLET South , 1996 – 1998 . He was also the first Coast Guardsman to command a U.S. Marine Corps unit when he took command of the Riverine Training Center , Special Operations Training Group , II MEF at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina in July 1999 . He was also the first Hispanic @-@ American Coast Guardsman to earn his Gold Navy / Marine Corps jump wings while in the Coast Guard and assigned to a jump billet ( USMC Majors Billet at Special Operations Training Group II MEF ) . He earned his wings that same year . He also became the first commanding officer of one of the two MSSTs commissioned in the Coast Guard .
In 2002 , Lieutenant Junior Grade Angelina Hidalgo became the second Hispanic @-@ American female to command an afloat unit .
Lieutenant Commander Quique Ramon Ortiz and Lieutenant Commander Jose Rodriguez commissioned the first Maritime Safety and Security Team ( MSST ) s in Coast Guard history , MSSTs 91101 and 91102 ( East and West Coast ) . The MSST is an anti @-@ terrorism team established to protect local maritime assets .
On July 21 , 2005 , Captain Charley L. Diaz became the first Hispanic @-@ American to command a high endurance cutter when he assumed command of the USCGC Sherman . In March 2007 , he led the Sherman crew in the largest maritime drug bust in U.S. history with the seizure of the motor vessel Gatun off the coast of Panama carrying nearly 20 tons of cocaine worth an estimated $ 600M .
In 2006 , LT Isabel Papp , USPHS , became the first female medical officer to be assigned to a Port Security Unit ( PSU ) . PSU 's are deployable units organized for sustained force protection operations . She was also the first Hispanic @-@ American female MD to be assigned to a PSU . She had also been the first Hispanic @-@ American female Physician 's Assistant in the Coast Guard Reserve .
In July 2009 , RDML Joseph R. Castillo became the first Hispanic @-@ American district commander in the U.S. Coast Guard when he was appointed Commander of District 11 .
= = Note = =
= Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know =
" Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her second studio album , Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) . It was released on March 5 , 2001 , by JIVE Records as the fourth and final single from the album . After meeting with producer Robert John " Mutt " Lange in Switzerland , Spears recorded several songs for the album , including " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " , which she considered one of her favorites on the album . Additional lyrics were written by guitar player Keith Scott and country pop singer Shania Twain . The teen @-@ pop ballad speaks of a woman wanting to hear her boyfriend say that he needs loves her , and features a sound similar to David Bowie and Iggy Pop 's song " China Girl " ( 1983 ) .
" Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who considered it a good break from the album 's genre and praised Spears ' vocals , comparing them to those of Twain and Stevie Wonder . The song attained moderate commercial success , reaching number one in Romania , and peaking inside the top ten in Austria , Europe and Switzerland , while reaching top twenty positions in many European countries . " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " was only released for mainstream radio in the United States ; therefore , it failed to chart on any major music chart in the country .
An accompanying music video , directed by Herb Ritts , portrays Spears in love scenes with her fictional boyfriend , played by French model Brice Durand . The singer 's real @-@ life boyfriend at the time Justin Timberlake , however , was said to be annoyed at the kissing scenes , while the original video was considered too racy at the time by Spears ' mother , Lynne , because it contained sexually explicit material . Parts of the video were edited before its release to the public on March 2 , 2001 . As part of promotion for the song , Spears performed it at TRL , Saturday Night Live , and The View . It has also been included on four of her concert tours . " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " was nominated at Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards in the category of " Best Song " in 2002 . Spears has named " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " one of her favorite songs from her career .
= = Background = =
In 1999 , Spears began work on her second studio album , Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) , in Sweden and Switzerland . After meeting with Robert Lange in Switzerland , the singer started to record several songs for the album , including " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " . After finishing the track , Spears revealed in an interview with Billboard that " with the first album , I didn 't get to show my voice off . The songs were great , but they weren 't very challenging . This song is incredible . It 's going to surprise people in the best way . " " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " was written and produced by Robert Lange , while additional lyrics were written by his then @-@ wife Shania Twain and Keith Scott . Spears recorded her vocals for the song between November and December 1999 at Robert Lange 's and Shania Twain 's chateau in La @-@ Tour @-@ de Peilz , Switzerland , and it was later mixed by Nigel Green and programmed by Cory Churko , Kevin Churko and Richard Meyer . During a live concert at Hawaii , included on her second home video release Live and More ! ( 2000 ) , Spears claimed the song as one of her favourites on Oops ! ... I Did It Again . " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " was released on January 17 , 2001 as the final single from the album .
= = Composition = =
" Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " is a pop ballad that lasts for three minutes and 51 seconds . The song is composed in the key of E major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 76 beats per minute , and Spears ' vocal range spans from the low @-@ note of F ♯ 3 to the high @-@ key of D ♯ 5 . A NME staff reviewer said that the song takes the riff of David Bowie and Iggy Pop 's " China Girl " ( 1983 ) and " puts it over schmaltzy cocktail @-@ hour bass and love film strings . " Tom Terrell of MTV , however , compared the riff to the one of A Taste of Honey 's cover of " Sukiyaki " ( 1981 ) . Terrell further commented that the " Eagles @-@ esque chorus " features " an ' 80s hair band power ballad groove " where " Britney soul @-@ maxes with a vocal that channels both Stevie Wonder ( via " Knocks Me Off My Feet " ) and Shania herself . "
Stephanie McGrath of Jam ! said the song is " a nice break from the ' baby babys ' , ' yeah yeahs ' and insistent drum beats that pepper the other songs " of Oops ! [ sic ] . David Veitch of Calgary Sun compared the backing vocals to " nicely old @-@ fashioned shoo @-@ be @-@ doo @-@ doos " . Lyrically , " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " alludes to how Spears wants to hear her boyfriend say he needs her all the way and that he loves her . Spears considered it a " pure and delicate " song . " It 's just one of those songs that pull you in . That 's why I like it , and I like singing it as well , " she continued . " I think they wrote it ' specially for me , because the lyrics of the song , if you really listen ... they 're more of what I can relate to , ' cause they 're kind of young lyrics , I think . I don 't think Shania would probably sing some of the words that I 'm saying . "
= = Critical response = =
" Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " received mostly positive reviews from contemporary critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic deemed it a " sweetly sentimental ballad " along with the other ballads on Oops ! ... I Did It Again , while a Rhapsody review considered them " perfectly constructed ballads " . Stephanie McGrath of Jam ! called the song " the best showcase of Spears ' talents . " A NME staff reviewer considered the track " absolutely frightening , " with Tracy E. Hopkins of Barnes & Noble deeming " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " a " polished ballad " , and praising Shania Twain for the songwriting . Billboard journalist Michael Paoletta noted that Spears may not have the vocal range of " colleagues Jessica Simpson and Christina Aguilera , but she does have an instantly recognizable style @-@ and Oops ! ... indicates that she 's developing a soulful edge and emotional depth that can 't be conjured with a glass @-@ shattering not " , further commenting that this can be confirmed " on the hitworthy , Shania Twain @-@ penned ballad ' Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know ' . " While reviewing 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour , Jocelyn Vena of MTV considered the song , along with " Toxic " , " old @-@ school jams " . The song was nominated at Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards in the category of " Best Song " in 2002 .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " was not commercially available in the United States , and was sent only to mainstream radio on April 2 , 2001 . Therefore , the track failed to appear on any major music chart in the United States . However , " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " was successful in Europe , debuting and peaking at number nine on the European Hot 100 Singles on the chart issue dated April 14 , 2001 . The song was also able to reach the top ten in Austria and Switzerland , while attaining top 20 positions in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Finland , Ireland , Norway and Sweden . In the United Kingdom , it debuted and peaked at number 12 on April 7 , 2001 , exiting the UK Singles Chart after eight weeks . " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " achieved commercial success in Romania , where it reached number one and was the third best @-@ selling single of 2001 . Despite reaching number 14 in Denmark , the song was later certified Gold by International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , for shipping over 5 @,@ 000 units of the single in the county . The single was not released in Australia ; instead , it was included as a bonus second disc of the limited edition of Oops ! ... I Did It Again released in the country .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " was directed by the American photographer Herb Ritts , and shot at Key Biscane in Miami , Florida in the last week of January 2001 . Spears revealed she was inspired by Janet Jackson 's video for " Love Will Never Do ( Without You ) " ( 1990 ) to select Ritts as the video 's director . According to Ritts , the singer " wanted to do something fresh . There was one outfit , no dancing , and that meant that it boiled down to her . She really had to act the song , and she was very impressive . " He also revealed the setting of the video was built as " a funky beach shack " similar to Madonna 's " Cherish " ( 1989 ) and Chris Isaak 's " Wicked Game " ( 1989 ) . " The story is , pretty much , Britney longing for him to tell her the words " , said Ritts , who was impressed with the chemistry between the singer and her fictional boyfriend , played by French model Brice Durand . Spears ' real @-@ life boyfriend at the time Justin Timberlake , however , " was said to be miffed at Spears ' kissing scenes with French model , " according to Jennifer Vineyard of MTV . Spears mother , Lynne , also criticized considered the original music video for being too racy at the time , because it contained sexually explicit material . Parts of the video were edited before its release to the public .
The music video debuted at number one on MTV 's TRL on March 2 , 2001 . The video begins with Spears and her boyfriend in a hammock . Cuts of her cuddling with her love interest beside a fire are also included . We also see her and her boyfriend on the seashore doing a love scene . Inside a tiki hut , Spears exclaims the words she wants her boyfriend to know . In the second half of the video , she is seen on a tree where her boyfriend reaches for her . There are also scenes where she is running on the beach and her boyfriend is chasing after her . Spears wears only a bikini top and a pair of cutoff shorts during the whole video . The music video was considered by Spears as " the funnest video I 've ever done . " An alternate footage of the video can be found on the DVD of Spears first compilation album Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . Vineyard considered the footage as the one that " makes the most use of Britney 's body of work , with the spaceman from " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " , an opening door from " My Prerogative " and one love interest from " Toxic " all making cameos " .
= = Live performances = =
The first performance of " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " was on March 8 , 2000 , during the Crazy 2k Tour in Pensacola , Florida , where Spears appeared onstage sitting on a magic carpet and flew over the audience while singing the song . After releasing her second studio album , Oops ! ... I Did It Again , Spears performed the song on the American music show TRL , on Saturday Night Live and on The View . She also performed the song live on 2000s Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour . After performing " Sometimes " , she climbed the staircase and briefly spoke to the audience before moving into the performance of the song , for which she wore a long white dress trimmed with boa feathers . " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " was performed also on 2001 's Dream Within a Dream Tour . The performance consisted of Spears singing the song on an elevated platform wearing an evening gown with artificial snow falling from the ceiling , while two of her dancers performed a routine .
Almost ten years later , " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " was performed by Spears on 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour . The performance consists of Spears sitting on a swing singing the song , whilst a male dancer dances beneath her , at one point attaching himself by his feet to the swing whilst midair . Shirley Halperin of The Hollywood Reporter named it one of the best performances of the show along with " Piece of Me " and " 3 " , stating that " ironically enough , [ they ] were the ones with fewest frills . " In a review of the special broadcast by American premium television channel Epix of the tour , Jocelyn Vena of MTV summarized her thoughts about the performance saying , " It 's rare these days to see Britney Spears show her soft side , but she takes a break from the nonstop , fist @-@ pumping music during the spectacle that is the Femme Fatale Tour and kicks it old @-@ school , showing us she still has the heart and soul to bust out a power ballad . "
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " adapted from Oops ! ... I Did It Again liner notes .
Technical
Recorded at Mutt Lange 's and Shania Twain 's chateau in La @-@ Tour @-@ de Peilz , Switzerland .
Mixed by Nigel Green for Out Of Pocket Productions , Ltd .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Pettigrew State Park =
Pettigrew State Park is a North Carolina State Park in Tyrrell and Washington Counties , North Carolina in the United States . It covers 5 @,@ 830 acres ( 23 @.@ 6 km2 ) around the shore lines of Lake Phelps and the Scuppernong River . The park 's developed facilities are south of U.S. Route 64 near Roper and Creswell , North Carolina . Pettigrew State Park is open for year @-@ round recreation , including hiking , camping , fishing , boating and picnicking .
Pettigrew State Park is named for Confederate General J. Johnston Pettigrew , who lived in a nearby home . It surrounds Somerset Place , a North Carolina state historic site that includes a restored 1830s plantation house and outbuildings that can be toured , including reconstructed slave quarters .
Pettigrew State Park was established during the Great Depression after the land was leased from the Farm Security Administration , a New Deal program of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt .
Part of Pettigrew State Park surrounds Lake Phelps , one of the oldest lakes in the eastern United States and a former hunting and fishing ground for the Algonquian peoples . Archaeologists have found dugout canoes in the lake that are up to 4 @,@ 400 years old , preserved by its unusually clean waters . Pettigrew is home to an abundance of wildlife : Lake Phelps is a primary wintering location for several types of waterfowl , including Canada geese and Tundra swans . The park is also home to the woodland creatures , such as raccoons and white @-@ tailed deer , that are commonly found along the east coast of the United States . Lake Phelps contains several species of game fish including largemouth bass and catfish .
The park also manages the 16 @,@ 600 @-@ acre ( 67 km2 ) Lake Phelps , which is a North Carolina State Lake . All together , the park manages 22 @,@ 430 acres ( 90 @.@ 8 km2 ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early inhabitants = = =
Pettigrew State Park surrounds Lake Phelps , North Carolina 's second largest natural made lake . The lake , on a peninsula between Albemarle Sound and the Pamlico River , is one of a series of Carolina bay lakes that stretch from New Jersey to Florida along the Atlantic Coastal Plain . Exactly how the lakes were formed remains a mystery . What is known is that Lake Phelps is not fed by any stream , but relies entirely upon rain and springs to maintain its water level . Since the lake is not fed by a stream that could carry pollutants from nearby farms and factories , the water is very clean . Lake Phelps is five miles ( 8 km ) across , with an average depth of just 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) . The lake is thought to be more than 38 @,@ 000 years old .
Lake Phelps is named for Josiah Phelps , the first white man to enter its waters . Phelps and another colonial explorer , Benjamin , were searching through what was then known as the Great Eastern Dismal or Great Alligator Dismal in 1755 . Phelps and Tarkington were part of a group of hunters who entered the swamps in search of game and farmland . The group had become discouraged and were about to leave when Tarkington scaled one of the trees and spotted the lake a short distance away . Phelps went ahead and ran into the water . As the first in the water he was given the honor of naming the lake .
The history of human habitation in and around Pettigrew State Park stretches back as far as 8000 BC . Archaeologists have found thousands of relics at the park , including pottery , arrowheads , and sunken dugout canoes . Estimates place some of the dugouts as being at least 4 @,@ 400 years old . They were preserved in the bottom of the lake by its unusually clean waters .
The dugouts were created by Algonquian peoples who were seasonal visitors to the area . They built them from the logs of cypress by slowing burning out the center of the log and scraping the burnt wood out , leaving only the outer shell . Historians believe that the Algonquian would sink their canoes to the bottom of the lake for safekeeping until they would return the following fishing and hunting season . Thirty of these ancient canoes have been found in Lake Phelps , with perhaps more yet to be discovered .
= = = Plantation era = = =
Josiah Collins was one of the first European @-@ descended settlers to live and farm in the area of Pettigrew State Park , arriving in the 1780s . Collins and his partners drained the swamps surrounding Lake Phelps and established an extensive plantation known as Somerset Place .
Collins and his partners brought in slaves from Africa to dig a canal from Lake Phelps to the Scuppernong River . The canal served two purposes : first , as a means of transporting goods and people to and from the plantation ; and second , it served as a massive drainage ditch as the slaves of Somerset Place worked to drain the surrounding swamps . Later , the canal system was expanded to provide irrigation for the rice and corn fields of the plantation .
Pettigrew State Park is named for J. Johnston Pettigrew a Confederate General who lies buried in the family cemetery in the park . Pettigrew was one of the commanding officer 's at the Battle of Gettysburg and led a company of soldiers at Pickett 's Charge . He sustained mortal wounds during General Robert E. Lee 's retreat from Gettysburg . The general , who grew up on a farm that adjoined Somerset Place , is buried with his father and grandfather . Their final resting place is a popular stopping point for visitors to the park .
Somerset Place was a prosperous plantation until the American Civil War , when plantation life was forever altered by Abraham Lincoln and the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation . The Collins family was unable to maintain the plantation following the war and sold it off .
= = = State park era = = =
Somerset Place and the land that is now Pettigrew State Park passed through the hands of several owners until it was acquired by the Farm Security Administration in 1937 during the Great Depression . The state of North Carolina administers the land under the terms of a 99 @-@ year lease signed in 1939 with the United States Department of Agriculture . Pettigrew State Park has been expanded at various times since it opened in 1939 . Two of the most recent land acquisitions included adding the entire shoreline of Lake Phelps , and the largest expansion , which took place along the Scuppernong River in 2004 .
The Scuppernong had remained largely undeveloped throughout history . In 1793 , the town of Columbia was built on its banks , as were several boat landings . The Scuppernong is a blackwater river : it water is colored like black tea or coffee . The Scuppernong served as a means of transportation for the early settlers in this region of North Carolina . Since 1989 the Nature Conservancy has sought to protect it in its most natural state . In 2002 the Nature Conservancy offered to donate four tracts of land that they owned along the Scuppernong if the state would purchase three more tracts that became available that same year . The state agreed and in 2004 the area along the river was officially added to the state park system .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Plant life = = =
Pettigrew State Park is home to one of the last stands of old @-@ growth forest in eastern North Carolina . A forest of bay trees , sweetgum , pawpaw , persimmon , bald cypress and poplar are found on the northern shore of Lake Phelps . The cypress have a trunk diameter of up to ten feet ( 3 m ) and the poplar have a trunk diameter of six feet ( 2 m ) . There are vines that are as wide as an average man 's leg and grow up the trees in excess of 130 feet ( 40 m ) . In the section of the park along the Scuppernong River , the Atlantic white cedar and other rare cedar trees have grown to rather large sizes . Several of the trees at Pettigrew State Park are listed on the North Carolina and National Registries of Big Trees .
Wildflowers are found throughout Pettigrew State Park . Atamasco lily , periwinkle , buttercup , Jack @-@ in @-@ the @-@ pulpit , maypops , and jewelweed are sometimes found on the banks and in the shallows of Lake Phelps . The Scuppernong River provides a habitat for swamp dogwood , evening primrose , blue flag iris and cardinal flowers . The roughleaf dogwood is also found near the river . This particular dogwood is rare in North Carolina and the type along the Scuppernong is rarer still .
= = = Animal life = = =
Lake Phelps and the Scuppernong River attract a wide variety of waterfowl . Lake Phelps is just one of several large , shallow freshwater lakes on the Pamlico @-@ Albemarle Peninsula . These lakes are all winter grounds for ducks , geese and swans . The waterfowl at Lake Phelps use the area primarily for roosting purpose before flying off to nearby feeding sites . Tundra swans and Canada geese feed in nearby farm fields and the ducks feed in the wetlands . The waterfowl usually arrive in the area in October and overwinter until February or March . Commonly seen waterfowl are Canada geese , tundra swans , mallards , American black ducks and northern pintail .
Pettigrew State Park is home to several species of birds of prey . Ospreys build their nests in the tops of the tallest trees in the park and feed on the abundant fish of Lake Phelps . The population of bald eagles is increasing and they are occasionally seen over the park . At least three species of owl , the great horned owl , barred owl and eastern screech owl , make their home in the forests of the park , as do red tailed and red shouldered hawks . American kestrel and northern harriers also find suitable habitats at Pettigrew State Park .
Wading and woodland birds are year @-@ round residents of Pettigrew State Park . The banks of Lake Phelps and the Scuppernong River provide an abundance of cover and food for sandpipers , great blue herons , great egrets , and green herons . The woods are home to bobwhites , pileated woodpeckers , woodcocks , red @-@ cockaded woodpeckers , and mourning doves . Songbirds found at the park include prairie and prothonotary warblers , common yellowthroats and northern parulas .
Pettigrew State Park also provides habitats for eastern woodland mammals . Black bear and white @-@ tailed deer inhabit the woods , as do Virginia opossum , raccoon , American mink , muskrat , North American river otter , fox , and bobcats . The endangered red wolf has been reintroduced to eastern North Carolina , including Pettigrew State Park .
The most common species are game fish , found in Lake Phelps , are largemouth bass , chain pickerel , catfish , yellow perch and pumpkinseed . These fish are what brought the Algonquian to the area nearly 10 @,@ 000 years ago .
= = Recreation = =
Pettigrew State Park is open for year @-@ round recreation , including hiking , fishing , camping , boating and picnicking . Lake Phelps is open to canoes , kayaks , rowboats and engine @-@ powered boats . Launch ramps are available at Cypress Point and behind the park offices on Lake Shore Drive . There is a canoe trail in the canals that were built during the plantation era . The Scuppernong River is also open to most types of watercraft .
The main campground is in a cypress and sweetgum forest , with 13 campsites that are open to tents or camping trailers . Each site comes equipped with a picnic table and charcoal grill . A second campsite is in a grassy meadow with the same amenities . A large group camping area is set in the forest . It has tent pads , grills and rustic toilet facilities . A centrally located bathhouse , open to all campers , includes flush toilets and showers .
Lake Phelps and the Scuppernong River are both open for fishing . The North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission ( NCWRC ) has established fishing regulations , such as catch and length limits , that are meant to enhance sport fisheries in public waters such as Lake Phelps and the Scuppernong River . The NCWRC has had regulations in place at Pettigrew State Park since 2002 . The regulations specify that anglers may keep largemouth bass that are greater than 20 inches ( 50 @.@ 8 cm ) or between 14 and 16 inches ( 35 @.@ 6 @-@ 40 @.@ 6 cm ) . This rule was put in place to increase the number of tropy fish , fish over 20 inches ( 50 @.@ 8 cm ) . Additionally the NCWRC stocks Lake Phelps with bluegill and they have begun a program to reintroduce alewife and blueback herring via fish ladder on Bee Tree Canal from the Scuppernong River .
Pettigrew State Park has three pavilions and one large picnic area available on a first come , first served basis . Three hiking trails pass the shore of Lake Phelps and wind through the woods .
= Lupo the Butcher =
Lupo the Butcher is a 1987 three @-@ minute animated short comedy film directed and written by Danny Antonucci . The short follows the story of a psychotic butcher who has a huge temper and swears at his meat when the smallest things go wrong . Produced by Marv Newland 's International Rocketship Limited , Lupo the Butcher was a successful short and has earned itself a cult following .
= = Plot = =
An Italian Canadian butcher named Lupo is complaining about his job one day , while cutting meat in his shop . As each new slice falls to the ground , Lupo grows increasingly angry and swears at the meat . He then accidentally cuts off his own thumb , which inexplicably causes his entire body to fall apart . Blood gushes out onto the ground , and the various pieces of Lupo 's body collapse into a pile . The screen darkens and closes in on Lupo 's severed head , but before the scene can disappear entirely , Lupo 's head jumps forward , still alive . It remains on the screen , shouting insults during the credits , and then falls asleep .
= = Production = =
Danny Antonucci , who has worked in animation since the 1970s , decided to create his first solo work . Tired of people thinking that animation was only for children , he wanted to create a " character that people would believe in " . Due to his Italian heritage , Antonucci wanted his character to be an Italian immigrant who would blame America for all of his problems . Originally named " Lupo the Barber " , Antonucci eventually settled on the name " Lupo the Butcher " . This character was inspired by his father and uncle . After the short was finalized , Antonucci was pleased with his creation , and felt that the three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute movie " worked out " . It was produced by Marv Newland 's International Rocketship Limited . Released in 1987 , it was shown at Spike and Mike 's Festival of Animation . Antonucci went on to found a.k.a Cartoon , Inc . , with which he would create The Brothers Grunt and the Cartoon Network classic Ed , Edd n Eddy .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , Lupo the Butcher was a successful short and has earned itself a cult following . Eric Fogel , co @-@ creator of Glenn Martin , DDS , stated that Lupo the Butcher inspired him to pursue a career in animation , saying : " That film opened my eyes to a world of animation that was strictly for grownups and inspired me to pursue a career path that was a bit more … twisted . " In an interview with Take One , Linda Simensky called the short " the South Park of its time " and stated that she remembers tapes containing the short being passed around her office in 1988 . It was featured in Spike and Mike 's book Outlaw Animation , written by Jerry Beck , and in the Spike and Mike DVD .
= = Other media = =
The Lupo character was eventually licensed by the Converse athletic shoe company . This led to additional work , including animated commercials for Levi Strauss & Co. and MTV .
In 2010 , Danny Antonucci revealed that a second short called Meat the Family was planned by a.k.a. Cartoon in 1996 , but it remained unfinished . It had to be based on Lupo and his family , composed of his wife Sette Culo ( Italian for " Seven Ass " ) , his son Retardo ( " Retard " ) , his father Papà Piscione ( " Pissing Dad " ) and a cat named Feesy . The designs also appeared in Spike and Mike 's book Outlaw Animation , written by Jerry Beck . They were then resumed for achieve an animated television series based on the original short ; no further reports , however , have been made since then .
= 2010 Goody 's Fast Pain Relief 500 =
The 2010 Goody 's Fast Pain Relief 500 at Martinsville Speedway in Martinsville , Virginia was the sixth race of the 2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series season . It was scheduled to start at 1 p.m. EDT on March 28 , 2010 , but due to rain it ran on March 29 , 2010 at 12 noon EDT . The 2010 Goody 's Fast Pain Relief 500 was televised on Fox and was broadcast on MRN radio . This race was the first race that the spoiler replaced the wing on the Car of Tomorrow . The race had eight leaders , 26 lead changes , and 13 cautions .
= = Race report = =
= = = Practices and qualifying = = =
During the first practice on March 26 , 2010 the fastest were Ryan Newman , Mark Martin , Marcos Ambrose , Jeff Gordon , and Denny Hamlin . There was no major contact during first practice except for between Tony Stewart and Travis Kvapil . Qualifying for the Martinsville race was canceled because of rain showers in the area which caused them to line @-@ up by points . The pole @-@ sitter was Kevin Harvick , and Casey Mears , Terry Cook , and Johnny Sauter did not qualify . During the second practice on March 27 , 2010 the fastest were Mark Martin , Jeff Burton , Brian Vickers , Juan Pablo Montoya , and Jeff Gordon ; there was no major contact in the practice . The faster cars in Happy Hour ( the final practice ) on March 27 , 2010 were Jamie McMurray , Jeff Burton , Clint Bowyer , Jeff Gordon , and Denny Hamlin .
= = = Race summary = = =
The race was scheduled to start on Sunday , March 28 , 2010 , but rain delayed the event until noon EDT on Monday , March 29 . The pre @-@ race ceremonies began with Joey McNeil from Fort Trail Baptist Church saying the invocation . The Martinsville High School Jazz Band played the US national anthem , and Henry County administrator Benny Summerlin gave the command " Gentleman Start Your Engines ' " . Robby Gordon was sent to the back of the starting grid because he changed engines after Happy Hour . NASCAR announced before the race that there would be a competition caution on lap 50 . At 12 : 16 p.m. , the green flag waved with Kevin Harvick the leader . Kevin Harvick stayed the leader until lap 41 when the first caution stopped the field because of a tire going down on Joe Nemechek 's car . Since this caution came out near NASCAR 's schedule competition caution on Lap 50 , NASCAR canceled the competition caution . On lap 46 , Kevin Harvick led to the green flag with Kurt Busch second . After a ten lap run , Jeff Gordon passed Kevin for the lead . Then on lap 63 , David Stremme spun in turn four to bring out the second caution . Jeff Gordon , who stayed out of pit road , was still the leading when the green flag waved . Afterwards , on lap 75 , David Reutimann spun in turn one to cause the third caution of the race . Jeff Gordon was still leading the race when race resumed , but a lap later Kurt Busch edged Jeff to lead lap 82 . Then Jeff passed Kurt to lead again on lap 89 .
After the lead change , the race experienced a run of 46 laps . During the laps , Kevin Harvick took his Chevrolet to the garage because of brake issues , and on lap 125 Juan Pablo Montoya collided into the wall ; he went to the garage with major damage . The run ended because Robby Gordon , who blew a tire , caused the fourth caution to be waved . After all of the lead lap cars pitted the leader was Jeff Gordon . On lap 140 , Kurt Busch passed Jeff for the lead , but on lap 149 Jeff Burton passed Jeff and Kurt to get the lead . Thirteen laps later the fifth caution was given because Greg Biffle spun after having contact with Marcos Ambrose . During pit stops , Mark Martin stayed out to lead the field to the green flag on lap 168 . On lap 170 , the sixth caution was given because Elliott Sadler spun in turn four after contact with David Stremme . On the restart the leader was Mark Martin . A lap later , Mark Martin was passed by Kurt Busch on the backstretch . After leading eight more laps , Kurt Busch was passed by Mark Martin for the lead . On lap 199 , Kurt Busch was falling back while Jeff Burton passed Mark for the lead .
After the lead change on lap 199 , most of the passing was from the back , but on lap 230 Denny Hamlin passed Jeff Burton for the lead . Four laps later the seventh yellow flag was given because Regan Smith and Robby Gordon couldn 't get to pit road after getting in to the wall . On the restart , Denny Hamlin took the field to the green flag . Soon after , Jeff Burton passed Hamlin to lead again . On lap 264 , Burton was leading by seven @-@ tenths of a second . By lap 277 , Burton was passed by Hamlin again .
On lap 303 , the eighth caution came out as a result of Elliott Sadler spinning in turn two . Jeff Burton led them to the next green flag on lap 310 . After five laps under green , the ninth caution came out because Marcos Ambrose had a tire deflating on his car . On lap 319 , the green flag waved with Burton the leader . Jeff Burton battled Denny Hamlin for several laps until Hamlin passed for the lead on lap 358 . Six laps later , the tenth caution came out because David Stremme spun in turn one . Denny Hamlin kept the lead after pit stops for the leaders were finished . Hamlin led 18 laps until Burton passed him back on lap 390 . He kept the lead until Hamlin passed him on lap 405 .
The eleventh caution was given because Kevin Conway got into the turn four wall . All of the lead lap cars pitted ; Hamlin returned to the track as the leader . The green flag came out on lap 426 with the rest of the top @-@ five being Jeff Burton , Kyle Busch , Clint Bowyer , and Matt Kenseth . On lap 429 , Jamie McMurray received a black flag because the rear panel of his car coming loose . There was a long run of sixty @-@ six laps after the eleventh caution , but the run ended because Jeff Burton 's tire deflated causing the twelfth caution of the day . Under the caution , second place Kyle Busch and leader Hamlin went to pit road which gave Jeff Gordon the lead . The green flag was given on lap 498 , but with a little more than one lap to go the thirteenth caution came out because Kyle Busch got sideways as a result of racing side by side with Paul Menard and Marcos Ambrose , causing a green @-@ white @-@ checker . After the caution the race extended passed the scheduled distance with the green flag on lap 506 . On the restart , Denny Hamlin passed Ryan Newman while he was also passing Jeff Gordon . Then Matt Kenseth , who was the leader , was passed by Hamlin after being bumped by Jeff Gordon . On the checkered flag Denny Hamlin got his third win at Martinsville and his first of the year .
= = Race results = =
In conclusion , the race had 8 leaders , 26 lead changes , and 13 cautions for 79 laps . Denny Hamlin led the most laps by leading 171 of the 508 laps .
= Raptor ( Cedar Point ) =
Raptor is a steel inverted roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard at Cedar Point in Sandusky , Ohio , United States . When built in 1994 , it broke many records and held many firsts when it opened . Instead of having a short layout designed to fit into a compact area like Batman : The Ride , Raptor was designed with a larger , 3 @,@ 790 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 160 m ) layout , making it the tallest , fastest and longest inverted roller coaster in the world when it opened . It features six inversions , including a cobra roll , a first for inverted roller coasters . At its opening , it was the largest investment in Cedar Point history . The ride is themed as a bird of prey .
= = History = =
On August 19 , 1993 , Cedar Fair Entertainment Company filed a trademark for the name Raptor . Raptor was then announced on September 1 , 1993 during a press conference . Regarding the design of the attraction , Cedar Point management , said : " Raptor will be the most exciting and ambitious project ever ... a project that will challenge the boundaries of imagination and change the Sandusky , Ohio amusement park / resort like nothing before it . "
Construction started after the 1993 season with the site clearing of the Mill Race log flume water ride . The Midway Carousel and Calypso were relocated in October to other areas of the park to make room for Raptor . Footers also began to be poured that month . The lift hill was topped off in December with track construction continuing through January 1994 . The first trains were tested about two months later in March . Final preparations were made in March with the entrance plaza being built and 85 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 900 m2 ) of midway replaced . Media day was held on May 6 before the ride opened to the public the next day for the first time . The ride was originally painted with dark green supports , bright green track and unpainted rails . It was repainted for the 2002 season and the rails were painted dark green , matching the supports .
= = Ride experience = =
Raptor is located on three acres ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) at the front of the park near Blue Streak . The ride travels over the pathway to Blue Streak then passes by the Cadillac Cars and Cedar Downs Racing Derby . The queue features a DJ booth that is used on the weekends . They take requests from people in the queue for family friendly songs . They can also be found daily in Millennium Force 's queue . Raptor is themed as a bird of prey , not a velociraptor .
= = = Layout = = =
The ride begins with a left @-@ hand turn out of the station to the lift hill that ascends 137 feet ( 42 m ) . Riders are pulled up by a 9 @,@ 000 lbf ( 40 kN ) chain lift . At the top , the train dips slightly into the pre @-@ drop before turning 90 degrees to the left as it drops 119 feet ( 36 m ) down the first hill . From the bottom the train immediately enters a 100 feet ( 30 m ) vertical loop . The train then enters a zero @-@ g roll followed by the cobra roll which inverts riders twice . The cobra roll was a first for inverted roller coasters . After the cobra roll , the train climbs through an upward spiral and enters the mid @-@ course brake run . Next , the train dives down to the right transitioning into a brief straight section of track . Riders then enter the first of two corkscrews which rotates the train 360 degrees to the left . The track straightens briefly again before turning to the right and entering a short dip before taking riders into the second corkscrew . The ride finishes with a 1 @.@ 5 revolution flat helix where riders encounter strong positive G @-@ forces before making one last left turn into the final brake run . One cycle of the ride lasts about 2 minutes and 16 seconds .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track is approximately 3 @,@ 790 feet ( 1 @,@ 160 m ) in length and the height of the lift is approximately 137 feet
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14 months . According to Groves , anterior horns show the poorest development in the subspecies T. q. subquadricornutus . These horns measure nearly 4 @.@ 5 – 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) in T. q. quadricornis , and nearly 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) in T. q. iodes . The posterior horn lengths for the subspecies recorded by him were : 8 – 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) for T. q. quadricornis , 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) in T. q. iodes and 1 @.@ 8 – 2 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 71 – 0 @.@ 79 in ) in T. q. subquadricornutus .
The four @-@ horned antelope differs greatly from the nilgai in colour , is much smaller and has an extra pair of horns . The nilgai is nearly nine times heavier and two times taller than the four @-@ horned antelope . Two deer species , the Indian muntjac and the hog deer , can be confused with this antelope . The four @-@ horned antelope , however , lacks their antlers . The chinkara , a gazelle , can be told apart by its light brown coat and larger , ringed horns .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The four @-@ horned antelope is diurnal ( active mainly during the day ) , though it mainly rests or ruminates in dense undergrowth at noon . Though solitary by nature , the four @-@ horned antelope may form loose groups of three to five . Groups consist of one or more adults , sometimes accompanied by juveniles . Males and females hardly interact , except in the mating season .
The antelope is shy and elusive . When alarmed , it stands motionless and may nervously leap away from the danger or even sprint . It often conceals itself in tall grasses to escape predators . The use of alarm calls to alert others is not common because the antelope tries to avoid the attention of predators . However , in extreme cases , these calls may be used to warn predators that they have been identified . Adults mark vegetation in their territories with a colourless secretion of preorbital glands , that soon condenses to form a white film . They maintain multiple latrine sites where piles of their pellet droppings are formed by regular use . Latrine sites can be confused with those of the barking deer but the pellets are longer and larger in four @-@ horned antelopes . Submissive display consists of shrinking the body , lowering the head and pulling the ears back . Predators of four @-@ horned antelopes include tigers , leopards , and dholes .
= = = Diet = = =
The four @-@ horned antelope feeds on grasses , herbs , shrubs , foliage , flowers and fruits . A study in Mudumalai National Park ( Tamil Nadu , India ) showed that the antelope prefers grass species of the family Cyperaceae ; genera Axonopus , Cynodon , Digitaria , Echinochloa , Panicum , Sehima and Sporobolus ; and the species Imperata cylindrica , Ottochloa nodosa , Pseudanthistria umbellata and Themeda cymbaria . The shrub Grewia hirsuta is frequently eaten . Preferred herbs include Helichrysum , Indigofera and Tinospora species and Leucas aspera . The four @-@ horned antelope feeds on the leaves of trees such as Cordia wallichii , Emblica officinalis , Randia dumetorum and Zizyphus xylopyrus . Grasses comprise nearly 29 percent of the diet , followed by foliage from trees ( nearly nine percent ) . Grass and browse were consumed in nearly equal proportions . A study in the Panna National Park ( Madhya Pradesh , India ) showed preference for Zizyphus mauritiana , Acacia nilotica , A. leucophloea and A. catechu . Babool flowers were frequently eaten . The antelope often associates with langurs under fruiting trees , just as chital frequently do . Interaction with chital , a sympatric species , was infrequent . The antelope is wary when feeding , often raising its head and looking about its vicinity . The four @-@ horned antelope needs to drink water frequently ; as such it stays in places near water sources .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Breeding behaviour of the four @-@ horned antelope has not been well studied . The age at which sexual maturity is gained is doubted ; two captive females had their first parturition at less than two years . The breeding season in Panna National Park probably lasts from May to July , and from June to August in Mudumalai National Park . The male approaches the female in a relaxed gait , giving out low coughs . The two may kneel and push against each other with the necks intertwined . The male makes a few short mounting attempts ; the female may be foraging all the while without any reaction . Gestation lasts about eight months , followed by the birth of one or two calves . The newborn has a head @-@ and @-@ body length of 42 to 46 centimetres ( 17 to 18 in ) , and weighs 0 @.@ 7 to 1 @.@ 1 kg ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 4 lb ) . Juveniles are kept concealed for the first few weeks of birth . Births in Mudumalai National Park peak from February to April . Juveniles remain with their mothers for about a year .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The four @-@ horned antelope inhabits areas with significant cover from grasses or heavy undergrowth , and close to water bodies . It generally keeps away from human @-@ inhabited areas . Though they are habitat generalists , four @-@ horned antelopes mostly occur in open , dry , deciduous forests in hilly terrain .
Earlier common throughout deciduous forests in India , four @-@ horned antelopes are now found in low numbers . Their numbers were estimated at slightly above 10 @,@ 000 in 2001 , and are feared to be decreasing . In Mudumalai National Park , the populations are low and scattered . Their numbers in Gir National Park were estimated at 256 individuals in 1974 ; later estimates at waterholes in the same location put them a little above 1000 . Densities of above 0 @.@ 7 individuals per km2 have been considered as being healthy . Presently the four @-@ horned antelope is confined to the Indian subcontinent , occurring widely in disjunct and small populations . The range in India covers a vast expanse , from the foothills of the Himalayas in the north to the Deccan Plateau in the south . Most of the existing populations are in India , and lower numbers in adjoining Nepal .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The four @-@ horned antelope is threatened by the loss of its natural habitat due to agricultural expansion . Moreover , the unusual four @-@ horned skull and the horns have been a popular target for trophy hunters . In India , the species is protected under Schedule I the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 and the Nepalese population is listed in CITES Appendix III . The four @-@ horned antelope is classified as Vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) .
Major protected areas across India where four @-@ horned antelopes occur include : Gir National Park ( Gujarat ) ; Bandhavgarh National Park , Bori Wildlife Sanctuary , Kanha National Park , Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve , Panna Tiger Reserve , Pench Tiger Reserve , Sanjay National Park , Satpura National Park ( Madhya Pradesh ) ; Tadoba Andhari Reserve ( Maharashtra ) ; Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary , Ranthambore National Park and Sariska Tiger Reserve ( Rajasthan ) .
= Touch Me I 'm Sick =
" Touch Me I 'm Sick " is a song by the American alternative rock band Mudhoney . It was recorded in March 1988 at Seattle 's Reciprocal Recording studio with producer Jack Endino . " Touch Me I 'm Sick " was released as Mudhoney 's debut single by independent record label Sub Pop on August 1 , 1988 . The song 's lyrics , which feature dark humor , are a sarcastic take on issues such as disease and violent sex .
When it was first released , " Touch Me I 'm Sick " was a hit on the indie circuit ; it remains the band 's most recognizable song . The heavily distorted and fuzzy guitars , snarling vocals , blunt bass line and energetic drumming contributed to a dirty sound that influenced many local musicians , and helped develop the nascent Seattle grunge scene . According to Allmusic , " the song 's raw , primal energy made it an instant anthem which still stands as one of [ grunge 's ] all @-@ time classics " .
= = Origins and recording = =
According to Mudhoney vocalist Mark Arm , " Touch Me I 'm Sick " originated from a discussion with Sub Pop owner Bruce Pavitt , who " said : ' Hey , you sing about dogs . You sing about being sick . You got a shtick , it 'll take you to the top . ' And he basically gave us five chords , but he said don 't use more than three within one song . " Arm also states that " Touch Me I 'm Sick " was a catchphrase around which the band built a song .
Mudhoney recorded the song at Seattle 's Reciprocal Recording studio in March 1988 , three months after the band 's formation . Producer Jack Endino was surprised by how noisy the sessions were and how dirty the band wanted the guitars to sound ; " for the most part , I just sort of stood back and let them go at it " . Guitarist Steve Turner said that the band selected two of their " grungiest " songs for the single . Initially , " Sweet Young Thing Ain 't Sweet No More " was to be the A @-@ side of the single and " Touch Me I 'm Sick " the B @-@ side , before — in drummer Dan Peters 's words — " that all got flipped around " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Touch Me I 'm Sick " has a straightforward garage punk structure with a simple repeating power chord riff played at a high tempo . This is accompanied by a blunt bass line and frenetic drumming . The song 's dirty sound was produced using an Electro @-@ Harmonix Big Muff distortion pedal , which is augmented by a second guitar providing more distortion . Music writer Brian J. Barr referred to this noisy sound as " the sonic equivalent of an amplified comb scraping against paper " .
Critics have noted a Stooges influence in " Touch Me I 'm Sick " , typical of Mudhoney 's early material . Turner said : " In retrospect , it 's The Yardbirds ' ' Happenings Ten Years Time Ago ' by way of The Stooges ' ' Sick of You ' . At the time I was trying for the stuttering R & B guitar of The Nights and Days . " The song is also reminiscent of the hardcore punk of Black Flag . In his book Loser : The Real Seattle Music Story , Clark Humphrey accuses the song of being a copy of " The Witch " by The Sonics . The band have dismissed this claim , and questioned the writer 's knowledge of music .
Arm 's lyrics , according to critic Steve Huey , are a rant about " disease , self @-@ loathing , angst , and dirty sex " . In an essay called " ' Touch Me I 'm Sick ' : Contagion as Critique in Punk and Performance Art " , Catherine J. Creswell suggests that some of the lyrics refer to AIDS . According to Creswell , " In declaring ' Well , I 'm diseased and I don 't mind ' and changing the final refrain to ' Fuck Me , I 'm Sick ! ' the speaker declares himself to be the viral , ' AIDS @-@ bearing , ' ' polluting ' person of contemporary fantasy " . Creswell , who also believes the song parodies the theme of seduction in contemporary rock music , points to lyrics that refer to impotence ( " If you don 't come , if you don 't come , if you don 't come , you 'll die alone ! " ) and violent possession or forcing ( " I 'll make you love me till the day you die ! " ) . However , Arm says that he had not put much thought into the lyrics ; while performing the song in concerts , he sometimes changes them to amuse himself .
Another feature of " Touch Me I 'm Sick " that has been commented upon is Arm 's vocals . Huey refers to them as a " hysterical screech " , and " snarling , demonic howls " . Journalist Joe Ehrbar says that Arm begins the song with a " burp " , before singing with a " nasally howl " . Creswell considers Arm 's " overboard " vocals to mock a variety of rock stereotypes : the punk snarl , the " woozy slur " of hard rock , garage rock " yea @-@ ahs " , R & B @-@ style wails and a " Jerry Lee Lewis shudder " .
= = Release and reception = =
" Touch Me I 'm Sick " was released on August 1 , 1988 , as a 7 " vinyl . It was Mudhoney 's debut release . Initially , Sub Pop released 800 clear coffee @-@ brown vinyl copies , 200 black vinyl copies and a few assorted vinyl color copies of the single . The limited release numbers were inspired by another indie label , Amphetamine Reptile . Sub Pop owners Bruce Pavitt and Jonathan Poneman reasoned the limited supply would increase demand , and utilized different colors of vinyl in order to rationalize further limited pressings and to increase the single 's allure as a collectible item . The record , which came in a white paper bag without a picture sleeve , had an inscription on the A @-@ side : " What does the word ' crack ' mean to you ? " . The B @-@ side sticker featured the toilet picture that later became the cover art of the sleeved second edition of the single .
According to Pavitt , " It was just a limited edition , maybe 800 pieces , but people all over America started raving about it . People that we really respected . " The single was an indie hit in Seattle , and " Touch Me I 'm Sick " became Mudhoney 's most recognizable song . When asked in an interview about the sales figures of the single , Turner replied , " The first [ pressing sold ] 1 @,@ 000 , then 3 @,@ 000 of the reissue , then it was out of print for a while ; then they made 2 @,@ 000 more and those are probably gone . " The single 's success caught the band by surprise ; Arm had initially dismissed the song as a " B @-@ side toss off " . " Touch Me I 'm Sick " and B @-@ side " Sweet Young Thing Ain 't Sweet No More " were later included on the Mudhoney compilation albums Superfuzz Bigmuff Plus Early Singles ( 1990 ) and March to Fuzz ( 2000 ) .
= = = Sonic Youth cover = = =
Prior to the release of the " Touch Me I 'm Sick " single , Pavitt sent a five @-@ song Mudhoney tape to New York alternative rock band Sonic Youth for the members ' opinions . Sonic Youth immediately proposed a split single where each band covered the other . Sonic Youth covered " Touch Me I 'm Sick " while Mudhoney covered Sonic Youth 's " Halloween " . " Touch Me I 'm Sick / Halloween " was released as a limited edition 7 " vinyl by Sub Pop in December 1988 . The cover was included in the deluxe edition of Daydream Nation ( 2007 ) , and offers a female perspective of the song with bassist Kim Gordon handling the vocals .
= = Legacy = =
Following the success of the " Touch Me I 'm Sick " single in the Seattle area , Sub Pop positioned Mudhoney as the flagship band of their roster and undertook heavy promotion for the group . The band 's early material received airplay on college radio and influenced many local musicians , including Kurt Cobain of Nirvana . In a few years , many Seattle grunge bands signed to major labels and broke into the mainstream , achieving mass popularity . Although Mudhoney never attained this level of mainstream acceptance , according to Allmusic 's Mark Deming , the band 's " indie @-@ scene success laid the groundwork for the movement that would ( briefly ) make Seattle , WA , the new capital of the rock & roll universe " .
Since its release , " Touch Me I 'm Sick " has been accorded classic status within the grunge genre . Writing for Allmusic , Steve Huey described the song as " the ultimate grunge anthem " and " a crucial and vastly influential touchstone in the evolution of the grunge movement , virtually defining the term " . For its northwestern rock exhibit , the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame requested the song 's original lyrics sheet . Since it did not exist — Arm briefly considered making a fake one by writing down the lyrics , crumpling the sheet , and then burning the edges — the band instead donated Turner 's old Big Muff pedals .
" Touch Me I 'm Sick " remains Mudhoney 's most popular song . Joe Ehrbar called it " the song most of us would come to know [ the band ] by " . Arm considers the track to be Mudhoney 's highwater mark ,
There 's something special about that first single , we were never quite able to recapture that sound . I don 't know if it was the guitars or the recording . It was just a really gnarly , gnarly guitar sound . We 've gotten some since , but they 've been a different kind . I think it had more to do with the actual electromagnetic chemistry of what was going through our amps that day . It was just a cool , fried @-@ out sound .
The song was referenced in the 1992 film Singles , which is set against the backdrop of the Seattle grunge scene . The fictional band in the film , Citizen Dick , perform a song called " Touch Me I 'm Dick " — a wordplay on Mudhoney 's song . In 2003 , Charles Peterson published a book of photography titled Touch Me I 'm Sick . It features black @-@ and @-@ white photographs of bands ( including Mudhoney ) and concerts , and focuses on the alternative music scene of the 1980s and 1990s .
= = = Accolades = = =
* denotes an unordered list
= = Track listing = =
7 " single ( SP18 )
Both songs credited to Mark Arm , Steve Turner , Dan Peters and Matt Lukin .
" Touch Me I 'm Sick " – 2 : 23
" Sweet Young Thing Ain 't Sweet No More " – 3 : 35
= 1999 Sydney hailstorm =
The 1999 Sydney hailstorm was the costliest natural disaster in Australian insurance history , causing extensive damage along the east coast of New South Wales . The storm developed south of Sydney on the afternoon of 14 April 1999 and struck the city 's eastern suburbs , including the central business district , later that evening .
The storm dropped an estimated 500 @,@ 000 tonnes of hailstones in its path . Insured damages caused by the storm were over A $ 1 @.@ 7 billion , with the total damage bill ( including uninsured damages ) estimated to be around A $ 2 @.@ 3 billion . It was the costliest in Australian history in insured damages , surpassing the A $ 1 @.@ 1 billion in insured damages caused by the 1989 Newcastle earthquake . Lightning also claimed one life during the storm , and the event caused approximately 50 injuries .
The storm was classified as a supercell following further analysis of its erratic nature and extreme attributes . During the event , the Bureau of Meteorology was constantly surprised by the frequent changes in direction , as well as the severity of the hail and the duration of the storm . The event was also unique as the time of year and general conditions in the region were not seen as conducive for extreme storm cell formation .
= = Conditions and climatology = =
The conditions around Sydney on 14 April were calm , although a slight instability in atmospheric conditions was recorded by the Bureau of Meteorology in the region . Two instability events had been identified in the greater Sydney area , but both were considered minor by the meteorological agencies . A weak cold front was moving north along the coast , and moderate precipitation was falling over the Blue Mountains , southwest of the city . The meteorological reports and figures , however , suggested that the general atmospheric conditions were " not conducive " to support the formation of a major thunderstorm in the region .
Historical records show that the formation of severe thunderstorms for the time of day and year had been rare , and it was improbable that they would maintain their intensity and cause significant damage . This long @-@ standing belief contributed to the Bureau of Meteorology 's decision not to issue warnings in the early part of the storm 's development . The 1999 event was only the second time in recorded history that hail larger than 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) had fallen in the Sydney metropolitan area in the month of April , and only the fifth hailstorm to strike Sydney during April in the 200 years of meteorological records for the city .
Hailstorms have had a history of significant damage in Australia . Since records on insured losses by the Insurance Disaster Response Organisation began in 1967 three other hailstorms — Sydney in 1986 and 1990 , as well as Brisbane in 1985 — feature on the top @-@ ten list of most insured damages caused by a single natural disaster , in addition to the 1999 storm . Hailstorms have caused more than 30 % of all insured damages inflicted as a result of natural disasters in Australia during this period , and around three quarters of all hailstorm damage has occurred in New South Wales .
= = Development of the storm = =
= = = Formation and southern Sydney = = =
The storm cell formed at 4 : 25 pm AEST to the north of Nowra , roughly 115 km ( 71 mi ) southsouthwest of Sydney . After forming , it initially headed towards the coast in a northeasterly direction . The cell passed just to the west of Kiama at around 5 : 15 pm and gained a ' severe ' classification from the Bureau of Meteorology at the same time . ' Severe ' is a classification used by the Bureau of Meteorology for thunderstorms which meet a specific criteria , namely producing hailstones with a diameter of 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) or more , wind gusts of 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) or greater and flash flooding , or tornadoes . This classification is also used by the Bureau to classify the attributes of a storm at any given time during its life .
The storm continued to move in a northeasterly direction , crossing the coast just north of Kiama at 5 : 25 pm . It was downgraded from a severe thunderstorm and proceeded to move further off the coast for another 15 minutes while gaining speed to around 37 km / h ( 23 mph ) . The storm then veered northward at 5 : 40 pm and continued parallel to the coast . Around 6 : 00 pm , directly east of Wollongong , the storm changed direction again , this time to northnortheast , and continued parallel to the coastline . Moderate hailstones were recorded falling in Wollongong as the western edge of the storm passed over the area , and the storm was reclassified as severe .
The storm moved parallel to the coast in a northnortheasterly direction for the next fifty minutes . It maintained a severe classification though did not impact heavily on the coastal suburbs , because it was entirely offshore . The western edge of the storm , however , recrossed the coastline just east of Helensburgh , 40 km ( 25 mi ) southsouthwest of Sydney , at about 7 : 00 pm . Ten minutes later the direction of the storm veered slightly more northward and the centre of the storm crossed back onto land at Bundeena at around 7 : 20 pm .
= = = Immediate Sydney region = = =
The Bureau of Meteorology had not issued warnings for Sydney Airport , located on the northern shore of Botany Bay , or the rest of the eastern suburbs to prepare for large hail . They were not expecting the storm to veer northward again , but rather to continue to head further out into the Tasman Sea in a consistent northnortheasterly direction .
After crossing the coast , the storm continued to move northward , crossing Botany Bay at 7 : 40 pm and reaching the Airport five minutes later . It travelled across the eastern suburbs between Botany Bay and Sydney Harbour between 7 : 45 pm and 8 : 05 pm , dropping massive hailstones on both houses and businesses in the eastern suburbs district and the central business district . Some of the largest hailstones ever to be recorded in the Sydney region fell on the eastern suburbs during this storm . There were reports of 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) diameter hailstones in the eastern suburbs , although the largest confirmed hailstone was 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter . It was the first time in 52 years that stones greater than 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) had fallen in Sydney , with the last reported event being the 1947 hailstorm .
The storm continued across Sydney Harbour and changed direction slightly to be heading north . It weakened after travelling over the Harbour , and was downgraded from a severe storm at 8 : 15 pm . The Bureau of Meteorology had concluded that the storm would weaken after heading across Sydney Harbour , believing it was dissipating and would therefore not produce any more substantial hail as it moved northward ; therefore it did not issue warnings for the northern suburbs .
= = = Northern Suburbs and dissipation = = =
The storm then continued north for twenty minutes over the North Shore suburbs of Sydney before regaining strength and veering northnorthwest again , redeveloping severe thunderstorm characteristics . The storm 's redevelopment again caught the Bureau of Meteorology off @-@ guard , who had expected the storm to dissipate and move out to sea without causing further substantial damage .
It proceeded to drop large amounts of hail on the northern beach suburbs of Mona Vale and Palm Beach around 8 : 50 pm , and the centre of the storm again crossed the coast and back out to sea just after 9 : 00 pm . The storm maintained its intensity , however , and continued to move in a northwesterly direction across Broken Bay . The western edge of the storm had a minor impact on southern suburbs of the Central Coast between 9 : 15 pm and 9 : 30 pm .
The storm moved entirely off the coastline and into open water at around 9 : 45 pm . It then dissipated rapidly around 9 : 55 pm , directly east of Gosford . It was subsequently downgraded from severe status and the storm cell had faded completely by 10 : 00 pm .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Secondary storm cell = = =
A second , far smaller storm cell passed along a similar route to the first later in the evening of 14 April . This cell was never given the classification of ' severe ' by the Bureau of Meteorology , nor did it develop into a supercell like its predecessor . Therefore , the route of the second cell was more direct and predictable than the first , following the general movement of the cold front ( see conditions and climatology ) , and the Bureau of Meteorology issued warnings to all residents in the second cell 's projected path to expect further storm activity .
The secondary cell passed through Sydney two hours later than the first , just after 10 : 00 pm , having been approximately 80 km ( 50 mi ) south of Sydney when the supercell struck . It dropped hail up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , as well as producing heavy rainfall . Damage caused by the second cell was mostly due to rain coming in through roofs already damaged by hail from the first cell . Hail from the second cell also contributed to the damage .
= = = Damage caused = = =
The downpour of an estimated 500 @,@ 000 tonnes of hail across Sydney suburbia resulted in widespread damage on the coastal suburbs in its path . Insured losses due to the disaster reached roughly A $ 1 @.@ 7 billion , with total costs estimated to be around A $ 2 @.@ 3 billion . The storm was the costliest natural disaster ever to hit Australia in terms of insured losses , surpassing the 1989 Newcastle earthquake by around A $ 600 million . The areas that incurred the most damage were between Lilli Pilli and Darling Point , located 25 km ( 16 mi ) apart on the coastline of Sydney .
The vast majority of damage was done by hail and rain . Approximately 24 @,@ 000 houses were significantly damaged , with many suffering water damage through the holes in roofs that the large hailstones created . The stones were estimated as travelling at up to 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) in some periods of the storm , causing indentation damage to around 70 @,@ 000 vehicles . Twenty @-@ three airplanes and helicopters at Sydney Airport were reported as having incurred notable damage from the hail , caused by the inability to place them under hangars in time to avoid the storm . This has been significantly attributed to a lack of warnings from the Bureau of Meteorology , who had expected the storm to continue moving further out into the Tasman Sea in the north @-@ northeasterly direction in which it had previously been travelling .
The most significant insurance costs were in the areas of residential property damage with 31 @.@ 8 % of total payments , motor vehicle damage with 28 @.@ 6 % and for properties which service the commercial and industrial sectors at 27 @.@ 5 % . Damage to aviation property , mainly planes at the vulnerable Sydney Airport , amounted to 5 @.@ 9 % of the claims , while 5 @.@ 8 % of all insurance payments were made for ' business interruption ' and 0 @.@ 4 % for damage to boats as well as other miscellaneous claims .
The storm caused one fatality ; a 45 @-@ year @-@ old man , who was fishing about 100 metres ( 300 ft ) from the north shore of Dolans Bay in the Port Hacking estuary , was killed when his boat was struck by lightning . Fifty injuries were recorded , caused by flying objects , road accidents due to poor visibility and smashed windscreens and other factors .
= = = Emergency response = = =
Owing to the magnitude of the storm , the State Emergency Service were aided by the New South Wales Rural Fire Service , the New South Wales Fire Brigades and the Australian Capital Territory Emergency Service in recovery work . Within hours of the storm striking the city , all affected areas were declared as ' disaster zones ' and the New South Wales Government , under Premier Bob Carr , invoked a state of emergency , which gave control and co @-@ ordination of the response to the State Emergency Service . In the days following the storm , John Moore ( Minister for Defence ) approved a request for 300 Australian Defence Force personnel to assist recovery operations , although their assistance was only for one week while resources were stretched . The government , one week later , " unexpectedly " removed complete control from the State Emergency Service and placed certain suburbs and areas under the control of the Rural Fire Service and Fire Brigade .
In the five hours following the storm striking Sydney , the State Emergency Service received 2 @,@ 000 emergency calls to 1 @,@ 092 separate incidents . In total , the State Emergency Service received 25 @,@ 301 calls for assistance to 15 @,@ 007 incidents , with the New South Wales Rural Fire Service also receiving 19 @,@ 437 . The recovery and clean @-@ up mission used an estimated A $ 10 million worth of tarpaulin covers while waiting for permanent repairs .
After 9 days , approximately 3 @,@ 000 buildings ( out of a total of 127 @,@ 947 initially damaged ) were still waiting for assistance and temporary fixes to shattered roofs and windows , while a similar number still required assistance a further week later ( as a number of tarpaulins became detached or otherwise ineffective ) . One month after the disaster , the main priority of the emergency services was ensuring that temporary fixes remained in place , as Sydney suffered further adverse weather in the period immediately following the storm .
A study of a sample taken of affected areas suggested that roughly 62 % of buildings in the affected areas suffered damage to roofs , around 34 % to windows and 53 % to vehicles . Construction of infrastructure for 2000 Sydney Olympics in the city 's west at the time meant there was a deficiency of tradespeople who could be contracted to repair roofs and windows . Estimates put between 45 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 tradespeople in Sydney at the time of the storm , yet owing to high demand " companies were quoting householders [ A ] $ 14 @,@ 000 or more for roof repairs which would normally cost $ 3 @,@ 000 . " The situation led to a warning from Minister for Fair Trade John Watkins on the day following the storm , urging homeowners to ensure that tradespeople working to repair homes were fully qualified and legitimate .
= Newark , New Jersey =
Newark ( / ˈnuː.ərk / or also locally / nʊərk / ) is the largest city ( by population ) in the U.S. state of New Jersey , and the county seat of Essex County . One of the nation 's major air , shipping , and rail hubs , the city had a population of 277 @,@ 140 in 2010 , making it the nation 's 67th most @-@ populous municipality , after being ranked 63rd in the nation in 2000 . For 2015 , the Census Bureau 's Population Estimates Program calculated a population of 281 @,@ 944 , an increase of 1 @.@ 7 % from the 2010 enumeration .
Located in the heart of New Jersey 's Gateway Region , Newark is the second @-@ largest city in the New York metropolitan area , approximately 8 miles ( 13 km ) west of Manhattan . Port Newark , the major container shipping terminal in the Port of New York and New Jersey , is the largest on the East Coast . Newark Liberty International Airport was the first municipal commercial airport in the United States , and today is one of its busiest .
Newark is headquarters to numerous corporations , such as Prudential Financial , Audible.com , Panasonic Corporation of North America and PSEG . It is also home to several universities , such as Rutgers – Newark ( including the law school and medical school ) , the New Jersey Institute of Technology , and Seton Hall University 's Law School . Among others , its cultural and sports venues include the New Jersey Performing Arts Center , the Prudential Center , and the Bears & Eagles Riverfront Baseball Stadium .
Newark is divided into five political wards , and contains neighborhoods ranging in character from bustling urban districts to quiet suburban enclaves . Newark 's Branch Brook Park is the oldest county park in the United States and is home to the nation 's largest collection of cherry blossom trees , numbering over 5 @,@ 000 .
= = History = =
Newark was originally founded in 1666 by Connecticut Puritans led by Robert Treat from the New Haven Colony . It was conceived as a theocratic assembly of the faithful , though this did not last for long as new settlers came with different ideas .
The name of the city is thought to derive from Newark @-@ on @-@ Trent , England . This is on the grounds that the name was influenced by the original pastor , Abraham Pierson , who came from Yorkshire but may have ministered in Newark , Nottinghamshire . But Pierson is also supposed to have said that the community reflecting the new task at hand should be named " New Ark " for " New Ark of the Covenant and some of the colonists saw it as " New @-@ Work " , the settlers ' new work with God . Whatever the origins , the name was shortened to Newark , although references to the name " New Ark " are found in preserved letters written by historical figures such as David Ogden in his claim for compensation , and James McHenry , as late as 1787 .
The city saw tremendous industrial and population growth during the 19th century and early 20th century , and experienced racial tension and urban decline in the second half of the 20th century , culminating in the 1967 Newark riots . The city has experienced revitalization during the 1990s and early 21st century .
Newark was originally formed as a township on October 31 , 1693 , based on the Newark Tract , which was first purchased on July 11 , 1667 . Newark was granted a Royal charter on April 27 , 1713 . During the American Revolutionary War there were several incidents when British troops made raids into the town .
Established on February 21 , 1798 , it was incorporated by the New Jersey Legislature 's Township Act of 1798 , as one of New Jersey 's initial group of 104 townships . During its time as a township , portions were taken to form Springfield Township ( April 14 , 1794 ) , Caldwell Township ( February 16 , 1798 ; now known as Fairfield Township ) , Orange Township ( November 27 , 1806 ) , Bloomfield Township ( March 23 , 1812 ) and Clinton Township ( April 14 , 1834 , remainder reabsorbed by Newark on March 5 , 1902 ) . Newark was reincorporated as a city on April 11 , 1836 , replacing Newark Township , based on the results of a referendum passed on March 18 , 1836 . The previously independent Vailsburg borough was annexed by Newark on January 1 , 1905 . In 1926 , South Orange Township changed its name to Maplewood . As a result of this , a portion of Maplewood known as Ivy Hill was re @-@ annexed to Newark 's Vailsburg .
= = Geography and climate = =
= = = Geography = = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city had a total area of 26 @.@ 107 square miles ( 67 @.@ 617 km2 ) , including 24 @.@ 187 square miles ( 62 @.@ 644 km2 ) of land and 1 @.@ 920 square miles ( 4 @.@ 973 km2 ) of water ( 7 @.@ 35 % ) was water . It has the third @-@ smallest land area among the 100 most populous cities in the U.S. , behind neighboring Jersey City and Hialeah , Florida . The city 's altitude ranges from 0 ( sea level ) in the east to approximately 230 feet ( 70 m ) above sea level in the western section of the city . Newark is essentially a large basin sloping towards the Passaic River , with a few valleys formed by meandering streams . Historically , Newark 's high places have been its wealthier neighborhoods . In the 19th century and early 20th century , the wealthy congregated on the ridges of Forest Hill , High Street , and Weequahic .
Until the 20th century , the marshes on Newark Bay were difficult to develop , as the marshes were essentially wilderness , with a few dumps , warehouses , and cemeteries on their edges . During the 20th century , the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was able to reclaim 68 acres ( 28 ha ) of the marshland for the further expansion of Newark Airport , as well as the growth of the port lands .
Newark is surrounded by residential suburbs to the west ( on the slope of the Watchung Mountains ) , the Passaic River and Newark Bay to the east , dense urban areas to the south and southwest , and middle @-@ class residential suburbs and industrial areas to the north . The city is the largest in New Jersey 's Gateway Region , which is said to have received its name from Newark 's nickname as the " Gateway City " .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Newark is New Jersey 's largest and second @-@ most racially diverse city ( after neighboring Jersey City ) . It is divided into five political wards , which are often used by residents to identify their place of habitation . In recent years , residents have begun to identify with specific neighborhood names instead of the larger ward appellations . Nevertheless , the wards remain relatively distinct . Industrial uses , coupled with the airport and seaport lands , are concentrated in the East and South Wards , while residential neighborhoods exist primarily in the North , Central , and West Wards .
State law requires that wards be compact and contiguous and that the largest ward may not exceed the population of the smallest by more than 10 % of the average ward size . Ward boundaries are redrawn , as needed , by a board of ward commissioners consisting of two Democrats and two Republicans appointed at the county level and the municipal clerk . Redrawing of ward lines in previous decades have shifted traditional boundaries , so that downtown currently occupies portions of the East and Central Wards . The boundaries of the wards are altered for various political and demographic reasons and sometimes gerrymandered , especially the northeastern portion of the West Ward .
Newark 's Central Ward , formerly known as the old Third Ward , contains much of the city 's history including the original squares Lincoln Park , Military Park and Washington Park . The Ward contains the University Heights , The Coast / Lincoln Park , Government Center , Springfield / Belmont and Seventh Avenue neighborhoods . Of these neighborhood designations only University Heights , a more recent designation for the area that was the subject of the 1968 novel Howard Street by Nathan Heard , is still in common usage . The Central Ward extends at one point as far north as 2nd Avenue .
In the 19th century , the Central Ward was inhabited by Germans and other white Catholic and Christian groups . The German inhabitants were later replaced by Jews , who were then replaced by Blacks . The increased academic footprint in the University Heights neighborhood has produced gentrification , with landmark buildings undergoing renovation . Located in the Central Ward is the largest health sciences university in the nation , UMDNJ @-@ New Jersey Medical School . It is also home to three other universities – New Jersey Institute of Technology ( NJIT ) , Rutgers University - Newark , and Essex County College . The Central Ward forms the present @-@ day heart of Newark , and includes 26 public schools , two police precincts , including headquarters , four firehouses , and one branch library .
The North Ward is surrounded by Branch Brook Park . Its neighborhoods include Broadway , Mount Pleasant , Upper Roseville and the affluent Forest Hill section . Forest Hill contains the Forest Hill Historic District , which is registered on state and national historic registers , and contains many older mansions and colonial homes . A row of residential towers with security guards and secure parking line Mt . Prospect Avenue in the Forest Hill neighborhood . The North Ward has lost geographic area in recent times ; its southern boundary is now significantly further north than the traditional boundary near Interstate 280 . The North Ward historically had a large Italian population ; demographics have transitioned to Latino in recent decades , though the ward as a whole remains ethnically diverse .
The West Ward comprises the neighborhoods of Vailsburg , Ivy Hill , West Side , Fairmount and Lower Roseville . It is home to the historic Fairmount Cemetery . The West Ward , once a predominately Irish @-@ American , Polish , and Ukrainian neighborhood , is now home to neighborhoods composed primarily of Latinos , African Americans , and Caribbean Americans . The West Ward has struggled in recent years with elevated rates of crime , particularly violent crime .
The South Ward comprises the Weequahic , Clinton Hill , Dayton , and South Broad Valley neighborhoods . The South Ward , once home to residents of predominately Jewish descent , now has ethnic neighborhoods made up primarily of African Americans and Hispanics . The South Ward is represented by Council Member John Sharpe James . The city 's second @-@ largest hospital , Newark Beth Israel Medical Center , can be found in the South Ward , as can 17 public schools , five daycare centers , three branch libraries , one police precinct , a mini precinct , and three fire houses .
The East Ward consists of much of Newark 's Downtown commercial district , as well as the Ironbound neighborhood , where much of Newark 's industry was located in the 19th century . Today , due to the enterprise of its immigrant population , the Ironbound ( also known as " Down Neck " and " The Neck " ) is a destination for shopping , dining , and nightlife . A historically immigrant @-@ dominated section of the city , the Ironbound in recent decades has been termed " Little Portugal " and " Little Brazil " due to its heavily Portuguese and Brazilian population ; Newark being home to one of the largest Portuguese speaking communities in the United States . In addition , the East Ward has become home to various Latin Americans , African Americans , and commuters to Manhattan . Public education in the East Ward consists of East Side High School and six elementary schools . The ward is largely composed of densely packed housing , primarily large apartment buildings and rowhouses .
= = = Climate = = =
Newark lies in the transition between a humid subtropical and humid continental climate ( Köppen Cfa / Dfa ) , with cold , damp winters and hot , humid summers . The January daily mean is 31 @.@ 6 ° F ( − 0 @.@ 2 °
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. Ginóbili led the team in both scoring ( 19 @.@ 3 points per game ) and assists ( 3 @.@ 3 assists per game ) . At the 2008 Beijing Olympics Basketball Tournament , Ginóbili 's Argentina defeated Lithuania to win the bronze , although the shooting guard did not play in that match after sustaining an injury in the semi @-@ finals . In April 2010 , Ginóbili announced he would not participate in the 2010 FIBA World Championship due to family reasons . He did however compete for the team at the 2012 Summer Olympics , where Argentina narrowly missed out on the bronze medal in the bronze medal match versus Russia .
Emanuel was the flag bearer for Argentina at the opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympics held in Beijing , China .
= = Player profile = =
Ginóbili is a 6 ft 6 in ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) , 205 lb ( 93 kg ) left @-@ handed shooting guard who has been deployed either as a sixth man or starter for the Spurs . He has established himself as a reliable and versatile back court presence , and was a relatively late bloomer , entering the NBA at age 25 in a period when entering the NBA as a teenager was very common .
Apart from his up @-@ tempo and aggressive style of play , Ginóbili is known for his clutch play . This is documented by his numerous European league MVP awards , and his performances in San Antonio 's championship @-@ winning campaigns . Ginóbili 's modus operandi however , causes concerns for some of his opponents . His go @-@ to move is either a 3 @-@ pointer or a fierce attack to the basket , while he often lowers his head when driving to the basket to collapse defenses and create shots or passes to his teammates . Although Ginobili was not the originator or the first to bring the move to the NBA , he is credited for popularizing the Euro step in the league .
He is also willing to draw charges on defense . In 2007 , he was even listed by ESPN writer Thomas Neumann at No. 6 on the list of greatest floppers in NBA history . Five years later , Ian Thomsen , a Sports Illustrated columnist , grouped Ginóbili with fellow European league players Anderson Varejão and Vlade Divac as the players who " made [ flopping ] famous " , by exaggerating contact on the court in a manner analogous to diving in soccer games .
Having traversed the major basketball continents in his basketball career , Ginóbili is one of the few players who has enjoyed success under both the physical , one @-@ on @-@ one play of the NBA and the more technical , jump @-@ shooting rule set of the FIBA . He is one of only two players in basketball history along with Bill Bradley to win the Euroleague , an Olympic gold medal , and an NBA Championship ring . He is also the first non @-@ U.S. player to win both the NBA championship ring and the Olympic gold medal , and the second Latin American to be selected to play in an NBA All @-@ Star game ( after Panama 's Rolando Blackman ) .
In 2007 , ESPN sportswriter John Hollinger ranked Ginóbili as the sixth best international player then @-@ active in the NBA , describing the 57th draft pick as " one of the great draft heists of all time " , and attributed the trend of NBA teams drafting developing European players to the success of the Argentine . The following year , Ginóbili was named by ESPN as one of the best Euroleague players to have graced the NBA .
= = Honors = =
= Adventure Time ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the American animated television series Adventure Time , created by Pendleton Ward , originally aired on Cartoon Network in the United States . The series is based on a short produced for Frederator 's Nicktoons Network animation incubator series Random ! Cartoons . The season follows the adventures of Finn , a human boy , and his best friend Jake , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . Finn and Jake live in the post @-@ apocalyptic Land of Ooo . Along the way , they interact with the other main characters of the show : Princess Bubblegum , The Ice King , and Marceline the Vampire Queen .
The first episode of the season , " Slumber Party Panic " was watched by 2 @.@ 5 million viewers ; this marked a dramatic increase in viewers watching Cartoon Network when compared to the previous year . The season ended with the finale " Gut Grinder " on September 27 , 2010 . Soon after airing , the show began to receive critical acclaim as well as a large fan following . In 2010 , the Adventure Time episode " My Two Favorite People " was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short @-@ format Animated Program , although the series did not win .
After the original short became a viral hit on the internet , Cartoon Network picked it up for a full @-@ length series that previewed on March 11 , 2010 , and officially premiered on April 5 , 2010 . The season was storyboarded and written by Adam Muto , Elizabeth Ito , Pendleton Ward , Sean Jimenez , Patrick McHale , Luther McLaurin , Armen Mirzaian , Kent Osborne , Pete Browngardt , Niki Yang , Armen Mirzaian , J. G. Quintel , Cole Sanchez , Tom Herpich , Bert Youn , and Ako Castuera while being produced by Cartoon Network Studios and Frederator Studios . Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released after the season finished airing . On July 10 , 2012 , the full season was released on Region 1 DVD ; a Blu @-@ ray edition was released on June 4 , 2013 .
= = Development = =
= = = Concept and creation = = =
The season follows the adventures of Finn the Human , a human boy , and his best friend Jake , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . Finn and Jake live in the post @-@ apocalyptic Land of Ooo . Along the way , they interact with the other main characters of the show : Princess Bubblegum , The Ice King , and Marceline the Vampire Queen . Common storylines revolve around : Finn and Jake discovering strange creatures , rescuing princesses from the Ice King , and battling monsters in order to help others . Various other episodes deal with Finn attempting to understand his attraction towards Bubblegum .
According to series creator Pendleton Ward , the show 's style was influenced by his time attending the California Institute of the Arts ( CalArts ) and his experiences working as a writer and storyboard artist on The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack . In an interview with Animation World Network , Ward said he strives to combine the series ' subversive humor with " beautiful " moments , using Hayao Miyazaki 's film My Neighbor Totoro as inspiration . Ward has also named Home Movies and Dr. Katz , Professional Therapist as influences , largely because both shows are " relaxing " and feature " conversational dialogue that feels natural [ and ] not over the top [ nor ] cartoony and shrill " . Ward described the show as a " dark comedy " ; he said " dark comedies are my favorite , because I love that feeling – being happy and scared at the same time . It 's my favorite way to feel – when I 'm on the edge of my seat but I 'm happy , that sense of conflicting emotions . And there 's a lot of that in the show , I think . " Executive producer Fred Seibert compared the show 's animation style to that of Felix the Cat and various Max Fleischer cartoons , but said that its world is also equally inspired by Dungeons and Dragons and video games . Ward intends the show 's world to have a certain physical logic instead of " cartoony slapstick " ; even though magic exists in the story , the show 's writers try to create an internal consistency in how the characters interact with the world .
Although the show is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic setting , according to Ward , the original intention was for the Land of Ooo to simply be " magical " . After " Business Time " aired , in which an iceberg containing the bodies of reanimated business men floats to the surface of a lake , the show suddenly became post @-@ apocalyptic , and Ward noted that the production crew " just ran with it . " Ward later described the setting as " candyland on the surface and dark underneath " .
= = = Production = = =
The show began as a single stand @-@ alone animated short which ran for seven minutes . It aired in January 2007 and again as part of Frederator Studios ' Random ! Cartoons on December 7 , 2008 . After its release , the short video became a viral hit on the internet . Frederator Studios then pitched an Adventure Time series to Nicktoons Network , but the network passed on it twice . The studio approached Cartoon Network , which said it would be willing to produce a series if Ward could prove the short could be expanded into a full series while maintaining elements of the original 's pilot . Rob Sorcher , the chief content officer at Cartoon Network , was influential in getting the network to take a chance on the show ; he recognized the series as " something that felt really indie ... comic book @-@ y [ and ] really new " . Ward quickly rethought the concept of the pilot ; he wanted a potential series to be " fully realized " , rather than be characterized by the " pre @-@ school vibe " that permeated the original film . Ward 's college friends Patrick McHale and Adam Muto helped him produce a rough storyboard that featured Finn and Princess Bubblegum going on a spaghetti @-@ supper date . Cartoon Network was not happy with this story and asked for another . Ward then created a storyboard for the episode " The Enchiridion ! " , which was his attempt to emulate the style of the original Nicktoons short . Cartoon Network approved the first season in September 2008 , and " The Enchiridion ! " was the first episode to enter into production .
While many cartoons are based on script pitches to network executives , Cartoon Network allowed Adventure Time to " build their own teams organically " and communication through the use of storyboards and animatics . Cartoon Network chief content officer Rob Sorcher explained that the network allowed this because the company was " dealing with artists who are primarily visual people " and by using storyboards , the writers and artists could learn and grow " by actually doing the work . " As such , Ward soon assembled a storyboarding team for the series , which was largely composed of " younger , inexperienced people " who had been found using the Internet . However , Cartoon Network , worrying about the status of the show and the inexperience of its production members , hired three veteran animators who had worked on SpongeBob SquarePants to help guide Ward and his team : Derek Drymon ( who served as executive producer for the first season of Adventure Time ) , Merriwether Williams ( who served as head story editors for the show 's first and second seasons ) , and Nick Jennings ( who became the series ' long @-@ serving art director ) . Thurop Van Orman , the creator of The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack , was also hired on as a supervising producer , providing guidance for the series ' first two seasons .
In addition to the 26 episodes created during the first season , several others were commissioned and storyboarded , but not produced . These include the episodes " Brothers in Insomnia " ( written and storyboarded by Armen Mirzaian and Luther McLaurin , with revisions by Ako Castuera ) , " The Glorriors " ( written and storyboarded by Joe Horne and Doug TenNapel ) , and " The Helmet of Thorogon " ( outline by Ward , Muto , McKeon , McHale , and Craig Lewis ) . " Brothers in Insomnia " had been pitched to the network , although it was later scrapped . " The Glorriors " , according to Frederator Vice President Eric Homan , " was a casualty of jumping into production without having had any serious development time . " " The Helmet of Thorogon " , despite initially being assigned the production number 692 @-@ 008 ( which would eventually be taken by the episode " Freak City " ) , never made it to the storyboard stage , although several pieces of background art for the episode were designed by Ghostshrimp . The storyboards for " Brothers in Insomnia " and " The Glorriors " and the outline for " The Helmet of Thorogon " were later released on Fred Seibert 's official Scribd page . Furthermore , the episode " What Have You Done " was given the production number 27 , despite only 26 episodes being ordered . This is because the original sixth episode was scrapped during production , and " What Have You Done " took its place , but was given a different code . Due to this , some sources like The Futon Critic , give it the production number 692 @-@ 006 , whereas Frederator gave it the number 692 @-@ 027 .
All of the season 's episodes began as simple two @-@ to @-@ three @-@ page outline that contained the necessary plot information . These outlines were then handed off to storyboard artists , who would then expand the rough outline into a full storyboard . The episodes ' design and coloring were done in Burbank , California . Animation was handled overseas in South Korea , either by Rough Draft Korea or by Saerom Animation . The season was storyboarded and written by Muto , Elizabeth Ito , Ward , Sean Jimenez , McHale , Luther McLaurin , Armen Mirzaian , Kent Osborne , Pete Browngardt , Niki Yang , Cole Sanchez , Tom Herpich , Bert Youn , Ako Castuera , and J. G. Quintel . Quintel , who would later go on to create the popular Cartoon Network series Regular Show , co @-@ wrote and boarded the episode " Ocean of Fear " after asking Ward if he wanted any freelance help for Adventure Time . Quintel and Ward had previously worked together on The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack .
= = Cast = =
The voice actors include voice acting veterans John DiMaggio ( who portrays Jake the Dog ) , Tom Kenny ( who plays The Ice King ) , and Hynden Walch ( who voices Princess Bubblegum ) . In addition , Jeremy Shada portrays the voice of Finn the Human , and Olivia Olson portrays Marceline the Vampire Queen . Ward himself provides the voice for several minor characters , as well as Lumpy Space Princess . Former storyboard artist Niki Yang voices the sentient video game console BMO , as well as Jake 's girlfriend Lady Rainicorn in Korean . Polly Lou Livingston , a friend of Pendleton Ward 's mother , Bettie Ward , plays the voice of the small elephant Tree Trunks . The Adventure Time cast records their lines together in group recordings as opposed to different recording sessions with each voice actor . This is to record more natural sounding dialogue among the characters . Hynden Walch has described these group recordings as akin to " doing a play reading — a really , really out there play . "
The series also regularly employs guest voices for various characters . For instance , in the episode " Enchiridion ! " , John Moschitta , Jr . , Mark Hamill , and Fred Tatasciore all lend their voices to various beings . In " Ricardio the Heart Guy " , actor George Takei voices the titular villain . " Business Time " features Brian Posehn as one of the business men . Erik Estrada portrays King Worm in the episode " Evicted ! " In " Memories of Boom Boom Mountain " , Matt L. Jones voices the talking mountain . Andy Milonakis appears as the pie @-@ throwing robot N.E.P.T.R. in the episode " What is Life ? " Hamill reappears in the episode " Ocean of Fear " , which also features opening and closing narration courtesy of Clancy Brown . Kerri Kenney @-@ Silver portrays the Ice King 's bride in the episode " When Wedding Bells Thaw " . Michael Dorn portrays Gork in the episode " Freak City " . Brown reappears in the episode " Dungeon " as a demon cat . Kevin Michael Richardson portrays the titular character in the episode " Donny " . Finally , Lou Ferrigno plays the part of the being Billy in " His Hero " .
Various other characters are voiced by Tom Kenny , Dee Bradley Baker , Maria Bamford , and Steve Little .
= = Reception and release = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The episodes " Business Time " and " Evicted ! " each were " previewed " on Cartoon Network before the official series launch date , on March 11 and 18 , respectively . The series officially premiered on April 5 , 2010 . It debuted with the episodes " Slumber Party Panic " and " Trouble in Lumpy Space " . The episode was watched by 2 @.@ 5 million viewers . The episode was a ratings smash ; according to a press release sent out by Cartoon Network , the episode 's timeslot saw triple digit percentage increases from the time period of the previous year . For instance , the entry was viewed by 1 @.@ 661 million kids aged 2 – 11 , which marked a 110 percent increase from the previous year . Furthermore , it was watched by 837 @,@ 000 kids aged 9 – 14 , which saw a 239 percent increase . This also made it the most @-@ watched episode of the first season . The season finale , " Gut Grinder " , was watched by 1 @.@ 77 million viewers . Originally , the first ten episodes were bundled into 30 @-@ minute airings . This means two of the eleven @-@ minute segments were combined into one . Starting with the eleventh episode , " Wizard " , the episodes dropped to only one , eleven @-@ minute segment .
= = = Reviews and accolades = = =
The season has received largely positive reviews from critics . Television critic Robert Lloyd , in an article for the LA Times , said it " strikes [ him ] as a kind of companion piece to the network 's [ then ] currently airing Chowder and The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack . Each takes place in a fantastical land peopled with strange , somewhat disturbing characters and has at its center a young male person or person @-@ like thing making his way in that world with the help of unusual , not always reliable , mentors . " He went on to say that the show is " not unlike CN 's earlier Foster 's Home for Imaginary Friends , about a boy and his imaginary friend , though darker and stranger and even less connected to the world as we know it . " Lloyd also compared it to " the sort of cartoons they made when cartoons themselves were young and delighted in bringing all things to rubbery life . "
After its release on DVD in 2012 , the season received positive critical attention , although many reviewers initially expressed their unhappiness that the set was not initially released as a Blu @-@ ray edition . Wired wrote positively of the set , and applauded the release 's bonus features . R.L. Shaffer of IGN awarded the set a 7 out of 10 , denoting a " good " release . He called the show a " rare treat " , but was critical of the release 's packaging , noting that " a few too many episodes are crammed onto the discs , leaving little room for these transfers to breathe " and that the video compression left something to be desired . Tyler Foster of DVD Talk " highly recommended " the set , and wrote that the series is " bursting with imagination , sweetness , and a ridiculous sense of humor " . Foster was particularly pleased with the characters , citing Ricardio and Marceline as highlights of the season . Furthermore , he wrote that " even the worst episode in this [ season ] — and I 'm hard @-@ pressed to pick one — is beautifully designed and packs at least one or two killer gags . "
The episode " My Two Favorite People " was nominated for a 2010 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short @-@ format Animated Program , although the episode did not win .
= = = Home media = = =
Warner Home Video released multiple DVDs , consisting of region 1 and region 2 formats . My Two Favorite People , It Came from the Nightosphere , Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow , The Suitor , Frost & Fire , and The Enchiridion were created for Region 1 markets containing some episodes of the first season . On July 10 , 2012 , Cartoon Network released The Complete First Season DVD , containing all episodes of the first season in region . By July 29 , the set had sold 151 @,@ 535 copies . A Blu @-@ ray edition was released on June 4 , 2013 . All DVD releases can be purchased on the Cartoon Network Shop , and the individual episodes can be downloaded from both the iTunes Store and Amazon.com. On March 30 , 2013 , the first season of Adventure Time was made available on the Netflix Instant Watch service for online streaming .
= = Episodes = =
= = DVD release = =
= Mom and Pop Art =
" Mom and Pop Art " is the nineteenth episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It was first aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 11 , 1999 . In this episode , Homer inadvertently becomes a well @-@ praised outsider artist after his failed attempts to build a barbecue pit . His exhibit goes to the Louvre , and after Mr. Burns buys his artwork , Homer becomes a success . However , after his new art appears in the " Art in America " show , Homer 's artwork is criticized for being too repetitive of his first piece . After his recent failure , Homer tries to devise something groundbreaking , after hearing of Christo 's art .
" Mom and Pop Art " was directed by Steven Dean Moore and was the first episode Al Jean wrote after his return to The Simpsons writing staff . The episode 's plot was conceived by Jean , who was inspired by a segment about found artists on the television news magazine 60 Minutes . The episode features contemporary artist Jasper Johns as himself , and also features Italian actress Isabella Rossellini as Astrid Weller . It features references to several famous artworks , such as those of Leonardo da Vinci and Henri Rousseau . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 8 @.@ 5 million viewers , finishing in 23rd place in the ratings the week it aired . Following the home video release of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season , " Mom and Pop Art " received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Homer is relaxing on a Saturday when Marge tells him that he should be doing work around the house and yard . Homer overcomes his reluctance and takes Bart to Mom & Pop Hardware to get some equipment . But while there , Homer sees a do it yourself barbecue pit and is compelled to buy it instead of anything that might help him with his work . Homer tries to install the pit , but bungles the job when he drops the parts of the barbecue into wet cement . He frantically tries to assemble the barbecue pit before the cement hardens , but only makes things worse . In the end , Homer is left with a mismatched collection of parts stuck in hardened cement , which angers him . He vents his rage on the construct , mangling it further . Later , Homer takes the results of his work back to the store for a refund , which he does not receive . On the way home , Homer loses control of the wagon containing the jumbled mess of concrete and bricks . It rolls down the highway and crashes into a woman 's car , wrecking it . Homer flees the scene of the accident , but the woman tracks him down . It turns out that she is an artist named Astrid Weller ( voiced by Isabella Rossellini ) , and sees Homer 's handiwork as being a masterpiece of outsider art . Homer 's exhibit goes to the Louvre : American Style museum and when Mr. Burns buys his work , Homer becomes a success .
Now officially an outsider artist , Homer uses his channeled rage to continue his work and befriends other stereotypically pretentious artists , like Jasper Johns . All the while , his easily achieved fame makes Marge jealous due to her lack of success at becoming a successful artist despite years of effort . Homer later gets a notice from Astrid Weller that his work will be in the " Art in America " show , but his new masterpieces are rejected by Springfield 's residents and his new " friends " for being repetitive of his first piece .
Down on his luck and starved for inspiration , Lisa recommends Homer visit the Springfield Art Museum . But none of the art Homer sees serves to inspire him ; he feels inadequate when he sees what other artists have done , and it only worsens the situation when he takes a nap and has a nightmare of various paintings attacking him . He goes back home , discouraged , but is soon given another suggestion by Lisa . She tells him about the artist Christo , causing Homer to try doing something similarly groundbreaking . He and Bart flood Springfield by opening all the fire hydrants ( having covered the sewer drains with the city 's doormats , including their own ) and putting snorkels in the animals of the zoo ( so that they do not drown ) . Surprisingly , Astrid Weller and even the whole town of Springfield is impressed with Homer 's work , and enjoy the newly made " Grand Canals of Springfield " along with the swimming zoo animals . As Marge and Homer kiss each other on the roof of their house Jasper Johns comes on a boat and steals the painting Marge was painting . The song playing in the end of episode is " Arrivederci Roma " performed by Michael Dees .
= = Production = =
" Mom and Pop Art " was written by current showrunner Al Jean and directed by Steven Dean Moore . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on April 11 , 1999 . It was the first episode Jean wrote after returning to The Simpsons writing staff . For three years , Jean had worked with Mike Reiss on the fantasy sitcom Teen Angel , a job which he despised . " Every other day [ that I worked on Teen Angel ] I said ' I wish I was back at The Simpsons ' , " Jean said in the DVD commentary for the episode . The idea for the episode came from a segment of the television news magazine 60 Minutes . The segment was about found artists , who , Jean said , " take basically garbage and assemble it [ ... ] and turn it into artwork that would sell for tens of thousands of dollars . " Jean thought that this profession would fit Homer . In the episode , " Start here tomorrow 7 / 17 / 95 " is written in blue paint on the Simpsons ' garage door . The date refers to Scully and Julie Thacker 's anniversary , which was on July 17 , 1995 . In the episode 's setpiece , the Simpsons visit a hardware store . The segment was inspired by Jean 's father , who owned a hardware store that Al Jean used to work in as a child . Later in the setpiece , Homer tries to construct a barbecue that he bought from the hardware store . The scene was also conceived by Jean , and is executive producer and former showrunner Mike Scully 's favorite setpiece .
While the designs of Homer 's new art friends were not based on anybody in particular , the " German guy " was drawn to hold his cigarette in a " European way " by animation director Jim Reardon . When visiting the Springfield museum , Homer and Marge see a painting showing Akbar and Jeff , two characters from The Simpsons creator Matt Groening 's comic strip Life in Hell . The painting 's frame was also signed by Groening himself in real life . The painting next to Groening 's was drawn by Scully 's friend Tom Gagnon , who is an artist . Some of the paintings in the episode 's second act were also drawn by friends of Dean Moore . At one point in Homer 's dream , the Vitruvian Man appears and attacks him . According to Groening , there were " some controversy " over whether or not the Vitruvian Man would be in nude or not , as he is in the original painting . In the episode , he is wearing a jockstrap . At the end of the episode , Springfield is flooded with water , and Marge is seen painting a picture on the Simpsons ' roof . Her painting was drawn by staff animator Amy Clese , who drew it as a recreation of a painting by J. M. W. Turner , an English Romantic painter . According to Dean Moore , the painting was " pretty difficult " to animate , as it was drawn with a lot of washes and gradients . He added , however , that he was " very happy " with it .
" Mom and Pop Art " features American contemporary artist Jasper Johns as himself . His lines were recorded over the telephone , and Jean stated that it was " extremely exciting " to have him appear in the episode . The episode also features Italian actress Isabella Rossellini as Astrid . Jean stated that her performance was " terrific " and that she was " wonderful to work with " , although there was one line in particular that she had difficulty performing . In a scene in the episode , Astrid introduces the audience in an art club to Homer 's art . Originally , she would have said " you snorted my father 's ashes " , but because of Rossellini 's accent , it sounded like she said " you snorted my father 's ass " , according to Jean . Because none of the recorded takes sounded good , the line was ultimately scrapped from the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of the episode , Homer sings " Coconut " by Harry Nilsson , changing the lyrics .
" Mom and Pop Art " features several references to famous works of art . In Homer 's dream , Homer is lying in a similar way to the woman in French Naïve artist Henri Rousseau 's painting The Sleeping Gypsy . The lion that licks Homer in the dream is also based on the lion from The Sleeping Gypsy . After he is waken up by the lion , Homer is attacked by the Vitruvian Man , a drawing by Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci . Then Homer gets attacked by Three Musicians by Pablo Picasso in which their instruments turn into machine guns and shoot at Homer . At one point in his dream , Homer sees a clock that drips water . The scene is a reference to The Persistence of Memory , a painting by Spanish Catalan surrealist artist Salvador Dalí . Near the end of his dream , Homer meets American painter Andy Warhol , who throws soup cans at him . It is a reference to Campbell 's Soup Cans , a painting by Warhol .
Also , Johns is portrayed as a kleptomaniac , a person who compulsively steals objects of little to no value . It is a reference to Johns 's art style , as he usually uses objects from everyday life for his artwork . In a scene in the episode , Homer channels his anger into his art . The scene is a reference to the 1959 comedy horror film Bucket of Blood , in which an artist is screaming at a piece of clay to be a nose . After having flooded Springfield , Homer tells Marge that the city is " like Venice , without the black plague " . The line refers to the outbreak of the bubonic plague that swept through Europe in the 14th century . In the scene , a lion can be seen swimming in the water . The notion that lions can swim is a reference to the season 2 episode " Bart the Daredevil " , in which the famous daredevil Lance Murdock performs a stunt which involves swimming lions .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on April 11 , 1999 , " Mom and Pop Art " received an 8 @.@ 5 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 8 @.@ 5 million viewers . The episode finished in 23rd place in the ratings for the week of April 5 – 11 , 1999 , making it the fourth most watched program on Fox that night , after a new episode of The X @-@ Files , Ally McBeal , and Family Guy . On August 7 , 2007 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , Al Jean , George Meyer and Steven Dean Moore participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " Mom and Pop Art " received mixed reviews from critics . Giving it a positive review , Chris Barsanti of Filmcritic.com described it as " one of the show 's most gratifying ep [ isode ] s " . He wrote " Amidst Homer 's accidental acceptance as a producer of rage @-@ filled outsider art , the episode concocts a knowing satire – but also warm appreciation – of modern art , " and added that it " includes one of the show 's best cameos of all time : a kleptomaniacal Jasper Johns . " Both James Plath of DVD Town and Jake MacNeill of Digital Entertainment News considered it to be one of the season 's best episodes . The A.V. Club named Milhouse 's line " Everything 's coming up Milhouse ! " as one of the quotes from The Simpsons that can be used in everyday situations . Giving the episode a mixed review , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson described it as " pretty average . " He wrote that " Mom and Pop Art " " offer [ s ] more than a few elements that echo bits from earlier years " . He concluded by writing that the episode " isn ’ t a bad program , but it lacks much inspiration " . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide wrote , " Well , Marge is justifiably upset when , as an artist herself , it is Homer who is suddenly getting the kudos for producing rubbish . It 's a good gag but probably not enough to stretch out for an entire episode . " However , they added that the last scenes , along with Johns ' cameo , were " pure joy " , even though the episode " drag [ s ] in the middle " .
= Common chiffchaff =
The common chiffchaff , or simply the chiffchaff , ( Phylloscopus collybita ) is a common and widespread leaf warbler which breeds in open woodlands throughout northern and temperate Europe and Asia .
It is a migratory passerine which winters in southern and western Europe , southern Asia and north Africa . Greenish @-@ brown above and off @-@ white below , it is named onomatopoeically for its simple chiff @-@ chaff song . It has a number of subspecies , some of which are now treated as full species . The female builds a domed nest on or near the ground , and assumes most of the responsibility for brooding and feeding the chicks , whilst the male has little involvement in nesting , but defends his territory against rivals , and attacks potential predators .
A small insectivorous bird , it is subject to predation by mammals , such as cats and mustelids , and birds , particularly hawks of the genus Accipiter . Its large range and population mean that its status is secure , although one subspecies is probably extinct .
= = Taxonomy = =
The British naturalist Gilbert White was one of the first people to separate the similar @-@ looking common chiffchaff , willow warbler and wood warbler by their songs , as detailed in 1789 in The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne , but the common chiffchaff was first formally described as Sylvia collybita by French ornithologist Louis Vieillot in 1817 in his Nouveau Dictionnaire d 'Histoire Naturelle .
Described by German zoologist Heinrich Boie in 1826 , the genus Phylloscopus contains about 50 species of small insectivorous Old World woodland warblers which are either greenish or brown above and yellowish , white or buff below . The genus was formerly part of the Old World warbler family Sylvidae , but has now been split off as a separate family Phylloscopidae . The chiffchaff 's closest relatives , other than former subspecies , are a group of leaf warblers which similarly lack crown stripes , a yellow rump or obvious wing bars ; they include the willow , Bonelli 's , wood and plain leaf warblers .
The common chiffchaff has three still commonly accepted subspecies , together with some from the Iberian Peninsula , the Canary Islands , and the Caucasus which are now more often treated as full species .
= = = Subspecies = = =
P. c. collybita , the nominate form , breeds in Europe east to Poland and Bulgaria , and is described below . It mainly winters in the south of its breeding range around the Mediterranean and in North Africa . It has been expanding its range northwards into Scandinavia since 1970 and close to the southern edge of the range of P. c. abietinus .
P. c. abietinus occurs in Scandinavia and northern Russia , and winters from southeastern Europe and northeastern Africa east to Iraq and western Iran . It is intermediate in appearance between P. c. tristis and P. c. collybita , being grey @-@ washed olive @-@ green above with a pale yellow supercilium , and underparts whiter than in P. c. collybita , but it has very similar vocalisations to the nominate subspecies . Due to individual variation , it can be difficult to reliably separate P. c. abietinus and P. c. collybita outside their main breeding and wintering ranges . Some common chiffchaffs in the Middle East are browner and have a more disyllabic swee @-@ hu call than P. c. abietinus , and may belong to a poorly known taxon " brevirostris " ; further research is needed to clarify the affinities of this form .
P. ( c . ) tristis , the Siberian chiffchaff , breeds in Siberia east of the Pechora River and winters in the lower Himalayas . It is also regularly recorded in western Europe in winter , and it is likely that the numbers involved have been underestimated due to uncertainties over identification criteria , lack of good data and recording policies ( Sweden and Finland only accept trapped birds ) . It is a dull subspecies , grey or brownish above and whitish below , with little yellow in the plumage , and the buff @-@ white supercilium is often longer than in the western subspecies . It has a higher pitched suitsistsuisit song and a short high @-@ pitched cheet call . It is sometimes considered to be a full species due to its distinctive plumage and vocalisations , being similar to P. s. sindianus in these respects . Nominate P. c. collybita and P. c. tristis do not recognize each other 's songs . Pending resolution of the status of P. ( c . ) fulvescens , which is found where the ranges of P. c. abietinus and P. c. tristis connect and may or may not be a hybrid between these , tristis is maintained in P. collybita .
= = = Former subspecies = = =
P. ibericus , the Iberian chiffchaff is brighter , greener on the rump , and yellower below than P. collybita , and has a tit @-@ tit @-@ tit @-@ tswee @-@ tswee song . It was initially named P. brehmii , but the type specimen of that taxon is not an Iberian chiffchaff . This species is found in Portugal and Spain , west of a line stretching roughly from the western Pyrenees via the mountains of central Spain to the Mediterranean ; the Iberian and common chiffchaffs co @-@ occur in a narrow band along this line . Apart from the northernmost section , the precise course of the contact zone is not well documented . A long @-@ distance migrant , this species winters in western Africa . It differs from P. c. collybita in vocalisations , external morphology , and mtDNA sequences . There is hybridization in the contact zone , almost always between male P. ibericus and female P. c. collybita , and hybrids apparently show much decreased fitness ; hybrid females appear to be sterile according to Haldane 's Rule . Regarding the latter aspect , it is interesting to note that the Iberian chiffchaff apparently is the oldest lineage of chiffchaffs and quite distinct from the common chiffchaff .
P. canariensis , the Canary Islands chiffchaff is a non @-@ migratory species formerly occurring on the major Canary Islands , which is differentiated from P. collybita by morphology , vocalisations and genetic characteristics , and , of course , is not sympatric with any other chiffchaffs . The nominate western subspecies P. c. canariensis of El Hierro , La Palma , La Gomera , Tenerife , and Gran Canaria is smaller than common chiffchaff , and has shorter , rounder wings . It is olive @-@ brown above and has a buff breast and flanks ; it has a rich deep chip @-@ cheep @-@ cheep @-@ chip @-@ chip @-@ cheep song , and a call similar to the nominate race . The eastern P. c. exsul of Lanzarote and possibly Fuerteventura is paler above and less rufous below than its western relative , and had a harsher call ; it might have been a distinct species , but it became extinct in 1986 at latest , probably much earlier . The reasons for its extinction are unclear , but it appears always to have been scarce and localised , occurring only in the Haria Valley of Lanzarote .
P. sindianus , the mountain chiffchaff , is found in the Caucasus ( P. s. lorenzii ) and Himalayas ( P. s. sindianus ) , and is an altitudinal migrant , moving to lower levels in winter . The nominate subspecies is similar to P. c. tristis , but with a finer darker bill , browner upperparts and buff flanks ; its song is almost identical to P. collybita , but the call is a weak psew . P. s. lorenzii is warmer and darker brown than the nominate race ; it is sympatric with common chiffchaff in a small area in the Western Caucasus , but interbreeding occurs rarely , if ever . The mountain chiffchaff differs from tristis in vocalisations , external morphology , and mtDNA sequences . Its two subspecies appear to be distinct vocally , and also show some difference in mtDNA sequences ; they are maintained at subspecies rank pending further research .
= = = Etymology = = =
The common chiffchaff 's English name is onomatopoeic , referring to the repetitive chiff @-@ chaff song of the European subspecies . There are similar names in some other European languages , such as the Dutch Tjiftjaf and the German Zilpzalp and Welsh siff @-@ saff . The binomial name is of Greek origin ; Phylloscopus comes from phyllon / φυλλον , " leaf " , and skopeo / σκοπεω , " to look at " or " to see " , since this genus comprises species that spend much of their time feeding in trees , while collybita is a corruption of kollubistes , " money changer " , the song being likened to the jingling of coins .
= = Description = =
The common chiffchaff is a small , dumpy , 10 – 12 centimetres ( 4 in ) long leaf warbler . The male weighs 7 – 8 grammes ( 0 @.@ 28 – 0 @.@ 31 oz ) , and the female 6 – 7 grammes ( 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 28 oz ) . The spring adult of the western nominate subspecies P. c. collybita has brown @-@ washed dull green upperparts , off @-@ white underparts becoming yellowish on the flanks , and a short whitish supercilium . It has dark legs , a fine dark bill , and short primary projection ( extension of the flight feathers beyond the folded wing ) . As the plumage wears , it gets duller and browner , and the yellow on the flanks tends to be lost , but after the breeding season there is a prolonged complete moult before migration . The newly fledged juvenile is browner above than the adult , with yellow @-@ white underparts , but moults about 10 weeks after acquiring its first plumage . After moulting , both the adult and the juvenile have brighter and greener upperparts and a paler supercilium .
This warbler gets its name from its simple distinctive song , a repetitive cheerful chiff @-@ chaff . This song is one of the first avian signs that spring has returned . Its call is a hweet , less disyllabic than the hooeet of the willow warbler or hu @-@ it of the western Bonelli 's warbler .
The song differs from that of the Iberian chiffchaff , which has a shorter djup djup djup wheep wheep chittichittichiittichitta . However , mixed singers occur in the hybridisation zone and elsewhere , and can be difficult to allocate to species .
When not singing , the common chiffchaff can be difficult to distinguish from other leaf warblers with greenish upperparts and whitish underparts , particularly the willow warbler . However , that species has a longer primary projection , a sleeker , brighter appearance and generally pale legs . Bonelli 's warbler ( P. bonelli ) might be confused with the common chiffchaff subspecies tristis , but it has a plain face and green in the wings . The common chiffchaff also has rounded wings in flight , and a diagnostic tail movement consisting of a dip , then sidewards wag , that distinguishes it from other Phylloscopus warblers and gives rise to the name " tailwagger " in India .
Perhaps the greatest challenge is distinguishing non @-@ singing birds of the nominate subspecies from Iberian chiffchaff in the field . In Great Britain and the Netherlands , all accepted records of vagrant Iberian chiffchaffs relate to singing males .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The common chiffchaff breeds across Europe and Asia east to eastern Siberia and north to about 70 ° N , with isolated populations in northwest Africa , northern and western Turkey and northwestern Iran . It is migratory , but it is one of the first passerine birds to return to its breeding areas in the spring and among the last to leave in late autumn . When breeding , it is a bird of open woodlands with some taller trees and ground cover for nesting purposes . These trees are typically at least 5 metres ( 16 ft ) high , with undergrowth that is an open , poor to medium mix of grasses , bracken , nettles or similar plants . Its breeding habitat is quite specific , and even near relatives do not share it ; for example , the willow warbler ( P. trochilus ) prefers younger trees , while the wood warbler ( P. sibilatrix ) prefers less undergrowth . In winter , the common chiffchaff uses a wider range of habitats including scrub , and is not so dependent on trees . It is often found near water , unlike the willow warbler which tolerates drier habitats . There is an increasing tendency to winter in western Europe well north of the traditional areas , especially in coastal southern England and the mild urban microclimate of London . These overwintering common chiffchaffs include some visitors of the eastern subspecies abietinus and tristis
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, so they are certainly not all birds which have bred locally , although some undoubtedly are .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Territory = = =
The male common chiffchaff is highly territorial during the breeding season , with a core territory typically 20 metres ( 66 ft ) across , which is fiercely defended against other males . Other small birds may also be attacked . The male is inquisitive and fearless , attacking even dangerous predators like the stoat if they approach the nest , as well as egg @-@ thieves like the Eurasian jay . His song , given from a favoured prominent vantage point , appears to be used to advertise an established territory and contact the female , rather than as a paternity guard strategy .
Beyond the core territory , there is a larger feeding range which is variable in size , but typically ten or more times the area of the breeding territory . It is believed that the female has a larger feeding range than the male . After breeding has finished , this species abandons its territory , and may join small flocks including other warblers prior to migration .
= = = Breeding = = =
The male common chiffchaff returns to its breeding territory two or three weeks before the female and immediately starts singing to establish ownership and attract a female . When a female is located , the male will use a slow butterfly @-@ like flight as part of the courtship ritual , but once a pair @-@ bond has been established , other females will be driven from the territory . The male has little involvement in the nesting process other than defending the territory . The female 's nest is built on or near the ground in a concealed site in brambles , nettles or other dense low vegetation . The domed nest has a side entrance , and is constructed from coarse plant material such as dead leaves and grass , with finer material used on the interior before the addition of a lining of feathers . The typical nest is 12 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 5 in ) high and 11 centimetres ( 4 in ) across .
The clutch is two to seven ( normally five or six ) cream @-@ coloured eggs which have tiny ruddy , purple or blackish spots and are about 1 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) long and 1 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) across . They are incubated by the female for 13 – 14 days before hatching as naked , blind altricial chicks . The female broods and feeds the chicks for another 14 – 15 days until they fledge . The male rarely participates in feeding , although this sometimes occurs , especially when bad weather limits insect supplies or if the female disappears . After fledging , the young stay in the vicinity of the nest for three to four weeks , and are fed by and roost with the female , although these interactions reduce after approximately the first 14 days . In the north of the range there is only time to raise one brood , due to the short summer , but a second brood is common in central and southern areas .
Although pairs stay together during the breeding season and polygamy is uncommon , even if the male and female return to the same site in the following year there is no apparent recognition or fidelity . Interbreeding with other species , other than those formerly considered as subspecies of P. collybita , is rare , but a few examples are known of hybridisation with the willow warbler . Such hybrids give mixed songs , but the latter alone is not proof of interspecific breeding .
= = = Feeding = = =
Like most Old World warblers , this small species is insectivorous , moving restlessly though foliage or briefly hovering . It has been recorded as taking insects , mainly flies , from more than 50 families , along with other small and medium @-@ sized invertebrates . It will take the eggs and larvae of butterflies and moths , particularly those of the winter moth . The chiffchaff has been estimated to require about one @-@ third of its weight in insects daily , and it feeds almost continuously in the autumn to put on extra fat as fuel for the long migration flight .
= = Predators and threats = =
As with most small birds , mortality in the first year of life is high , but adults aged three to four years are regularly recorded , and the record is more than seven years . Eggs , chicks and fledglings of this ground @-@ nesting species are taken by stoats , weasels and crows such as the European magpie , and the adults are hunted by birds of prey , particularly the sparrowhawk . Small birds are also at the mercy of the weather , particularly when migrating , but also on the breeding and wintering grounds .
The common chiffchaff is occasionally a host of brood parasitic cuckoos , including the common and Horsfield 's cuckoos , but it recognises and rejects non @-@ mimetic eggs and is therefore only rarely successfully brood @-@ parasitised . Like other passerine birds , the common chiffchaff can also acquire intestinal nematode parasites and external ticks .
The main effect of humans on this species is indirect , through woodland clearance which affects the habitat , predation by cats , and collisions with windows , buildings and cars . Only the first of these has the potential to seriously affect populations , but given the huge geographical spread of P. c. abietinus and P. c. tristis , and woodland conservation policies in the range of P. c. collybita , the chiffchaff 's future seems assured .
= = Status = =
The common chiffchaff has an enormous range , with an estimated global extent of 10 million square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 8 million square miles ) and a population of 60 – 120 million individuals in Europe alone . Although global population trends have not been quantified , the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List ( that is , declining more than 30 percent in ten years or three generations ) . For these reasons , the species is evaluated as " least concern " .
None of the major subspecies is under threat , but exsul , as noted above , is probably extinct . There is a slow population increase of common chiffchaff in the Czech Republic . The range of at least P. c. collybita seems to be expanding , with northward advances in Scotland , Norway and Sweden and a large population increase in Denmark .
= Flame fougasse =
A flame fougasse ( sometimes contracted to fougasse and may be spelled foo gas ) is a type of mine or improvised explosive device which uses an explosive charge to project burning liquid onto a target . The flame fougasse was developed by the Petroleum Warfare Department in Britain as an anti @-@ tank weapon during the invasion crisis of 1940 . During that period , about 50 @,@ 000 flame fougasse barrels were deployed in some 7 @,@ 000 batteries , mostly in southern England and a little later at 2 @,@ 000 sites in Scotland . Although never used in combat in Britain , the design saw action later in Greece .
Later in World War II , Germany and Russia developed flame throwing mines that worked on a somewhat different principle . After World War II , flame fougasses similar to the original British design have been used in several conflicts including the Korean and Vietnam Wars where it was improvised from easily available parts . The flame fougasse remains in army field manuals as a battlefield expedient to the present day .
= = Development history = =
Following the Dunkirk evacuation in 1940 , Britain faced a shortage of weapons . In particular , there was a severe scarcity of anti @-@ tank weapons , many of which had to be left behind in France . One of the few resources not in short supply was petroleum oil since supplies intended for Europe were filling British storage facilities .
Maurice Hankey , then a cabinet minister without portfolio , joined the Ministerial Committee on Civil Defence ( CDC ) chaired by Sir John Anderson , the Secretary of State for the Home Office and Home Security . Among many ideas , Hankey " brought out of his stable a hobby horse which he had ridden very hard in the 1914 – 18 war – namely the use of burning oil for defensive purposes . " Hankey believed that oil should not just be denied to an invader , but used to impede him . Towards the end of June , Hankey brought his scheme up at a meeting of the Oil Control Board and produced for Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Home Forces Edmund Ironside extracts of his paper on experiments with oil in the First World War . On 5 June , Churchill authorised Geoffrey Lloyd , the Secretary for Petroleum to press ahead with experiments with Hankey taking the matter under his general supervision . To this end , the Petroleum Warfare Department ( PWD ) was created and it was made responsible for developing weapons and tactics . Sir Donald Banks was put in charge of the department .
The PWD soon received the assistance of William Howard Livens . Livens was well known for his First World War invention : the " Livens Gas And Oil Bomb Projector " , known more simply as the Livens Projector . The Livens Projector was a large , simple mortar that could throw a projectile containing about 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) of explosives , incendiary oil or , most commonly , poisonous phosgene gas . The great advantage of the Livens Projector was that it was cheap ; this allowed hundreds , and on occasions thousands , to be set up and then fired simultaneously catching the enemy by surprise .
One of Livens ' PWD demonstrations , probably first seen about mid @-@ July at Dumpton Gap , was particularly promising . A barrel of oil was blown up on the beach ; Lloyd was said to have been particularly impressed when he observed a party of high @-@ ranking officers witnessing a test from the top of a cliff making " an instantaneous and precipitate movement to the rear " . The work was dangerous ; Livens and Banks were experimenting with five @-@ gallon drums in the shingle at Hythe when a short circuit triggered several weapons . By good fortune , the battery of drums where the party was standing failed to go off .
The experiments led to a particularly promising arrangement : a forty @-@ gallon steel drum buried in an earthen bank with just the round front end exposed . At the back of the drum was an explosive which , when triggered , ruptured the drum and shot a jet of flame about 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide and 30 yards ( 27 m ) long . The design was reminiscent of a weapon dating from late medieval times called a fougasse : a hollow in which was placed a barrel of gunpowder covered by rocks , the explosives to be detonated by a fuse at an opportune moment . Livens ' new weapon was duly dubbed the flame fougasse . The flame fougasse was demonstrated to Clement Attlee , Maurice Hankey and General Liardet on 20 July 1940 .
Experiments with the flame fougasse continued and it rapidly evolved . The fuel mixture was at first 40 % petrol and 60 % gas @-@ oil , a mixture calculated to be useless as a vehicle fuel . A concoction of tar , lime , and petrol gel known as 5B was also developed . " 5B was dark coloured , sticky , smooth paste which burned fiercely for many minutes , stuck easily to anything with which it came in contact and did not flow on burning . " Early flame fougasse designs had a complex arrangement of explosive charges : a small one at the front to ignite the fuel and a main charge at the back to throw the fuel forward . An important discovery was that including magnesium alloy turnings ( the waste product of machining magnesium pieces in a lathe ) with the main charge at the rear of the barrel would give reliable ignition . This eliminated the need for a separate ignition charge and its associated wiring . The alloy of about 90 % magnesium and 10 % aluminium was , at the time , known under the trade name Elektron .
= = Design variations = =
Of the original British flame fougasse designs , there were three main variants : the safety fougasse , the demigasse and the hedge hopper . They all used metal barrels and similar pre @-@ prepared explosive charges , although they varied in the details of construction and the amount of ammonal used for the propelling charge .
= = = Safety fougasse = = =
The most common form of the flame fougasse was the safety fougasse . This design allowed the propelling charge to be stored separately until needed . The safety fougasse was constructed as follows : a small section was excavated from the side of a slope , leaving a shallow platform of earth , and a barrel of incendiary mixture was placed horizontally in a low position with one round face pointing towards the target . At the back , a section of stove or drain pipe was placed vertically against the rear face of the barrel . The lower end of the pipe was blocked off with a thin cover and positioned a few inches above the bottom of the barrel . The top of the pipe was fitted with a loose cap to keep water out . This pipe is what makes it a " safety " fougasse because it allows later installation of the propelling charge . Soil was then built up over the weapon until all that could be seen were the front disk of the barrel and top of the pipe .
The propelling charge was prepared with an electrically triggered detonator in a primer bound with insulating tape to three or four cartridges of ammonal explosive . This assembly was placed in a small , waterproof rubber bag that was , in turn , placed inside a used cocoa tin . Four ounces ( 110 g ) of magnesium alloy turnings were added to ensure ignition of the fuel . The electrical wires were passed through a small hole in the lid of the tin which was then tightly fitted . The propelling charges were kept in storage , only to be deployed when enemy action was imminent . To activate the device , the propelling charge was lowered down the pipe and tamped down with dry soil before being connected to a firing point about 100 yards ( 91 m ) away . Firing required the current delivered by a 120 V battery .
Private Harold Wimshurst later recalled :
A non @-@ safety fougasse could be built by simply burying the propelling charge behind the fuel drum and running leads through the soil . Instructions for several variants of this design were published but this construction increases the hazard because the leads would have to be left exposed on the surface and any electrical current applied could , theoretically , ignite the charge . Also , underground moisture could also easily ruin the charge over an extended period of time .
The safety fougasse design had the advantage that without the propelling charge the fougasse was sufficiently safe that it did not require a guard . Banks records that installing the charge only when there was clear danger relatively close at hand was a safety feature required to protect the public from accidents . The ammonal used for the main propellant charge is a cheap industrial explosive that is notoriously hygroscopic , becoming less effective when it absorbs moisture . Even though the charge was packed into a rubber bag in a tin and sealed with insulating tape , it would not have been a good idea to store it for long in the damp conditions of a flame fougasse installation .
Flame fougasses were camouflaged with a covering of light material such as netting – anything heavier would significantly affect the range . They could easily be merged into hedgerows or the banks of a sunken lane within view of a well @-@ hidden firing point . They were placed where a vehicle would be obliged to stop , or at least slow down . The flame fougasse would offer instant and horrific wounds to any unprotected men caught in its fiery maw and would cause a vehicle engine to stop within seven seconds simply because it was deprived of oxygen ( although it would easily start again once the fireball subsided , provided nothing was damaged ) .
British soldier Fred Lord Hilton MM later recalled :
= = = Demigasse = = =
The demigasse was a simpler variant of the flame fougasse . It was a barrel of petroleum mixture laid on its side with a cocoa tin charge in a shallow pit just below one of the barrel 's ridges . On detonation , the barrel would rupture and flip over spilling its contents over an area of about 36 square yards ( 30 m2 ) . Left on its own at a roadside , in the open and with no attempt at disguise other than to hide the firing wires , it was indistinguishable from the barrels of tar commonly used in road repair . It was hoped that in addition to the damage done by the weapon itself , experience would cause the enemy to treat every innocent roadside barrel with the greatest caution .
= = = Hedge hopper = = =
Another variant of the flame fougasse was the " hedge hopper " . This was a barrel of petroleum mixture placed upright with a cocoa tin charge containing two primers and just one ammonal cartridge buried in an eight @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) deep pit placed underneath and slightly off centre , but carefully aligned with the seam of the barrel . On firing , the barrel would be projected 10 feet ( 3 m ) into the air and 10 yards ( 9 m ) forwards , bounding over a hedge or wall behind which it had been hidden . It was difficult to get the hedge hopper 's propelling charge right , but it had the great advantage of being quick to install and easy to conceal .
Home Guard member William Leslie Frost , later recalled seeing a hedge hopper in action .
Placing the hedge hopper so that it worked properly proved difficult to get right and the War Office discouraged its use in favour of the more conventional flame fougasse installation .
A further variant of the hedge hopper idea was devised for St Margaret 's Bay where the barrels would be sent rolling over the cliff edge .
= = Deployment = =
In all 50 @,@ 000 flame fougasse barrels were distributed of which the great majority were installed in 7 @,@ 000 batteries , mostly in southern England and a little later at 2 @,@ 000 sites in Scotland . Some barrels were held in reserve while others were deployed at storage sites to destroy petrol depots at short notice . The size of a battery varied from just one drum to as many as fourteen ; a four barrel battery was the most common installation and the recommended minimum . Where possible , half the barrels in a battery were to contain the 40 / 60 mixture and half the sticky 5B mixture .
A battery would be placed at a location such as a corner , steep incline or roadblock where vehicles would be obliged to slow .
= = Later development = =
Although the flame fougasse was never used in Britain , the idea was exported to Greece by a couple of PWD officers when , in 1941 , German invasion threatened . They were reported to have a powerful effect on enemy units .
By 1942 , there were proposals for completely buried flame fougasses to be used as oil mines but by then the emergency was over . Almost all flame fougasses were removed before the end of the war and in most instances even the slightest traces of their original locations have disappeared . A few instances were missed , and their remains have been found . For example , the rusty remnants of a four @-@ barrel battery , one of which still contained an oily residue , were discovered in 2010 in West Sussex .
Both the Russians and the Germans later used weapons described as fougasse flame throwers or flame thrower mines . They worked on a different principle to the flame fougasse . Fougasse flame throwers comprised a cylinder containing a few gallons of gasoline and oil ; this would be hidden , typically by being buried . On being triggered electrically , either by an operator or by a booby trap mechanism , a gas generator is ignited . The pressure ruptures a thin metal seal and the liquid is forced up a central pipe and out through one or more nozzles . A squib is automatically fired to ignite the fuel . The range of the flame varied considerably , generally just a few tens of yards and lasted only one to two seconds . The German weapons , the Abwehrflammenwerfer 42 , had an 8 imperial gallons ( 36 l ; 9 @.@ 6 US gal ) fuel tank and were wired back to a control point from where they could be fired individually or together .
The flame fougasse has remained in army field manuals as a battlefield expedient to the present day . Such weapons are improvised from available fuel containers combined with standard explosive charges or hand grenades and are triggered electrically or by lengths of detonating cord . In some designs , detonating cord is used to rupture the container immediately before triggering the propelling charge . In order to guarantee ignition , the improvised devices frequently feature two explosive charges , one to throw and the other to ignite the fuel . Weapons of this sort were widely used in the Korean and Vietnam Wars as well as other conflicts .
= Seibal =
Seibal ( Spanish pronunciation : [ seiˈβal ] ) , known as El Ceibal in Spanish , is a Classic Period archaeological site of the Maya civilization located in the northern Petén Department of Guatemala . It was the largest city in the Pasión River region .
The site was occupied from the Preclassic Period through to the Terminal Classic , with a significant hiatus . The principal phase of occupation dates to the Late Preclassic ( 400 BC – AD 200 ) , followed by a decline in the Early Classic ( AD 200 – 600 ) . Seibal experienced a significant recovery in the Terminal Classic immediately prior to its complete abandonment , reaching its second peak from about 830 to 890 , with a population estimated at 8 – 10 @,@ 000 people . The dates on the stelae at Seibal are unusually late , with monuments still being dedicated after the Classic Maya collapse had engulfed most of the Petén region . Many of Seibal 's late monuments show artistic influence from central Mexico and from the Gulf Coast of Mexico .
The early history of the site is lost due to the catastrophic defeat of the polity in AD 735 by the nearby Petexbatun kingdom with its capital at Dos Pilas , resulting in the destruction of its earlier sculpted monuments . Seibal was reduced to being a vassal state until the destruction of the Petexbatun kingdom in the late 8th century AD . In AD 830 a new elite installed itself at the site with the arrival of Wat 'ul Chatel from Ucanal to the east . This new arrival reinvigorated Seibal and allowed it to last to the dawn of the 10th century , well after the Classic Maya collapse had engulfed most of the region .
= = Etymology = =
Seibal is a corruption of the Spanish word ceibal , meaning " place where many ceiba trees grow " . El Ceibal was the name of a lumber camp near the ruins at the time of their discovery . The change in spelling originated with a publication by Teoberto Maler in 1908 , which used a Germanic form with initial " s " .
= = Location = =
Seibal is located on bluffs about 100 metres ( 330 ft ) above the Pasión River , a major tributary of the Usumacinta River . About 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) downstream , the Pasión River joins with the Salinas River to form the Usumacinta , which flows northwards to the Gulf of Mexico . The site lies in the Petén department of northern Guatemala , 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) east of the modern town of Sayaxché . Seibal lay 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) east of the Late Classic city of Dos Pilas and 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) south of Tikal . Lake Petén Itzá lies 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) to the north of the ruins .
Seibal lies among tropical rainforest on a limestone plain that is intermittently hilly and flat .
= = Population = =
Surveys have revealed an average of 436 structures per square kilometer ( 1118 per square mile ) in the site core , falling to 244 structures / km ² ( 626 / square mile ) in the periphery . At its height in the Late Preclassic , the population has been estimated at 1600 in the site core with a further 8000 dispersed through the periphery , to produce an estimated total population of almost ten thousand . In the Early Classic the population suffered a severe decline , population is estimated to have dropped to 34 % of peak population . In the Late to Terminal Classic the population increased to 85 % of its Late Preclassic level , an expansion that appears to have occurred rapidly and spread to all parts of the site , perhaps as the result of an influx of refugees arriving from other sites around AD 830 . This was followed by a population crash to 14 % of peak Preclassic population in the Early Postclassic ( AD 900 – 1200 ) prior to the complete abandonment of the site .
= = = Social Stratification = = =
The social stratification of Seibal was that of priest @-@ kings , as well as nobility and elites living in the main ceremonial center , with the common people living in the peripheries of the city . During the 1964 @-@ 68 excavations , 34 of the 45 found burials were from the peripheral zone , showing the distribution of population by class .
= = Known rulers = =
All dates A.D.
= = History = =
The site was occupied by the Middle Preclassic , then declined from the Late Preclassic through to the Early Classic , with a renewed expansion in the Late to Terminal Classic before being completely abandoned .
= = = Preclassic = = =
Seibal was first settled around 900 BC in the Preclassic Period . It reached its peak population in the Late Preclassic around 200 BC , at the end of the Cantuse ceramic phase ( 300 @-@ 200 CE ) . Ceramics from the deep Middle Preclassic levels at Seibal belong to the little @-@ known Real / Xe phase , found in the western Petén region . A cruciform Olmec @-@ style cache consisting of a bloodletter and jade celts is similar to those found in the Olmec heartland on the Gulf Coast of Mexico , and the artifacts were probably manufactured at La Venta . This cache dates to approximately 900 BC . After the Real / Xe complex , came the Escoba period , dating to approximately 600CE @-@ 300CE . The ceramics between these two periods are similar , but Escoba ceramics are more extensive and stratigraphically separated . There is also evidence during this time of the population increase that would peak at the end of the Cantutse period .
The earliest settlement in the Middle Preclassic was mostly confined to Group A. After 300 BC , in the Late Preclassic , settlement expanded to include Group D. During this period , there is evidence of ceremonial structures being build both in Group A and D.
By the end of the Late Preclassic ( or Protoclassic ) , Seibal experienced an unexplained decline in population .
= = = Early Classic = = =
During the Early Classic , the decline that began in the Late Preclassic continued unabated until the site was all but abandoned around AD 300 for unknown reasons .
= = = Late Classic = = =
Seibal underwent a revival in the Late Classic with an expansion of occupation linked to the great city of Tikal . About AD 650 new inhabitants moved into the city in order to found a new kingdom . Groups A and D saw new construction , with a particular emphasis on Group D , which became an important part of the ceremonial centre . Any monuments raised by the Late Classic rulers responsible for this renewed occupation were defaced when the city suffered a catastrophic defeat in the 8th century AD . After the defeat of Seibal , foreign influences can be seen from Central Mexico in the art and stelae of the site dating to the Bayal phase ( mid @-@ 700 CE @-@ post @-@ classic ) .
The earliest mention of Seibal in hieroglyphic inscriptions is on Stela 15 at Dos Pilas , dated to 13 October 721 , and refers to Seibal becoming involved in the long @-@ running war between the great cities of Tikal and Calakmul and their respective allies and vassals . Dos Pilas was a newly founded city in the Petexbatún region , established by Tikal to exert its control over the Pasión River , a strategy that backfired when Calakmul seized control of the fledgling kingdom .
= = = = Defeat = = = =
In AD 735 Ucha 'an K 'in B 'alam , the third king of Dos Pilas , attacked Seibal , capturing Yich 'aak B 'alam . The captive king was not executed but rather became a vassal of his more powerful neighbour . Ucha 'an K 'in B 'alam raised monuments to his victory over Seibal at Dos Pilas , Aguateca and Seibal itself . Yich 'aak B 'alam is shown under the feet of Ucha 'an K 'in B 'alam on Aguateca Stela 2 . At Seibal a hieroglyphic stairway was built recording the city 's new status as a vassal of Dos Pilas . At the same time as he erected these monuments to his victory , Ucha 'an K 'in B 'alam ordered the destruction of the hieroglyphic records on the earlier monuments of Seibal , with inscriptions at Dos Pilas and Aguateca specifically recording the destruction of Seibal 's previously recorded history using phrases that translate as " they destroyed the writing " and " they chopped the writing off the statues that were made " .
Yich 'aak B 'alam continued as a vassal under the next king of Dos Pilas , K 'awiil Chan K 'inich , who presided over rituals at Seibal in 745 and 747 .
Seibal regained its independence in the late 8th century with the destruction of the Dos Pilas kingdom . Ajaw B 'ot acceeded to the throne in AD 771 , restoring Seibal as an independent capital . After AD 800 Seibal fell into a thirty @-@ year hiatus during which no new monuments were erected .
= = = Terminal Classic = = =
With its independence came a new apogee , and for a brief time Seibal became a prominent regional capital located on the important Pasión River trade route . The architecture and ceramics from this period demonstrate connections with the northern Yucatán Peninsula and the Gulf Coast of Mexico . Seventeen stelae carved between AD 849 and 889 show a mix of Maya and foreign styles , including a lord wearing the beaked mask of Ehecatl , the central Mexican wind god , with a Mexican @-@ style speech scroll emerging from the mouth , carvings of foreign @-@ style foot slippers , and squared cartouches . Some of these stelae have a stylistic affinity with the painted murals at Cacaxtla , a site in the central Mexican state of Tlaxcala . This hybrid style seem to indicate that the new lords of Seibal were Maya lords adapting to changing political conditions by adopting a mix of symbols originating from both lowland Maya and central Mexican sources . Some of the more foreign @-@ looking stelae even bear non @-@ Maya calendrical glyphs . Changes at Seibal at this time are associated with the Chontal @-@ controlled trade flowing along the Pasión River . The Chontal Maya themselves were warrior @-@ merchants originating from the Gulf Coast of Mexico who displayed a mixture of Maya and non @-@ Maya characteristics .
Hieroglyphic texts at Seibal indicate that the city 's newly refound vigour was sponsored by a new alliance formed by the cities of Caracol and Ucanal in the east , two sites that had so far survived the spreading Classic Maya collapse . It is likely that they were attempting to reopen the old Pasión @-@ Usumacinta trade route and were drawn to Seibal by its defensible location overlooking the Pasión River . Seibal 's refounding took place in AD 830 with the installation of Wat 'ul Chatel as a vassal of Chan Ek ' Hopet of Ucanal . The new king dedicated a new building and stelae in 849 , overseen by Jewel K 'awil of Tikal , and Chan Pet , king of Calakmul . Wat 'ul Chatel built an innovative new temple @-@ stelae arrangement to the south of the Central Plaza of Group A. Structure A @-@ 3 consists of a low radial pyramid with an inventive arrangement of sculpted monuments .
Wat 'ul Chatel 's last monument was erected in 889 . This stela is also the last dated monument raised at Seibal and by 900 the city was all but abandoned , the whole region had been engulfed by the Classic Maya collapse and trade no longer flowed along the Pasión @-@ Usumacinta route . Most Classic Maya capitals had already been abandoned and whatever external support Seibal had received from its overlord had vanished . By 930 AD , the site was completely abandoned . It was left relatively undisturbed until around 1890 when Federico Artes was informed of the city ’ s ruins .
The late stelae at Seibal show a marked reduction in quality over a span of about forty years , with the loss of Classic Period traits , and bearing flatter and cruder representations than earlier stelae . This may reflect the loss of expertise in the Terminal Classic , with craftsmen less able to work monuments and large structures as time progressed .
= = = Modern history = = =
The ruins of Seibal were probably discovered around 1890 by loggers working for the Hamett Mahogany Company . Federico Artes first reported the existence of the ruins in 1892 after he was sent to Petén by the Guatemalan government in order to find material to be displayed in the Guatemalan exhibit for the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago . He was having very little luck getting satisfactory material until he heard through the rumor mill of the site ’ s existence , at which point he traveled to Seibal . He took molds from some of the stelae and the resulting casts were displayed in the Exposition , bringing the recent discovery of the ruins to the attention of archaeologists for the first time . Two years later , in July 1895 , Seibal was explored by Teoberto Maler on behalf of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University . He made a site plan and discovered a new stela to add to those already discovered . He returned to the site for further investigations in August 1905 but discovered no new monuments . The Peabody Museum published Maler 's work in 1908 , including good quality photos of the stelae .
Seibal was next investigated by Sylvanus Morley in 1914 on behalf of the Carnegie Institution of Washington . Dr Barnum Brown visited the ruins in 1948 , and members of the Altar de Sacrificios Expedition of the Peabody Museum made visits in 1961 , 1962 and 1963 .
In 1964 , the Peabody Museum returned to the site with a thorough investigation that continued until 1968 , led by Gordon R. Willey as Director and A. Ledyard Smith as Field Director . Further excavations were carried out from May to June in 2006 by the Proyecto Arqueológico Ceibal @-@ Petexbatun ( Seibal @-@ Petexbatun Archaeological Project ) .
= = Site description = =
Seibal is a medium @-@ sized site . The site core is divided into three principal hilltop groups ( Groups A , C and D ) connected by causeways and covers a little over 1 km ² . The causeways were faced with masonry and had parapets in places . Causeway I is the western causeway , Causeway II is the south causeway and Causeway III is the eastern causeway . Group D is a fortress refuge concealed above the river frontage . Group B is a small complex located about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from the site core . Group A is smaller than Group D but has most of the sculptured monuments . Various small housemound groups lie beyond the site core . They are spaced between 50 and 100 metres ( 55 and 109 yd ) apart , extending for several kilometers to the north , south and west .
Only two structures have been restored at Seibal , the A @-@ 3 temple platform and the C @-@ 79 circular platform , topped with the Jaguar Altar . Both were restored during the investigations carried out by the Peabody Museum in the 1960s .
Seibal possesses a satellite site located to the north , known as El Anonal . This site has large structures built from clay that date to the Middle Preclassic period .
= = = Architecture = = =
Group A is in the site core . It features three plazas , the North , South and Central Plazas and lies at the west end of Causeway I. Group A has more than fifty mounds arranged around the three plazas . Monuments dating to the period when Seibal was a vassal of Dos Pilas ( AD 735 – 761 ) are situated in the Central Plaza of the group . In this group , there is also a ball court that is dated to the Terminal Classic and stylistically resembles that at Uxmal .
Group C lies on Causeway II , which passes through it to end at the circular Structure C @-@ 79 . Group C has over forty mounds .
Group D is a compact group at the east end of Causeway III , it is perched in an easily defensible position at the edge of the bluffs overlooking the Pasión river . It has more than seventy structures crowded around five plazas . Group D only had one stela , which was a plain monument erected in front of a 20 @-@ metre ( 66 ft ) high stepped pyramid .
The East Patio of Group A is part of an acropolis complex located behind Structure A @-@ 14 . The complex is situated upon a massive platform raised almost 7 metres ( 23 ft ) above the natural surface level . The patio was accessed by a stairway on the south side . It includes Structures A @-@ 15 and A @-@ 16 .
Structure A @-@ 3 is a temple platform located in the centre of the south plaza . It has a stairway ascending each of its four sides . Five stelae are associated with this structure , one located at the base of each stairway and a fifth inside the building surmounting the platform . Three large jade cobbles were interred under the central stela . This structure and its associated stelae were dedicated in AD 849 by king Wat 'ul Chatel ( also known as Aj B 'olon Haab 'tal ) . Structure A @-@ 3 has the remains of a corbeled vault , the only surviving example at Seibal . The arrangement of the radial pyramid with its associated stelae was highly innovative . The radial temple form was ancient in the Maya region , dating back to the Late Preclassic , but Wat 'ul Chatel placed upon it a square shrine with four doors , one opening onto each of the stairways . The temple building contained three vaulted chambers oriented north @-@ south , with doors joining each chamber along an east @-@ west axis . The cornice of the temple supported a brightly coloured stucco frieze . The frieze collapsed with the temple in ancient times . Archaeologists were able to recover portions of the fallen frieze and attempt a reconstruction of how it originally appeared . Each of the four doors was originally topped by a larger @-@ than @-@ life sculpture of king Wat 'ul Chatel . Twelve smaller figures were spaced around the cornice , one at each corner with an additional figure positioned half way between each corner and the central figure of the king . It is not known who these smaller figures represented . The spaces between the figures were occupied by panels with cross @-@ hatch designs and sculpted vegetation and animals . Old gods sat in the centre of each of the sixteen panels , including Itzamna and Pawatun . Structure A @-@ 3 was built over an earlier platform structure .
Structure A @-@ 10 , a 28 @-@ metre ( 92 ft ) tall temple @-@ pyramid , is the tallest structure at the site .
Structure A @-@ 13 is a radial pyramid . Excavations uncovered a mass burial ( Burial 4 ) with parts of eleven people , including two women and a child . This was not a traditional Classic Maya burial and has been dated to AD 930 , very late in the occupation of the site .
Structure A @-@ 14 is covered by the forest that has overgrown the northern part of the Central Plaza . It is a range structure running north @-@ south and once had a hieroglyphic stairway detailing Seibal 's defeat by Dos Pilas , although the inscriptions have now been removed to the old project camp . The structure was found to contain an elite female burial , labelled as Burial 1 .
Structure A @-@ 15 is located on the north side of the East Patio of the North Plaza . It is a long , low structure running east @-@ west and closing the patio on the north side . It measures 24 by 8 metres ( 79 by 26 ft ) by 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) tall . The building contained a long room with a wide entrance opening southwards onto the patio , raised from the patio by a step . The room contained a stone bench built from reused blocks . The structure was superimposed upon two earlier substructures , the earliest of which had a different orientation to the final building . All three periods of construction appear to date to the Terminal Classic , with the last phase perhaps dating to about the time of the fall of the city .
Structure A @-@ 16 is located on the northeast side of the East Patio of the North Plaza . It is a rectangular structure measuring 16 by 10 metres ( 52 by 33 ft ) , running north @-@ south and facing to the west . The remains of the structure stand 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The western side of the building had been damaged by looters prior to archaeological investigation . The looters ' trench measured 5 by 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 16 @.@ 4 by 2 @.@ 6 ft ) by 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) deep and cut through the structure 's floor , bench and rear wall but did not uncover any burials or offerings . Fallen limestone blocks and slabs reveal that the structure once had a corbel @-@ vaulted chamber . Fragments of stucco were also recovered , they once made up a colourful frieze above the front of the building that included modelled human figures . The stucco still had traces of orange , green and yellow paint . The building was a palace @-@ type structure with perhaps six rooms , three on the west side and three on the east , and it was originally roofed in stone . The interior had an L @-@ shaped bench . The structure was built of finely cut limestone blocks and the walls were coated with stucco painted orange and turquoise . It is believed that the building was part of a Terminal Classic royal palace with architectural features similar to those of the temple Structure A @-@ 3 .
Structure A @-@ 19 and Structure C @-@ 9 are ballcourts . They have a resemblance to ballcourts at Chichen Itza . Both ballcourts are aligned east @-@ west , an unusual feature in the Maya area , although the topography of the site severely restricted the layout of the city to a principally east @-@ west orientation . Ballcourt A @-@ 19 lies on the west side on the north plaza .
Structure C @-@ 79 is a circular three @-@ tiered platform built during the Terminal Classic on top of a pre @-@ existing structure dating to the Late Preclassic Period . Circular structures such as this have their origin in central Mexico , where they are typically temples of Ehecatl , the god of wind . However , the structure at Seibal was surmounted by a rectangular building platform , whereas the temple buildings of Ehecatl were also circular . Structure C @-@ 79 has two stairways , the larger ascends the west side , the smaller is on the east side . A circular jaguar altar rests on three pedestals before the structure , two of these are crouching figures that originally supported the altar , the third central column is modern and was put in place as an additional support during restoration of the ruins . The altar has the crude representation of a jaguar 's head carved onto its edge . Structure C @-@ 79 and the associated altar are dated to about AD 870 .
= = = Monuments = = =
The monuments of Seibal include a number of stelae , carved stone shafts , often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs . The monuments at Seibal are fashioned from a hard limestone , accounting for their generally excellent preservation . During excavations in the 1960s , 57 stelae were identified . Of these 22 were sculpted and 35 were plain .
Hieroglyphic Stairway 1 was located on the front of Structure A @-@ 14 . The stairway was installed by king Ucha 'an K 'in B 'alam of Dos Pilas to record Seibal 's status as a vassal after its defeat by that city . The stones are no longer in situ , having been removed to the area of the camp of the old archaeological project .
Stela 1 , on the north side of the South Plaza near Structure A @-@ 3 , names someone called " Knife @-@ Wing " , who is also known at distant Chichen Itza . It is dated to AD 869 .
Stela 2 is believed to date to around AD 870 although it bears no hieroglyphic text . It depicts the frontal view of a masked figure and is the only monument at Seibal to show a frontal portrayal . It was broken into six or seven pieces and has been restored .
Stela 3 bears a non @-@ Maya calendrical date , one of the glyphs is cipactli , a crocodile head used to represent the first day of the 260 @-@ day calendar in central Mexico . This stela once stood next to Stela 2 but was removed to a museum in Guatemala City .
Stela 4 is badly damaged , having been broken into pieces by a falling tree . It was lost for sixty years before being rediscovered . It currently remains buried under a thin covering of soil .
Stela 5 lies to the north of the South Plaza and is badly damaged . The broken middle section of the stela is all that is left , it bears the representation of a ballplayer and dates to about AD 780 .
Stela 6 is slightly to the north of Stela 5 , bearing hieroglyphic text . This stela was damaged in antiquity when the upper part was broken off and erected by an altar nearby .
Stela 7 stands to the north of stelae 5 and 6 . It is in a reasonable state of preservation and bears the image of a ruler dressed as a ballplayer . This
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ariot betrayed Jesus , according to an account in the Gospel of Matthew 26 : 15 in the New Testament . Before the Last Supper , Judas is said to have gone to the chief priests and agreed to hand over Jesus in exchange for 30 silver coins , and to have returned the money afterwards , filled with remorse .
The Gospel of Matthew claims that the subsequent purchase of the Potter 's field was fulfilment , by Jesus , of a prophecy of Zechariah .
The image has often been used in artwork depicting the Passion of Christ . The phrase is used in literature and common speech to refer to people " selling out " , compromising a trust , friendship , or loyalty for personal gain .
= = Biblical narrative = =
According to the gospel accounts , Judas Iscariot was a disciple of Jesus . Before the Last Supper , Judas went to the chief priests and agreed to hand over Jesus in exchange for 30 silver coins . Jesus was then arrested in Gethsemane , where Judas revealed Jesus ' identity to the soldiers by giving him a kiss .
According to Chapter 27 of Matthew 's gospel , Judas was filled with remorse and returned the money to the chief priests before hanging himself . The chief priests decided that they could not put it into the temple treasury , and so with it they bought the Potter 's Field . A different account of the death of Judas is given in Acts of Apostles ; it describes Judas as using the money he had been rewarded with - no sum is specified - to buy the Potter 's field , and then falling there , dying of the resulting intestinal injuries .
= = Types of coin = =
The word used in Matthew 26 : 15 ( ἀργύρια , argyria ) simply means " silver coins , " and scholars disagree on the type of coins that would have been used . Donald Wiseman suggests two possibilities . They could have been tetradrachms of Tyre , usually referred to as Tyrian shekels ( 14 grams of 94 % silver ) , or staters from Antioch ( 15 grams of 75 % silver ) , which bore the head of Augustus . Alternatively , they could have been Ptolemaic tetradrachms ( 13 @.@ 5 ± 1 g ) . There are 28 @.@ 3495 grams per ounce . At spot valuation of $ 15 @.@ 85 / oz ( the closing price on Friday , March 18 , 2016 ) , 30 " pieces of silver " is worth approximately $ 225 in present @-@ day value ( USD ) . Other equivalents are C $ 295 ( CAD ) , AU $ 297 ( AUD ) , £ 156 ( GBP ) , € 200 ( EUR ) , 218 Swiss francs ( CHF ) , and 830 Brazilian Reais ( BRL ) .
The Tyrian shekel weighed four Athenian drachmas , about 14 grams , more than earlier 11 @-@ gram Israeli shekels , but was regarded as the equivalent for religious duties at that time . Because Roman coinage was only 80 % silver , the purer ( 94 % or more ) Tyrian shekels were required to pay the temple tax in Jerusalem . The money changers referenced in the New Testament Gospels ( Matt . 21 : 12 and parallels ) exchanged Tyrian shekels for common Roman currency .
The 5th century BC Athenian tetradrachm ( " four drachmae " ) coin was perhaps the most widely used coin in the Greek world prior to the time of Alexander the Great ( along with the Corinthian stater ) . It featured the helmeted profile bust of Athena on the obverse ( front ) and an owl on the reverse ( back ) . In daily use they were called γλαῦκες glaukes ( owls ) , hence the proverb Γλαῦκ ’ Ἀθήναζε , ' an owl to Athens ' , referring to something that was in plentiful supply , like ' coals to Newcastle ' . The reverse is featured on the national side of the modern Greek 1 euro coin . Drachmae were minted on different weight standards at different Greek mints . The standard that came to be most commonly used was the Athenian or Attic one , which weighed a little over 4 @.@ 3 grams . A drachma was approximately a day 's pay for a skilled laborer . So 30 pieces of silver ( 30 tetradrachm ) , at four drachmas each , would roughly be comparable to four months ' ( 120 days ) wages .
Augustus Silver Tetradrachm of Antioch ( 27 B.C. - A.D. 14 ) , The silver Tetradrachm of Augustus from Antioch . Depicting Ancient Rome ’ s celebrated first emperor , who reigned from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14 , this coin was hand struck in the great provincial city of Antioch – honored on the reverse . These coins of Biblical times were hand struck close to the time when Jesus was believed to have been born . And they were among the most prominent coins used to pay the hated temple tax , about which Jesus speaks in the biblical accounts of Matthew , Mark and Luke . Weighing about 15 grams and containing over 75 % silver , these large attractive pieces are similar to the coinage circulated by Seleucid emperors in Syria before being conquered by Rome in 64 B.C.
In the medieval period some religious institutions displayed ancient Greek coins of the island of Rhodes as specimens of the Thirty Pieces of Silver . The obverses of these coins showed a facing head of the sun god Helios , with rays projecting around the upper part of it . These rays were interpreted as a representation of the Crown of Thorns .
= = Theological interpretation = =
In Zechariah 11 : 12 – 13 , 30 pieces of silver is the price Zechariah receives for his labour . He takes the coins and throws them " to the potter " . Klaas Schilder notes that Zechariah 's payment indicates an assessment of his worth , as well as his dismissal . In Exodus 21 : 32 , 30 pieces of silver was the price of a slave , so while Zechariah calls the amount a " handsome price " ( Zechariah 11 : 13 ) , this could be sarcasm . Barry Webb , however , regards it as a " considerable sum of money . "
Schilder suggests that these 30 pieces of silver then get " bandied back and forth by the Spirit of Prophecy . " When the chief priests decide to buy a field with the returned money , Matthew says that this fulfilled " what was spoken by Jeremiah the prophet . " Namely , " They took the thirty silver coins , the price set on him by the people of Israel , and they used them to buy the potter 's field , as the Lord commanded me " ( Matthew 27 : 9 – 10 ) . Although many scholars see Jeremiah 's name as included in error , Jeremiah 's purchase of a field in Jeremiah 32 may indicate that both prophets are in mind . Craig Blomberg argues that Matthew is using typology in his quotation , rather than " any kind of single or double fulfillment of actual predictive prophecy . " According to Blomberg , Matthew is telling his readers that , " like Jeremiah and Zechariah , Jesus attempts to lead his people with a prophetic and pastoral ministry , but instead he ends up suffering innocently at their hands . " William Hendriksen argues that Matthew is referring to Jeremiah 19 .
Blomberg also suggests that Matthew may also be saying that " Jesus ' death is a ransom , the price paid to secure a slave 's freedom , " and that the use of the blood money to buy a burial ground for foreigners ( Matthew 27 : 7 ) may hint at the idea that " Jesus ' death makes salvation possible for all the peoples of the world , including the Gentiles . "
The 1877 Handy Book for Bible Readers states that " Argurion , argenteus , denarius . This word occurs in two passages-- ( A ) the account of the betrayal of our Lord for " thirty pieces of silver " ( Matt. xxvi . 15 ; xxvii . 3 , 5 , 6 , 9 ) . These have usually been considered to be denarii , but on no sufficient ground . The parallel passage in Zechariah ( xi . 12 , 13 ) , is translated " thirty [ pieces ] of silver " ; but which should doubtless be read , " thirty shekels of silver " , whilst it is observable that " thirty shekels of silver " was the price of blood to be paid in the case of a servant accidentally killed ( Exod. xxi . 32 ) . The passage may therefore be explained as " thirty shekels of silver " , not surrent shekels , but tetradrachms of the Attic standard of the Greek cities of Syria and Phoencia . These tetradrachms were common at the time of our Lord , and of them the stater was a specimen . "
= = Relics and depiction in art = =
Judas is often shown in narrative scenes from the Passion holding the silver in a bag or purse , where they serve as an attribute to identify him . As one of the " Instruments of the Passion " the Thirty Pieces by themselves often feature in groups of the Instruments , especially in the late Middle Ages , although they are one of the less commonly chosen elements of the group . Sometimes a money bag is used in depictions ; otherwise a hand holding the coins , or two hands , showing the counting @-@ out .
The fact that Judas was filled with remorse and returned the money to the chief priests , throwing the coins on the floor of the Temple , before hanging himself , is seldom depicted in art . This would have been contrary to the teachings of the Church that Judas was beyond forgiveness and therefore could not show remorse . One of the few exceptions is the The Basilewsky Situla ( 920 ) , carved in ivory for the visit of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II to Milan , now in the collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum , London .
A number of " Judas @-@ pennies " , ancient coins said to be from the original thirty , were treated as relics in the Middle Ages , and were believed to help in difficult cases of childbirth . As a minor component of the Instruments , and one whose survival was hard to explain given the Biblical account of the use of the money , the relics , and their depiction in art , both appear from the 14th century , later than more important elements like the Crown of Thorns or Spear of Longinus . This was as a result of new styles of devotions , led by the Franciscans in particular , which promoted contemplation of the Passion episode by episode , as in the Stations of the Cross . The stone on which the coins were said to have been counted out was in the Lateran Palace in Rome .
A Syracusan decadrachm held at the Hunt Museum , Limerick is one such coin claimed to be one of the thirty : inscribed on the mount is Quia precium sanguinis est ( Latin : " This is the price of blood " ) .
= = Literary references = =
The 30 pieces are used in Christian literature on the betrayal of Jesus , as in the poem Thirty Pieces of Silver by William Blane :
" Thirty pieces of silver "
Burns on the traitor 's brain ;
" Thirty pieces of silver !
Oh ! it is hellish gain ! "
or as in the poem Matthew XXVII : 9 by Jorge Luis Borges :
The coin fell on my hollow hand .
I could not bear it , although it was light ,
and I let it fall . It was all in vain .
The other said : " There are still twenty nine . "
The phrase " 30 pieces of silver " is used more generally to describe a price at which people sell out . In Dostoyevsky 's Crime and Punishment , it is echoed in the 30 roubles which the character Sonia earns for selling herself . In the folk @-@ song King John and the Bishop , the bishop 's answer to the riddle of how much the king is worth is 29 pieces of silver , as no king is worth more than Jesus . In Shakespeare 's play Henry IV , Part 2 , the mistress of Falstaff asks " and didst thou not kiss me , and bid me fetch thee thirty shillings ? " The story " Treasure Trove " by F. Tennyson Jesse relates the rediscovery in modern times of the thirty pieces of silver and how they drive men to kill .
= = Modern usage = =
The phrase is used to accuse politicians and artists of selling out their principles or ideals , and is also used in literature as a symbol of betrayal . For example , in the aftermath of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis , a number of residents of the street in which the Governor General John Kerr had been born sent the Governor 30 pieces of silver , as Kerr was widely blamed for the crisis . Another usage was at the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 , a spokesman from Tuvalu criticised the final document by saying , " It looks like we are being offered 30 pieces of silver to betray our people and our future ... Our future is not for sale . "
The author Jim Butcher uses the coins in his Dresden Files series , in which each coin is the focal point of a fallen angel . This group of angels is known as the Order of the Blackened Denarius , or the Denarians .
The popular Belgian comic book series Blake and Mortimer had a two part story centered on the coins , titled The Curse of the Thirty Denarii ( the English title being The Curse of The 30 Pieces of Silver ) .
In the TV Drama HOUSE , James Wilson uses this phrase , suggesting his testament against his colleague and friend Gregory House .
In the Marvel Comics event Civil War , Iron Man and Captain America are divided in two camps : the former believing that the government should regulate superhuman activities and the latter believing heroes should keep the freedom of personal security . When the superhero Daredevil , who was on Captain America 's side , is captured by S.H.I.E.L.D , Tony escorts him to a superhero prison . S.H.I.E.L.D agents tell Tony they found a silver dollar under his tongue , and said he told them he 'd been saving it for Stark . Then Daredevil says " Guess that 's thirty @-@ one pieces of silver you 've got now , huh ? " , meaning Tony has given up his beliefs of what a superhero should be and betrayed the superhero community .
In the TV sitcom " The Big Bang Theory " there is an episode , " The Vengence Formulation " ( Season 3 , Episode 9 ) , where Theoretical Physicist , Sheldon Cooper , feels that his roommate , best friend , and colleague , Experimental Physicist , Leonard Hofstadter , betrays him by Leonard taking his girlfriend , Penny , with him to visit the CERN Super Collider in Switzerland for Valentine 's Day instead of taking Sheldon despite their " Roommate Agreement " stating that if one friend is offered to visit the Super Collider , then they must bring the other . Sheldon then calls Leonard a traitor on their way to work the next morning . Later during lunch , Sheldon approaches Leonard and places a lunch tray in front of him before walking away . Their colleague and fellow friend , Rajesh Koothrappali , asks what Sheldon placed down in front of Leonard and Leonard 's response is " Uhh , let 's see ... Yep , 30 pieces of silverware . "
= Mulholland Drive ( film ) =
Mulholland Drive ( stylized onscreen as Mulholland Dr. ) is a 2001 American neo @-@ noir mystery film written and directed by David Lynch and starring Justin Theroux , Naomi Watts , Laura Harring , Ann Miller , and Robert Forster . It tells the story of an aspiring actress named Betty Elms ( Watts ) , newly arrived in Los Angeles , California , who meets and befriends an amnesic woman ( Harring ) hiding in an apartment that belongs to Betty 's aunt . The story includes several other seemingly unrelated vignettes that eventually interlock , as well as some surreal and darkly comic scenes and images that relate to the cryptic narrative .
Originally conceived as a television pilot , a large portion of the film was shot in 1999 with Lynch 's plan to keep it open @-@ ended for a potential series . After viewing Lynch 's version , however , television executives decided to reject it . Lynch then provided an ending to the project , making it a feature film . The half @-@ pilot , half @-@ feature result , along with Lynch 's characteristic style , has left the general meaning of the movie 's events open to interpretation . Lynch has declined to offer an explanation of his intentions for the narrative , leaving audiences , critics , and cast members to speculate on what transpires . He gave the film the tagline " A love story in the city of dreams " .
Categorized as a psychological thriller , the film was highly acclaimed by many critics and earned Lynch the Prix de la mise en scène ( Best Director Award ) at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival , as well as an Oscar nomination for Best Director . Mulholland Drive launched the careers of Watts and Harring and was the last feature film to star veteran Hollywood actress Ann Miller . The film is widely regarded as one of Lynch 's finest works , alongside Eraserhead ( 1977 ) and Blue Velvet ( 1986 ) , and was chosen by 40 critics as one of the greatest films of all time in the British Film Institute 's decennial Sight & Sound poll . A. O. Scott of The New York Times writes that while some might consider the plot an " offense against narrative order ... the film is an intoxicating liberation from sense , with moments of feeling all the more powerful for seeming to emerge from the murky night world of the unconscious . "
= = Plot = =
The story may not be linear and exhibits several instances of temporal disruption . A dark @-@ haired woman ( Harring ) escapes her own murder , surviving a car accident on Mulholland Drive . Injured and in shock , she descends into Los Angeles and sneaks into an apartment that an older , red @-@ headed woman has just vacated . An aspiring actress named Betty Elms ( Watts ) arrives at the same apartment and finds the dark @-@ haired woman confused , not knowing her own name . The dark @-@ haired woman assumes the name " Rita " after seeing a poster for the film Gilda ( 1946 ) , starring Rita Hayworth . To help Rita remember her identity , Betty looks in Rita 's purse , where she finds a large amount of money and an unusual blue key .
In what seems to be a scene from a different narrative , set at a diner called Winkies , a man ( Patrick Fischler ) tells his companion ( Michael Cooke ) about a nightmare in which he dreamt there was a horrible figure behind the diner . When they investigate , the figure appears , causing the man with the nightmare to collapse in fright . As the principal narrative resumes , Hollywood director Adam Kesher ( Justin Theroux ) has his film commandeered by apparent mobsters , who insist he cast an unknown actress named Camilla Rhodes ( Melissa George ) as the lead in his film . After he resists , he returns home to find his wife having an affair and is thrown out of his house . He later learns that his bank has closed his line of credit and he is broke . He agrees to meet a mysterious figure called The Cowboy , who urges him to cast Camilla Rhodes for his own good . Later , a bungling hit man ( Mark Pellegrino ) attempts to steal a book full of phone numbers and leaves three people dead .
Trying to learn more about Rita 's accident , Betty and Rita go to Winkies and are served by a waitress named Diane , which causes Rita to remember the name " Diane Selwyn " . They find Diane Selwyn in the phone book and call her , but she does not answer . Betty goes to an audition , where her performance is highly praised . A casting agent takes her to the set of a film called The Sylvia North Story , directed by Adam , where Camilla Rhodes gives an audition and Adam declares , " This is the girl . " Betty smiles shyly as she locks eyes with Adam , but she flees before she can meet him , saying that she is late to meet a friend .
Betty and Rita go to Diane Selwyn 's apartment and break in when no one answers the door . In the bedroom they find the body of a woman who has been dead for several days . Terrified , they return to their apartment , where Rita disguises herself with a blonde wig . The two women have sex that night and awake at 2 a.m. , when Rita insists they go to an eerie theater called Club Silencio . On stage , a man explains in several languages that everything is an illusion ; a woman begins singing then collapses , although her vocals continue . Betty finds a blue box in her purse that matches Rita 's key . Upon returning to the apartment , Rita retrieves the key and finds that Betty has disappeared . Rita unlocks the box , and it falls to the floor with a thump .
The older red @-@ headed woman investigates the sound , but nothing is there . The Cowboy appears in the doorway of Diane Selwyn 's bedroom saying , " Hey , pretty girl . Time to wake up . " At this point , all elements of the narrative seem to change . Diane Selwyn ( played by Watts ) wakes up in her bed . She looks exactly like Betty , but is portrayed as a failed actress driven into a deep depression by her unrequited love for Camilla Rhodes ( played now by Harring ) . On Camilla 's invitation , Diane attends a party at Adam 's house on Mulholland Drive . Her limousine stops before they reach the house and Camilla escorts her using a shortcut . Adam appears to be in love with Camilla . Over dinner , Diane states that she came to Hollywood when her aunt died , and she met Camilla at an audition for The Sylvia North Story . Another woman ( played by George ) kisses Camilla and they turn and smile at Diane . Adam and Camilla prepare to make an important announcement , and dissolve into laughter and kiss while Diane watches , crying .
Diane meets with the hit man at Winkies , where she gives him Camilla 's photo and a large amount of money , and they are served by a waitress named Betty . The hit man tells Diane that when the job is done , she will find a blue key . Diane asks what , if anything , the key opens , but the hit man just laughs . Diane looks up and sees the man who had the nightmare standing at the counter . Back at her apartment , with the key on a table in front of her , she is terrorized by hallucinations . She runs screaming to her bed , where she shoots herself . A woman at the club whispers " Silencio " .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Originally conceived as a television series , Mulholland Drive began as a 90 @-@ minute pilot produced for Touchstone Television and intended for the ABC television network . David Lynch sold the idea to ABC executives based only on the story of Rita emerging from the car accident with her purse containing $ 125 @,@ 000 in cash and the blue key , and Betty trying to help her figure out who she is . An ABC executive recalled , " I remember the creepiness of this woman in this horrible , horrible crash , and David teasing us with the notion that people are chasing her . She 's not just ' in ' trouble — she is trouble . Obviously , we asked , ' What happens next ? ' And David said , ' You have to buy the pitch for me to tell you . ' "
Lynch described the attractiveness of the idea of a pilot , despite the knowledge that the medium of television would be constricting : " I 'm a sucker for a continuing story [ ... ] Theoretically , you can get a very deep story and you can go so deep and open the world so beautifully , but it takes time to do that . " The story included normal and surreal elements , much like Lynch 's earlier series Twin Peaks . Groundwork was laid for story arcs , such as the mystery of Rita 's identity , Betty 's career and Adam Kesher 's film project .
Actress Sherilyn Fenn stated in a 2014 interview that the original idea came during the filming of Twin Peaks , as a spin @-@ off film for her character of Audrey Horne .
= = = Casting = = =
Lynch cast Naomi Watts and Laura Harring by their photographs . He called them in separately for half @-@ hour interviews and told them he had not seen either of their previous works in film or television . Harring considered it fateful that she was involved in a minor car accident on the way to the first interview , only to learn her character would also be involved in a car accident in the film . Watts arrived wearing jeans for the first interview , direct from the airplane from New York City . Lynch asked her to return the next day " more glammed up " . She was offered the part two weeks later . Lynch explained his selection of Watts , " I saw someone that I felt had a tremendous talent , and I saw someone who had a beautiful soul , an intelligence — possibilities for a lot of different roles , so it was a beautiful full package . " Justin Theroux also met Lynch directly after his airplane flight . After a long flight with little sleep , Theroux arrived dressed all in black , with untidy hair . Lynch liked the look and decided to cast Adam wearing similar clothes and the same hairstyle .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming for the television pilot began on location in Los Angeles in February 1999 and took six weeks . Ultimately , the network was unhappy with the pilot and decided not to place it on its schedule . Objections included the nonlinear storyline , the ages of Harring and Watts ( whom they considered too old ) , Ann Miller 's character cigarette smoking and a close @-@ frame shot of dog feces in one scene . Lynch remembered , " All I know is , I loved making it , ABC hated it , and I don 't like the cut I turned in . I agreed with ABC that the longer cut was too slow , but I was forced to butcher it because we had a deadline , and there wasn 't time to finesse anything . It lost texture , big scenes and storylines , and there are 300 tape copies of the bad version circulating around . Lots of people have seen it , which is embarrassing , because they 're bad @-@ quality tapes , too . I don 't want to think about it . "
The script was later rewritten and expanded when Lynch decided to transform it into a feature film . Describing the transition from an open @-@ ended pilot to a feature film with a resolution of sorts , Lynch said , " One night , I sat down , the ideas came in , and it was a most beautiful experience . Everything was seen from a different angle [ ... ] Now , looking back , I see that [ the film ] always wanted to be this way . It just took this strange beginning to cause it to be what it is . " The result was an extra eighteen pages of material that included the romantic relationship between Rita and Betty and the events that occurred after the blue box was opened . Watts was relieved that the pilot was dropped by ABC . She found Betty too one @-@ dimensional without the darker portion of the film that was put together afterward . Most of the new scenes were filmed in October 2000 , funded with $ 7 million from French production company StudioCanal .
Theroux described approaching filming without entirely understanding what the plot was about : " You get the whole script , but he might as well withhold the scenes you 're not in , because the whole turns out to be more mystifying than the parts . David welcomes questions , but he won 't answer any of them [ ... ] You work kind of half @-@ blindfolded . If he were a first @-@ time director and hadn 't demonstrated any command of this method , I 'd probably have reservations . But it obviously works for him . " Theroux noted the only answer Lynch did provide was that he was certain that Theroux 's character , a Hollywood director , was not autobiographical of Lynch . Watts stated that she tried to bluff Lynch by pretending she had the plot figured out , and that he delighted in the cast 's frustration .
= = Themes and interpretations = =
Giving the film only the tagline , " A love story in the city of dreams " , David Lynch has refused to comment on Mulholland Drive 's meaning or symbolism , leading to much discussion and multiple interpretations . The Christian Science Monitor film critic David Sterritt spoke with Lynch after the film screened at Cannes and wrote that the director " insisted that Mulholland Drive does tell a coherent , comprehensible story " , unlike some of Lynch 's earlier films . On the other hand , Justin Theroux said of Lynch 's feelings on the multiple meanings people perceive in the film , " I think he 's genuinely happy for it to mean anything you want . He loves it when people come up with really bizarre interpretations . David works from his subconscious . "
= = = Dreams and alternative realities = = =
An early interpretation of the film uses dream analysis to explain that the first part is a dream of the real Diane Selwyn , who has cast her dream @-@ self as the innocent and hopeful " Betty Elms " , reconstructing her history and persona into something like an old Hollywood film . In the dream , Betty is successful , charming , and lives the fantasy life of a soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ famous actress . The last one @-@ fifth of the film presents Diane 's real life , in which she has failed both personally and professionally . She arranges for Camilla , an ex @-@ lover , to be killed , and unable to cope with the guilt , re @-@ imagines her as the dependent , pliable amnesiac Rita . Clues to her inevitable demise , however , continue to appear throughout her dream .
This interpretation was similar to what Naomi Watts construed , when she said in an interview , " I thought Diane was the real character and that Betty was the person she wanted to be and had dreamed up . Rita is the damsel in distress and she 's in absolute need of Betty , and Betty controls her as if she were a doll . Rita is Betty 's fantasy of who she wants Camilla to be . " Watts ' own early experiences in Hollywood parallel those of Diane 's . She endured some professional frustration before she became successful , auditioned for parts in which she did not believe , and encountered people who did not follow through with opportunities . She recalled , " There were a lot of promises , but nothing actually came off . I ran out of money and became quite lonely . "
The Guardian asked six well @-@ known film critics for their own perceptions of the overall meaning in Mulholland Drive . Neil Roberts of The Sun and Tom Charity of Time Out subscribe to the theory that Betty is Diane 's projection of a happier life . Roger Ebert and Jonathan Ross seem to accept this interpretation , but both hesitate to overanalyze the movie . Ebert states , " There is no explanation . There may not even be a mystery . " Ross observes that there are storylines that go nowhere : " Perhaps these were leftovers from the pilot it was originally intended to be , or perhaps these things are the non @-@ sequiturs and subconscious of dreams . " Philip French from The Observer sees it as an allusion to Hollywood tragedy , while Jane Douglas from the BBC rejects the theory of Betty 's life as Diane 's dream , but also warns against too much analysis .
Another theory offered is that the narrative is a Möbius strip , a twisted band that has no beginning and no end . In another interpretation Betty and Rita and Diane and Camilla may exist in parallel universes that sometimes interconnect . Or the entire film is a dream , but whose dream is unknown . Repeated references to beds , bedrooms and sleeping symbolize the heavy influence of dreams . Rita falls asleep several times ; in between these episodes , disconnected scenes such as the men having a conversation at Winkies , Betty 's arrival in Los Angeles and the bungled hit take place , suggesting that Rita may be dreaming them . The opening shot of the film zooms into a bed containing an unknown sleeper , instilling , according to film scholar Ruth Perlmutter , the necessity to ask if what follows is reality . Professor of dream studies Kelly Bulkeley argues that the early scene at the diner , as the only one in which dreams or dreaming are explicitly mentioned , illustrates " revelatory truth and epistemological uncertainty in Lynch 's film " . The monstrous being from the dream , who is the subject of conversation of the men in Winkies , reappears at the end of the movie right before and after Diane commits suicide . Bulkeley asserts that the lone discussion of dreams in that scene presents an opening to " a new way of understanding everything that happens in the movie " .
Philosopher and film theorist Robert Sinnerbrink similarly notes that the images following Diane 's apparent suicide undermine the " dream and reality " interpretation . After Diane shoots herself , the bed is consumed with smoke and Betty and Rita are shown beaming at each other , after which a woman in the Club Silencio balcony whispers " Silencio " as the screen fades to black . Sinnerbrink writes that the " concluding images float in an indeterminate zone between fantasy and reality , which is perhaps the genuinely metaphysical dimension of the cinematic image " , also noting that it might be that the " last sequence comprises the fantasy images of Diane 's dying consciousness , concluding with the real moment of her death : the final Silencio " . Referring to the same sequence , film theorist Andrew Hageman notes that " the ninety @-@ second coda that follows Betty / Diane 's suicide is a cinematic space that persists after the curtain has dropped on her living consciousness , and this persistent space is the very theatre where the illusion of illusion is continually unmasked " .
Film theorist David Roche writes that Lynch films do not simply tell detective stories , but they force the audience into the role of becoming detectives themselves to make sense of the narratives , and that Mulholland Drive , like other Lynch films , frustrates " the spectator 's need for a rational diegesis by playing on the spectator 's mistake that narration is synonymous with diegesis " . In Lynch 's films , the spectator is always " one step behind narration " and thus " narration prevails over diegesis " . Roche also notes that there are multiple mysteries in the film that ultimately go unanswered by the characters who meet dead ends , like Betty and Rita , or give in to pressures as Adam does . Although the audience still struggles to make sense of the stories , the characters are no longer trying to solve their mysteries . Roche concludes that Mulholland Drive is a mystery film not because it allows the audience to view the solution to a question , but the film itself is a mystery that is held together " by the spectator @-@ detective 's desire to make sense " of it .
= = = A " poisonous valentine to Hollywood " = = =
Regardless of the proliferation of theories , critics note that no explanation satisfies all of the loose ends and questions that arise from the film . Stephen Holden of The New York Times writes , " Mulholland Drive has little to do with any single character 's love life or professional ambition . The movie is an ever @-@ deepening reflection on the allure of Hollywood and on the multiple role @-@ playing and self @-@ invention that the movie @-@ going experience promises [ ... ] What greater power is there than the power to enter and to program the dream life of the culture ? " J. Hoberman from The Village Voice echoes this sentiment by calling it a " poisonous valentine to Hollywood " .
Mulholland Drive has been compared with Billy Wilder 's film noir classic Sunset Boulevard ( 1950 ) , another tale about broken dreams in Hollywood , and early in the film Rita is shown crossing Sunset Boulevard at night . Apart from both titles being named after iconic Los Angeles streets , Mulholland Drive is " Lynch 's unique account of what held Wilder 's attention too : human putrefaction ( a term Lynch used several times during his press conference at the New York Film Festival 2001 ) in a city of lethal illusions " . The title of the film is a reference to iconic Hollywood culture . David Lynch lives near Mulholland Drive , and stated in an interview , " At night , you ride on the top of the world . In the daytime you ride on top of the world , too , but it 's mysterious , and there 's a hair of fear because it goes into remote areas . You feel the history of Hollywood in that road . " Watts also had experience with the road before her career was established : " I remember driving along the street many times sobbing my heart out in my car , going , ' What am I doing here ? ' "
One critic cautions viewers against a cynical interpretation of the events in the movie , stating that Lynch presents more than " the façade and that he believes only evil and deceit lie beneath it . " As much as Lynch makes a statement about the deceit , manipulation and false pretenses in Hollywood culture , he also infuses nostalgia throughout the film and recognizes that real art comes from classic filmmaking as Lynch cast thereby paying tribute to veteran actors Ann Miller , Lee Grant and Chad Everett . He also portrays Betty as extraordinarily talented and that her abilities are noticed by powerful people in the entertainment industry . Commenting on the contrasting positions between film nostalgia and the putrefaction of Hollywood , Steven Dillon writes that Mulholland Drive is critical of the culture of Hollywood as much as it is a condemnation of " cinephilia " ( the fascination of filmmaking and the fantasies associated with it ) .
Harring described her interpretation after seeing the film : " When I saw it the first time , I thought it was the story of Hollywood dreams , illusion and obsession . It touches on the idea that nothing is quite as it seems , especially the idea of being a Hollywood movie star . The second and third times I saw it , I thought it dealt with identity . Do we know who we are ? And then I kept seeing different things in it [ ... ] There 's no right or wrong to what someone takes away from it or what they think the film is really about . It 's a movie that makes you continuously ponder , makes you ask questions . I 've heard over and over , ' This is a movie that I 'll see again ' or ' This is a movie you 've got to see again . ' It intrigues you . You want to get it , but I don 't think it 's a movie to be gotten . It 's achieved its goal if it makes you ask questions . "
= = = Romantic content = = =
Treatment of the relationships between Betty and Rita and Diane and Camilla varied between those who were honestly touched by their sincerity and those who were titillated . A review of the film by Premiere states that the relationship between Betty and Rita is " possibly the healthiest , most positive amorous relationship ever depicted in a Lynch movie " , while Thierry Jousse , in his review for Cahiers du cinéma , notes that the love between these two women is " of lyricism practically without equal in contemporary cinema " . Another points out that the pivotal romantic interlude between Betty and Rita is so poignant and tender by Betty 's " understanding for the first time , with self @-@ surprise , that all her helpfulness and curiosity about the other woman had a point : desire [ ... ] It is a beautiful moment , made all the more miraculous by its earned tenderness , and its distances from anything lurid . " Another review states the scene 's " eroticism is so potent it blankets the whole movie , coloring every scene that came before and every one that follows " . Betty and Rita were chosen by the Independent Film Channel as the emblematic romantic couple of the 2000s . Writer Charles Taylor states , " Betty and Rita are often framed against darkness so soft and velvety it 's like a hovering nimbus , ready to swallow them if they awake from the film 's dream . And when they are swallowed , when smoke fills the frame as if the sulfur of hell itself were obscuring our vision , we feel as if not just a romance has been broken , but the beauty of the world has been cursed . " The co @-@ dependency in the relationship between Betty and Rita – which borders on outright obsession – has been compared to female relationships in two similar films , Persona ( 1966 ) and 3 Women ( 1977 ) , which also depict identities of vulnerable women that become tangled , interchanging and ultimately merge : " The female couples also mirror each other , with their mutual interactions conflating hero ( ine ) worship with same @-@ sex desire " .
An analysis of the film in terms of the lesbian as a tragic figure notes the media response to the film : " reviewers rhapsodized in particular and at length about the film 's sex scenes , as if there were a contest to see who could enjoy this representation of female same @-@ sex desire the most . " The author , Heather Love , writes that the film used a classic theme in literature and film depicting lesbian relationships : Camilla as achingly beautiful and available , rejecting Diane for Adam . Popular reaction to the film suggests the contrasting relationships between Betty and Rita and Diane and Camilla are " understood as both the hottest thing on earth and , at the same time , as something fundamentally sad and not at all erotic " as " the heterosexual order asserts itself with crushing effects for the abandoned woman " .
Media portrayals of Naomi Watts ' and Laura Elena Harring 's views of their onscreen relationships were varied and conflicting . Watts said of the filming of the scene , " I don 't see it as erotic , though maybe it plays that way . The last time I saw it , I actually had tears in my eyes because I knew where the story was going . It broke my heart a little bit . " However , in another interview Watts stated , " I was amazed how honest and real all this looks on screen . These girls look really in love and it was curiously erotic . " While Harring was quoted saying , " The love scene just happened in my eyes . Rita 's very grateful for the help Betty 's given [ her ] so I 'm saying goodbye and goodnight to her , thank you , from the bottom of my heart , I kiss her and then there 's just an energy that takes us [ over ] . Of course I have amnesia so I don 't know if I 've done it before , but I don 't think we 're really lesbians . " Heather Love agreed somewhat with Harring 's perception when she stated that identity in Mulholland Drive is not as important as desire : " who we are does not count for much — what matters instead is what we are about to do , what we want to do . "
= = Characters = =
Betty Elms ( Naomi Watts ) is the bright and talented newcomer to Los Angeles , described as " wholesome , optimistic , determined to take the town by storm " , and " absurdly naïve " . Her perkiness and intrepid approach to helping Rita because it is the right thing to do is reminiscent of Nancy Drew for reviewers . Her entire persona at first is an apparent cliché of small @-@ town naïveté . But it is Betty 's identity , or loss of it , that appears to be the focus of the film . For one critic , Betty performed the role of the film 's consciousness and unconscious . Naomi Watts , who modeled Betty on Doris Day , Tippi Hedren and Kim Novak , observed that Betty is a thrill @-@ seeker , someone " who finds herself in a world she doesn 't belong in and is ready to take on a new identity , even if it 's somebody else 's " . This has also led one theorist to conclude that since Betty had naively , yet eagerly entered the Hollywood system , she had become a " complicit actor " who had " embraced the very structure that " destroyed her . In an explanation of her development of the Betty character , Watts stated :
I had to therefore come up with my own decisions about what this meant and what this character was going through , what was dream and what was reality . My interpretation could end up being completely different , from both David and the audience . But I did have to reconcile all of that , and people seem to think it works .
Film critic Amy Taubin suggests that Betty is a reincarnation of Sandy from Lynch 's Blue Velvet : Betty 's hometown , Deep River , Ontario , shares the same name as the apartment building of Blue Velvet 's femme fatale , Dorothy . Having been freed from her small @-@ town constrictions , Sandy is reborn as Betty , drawn to a dark @-@ haired mystery woman like Dorothy , and falls in love with her and loses herself .
Betty , however difficult to believe as her character is established , shows an astonishing depth of dimension in her audition . Previously rehearsed with Rita in the apartment , where Rita feeds her lines woodenly , the scene is " dreck " and " hollow ; every line unworthy of a genuine actress 's commitment " , and Betty plays it in rehearsal as poorly as it is written . Nervous but plucky as ever at the audition , Betty enters the cramped room , but when pitted inches from her audition partner ( Chad Everett ) , she turns it into a scene of powerful sexual tension that she fully controls and draws in every person in the room . The sexuality erodes immediately as the scene ends and she stands before them shyly waiting for their approval . One film analyst asserts Betty 's previously unknown ability steals the show , specifically , taking the dark mystery away from Rita and assigning it to herself , and by Lynch 's use of this scene illustrates his use of deception in his characters . Betty 's acting ability prompts Ruth Perlmutter to speculate if Betty is acting the role of Diane in either a dream or a parody of a movie that ultimately turns against her .
Rita ( Laura Elena Harring ) is the mysterious and helpless apparent victim , a classic femme fatale with her dark , strikingly beautiful appearance . Roger Ebert was so impressed with Harring that he said of her " all she has to do is stand there and she is the first good argument in 55 years for a Gilda remake " . She serves as the object of desire , directly oppositional to Betty 's bright self @-@ assuredness . She is also the first character with whom the audience identifies , and as viewers know her only as confused and frightened , not knowing who she is and where she is going , she represents their desire to make sense of the film through her identity . Instead of threatening , she inspires Betty to nurture , console and help her . Her amnesia makes her a blank persona , that one reviewer notes is " the vacancy that comes with extraordinary beauty and the onlooker 's willingness to project any combination of angelic and devilish onto her " . A character analysis of Rita asserts that her actions are the most genuine of the first portion of the film , since she has no memory and nothing to use as a frame of reference for how to behave . Todd McGowan , however , author of a book on themes in Lynch 's films , states that the first portion of Mulholland Drive can be construed as Rita 's fantasy , until Diane Selwyn is revealed ; Betty is the object that overcomes Rita 's anxiety about her loss of identity . According to film historian Steven Dillon , Diane transitions a former roommate into Rita : following a tense scene where the roommate collects her remaining belongings , Rita appears in the apartment , smiling at Diane .
After Betty and Rita find the decomposing body , they flee the apartment and their images are split apart and reintegrated . David Roche notes that Rita 's lack of identity causes a breakdown that " occurs not only at the level of the character but also at the level of the image ; the shot is subjected to special effects that fragment their image and their voices are drowned out in reverb , the camera seemingly writing out the mental state of the characters " . Immediately they return to Betty 's aunt 's apartment where Rita dons a blonde wig — ostensibly to disguise herself — but making her look remarkably like Betty . It is this transformation that one film analyst suggests is the melding of both identities . This is supported by visual clues , like particular camera angles making their faces appear to be merging into one . This is further illustrated soon after by their sexual intimacy , followed by Rita 's personality becoming more dominant as she insists they go to Club Silencio at 2 a.m. , that eventually leads to the total
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his kunya as Abu Taghlib , was the third Hamdanid ruler of the Emirate of Mosul , encompassing most of the Jazira .
His reign was troubled , being marked by conflicts with some of his brothers , antagonism with the various branches of the Buyids for influence in Baghdad , and attacks by the Byzantine Empire under John I Tzimiskes . His relations with the Buyid emir of Iraq , ' Izz al @-@ Dawla Bakhtiyar , were initially hostile , but the two later concluded an alliance . In 978 , the Jazira was occupied by the Buyids of Shiraz under ' Adud al @-@ Dawla , and he fled to the Fatimid @-@ controlled parts of Syria , where he tried to secure the governorship of Damascus , and became involved in local rivalries which resulted in his defeat in battle and execution on 29 August 979 .
= = Life = =
= = = Origin and background = = =
Abu Taghlib was the eldest son of al @-@ Hasan , better known by his laqab of Nasir al @-@ Dawla , who had established the Hamdanids as masters of a practically independent emirate encompassing the Jazira and centred on Mosul . Nasir al @-@ Dawla engaged in repeated attempts to gain control over the Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad , but in the end was forced to concede defeat to the more powerful Buyids , recognize their suzerainty and pay them tribute . At the same time , Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's younger brother Ali , better known as Sayf al @-@ Dawla , managed to establish his control over northern Syria from his two capitals Aleppo and Mayyafariqin , and through his clashes with the Byzantine Empire quickly overshadowed his brother . However , the last decade of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's rule , until his death in February 967 , was marked by heavy military defeats at the hands of the Byzantines , who occupied much of his domains , and internal turmoil .
It was in this context that Abu Taghlib is first mentioned in 964 , when his father had once again been embroiled in a conflict with the Buyids . The army of the Buyid Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla occupied Mosul and Nasir al @-@ Dawla was once again forced to flee to the hill country of the northern Jazira . Abu Taghlib led the resistance against the Buyids , who , unable to maintain themselves there , evacuated Mosul and reached a new agreement with the Hamdanids . Consequently , Nasir al @-@ Dawla was now increasingly eclipsed by his sons , and was deposed outright and exiled in 967 , dying in captivity shortly after .
= = = Reign = = =
Abu Taghlib , surnamed al @-@ Ghadanfar ( " The Lion " ) , succeeded his father as emir and head of the Jaziran branch of the Hamdanid family , but almost immediately his authority was contested by a younger half @-@ brother , Hamdan . Nasir al @-@ Dawla had entrusted the latter with the governance of Nisibis , Maridin and Rahba shortly before his deposition , and may have intended to name him as his heir over Abu Taghlib . Hamdan was indeed the only son of Nasir al @-@ Dawla to protest his father 's deposition , and refused to recognize Abu Taghlib . With the aid of the new Buyid emir of Iraq , ' Izz al @-@ Dawla Bakhtiyar , Abu Taghlib prevailed over Hamdan , who fled to Baghdad . In addition , Abu Taghlib used the conditions of near @-@ anarchy prevailing in Syria at the time and after Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's death to expand his territory at the expense of his cousin , Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla . Upon Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's death , Abu Taghlib seized al @-@ Raqqah and Rafiqa , and by 971 he had extended his control over all of Diyar Bakr and Diyar Mudar , once part of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's domain , uniting the entire Jazira under his rule . Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla , deprived of his own capital and lacking any power to offer any resistance , tacitly accepted these losses as well as his cousin 's suzerainty . As ruler of the Jazira , Abu Taghlib was one of the richest rulers of the region ; Ibn Hawkal 's descriptions attest to the wealth derived from the many Hamdanid estates , and Ibn Miskawayh , who was tasked with inventorying the family 's mountain strongholds after the Buyid dissolution of the Hamdanid emirate in 979 , writes of the immense cash reserves stored there .
Relations with the Buyids were initially good , as Abu Taghlib , unlike his father , had no direct claim on Baghdad , and Bakhtiyar himself was too preoccupied with affairs in Iraq and elsewhere to focus his attention on the Jazira . However , the Buyid prince offered refuge to Hamdan and other disgruntled members of the Hamdanid clan ( including another of Abu Taghlib 's brothers , Abu Tahir Ibrahim ) and intervened in the Hamdanid family quarrels . Thus in 970 Hamdan was restored in Rahba thanks to Buyid pressure , only to be chased away again in 971 . The exiled prince now urged Bakhtiyar to make war on Abu Taghlib : in 973 the Buyids once again occupied Mosul , while Abu Taghlib with his army outflanked them and threatened Baghdad . The conflict ended in a negotiated settlement in 974 that included in its provisions the award of the laqab of ʿUddat al @-@ Dawla ( " Instrument of the Dynasty " ) to Abu Taghlib by the caliph and the restoration of Hamdan to his domains . During the same period , Abu Taghlib also faced the attacks of the Byzantines , who under Emperor John I Tzimiskes penetrated deep into the Jazira , forcing the Hamdanids to pay tribute . The devastating raids of 972 were partly avenged through the defeat and capture of the Domestic of the Schools Melias at Amid in 973 , but in 974 Tzimiskes himself raided the Jazira in retaliation .
In 973 – 975 , Abu Taghlib supported Bakhtiyar in his own struggles to safeguard his power . Thus he once again marched on Baghdad during the rebellion of the Turkish military commander , Sabuktakin , although it was the intervention of the Buyid emir of Shiraz , ' Adud al @-@ Dawla , that decided the conflict for Bakhtiyar . As a result of his assistance , in 975 Abu Taghlib secured a revision of the earlier treaty which freed him from the payment of tribute . In 976 , following the death of Tzimiskes , Abu Taghlib agreed to support the bid for the Byzantine throne of the rebel general Bardas Skleros , with whom he concluded a treaty whereby the Hamdanid ruler supplied Skleros with light cavalry in exchange for an unspecified marriage agreement .
In 977 , as Bakhtiyar found himself driven from Baghdad by the ambitious ' Adud al @-@ Dawla , he turned again to the Hamdanids for aid . Abu Taghlib agreed to support him in exchange for the handing over of Hamdan , who was promptly executed . Although this secured Abu Taghlib 's position in his family , it also brought him to the attention of ' Adud al @-@ Dawla . In May 978 , Bakhtiyar and Abu Taghlib were defeated in a battle near Samarra by ' Adud al @-@ Dawla . Bakhtiyar himself was captured and executed at the orders of ' Adud al @-@ Dawla , who then advanced on Mosul . Unlike earlier Buyid expeditions against the Hamdanids , that had failed chiefly because they were unable to sustain themselves in the Jazira , this was far better organized , as ' Adud al @-@ Dawla brought along experienced administrators familiar with the area . The Buyids took Mosul and forced Abu Taghlib to flee to Mayyafariqin and then to the mountains of Armenia ; while the Buyids laid siege to Mayyafariqin , he even visited Skleros in Byzantine territory in Anzitene , trying to secure his assistance , but in vain , for Skleros too was hard @-@ pressed by the loyalist general Bardas Phokas . After the fall of Mayyafariqin in 978 , Abu Taghlib fled to Rahba , from where he tried in vain to negotiate with ' Adud al @-@ Dawla .
= = = Exile and death = = =
With the Buyid troops completing their conquest of the Jazira , and unable to seek aid from his cousin Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla , who had already acknowledged ' Adud al @-@ Dawla 's suzerainty and was under orders to arrest him , Abu Taghlib with his remaining followers crossed the Syrian Desert to the Fatimid @-@ controlled south of Syria . There he became embroiled in the complex power struggles between the Fatimid government and local elites . He endeavoured to gain recognition by the Fatimids as governor of Damascus , but the rebel general al @-@ Qassam , who held the city , repulsed him . Under attack by the Damascenes , and with members of his family starting to desert him , Abu Taghlib moved further south to the region of Lake Tiberias . Abu Taghlib 's ambitions and his contacts with the Fatimids now came to threaten the position of Mufarrij ibn Daghfal ibn al @-@ Jarrah , a Tayy chief and ruler of Ramla . Hoping to sow dissension among the Arab tribes of the area and strengthen Fatimid authority , the Fatimid general Fadl now promised Ramla to Abu Taghlib , who openly allied himself with Mufarrij 's rivals , the Banu Uqayl , and attacked Ramla in August 979 . Fadl 's troops , however , came to the aid of Mufarrij , and in the ensuing battle on 29 August Abu Taghlib was taken captive and executed .
The Jazira remained under Buyid control until 989 , when Abu Taghlib 's brothers Abu Abdallah Husayn and Abu Tahir Ibrahim , who had submitted to the Buyids , were installed as governors to oppose the power of the Kurdish chieftain Badh , who had taken control of Mosul . In this fight , the two brothers relied upon the Uqaylis ; after the defeat of Badh , the Banu Uqayl turned on the Hamdanids and deposed and killed Abu Tahir Ibrahim , establishing the Uqaylid Dynasty as the rulers of the Jazira .
= Piano music of Gabriel Fauré =
The French composer Gabriel Fauré ( 1845 – 1924 ) wrote in many genres , including songs , chamber music , orchestral pieces , and choral works . His compositions for piano , written between the 1860s and the 1920s , include some of his best known works .
Fauré 's major sets of piano works are thirteen nocturnes , thirteen barcarolles , six impromptus , and four valses @-@ caprices . These sets were composed during several decades in his long career , and display the change in his style from uncomplicated youthful charm to a final enigmatic , but sometimes fiery introspection , by way of a turbulent period in his middle years . His other notable piano pieces , including shorter works , or collections composed or published as a set , are Romances sans paroles , Ballade in F ♯ major , Mazurka in B ♭ major , Thème et variations in C ♯ major , and Huit pièces brèves . For piano duet , Fauré composed the Dolly Suite and , together with his friend and former pupil André Messager , an exuberant parody of Wagner in the short suite Souvenirs de Bayreuth .
Much of Fauré 's piano music is difficult to play , but is rarely virtuosic in style . The composer disliked showy display , and the predominant characteristic of his piano music is a classical restraint and understatement .
= = Introduction = =
Although for much of his career he made his living as a church organist , Fauré greatly preferred the piano . He never underestimated the challenges in composing for the instrument ; he wrote , " In piano music there 's no room for padding – one has to pay cash and make it consistently interesting . It 's perhaps the most difficult genre of all . " Although his publishers insisted on descriptive titles , Fauré said that his own preference would be for utilitarian labels such as " Piano piece No X " . His works for the piano are marked by a classical French lucidity ; he was unimpressed by pianistic display , commenting of keyboard virtuosi , " the greater they are , the worse they play me . " Even a virtuoso such as Franz Liszt said that he found Fauré 's music hard to play : at his first attempt he said to Fauré , " I 've run out of fingers " . Fauré 's years as an organist influenced the way he laid out his keyboard works , often using arpeggiated figures , with themes distributed between the two hands , requiring fingerings more natural for organists than pianists . This tendency may have been even stronger because Fauré was ambidextrous , and he was not always inclined to follow the convention that the melody is in the right hand and the accompaniment in the left . His old friend and former teacher Camille Saint @-@ Saëns wrote to him in 1917 , " Ah ! if there is a god for the left hand , I should very much like to know him and make him an offering when I am disposed to play your music ; the 2nd Valse @-@ Caprice is terrible in this respect ; I have however managed to get to the end of it by dint of absolute determination . "
As a man , Fauré was said to possess " that mysterious gift that no other can replace or surpass : charm " , and charm is a conspicuous feature of many of his early compositions . His early piano works are influenced in style by Chopin , and throughout his life he composed piano works using similar titles to those of Chopin , notably nocturnes and barcarolles . An even greater influence was Schumann , whose piano music Fauré loved more than any other . The authors of The Record Guide ( 1955 ) wrote that Fauré learnt restraint and beauty of surface from Mozart , tonal freedom and long melodic lines from Chopin , " and from Schumann , the sudden felicities in which his development sections abound , and those codas in which whole movements are briefly but magically illuminated . " When Fauré was a student at the École Niedermeyer his tutor had introduced him to new concepts of harmony , no longer outlawing certain chords as " dissonant " . By using unresolved mild discords and colouristic effects , Fauré anticipated the techniques of Impressionist composers .
In later years Fauré 's music was written under the shadow of the composer 's increasing deafness , becoming gradually less charming and more austere , marked by what the composer Aaron Copland called " intensity on a background of calm . " The critic Bryce Morrison has noted that pianists frequently prefer to play the accessible earlier piano works , rather than the later music , which expresses " such private passion and isolation , such alternating anger and resignation " that listeners are left uneasy . The Fauré scholar Jean @-@ Michel Nectoux writes :
Fauré 's stylistic evolution can ... be observed in his works for piano . The elegant and captivating first pieces , which made the composer famous , show the influence of Chopin , Saint @-@ Saëns , and Liszt . The lyricism and complexity of his style in the 1890s are evident in the Nocturnes nos . 6 and 7 , the Barcarolle no . 5 and the Thème et variations . Finally , the stripped @-@ down style of the final period informs the last nocturnes ( nos.10 – 13 ) , the series of great barcarolles ( nos . 8 – 11 ) and the astonishing Impromptu no . 5 .
= = Nocturnes = =
The nocturnes , along with the barcarolles , are generally regarded as the composer 's greatest piano works . Fauré greatly admired the music of Chopin , and was happy to compose in forms and patterns established by the earlier composer . Morrison notes that Fauré 's nocturnes follow Chopin 's model , contrasting serene outer sections with livelier or more turbulent central episodes . The composer 's son Philippe commented that the nocturnes " are not necessarily based on rêveries or on emotions inspired by the night . They are lyrical , generally impassioned pieces , sometimes anguished or wholly elegiac . "
Nocturne No 1 in E ♭ minor , Op 33 / 1 ( c.1875 )
Nectoux rates the first nocturne as one of the best of the composer 's early works . It is dedicated , like Fauré 's song " Après un rêve " , to his friend and early patron Marguerite Baugnies . Morrison calls the piece " cloistered and elegiac . " Though published as the composer 's Op 33 / 1 in 1883 , it was written considerably earlier . It opens with a slow , pensive melody , followed by a more agitated second theme and another melody in C major , and ends with the return of the opening theme . The pianist and academic Sally Pinkas writes that the work contains many hallmarks of Fauré 's style , including " undulating rhythms , syncopation of the accompaniment against the melody and layered textures are already in evidence . "
Nocturne No 2 in B major , Op 33 / 2 ( c.1880 )
The second nocturne opens with a bell @-@ like passage , andantino espressivo , recalling – although Fauré said it was unconscious – the sound of distant bells that he heard frequently when a boy . Nectoux singles out " the light footed episode in alternating fifths and sixths " and its extremely delicate passagework , and points to the influence of Fauré 's former teacher Saint @-@ Saëns in the allegro ma non troppo toccata section . Saint @-@ Saëns himself declared the piece " absolutely entrancing . "
Nocturne No 3 in A ♭ major , Op 33 / 3 ( c.1882 )
In the third nocturne , Morrison notes that the composer 's fondness for syncopation is at its gentlest , " nostalgia lit by passion . " Like its predecessors , it is in tripartite form . An expansive melody with syncopated left @-@ hand accompaniment leads into a middle section in which a dolcissimo theme metamorphoses into bursts of passion . The return of the opening section is concluded by a gentle coda that introduces new harmonic subtleties .
Nocturne No 4 in E ♭ major , Op 36 ( c.1884 )
The fourth nocturne , dedicated to the Comtesse de Mercy @-@ Argenteau , contrasts a lyrical opening section and an episode in E ♭ minor with a sombre theme recalling the tolling of a bell . The first theme returns and is followed by a short coda . The pianist Alfred Cortot , generally a great admirer of Fauré , found the piece " rather too satisfied with its languor . "
Nocturne No 5 in B ♭ major , Op 37 ( c.1884 )
By contrast with its predecessor , the fifth nocturne is more animated , with unexpected shifts into remote keys . Nectoux writes of its undulating outline , and the " almost improvisatory , questioning character " of the opening .
Nocturne No 6 in D ♭ major , Op 63 ( 1894 )
The sixth nocturne , dedicated to Eugène d 'Eichthal , is widely held to be one of the finest of the series . Cortot said , " There are few pages in all music comparable to these . " Morrison calls it " among the most rich and eloquent of all Fauré 's piano works . " The pianist and writer Nancy Bricard calls it " one of the most passionate and moving works in piano literature . " Fauré wrote it after a six @-@ year break from composing for the piano . The piece begins with an emotional , outpouring phrase , with echoes of Fauré 's song cycle La bonne chanson . The second theme , at first seemingly tranquil , has what the composer Charles Koechlin calls a persistent inquietude , emphasised by the syncopated accompaniment . The initial theme returns , and is followed by a substantial development of a gentle , contemplative melody . A recapitulation of the principal theme takes the piece to its conclusion . Copland wrote that it was with this work that Fauré first fully emerged from the shadow of Chopin , and he said of the piece , " The breath and dignity of the opening melody , the restless C sharp minor section which follows ( with the peculiar syncopated harmonies so often and so well used by Fauré ) , the graceful fluidity of the third idea : all these elements are brought to a stormy climax in the short development section ; then , after a pause , comes the return of the consoling first page . "
Nocturne No 7 in C ♯ minor , Op 74 ( 1898 )
The seventh nocturne departs from the A – B – A form of Fauré 's earlier nocturnes ; in Pinkas 's view is it constructed more like a ballade than a nocturne . It opens with a slow ( molto lento ) theme of harmonic ambiguity , followed by a second theme , equally ambiguous in key , though nominally in D major . The central section is in F ♯ major , and the re @-@ emergence of the first theme brings the piece to a conclusion . Morrison finds in this piece a sense of bleakness , and of the composer 's struggle against despair . Pinkas , however , regards the work as a " contrast between ambiguity and joy , ending in reassurance . " It is sometimes known as the " English " nocturne , having been composed while Fauré was staying in the UK , and being dedicated to the English pianist Adela Maddison .
Nocturne No 8 in D ♭ major , Op 84 / 8 ( 1902 )
Fauré did not intend the eighth nocturne to appear under that designation . His publisher collected eight short piano pieces together and published them as 8 pièces brèves , allocating each of them a title unauthorised by the composer . The nocturne , the last piece in the set of eight , is shorter and less complex than its immediate predecessor , consisting of a song @-@ like main theme with a delicate semiquaver accompaniment in the left hand .
Nocturne No 9 in B minor , Op 97 ( 1908 )
The ninth nocturne , dedicated to Cortot 's wife , Clotilde Bréal , is the first of three that share a directness and sparseness in contrast with the more elaborate structures and textures of their predecessors . The left @-@ hand accompaniment to the melodic line is simple and generally unvaried , and the harmony looks forward to later composers of the 20th century , using a whole tone scale . Most of the piece is inward @-@ looking and pensive , presaging the style of Fauré 's final works , although it ends optimistically in a major key .
Nocturne No 10 in E minor , Op 99 ( 1908 )
Like its immediate predecessor , the tenth nocturne is on a smaller scale than those of Fauré 's middle period . In contrast with the ninth , however , the tenth is darker and angrier . The composer applies the A – B – A form less rigorously than in earlier nocturnes , and the opening bars of the piece recur intermittently throughout , eventually building to a fierce climax , described by Morrison as " a slow central climb ... that inhabits a world of nightmare . " The piece ends with a calm coda . It is dedicated to Madame Brunet @-@ Lecomte .
Nocturne No 11 in F ♯ minor , Op 104 / 1 ( 1913 )
The eleventh nocturne was written in memory of Noémi Lalo ; her widower , Pierre Lalo , was a music critic and a friend and supporter of Fauré . Morrison suggests that its funereal effect of tolling bells may also reflect the composer 's own state of anguish , with deafness encroaching . The melodic line is simple and restrained , and except for a passionate section near the end is generally quiet and elegiac .
Nocturne No 12 in E minor , Op 107 ( 1915 )
With the twelfth nocturne Fauré returned to the scale and complexity of his middle @-@ period works , but both melodically and harmonically it is much harder to comprehend . There are deliberate dissonances and harmonic ambiguities that Pinkas describes as " taking tonality to its limit while still maintaining a single key . " Morrison writes that " the ecstatic song of No 6 is transformed in a central section where lyricism is soured by dissonance , held up , as it were , to a distorting mirror . " The work is in Fauré 's customary nocturne form , A – B – A , but with a reiteration of the material of the second section , harmonically transformed , followed by a coda that draws on material from the opening section .
Nocturne No 13 in B minor , Op 119 ( 1921 )
Fauré scholars are generally agreed that the last nocturne – which was the last work he wrote for the piano – is among the greatest of the set . Nectoux writes that along with the sixth , it is " incontestably the most moving and inspired of the series . " Bricard calls it " the most inspired and beautiful in the series . " For Pinkas , the work " achieves a perfect equilibrium between late @-@ style simplicity and full @-@ textured passionate expression . " The work opens in a " pure , almost rarefied atmosphere " ( Nectoux ) , with a " tone of noble , gentle supplication ... imposing gravity and ... rich expressive four part writing . " This is followed by an allegro , " a true middle section in a virtuoso manner , ending in a bang " ( Pinkas ) . The repeat of the opening section completes the work .
= = Barcarolles = =
Barcarolles were originally folk songs sung by gondoliers in Venice . In Morrison 's phrase , Fauré 's use of the term was more convenient than precise . Fauré was not attracted by fanciful titles for musical pieces , and maintained that he would not use even such generic titles as " barcarolle " if his publishers did not insist . His son Philippe recalled , " he would far rather have given his Nocturnes , Impromptus , and even his Barcarolles the simple title Piano Piece no. so @-@ and @-@ so . " Nevertheless , following the precedents of Chopin and most conspicuously Mendelssohn , Fauré made extensive use of the barcarolle , in what his biographer Jessica Duchen calls " an evocation of the rhythmic rocking and lapping of water around appropriately lyrical melodies . "
Fauré 's ambidexterity is reflected in the layout of many of his piano works , notably in the barcarolles , where the main melodic line is often in the middle register , with the accompaniments in the high treble part of the keyboard as well as in the bass . Duchen likens the effect of this in the barcarolles to that of a reflection shining up through the water .
Like the nocturnes , the barcarolles span nearly the whole of Fauré 's composing career , and they similarly display the evolution of his style from the uncomplicated charm of the early pieces to the withdrawn and enigmatic quality of the late works . All are written with compound time signatures ( 6 / 8 or 9 / 8 ) , except number 7 , which is in 6 / 4 .
Barcarolle No 1 in A minor , Op 26 ( 1880 )
The first barcarolle was dedicated to the pianist Caroline de Serres ( Mme. Montigny @-@ Remaury ) and premiered by Saint @-@ Saëns at a concert of the Société Nationale de Musique in 1882 . The piece begins with an uncomplicated melody in a traditional lilting Venetian style in 6 / 8 time . It develops into a more elaborate form before the introduction of the second theme , in which the melodic line is given in the middle register with delicate arpeggiated accompaniments in the treble and bass . Morrison comments that even in this early work , conventional sweetness is enlivened by subtle dissonance .
Barcarolle No 2 in G major , Op 41 ( 1885 )
The second barcarolle , dedicated to the pianist Marie Poitevin , is a longer and more ambitious work than the first , with what Morrison calls an Italianate profusion of detail . Duchen writes of the work as complex and questing , harmonically and melodically , and points to the influence of Saint @-@ Saëns , Liszt and even , unusually for Fauré , of Wagner . The work opens in 6 / 8 time like the first , but Fauré varies the time signature to an unexpected 9 / 8 in the middle of the piece .
Barcarolle No 3 in G ♭ major , Op 42 ( 1885 )
The third barcarolle is dedicated to Henriette Roger @-@ Jourdain , wife of Fauré 's friend , the painter Roger Jourdain . It opens with a simple phrase that is quickly elaborated into trills reminiscent of Chopin . The middle section , like that of the first , keeps the melody in the middle register with delicate arpeggiated ornaments above and below . The pianist Marguerite Long said that these ornaments " crown the theme like sea foam . "
Barcarolle No 4 in A ♭ major , Op 44 ( 1886 )
One of the best @-@ known of the set , the fourth barcarolle is " tuneful , quite short , perhaps more direct than the others . " ( Koechlin ) .
Barcarolle No 5 in F ♯ minor , Op 66 ( 1894 )
Dedicated to Mme la Baronne V. d 'Indy , the fifth barcarolle was written after a five @-@ year period in which Fauré composed nothing for the piano . Orledge calls it powerful , agitated and virile . It is the first of Fauré 's piano works in which there are no identifiable sections ; its changes are in metre , not in tempo .
Barcarolle No 6 in E ♭ major , Op 70 ( 1896 )
Koechlin brackets the sixth and seventh of the set together as a contrasting pair . Both pieces show " an economy of writing " , the sixth " more moderate and tranquil in expression " . The Fauré scholar Roy Howat writes of a " sensuous insouciance " with an underlying virtuosity and wit under the " deceptively nonchalant surface " .
Barcarolle No 7 in D minor , Op 90 ( 1905 )
The seventh barcarolle contrasts with its predecessor in being more restless and sombre , recalling Fauré 's " Crépuscule " from his song cycle La chanson d 'Ève .
Barcarolle No 8 in D ♭ major , Op 96 ( 1906 )
Dedicated to Suzanne Alfred @-@ Bruneau , the eighth barcarolle opens in with a cheerful theme , which soon gives way to melancholy . The second episode , in C ♯ minor , marked cantabile , is succeeded by an abrupt ending with a fortissimo chord .
Barcarolle No 9 in A minor , Op 101 ( 1909 )
The ninth barcarolle , in Koechlin 's view , " recalls , as in a hazy remoteness , the happiness of the past " . Nectoux writes that it consists of " a series of harmonic or polyphonic variations on a strange , sombre , syncopated theme , whose monotony recalls some sailor 's song " .
Barcarolle No 10 in A minor , Op 104 / 2 ( 1913 )
Dedicated to Madame Léon Blum , the tenth barcarolle stays more closely within conventional tonality than its predecessor , " with a certain sedate gravity ... the monotony appropriate to a grey evening " ( Koechlin ) . The melancholy theme is reminiscent of Mendelssohn 's Venetian themes from Songs Without Words , but is developed in a way characteristic of Fauré , with " increasingly animated rhythms and , at certain points , excessively complex textures " ( Nectoux ) .
Barcarolle No 11 in G minor , Op 105 ( 1913 )
Dedicated to Laura , daughter of the composer Isaac Albéniz . The eleventh and twelfth of the set can be viewed as another contrasting pair . The eleventh is severe in mood and in rhythm , reflecting the prevailing austerity of Fauré 's later style .
Barcarolle No 12 in E ♭ major , Op 106bis ( 1915 )
Dedicated to Louis Diémer , the twelfth barcarolle is an allegretto giocoso . It opens in what was by now for Fauré a rare uncomplicated theme , in the traditional Venetian manner , but is developed in more subtle rhythms . Despite the increasing complexity of the polyphonic lines , Fauré keeps the melody prominent , and the piece ends with it transformed into " a theme of almost triumphal character " ( Nectoux ) .
Barcarolle No 13 in C major , Op 116 ( 1921 )
The last of the set is dedicated to Magda Gumaelius . Koechlin writes of it : " bare , superficially almost dry , but at heart most expressive with that deep nostalgia for vanished bright horizons : sentiments that the composer suggests in passing rather than comments on in loquacious or theatrical oratory ; he seemed to desire to preserve the soothing and illusory serenity of the mirage . "
= = Impromptus = =
Impromptu No 1 in E ♭ major , Op 25 ( 1881 )
Cortot compared the first impromptu to a rapid barcarolle , redolent of " sunlit water " , combining " stylised coquetry and regret " .
Impromptu No 2 in F minor , Op 31 ( 1883 )
Dedicated to Mlle Sacha de Rebina , the second impromptu maintains an airy tarantella rhythm . It is scored less richly than the first of the set , giving it a lightness of texture .
Impromptu No 3 in A ♭ major , Op 34 ( 1883 )
The third impromptu is the most popular of the set . Morrison calls it " among Fauré 's most idyllic creations , its principal idea dipping and soaring above a gyrating , moto perpetuo accompaniment " . It is marked by a combination of dash and delicacy .
Impromptu No 4 in D ♭ major , Op 91 ( 1906 )
Dedicated to " Madame de Marliave " ( Marguerite Long ) , the fourth impromptu was Fauré 's return to the genre in his middle period . Unlike much of his music of the period , it avoids a dark mood , but Fauré had by now moved on from the uncomplicated charm of the first three of the set . His mature style is displayed in the central section , a contemplative andante , which is followed by a more agitated section that concludes the work .
Impromptu No 5 in F ♯ minor , Op 102 ( 1909 )
Nectoux describes this impromptu as " a piece of sheer virtuosity celebrating , not without humour , the beauties of the whole @-@ tone scale . " Morrison , however , writes that the work " seethes with unrest " .
Impromptu in D ♭ major , Op 86 bis ( Transcription of the Impromptu for harp , Op 86 , 1904 )
The last work in the published set was written before numbers four and five . It was originally a harp piece , composed for a competition at the Paris Conservatoire in 1904 . Cortot made a transcription for piano , published in 1913 as Fauré 's Op 86 bis . The outer sections are light and brilliant , with a gentler central section , marked meno mosso .
= = Valses @-@ caprices = =
The four valses @-@ caprices are not a cycle , but rather two sets of two , the first from Fauré 's early period and the second from his middle period . Morrison calls all four " more ' caprice ' than ' waltz ' " , and comments that they combine and develop the scintillating style of Chopin and Saint @-@ Saëns waltzes . They show Fauré at his most playful , presenting variations before the theme is heard and darting in and out of unexpected keys . Aaron Copland , though generally a keen admirer of Fauré 's music , wrote , " the several Valses @-@ Caprices , in spite of their admirable qualities , seem to me essentially foreign to Faure 's esprit . His is too orderly , too logical a mind to be really capricious . " Cortot , by contrast , spoke approvingly of their " sensual grace ... perfect distinction ... impassioned tenderness . "
Valse @-@ caprice No 1 in A major , Op 30 ( 1882 ) ; and
Valse @-@ caprice No 2 in D ♭ major , Op 38 ( 1884 ) :
Chopin 's influence is marked in the first two pieces . Orledge observes that the right @-@ hand figuration at the end of No 1 is remarkably similar to that at the end of Chopin 's Waltz in E minor . In No 2 Nectoux detects the additional influence of Liszt ( Au bord d 'une source ) in the opening bars . In the closing bars of No 2 , Orledge finds a resemblance to the end of Chopin 's Grande Valse Brillante , Op , 18 .
Valse @-@ caprice No 3 in G ♭ major , Op 59 ( 1887 – 93 ) ; and
Valse @-@ caprice No 4 in A ♭ major , Op 62 ( 1893 – 94 ) :
Orledge writes that the second two valses @-@ caprices are subtler and better integrated than the first two ; they contain " more moments of quiet contemplation and more thematic development than before . " There still remain touches of virtuosity and traces of Liszt , and these two valses @-@ caprices are , in Orledge 's words , the only solo pieces in the middle period to end in a loud and spectacular manner . No 3 is dedicated to Mme. Philippe Dieterlen , No 4 to Mme. Max Lyon .
= = Other solo piano works = =
= = = Romances sans paroles , Op 17 = = =
Fauré wrote these three " songs without words " while still a student at the École Niedermeyer , in about 1863 . They were not published until 1880 , but they then became some of his most popular works . Copland considered them immature pieces , which " should be relegated to the indiscretions every young composer commits . " Later critics have taken a less severe view ; Morrison describes the Romances as " an affectionate and very Gallic tribute to Mendelssohn 's urbanity , agitation and ease . " The commentator Keith Anderson writes that although they were a popular French counterpart to Mendelssohn 's Songs without Words , Fauré 's own voice is already recognisable . Instead of placing the slowest piece in the middle of the set and ending with the lively A minor piece , Fauré , already with musical views of his own , switches the expected order , and the set ends pianissimo , fading to nothing .
Andante quasi allegretto
The first romance , in A ♭ major , has as an opening theme an uncomplicated melody with Mendelssohnian syncopations . The theme is presented first in the higher and then in the middle register , before flowing evenly to its conclusion .
Allegro molto
The second romance , in A minor , an exuberant piece , has a strong semiquaver figure supporting the theme , and running high into the treble and low into the bass . This was later to become one of Fauré 's most recognisable characteristics . After a lively display , the piece ends quietly .
Andante moderato
The final piece of the set , in A ♭ major , is a serene andante , with a flowing tune in the Mendelssohnian style . After gentle variation , it equally gently fades to silence at the end .
= = = Ballade in F ♯ major , Op 19 = = =
The Ballade , dedicated to Camille Saint @-@ Saëns , dates from 1877 . It is one of Fauré 's most substantial works for solo piano , but is better known in a version for piano and orchestra that he made in 1881 at Liszt 's suggestion . Playing for a little over 14 minutes , it is second in length only to the Thème et variations . Fauré first conceived the music as a set of individual pieces , but then decided to make them into a single work by carrying the main theme of each section over into the following section as a secondary theme . The work opens with the F ♯ major theme , an andante cantabile , which is followed by a slower section , marked lento , in E ♭ minor . The third section is an andante introducing a third theme . In the last section , an allegro , a return of the second theme brings the work to a conclusion in which Nectoux comments , the treble sings with particular delicacy .
Marcel Proust knew Fauré , and the Ballade is thought to have been the inspiration for the sonata by Proust 's character Vinteuil that haunts Swann in In Search of Lost Time . Debussy , reviewing an early performance of the Ballade , compared the music with the attractive soloist , straightening her shoulder @-@ straps during the performance : " I don 't know why , but I somehow associated the charm of these gestures with the music of Fauré himself . The play of fleeting curves that is its essence can be compared to the movements of a beautiful woman without either suffering from the comparison . " Morrison describes the Ballade as " a reminder of halcyon , half @-@ remembered summer days and bird @-@ haunted forests " .
= = = Mazurka in B ♭ major , Op 32 = = =
The Mazurka was composed in the mid @-@ 1870s but not published until 1883 . It is a tribute to Chopin , and contains echoes of the earlier composer 's music . Chopin , however , composed more than 60 mazurkas , and Fauré wrote only this one . Morrison regards it as an experiment on Fauré 's part . The piece owes little to Polish folk @-@ dance rhythms , and may have had a Russian influence through Fauré 's friendship with Sergei Taneyev at around the time of its composition .
= = = Pavane , Op 50 = = =
The Pavane ( 1887 ) was conceived and originally written as an orchestral piece . Fauré published the version for piano in 1889 . In the form of an ancient dance , the piece was written to be played more briskly than it has generally come to be performed in its familiar orchestral guise . The conductor Sir Adrian Boult heard Fauré play the piano version several times and noted that he took it at a tempo no slower than crochet = 100 . Boult commented that the composer 's sprightly tempo emphasised that the Pavane was not a piece of German romanticism .
= = = Thème et variations in C ♯ minor , Op 73 = = =
Written in 1895 , when he was 50 , this is among Fauré 's most extended compositions for piano , with a performance time of about 15 minutes . Although it has many passages that reflect the influence of Schumann 's Symphonic Studies , in Jessica Duchen 's words " its harmonies and pianistic idioms " are unmistakably those of Fauré . As in the earlier Romances sans paroles , Op 17 , Fauré does not follow the conventional course of ending with the loudest and most extrovert variation ; the variation nearest to that description is placed next to last , and is followed by a gentle conclusion , " a typically Faurean understated finish . " Copland wrote of the work :
Certainly it is one of Faure 's most approachable works . Even at first hearing it leaves an indelible impression . The " Theme " itself has the same fateful , march @-@ like tread , the same atmosphere of tragedy and heroism , that we find in the introduction of Brahms 's First Symphony . And the variety and spontaneity of the eleven variations which follow bring to mind nothing less than the Symphonic Etudes . How many pianists , I wonder , have not regretted that the composer disdained the easy triumph of closing on the brilliant , dashing tenth variation . No , poor souls , they must turn the page and play that last , enigmatic ( and most beautiful ) one , which seems to leave the audience with so little desire to applaud .
= = = Prelude to Pénélope = = =
Fauré 's opera based on the legend of Ulysses and Penelope was first performed in 1913 , after which the composer published a version of the prelude transcribed for piano . The piece , in G minor , contrasts a gravely noble andante moderato theme representing Penelope with a forthright theme for Ulysses . The polyphonic writing transfers effectively from the orchestral original to the piano .
= = = 8 Pièces brèves , Op 84 = = =
Fauré did not intend these pieces to be published as a set ; they were composed as individual works between 1869 and 1902 . When Hamelle , his publishers , insisted on issuing them together as " Eight Short Pieces " in 1902 , the composer successfully demanded that none of the eight must be allocated its own title . When he moved on to another publisher , Hamelle ignored his earlier instructions and issued subsequent editions with titles for each piece . Nectoux comments that the labelling of the eighth piece as " Nocturne No 8 " is particularly questionable ( see Nocturne [ No 8 ] , below ) . In the first decade of the 21st century the publisher Peters issued a new critical edition of the Eight Pieces with the spurious titles removed . The eight pieces take less than three minutes each in performance .
Capriccio in E ♭ major : Dedicated to Madame Jean Leonard Koechlin . Morrison calls it " capricious indeed " , and notes a harmonic twist at the end " as nonchalant as it is acrobatic " . It was originally written as a sight @-@ reading test for students at the Paris Conservatoire , of which Fauré was the professor of composition from 1896 and director from 1905 to 1920 .
Fantaisie in A ♭ major : Koechlin calls this piece a pleasant feuillet d 'album .
Fugue in A minor : This , like the other fugue in the set , is a revised version of a fugue Fauré composed at the start of his career , when he was a church organist in Rennes . They are both , in Koechlin 's view " in a pleasant and correct style , obviously less rich than those in the Well @-@ Tempered Clavier , and more careful , but whose reserve conceals an incontestable mastery " .
Adagietto in E minor : An andante moderato , " serious , grave , at once firm and pliant , attaining real beauty " ( Koechlin ) .
Improvisation in C ♯ minor : Orledge calls this piece a middle period " song without words " . It was composed as a sight @-@ reading test for the Conservatoire .
Fugue in E minor : See Fugue in A minor , above .
Allégresse in C major : " A bubbling perpetuum mobile whose surging romantic feelings are only just kept under restraint " ( Orledge ) . " A song , pure and gay , uplifted to a sunlit sky , a youthful outpouring , full of happiness . " ( Koechlin ) .
Nocturne [ No 8 ] in D ♭ major : As noted above , this piece stands apart from the larger @-@ scale works to which Fauré gave the title " nocturne " . It would not be listed among them were it not for the publisher 's unauthorised use of the title in this case . It is the longest of the eight pieces of Op 84 , but is much shorter and simpler than the other 12 nocturnes , consisting of a song @-@ like main theme with a delicate semiquaver accompaniment in the left hand .
= = = 9 Préludes , Op 103 = = =
The nine préludes are among the least known of Fauré 's major piano compositions . They were written while the composer was struggling to come to terms with the onset of deafness in his mid @-@ sixties . By Fauré 's standards this was a time of unusually prolific output . The préludes were composed in 1909 and 1910 , in the middle of the period in which he wrote the opera Pénélope , barcarolles Nos. 8 – 11 and nocturnes Nos. 9 – 11 .
In Koechlin 's view , " Apart from the Préludes of Chopin , it is hard to think of a collection of similar pieces that are so important " . The critic Michael Oliver wrote , " Fauré 's Préludes are among the subtlest and most elusive piano pieces in existence ; they express deep but mingled emotions , sometimes with intense directness ... more often with the utmost economy and restraint and with mysteriously complex simplicity . " Jessica Duchen calls them " unusual slivers of magical inventiveness . " The complete set takes between 20 and 25 minutes to play . The shortest of the set , No 8 , lasts barely more than a minute ; the longest , No 3 , takes between four and five minutes .
Prélude No 1 in D ♭ major
Andante molto moderato . The first prélude is in the manner of a nocturne . Morrison refers to the cool serenity with which it opens , contrasted with the " slow and painful climbing " of the middle section .
Prélude No 2 in C ♯ minor
Allegro . The moto perpetuo of the second prélude is technically difficult for the pianist ; even the most celebrated Fauré interpreter can be stretched by it . Koechlin calls it " a feverish whirling of dervishes , concluding in a sort of ecstasy , with the evocation of some fairy palace . "
Prélude No 3 in G minor
Andante . Copland considered this prélude the most immediately accessible of the set . " At first , what will most attract you , will be the third in G @-@ minor , a strange mixture of the romantic and classic . " The musicologist Vladimir Jankélévitch wrote , " it might be a barcarolle strangely interrupting a theme of very modern stylistic contour " .
Prélude No 4 in F major
Allegretto moderato . The fourth prélude is among the gentlest of the set . The critic Alain Cochard writes that it " casts a spell on the ear through the subtlety of a harmony tinged with the modal and its melodic freshness . " Koechlin calls it " a guileless pastorale , flexible , with succinct and refined modulations " .
Prélude No 5 in D minor
Allegro . Cochard quotes the earlier writer Louis Aguettant 's description of this prélude as " This fine outburst of anger ( Ce bel accès de colère ) " . The mood is turbulent and anxious ; the piece ends in quiet resignation reminiscent of the " Libera me " of the Requiem .
Prélude No 6 in E ♭ minor
Andante . Fauré is at his most classical in this prélude , which is in the form of a canon . Copland wrote that it " can be placed side by side with the most wonderful of the Preludes of the Well @-@ Tempered Clavichord . "
Prélude No 7 in A major
Andante moderato . Morrison writes that this prélude , with its " stammering and halting progress " conveys an inconsolable grief . After the opening andante moderato , it becomes gradually more assertive , and subsides to conclude in the subdued mood of the opening . The rhythm of one of Fauré 's best @-@ known songs , " N 'est @-@ ce @-@ pas ? " from La bonne chanson , runs through the piece .
Prélude No 8 in C minor
Allegro . In Copland 's view this is , with the third , the most approachable of the Préludes , " with its dry , acrid brilliance ( so rarely found in Faure ) . " Morrison describes it as " a repeated @-@ note scherzo " going " from nowhere to nowhere . "
Prélude No 9 in E minor
Adagio . Copland described this prélude as " so simple – so absolutely simple that we can never hope to understand how it can contain such great emotional power . " The prélude is withdrawn in mood ; Jankélévitch wrote that it " belongs from beginning to end to another world . " Koechlin notes echoes of the " Offertoire " of the Requiem throughout the piece .
= = For two pianists = =
Souvenirs de Bayreuth
Subtitled Fantasie en forme de quadrille sur les thèmes favoris de l 'Anneau de Nibelung ( " Fantasy in the form of a quadrille on favourite themes from Der Ring des Nibelungen " ) . Fauré admired the music of Wagner and was familiar with the smallest details of his scores , but he was one of the few composers of his generation not to come under Wagner 's musical influence . From 1878 , Fauré and his friend and ex @-@ pupil André Messager made trips abroad to see Wagner operas . They saw Das Rheingold and Die Walküre at Cologne Opera ; the complete Ring cycle in Munich and London ; and Die Meistersinger in Munich and at Bayreuth , where they also saw Parsifal . They frequently performed as a party piece their joint composition , the irreverent Souvenirs de Bayreuth , written in about 1888 . This short , skittish piano work for four hands sends up themes from The Ring . It consists of five short sections in which Wagner 's themes are transformed into dance rhythms . The manuscript ( in the Bibliothèque nationale , Paris ) is in Messager 's hand .
Suite d 'orchestre , Op 20
Between 1867 and 1873 , Fauré wrote a symphonic work for full orchestra . The piece was first heard in 1873 when Fauré and Saint @-@ Saëns performed it in a two @-@ piano version , but that transcription has not survived . Léon Boëllmann made a new transcription of the first movement in 1893 .
Dolly Suite , Op 56
The Dolly Suite is a six @-@ section work for piano duet . It was inspired by Hélène , nicknamed " Dolly " , daughter of the singer Emma Bardac with whom Fauré was intimately associated in the 1890s . The opening piece was a present for Dolly 's first birthday , and Fauré added the other five pieces to mark her subsequent birthdays and other family occasions . Unusually for Fauré , who generally favoured strictly functional titles , the movements of the suite have whimsical titles associated with Dolly and her family .
Its six movements take about fifteen minutes to perform . The first is a Berceuse , or cradle @-@ song . " Mi @-@ a @-@ ou " , despite a title suggesting a cat , in fact represents the infant Dolly 's attempts to pronounce the name of her brother Raoul ; after " Le jardin de Dolly " , the " Kitty Valse " , again confounds its feline title , being a sketch of the family 's pet dog . After the gentle " Tendresse " , the suite ends with a lively evocation of Spain , which , Orledge notes , is one of Fauré 's few purely extrovert pieces .
Masques et bergamasques , Op 112
From the orchestral suite drawn from his music for the stage presentation Masques et bergamasques , Fauré made a transcription for piano duet , which was published in 1919 . Like the orchestral suite , it consists of four movements , titled " Ouverture " , " Menuet " , " Gavotte " and " Pastorale " .
= = Recordings = =
Fauré made piano rolls of his music for several companies between 1905 and 1913 . The rolls that survive are of the " Romance sans paroles " No 3 , Barcarolle No 1 , Prelude No 3 , Nocturne No 3 , Thème et variations , Valses @-@ caprices Nos 1 , 3 and 4 , and piano versions of the Pavane , and the " Sicilienne " from Fauré 's music for Pelléas and Mélisande . Several of these rolls have been transferred to CD . Recordings on disc were few until the 1940s . A survey by John Culshaw in December 1945 singled out recordings of piano works played by Kathleen Long , including the Nocturne No 6 , Barcarolle No 2 , the Thème et Variations , Op 73 , and the Ballade Op 19 in its orchestral version . Fauré 's music began to appear more frequently in the record companies ' releases in the 1950s .
In the LP and particularly the CD era , the record companies built up a substantial catalogue of Fauré 's piano music , performed by French and non @-@ French musicians . The piano works were first recorded largely complete in the mid @-@ 1950s by Germaine Thyssens @-@ Valentin , with later sets being made by Grant Johannesen ( 1961 ) , Jean Doyen ( 1966 – 1969 ) , Jean @-@ Philippe Collard ( 1974 ) , Paul Crossley ( 1984 – 85 ) , Jean Hubeau ( 1988 – 89 ) , and Kathryn Stott ( 1995 ) . Recital selections of major piano works have been recorded by many pianists including Vlado Perlemuter ( 1989 ) , Pascal Rogé ( 1990 ) , and Kun @-@ Woo Paik ( 2002 ) .
= Canadian drug charges and trial of Jimi Hendrix =
In 1969 , American rock musician Jimi Hendrix , who was then at the height of his career , was arrested , tried , and acquitted in Canada for drug possession .
On May 3 , 1969 , customs agents at Toronto International Airport detained Hendrix after finding a small amount of what they suspected to be heroin and hashish in his luggage . Four hours later , after a mobile lab confirmed what had been found , he was formally charged with drug possession . Released on $ 10 @,@ 000 bail , Hendrix was required to return on May 5 for an arraignment hearing . During a performance at Maple Leaf Gardens later that night ,
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he displayed a jovial attitude , joking with the audience and singing a few lines of mock opera for comedic effect .
At a preliminary hearing on June 19 , Judge Robert Taylor set a date for December 8 , at which Hendrix would stand trial for two counts of illegal possession of narcotics , for which he faced as many as 20 years in prison . While there was no question as to whether the drugs were in Hendrix 's luggage , in order for the Crown to prove possession they had to show that he knew they were there . In his cross @-@ examination of Canadian customs officials , defense attorney John O 'Driscoll raised doubts about whether the narcotics belonged to Hendrix , who had no drug paraphernalia in his luggage or needle tracks on his arms . After a trial that lasted for three days , the jury deliberated for 8 hours before returning a not guilty verdict , acquitting Hendrix of both charges .
The incident proved stressful for Hendrix , and it weighed heavily on his mind during the seven months that he awaited trial . Two weeks after the arrest , he told his friend , journalist Sharon Lawrence , that his fear of needles discouraged him from using heroin and that associating with junkies had convinced him it was not a drug he wanted to use . Both of Hendrix 's Experience bandmates , Mitch Mitchell and Noel Redding , later stated that they had been warned about a planned drug bust the day before flying to Toronto and they believed that drugs had been planted in Hendrix 's bag . Although Hendrix was one of the biggest stars in North America at the time , and the world 's highest @-@ paid performer , only a couple of Toronto newspapers carried the story . His public relations manager , Michael Goldstein , later revealed that he bribed a member of the Associated Press with a case of liquor in an effort to prevent the story from going out on the news wire .
= = Background = =
In late 1968 , the members of the Jimi Hendrix Experience were living in a rented house in Benedict Canyon , Los Angeles . One night bassist Noel Redding was warned about a pending visit from law enforcement , so he immediately phoned drummer Mitch Mitchell , who was at the nightclub Whisky a Go Go , and asked him to come over to the house so that they could search for and remove any illegal drugs . They found a large assortment of substances in Hendrix 's room that had apparently been given to him by fans . Soon afterwards , they were paid a visit by three detectives who told them that they were under police surveillance by officers living in a nearby house .
On May 2 , 1969 , the Experience performed at Cobo Hall in Detroit . According to Mitchell , while they were getting ready for the show the band and their entourage were informed about a possible drug bust planned for the following day . The group 's road crew warned everyone to take precautions against any potential for drugs to be planted on them . Mitchell responded by wearing a suit without pockets and not wearing any underwear . Tour managers Gerry Stickells and Tony Ruffino expressed their concern to Hendrix and asked him if he had any drugs on him to which he replied : " No . " After arriving in Toronto , he was awoken by concert promoter Ron Terry who told him : " Whatever you got in that bag , get rid of it . " Terry then took him into the plane 's bathroom and dumped anything that might be mistaken for illegal drugs into the toilet . Terry commented : " I thought he was clean . "
= = Arrest , performance , and arraignment = =
After landing at Toronto International Airport on May 3 , 1969 , Hendrix and Terry were the last to exit the plane . Ruffino was carrying Hendrix 's bags , and he placed them on a counter at the customs station . An agent immediately chastised him , shouting : " If that 's not yours , keep your hands off it " , to which Ruffino replied : " I work for him . " The agent repeated the order before asking Hendrix if they were his bags ; he confirmed that they were . At 9 : 30 a.m. , authorities detained Hendrix after finding a small amount of what they suspected to be heroin and hashish in his luggage . A mobile lab was set up to determine what had been found , and at 1 : 30 p.m. Metro police detective Harry Midgley arrested him for illegal possession of narcotics . After being booked and photographed , he was released on $ 10 @,@ 000 bail and required to return on May 5 for an arraignment hearing . While they awaited the lab results , Stickells attempted to make contact with Hendrix 's manager , Mike Jeffery , who had traveled to Hawaii and was unavailable .
When Stickells expressed concern that the arrest might jeopardize the concert that was scheduled for that night at Maple Leaf Gardens , the booking detective assured them that he would " get it done as quickly " as he could because his children had tickets for the event ; he commented : " they 'll kill me if I don 't get [ Hendrix ] out . " Management at the Gardens pressured the Toronto police department to release him , complaining that the sell @-@ out crowd of 18 @,@ 000 fans might riot if they canceled the show . He was released by 8 p.m. and escorted to the venue by the police , who remained at the arena throughout the performance . He displayed a jovial attitude during the concert , joking with the audience and singing in a mock operatic style for comedic effect . In light of the arrest , he altered the lyrics to " Red House " , singing " soon as I get out of jail , I wanna see her . "
Rolling Stone magazine reported that during the arraignment hearing , which lasted for three minutes , the courthouse was filled with young fans who had come to show their support for Hendrix , who " entered wearing a pink shirt open to the waist , an Apache @-@ style headband , a multi @-@ colored scarf around his neck and beads . His manner was dead serious . "
= = Preliminary hearing = =
On June 19 , 1969 , Hendrix flew to Toronto for a preliminary hearing . He wore a business suit for the first time since before the formation of the Experience in late 1966 . Judge Robert Taylor presided over the hearing , setting a date for December 8 , at which Hendrix would stand trial for two counts of possession of heroin and hashish , for which he faced as many as 20 years in prison . More serious potential charges of drug transporting and trafficking , which had been discussed at the time of the arrest , were not filed .
= = Second Toronto arrest = =
In preparation for the trial , Hendrix had his hair cut , and he purchased new clothes . One of his defense lawyers , Bob Levine , commented : " I took him to a number of stores that specialized in tailored suits . We found a conservative suit that looked great on him . It was hilarious . He was like a hick , awkwardly fidgeting around and trying to loosen his tie . I didn 't care how uncomfortable he was ; the suit was perfect . "
On December 7 , while Hendrix and Levine were travelling by limousine to a New York airport for their flight to Toronto , Levine noticed that Hendrix was putting some personal items into his guitar case . Levine then reminded him that they would be going through customs and that they had better not bring anything inappropriate . He reassured Levine , but as they approached their destination Levine confronted him : " Jimi , I know you have something in that guitar case . I don 't know what it is , and it 's not normally my business to interfere , but I know we will be searched at customs . " Hendrix insisted that he had nothing to worry about , stating : " Trust me , Bob , no one is going to recognize me " , to which he replied : " Recognize you ? They will be waiting at customs for you . " Soon after their arrival at the Toronto airport , Hendrix was arrested by customs agents who found a capsule of an unknown substance in his guitar case . He spent the night in jail , waiting for it to be tested . Later that day , the Toronto police department dropped the charges when the pill was determined to be a legal medication .
= = Trial = =
While there was no question as to whether the drugs were in Hendrix 's luggage , in order for the Crown to prove possession they had to show that he knew they were there . Judge Joseph Kelly presided over the trial proceedings , which began on December 8 , 1969 . Crown counsel John Malone called as witnesses the officers who discovered the drugs and the lab technicians who identified them as heroin ; the prosecution rested after three hours of testimony . In his cross @-@ examination of Canadian customs officials , defense attorney John O 'Driscoll raised doubts about whether the drugs belonged to Hendrix . Mervin Wilson , the customs agent who discovered the drugs , agreed with O 'Driscoll 's assertion that Hendrix had drawn attention to himself at the airport by wearing what O 'Driscoll described as " obviously mod clothing " . Wilson stated that Hendrix had no drug paraphernalia in his luggage , and Constable W. J. Matheson confirmed that Hendrix had no needle tracks on his arms .
The Hendrix defense team did not dispute that the drugs were found in his bag . They instead developed a strategy intended to demonstrate that he was not aware of its contents . Further , they offered substantiated accounts of how common it was for him to receive gifts from fans , which often included drugs . Hendrix was called as the first witness for the defense ; he testified that fans showered gifts on him , including teddy bears , scarves , clothing , and jewelry . He explained that while in Beverly Hills , California , a female fan had given him a vial of what he thought was Bromo @-@ Seltzer — a legal medication — which he put in his bag without knowledge of the illegal substances contained therein . Malone countered : " You are charged with a serious offense , and your evidence is you don 't really know how it got there , or who put it there " , to which Hendrix responded : " Yes . " The prosecutor then held up the aluminum tube in which the hashish was found and asked Hendrix to explain what he thought it was , he replied : " A pea shooter " , drawing uproarious laughter from the court . When asked about his drug use , he denied that he had ever used heroin or amphetamines , but admitted to smoking cannabis and hashish . He also admitted that he had used cocaine twice and LSD five times . He testified that his cannabis use had declined over the previous year , stating : " I feel I have outgrown it " . Hendrix admitted that he had seen people use heroin , but denied any further knowledge of the drug . He testified that he was given some gifts at a fan club meeting for the Beatles that were intended for the English group ; when he opened them he found several joints as well as what appeared to be doses of LSD .
The second witness called by the defense was United Press International ( UPI ) journalist and Hendrix 's friend Sharon Lawrence , who testified that she was with Hendrix in California when , after complaining about feeling ill , an unnamed fan gave him something . When Malone suggested that her memory was suspiciously acute , she explained that her training as a reporter prepared her to notice fine details . Hendrix 's manager and producer , Chas Chandler , was called next , and he corroborated the defense 's assertion that rock stars , particularly Hendrix , would regularly receive gifts from fans and that those gifts often included drugs . In its closing argument , the defense reiterated that in order to be guilty of possession of narcotics Hendrix had to have knowledge of the illegal drugs . After a trial that had lasted for three days , the jury deliberated for more than eight hours before returning a not guilty verdict , acquitting Hendrix of both charges . Torontoist 's Kevin Plummer wrote : " As the all @-@ male jury announced its acquittal , the courtroom — crowded with young people — erupted into applause . " In remarks to reporters after the verdict was announced , Hendrix commented : " Canada has given me the best Christmas present I ever had " , while flashing a peace sign .
= = Impact on Hendrix = =
The incident proved stressful for Hendrix , and it weighed heavily on his mind while he awaited trial . His limousine driver and a witness to the arrest , Louis Goldblatt , described him as " genuinely dumbfounded by the whole affair . " Tour manager Eric Barrett said that he looked " as if there had been a plane crash " . Hendrix biographers Harry Shapiro and Caesar Glebbeek described the incident as " a nightmare which ... plagued " him for seven months . According to Redding , " the bust knocked any positive feelings Jimi was holding onto out of him " and that he was in " agonised suspense " from the arrest until the trial . In 2012 , Plummer wrote : " The real possibility of prison hung over Hendrix like a spectre ... a threat to his career and the cause of much brooding and rumination . " Journalist Charles Shaar Murray asserted that the incident jeopardized what he described as " Hendrix 's increasingly fragile peace of mind " .
Two weeks after the arrest , Hendrix told Lawrence : " Whatever I have done ... getting hooked on heroin is not one of them . " He explained that his fear of needles discouraged him from using the drug and that having known junkies convinced him that it was not something he should get involved with . Soon after the story of his arrest became public , he drew a connection between the bust and anti @-@ establishment sentiments : " All of that is the establishment fighting back ... Eventually , they will swallow themselves up , but I don 't want them to swallow up too many kids as they go along . "
According to Shapiro and Glebbeek , in 1969 there was little confidence in the staying power of rock stars ; it was assumed that their careers were going to be short , and industry insiders operated under a " take the money and run " mentality . For this reason , they speculated that had Hendrix been convicted it would have ended his music career . After the trial , his management announced to the British press that they were planning a farewell tour for the Experience . However , the US tour during which the arrest occurred was their last . The band played their final concert on June 29 , at Mile High Stadium in Denver ( less than two months before Hendrix 's iconic solo performance at Woodstock ) . There were no new album releases from them during 1969 . Hendrix 's management later stated that concert promoters were apprehensive about booking him until after the matter had been resolved .
= = Initial suppression of media coverage = =
According to Cross , " By far the most extraordinary aspect of Jimi Hendrix 's drug bust in Toronto on May 3 , 1969 , was how little press it generated . " Despite the fact that Hendrix was one of the biggest stars in North America at the time , and the highest @-@ paid performer in the world , only a couple of Toronto newspapers carried the story . Sharon Lawrence was informed of the incident by a London reporter working for UPI who told her that people were speculating that he had been set up . She commented : " There was nothing about the Hendrix arrest in the Los Angeles papers . " However , The New York Times ran a brief story about the arrest on May 5 . Four weeks later , Rolling Stone published a sympathetic article written by rock journalists Ben Fong @-@ Torres and Ritchie Yorke that included speculation that Hendrix had been framed .
In January 1970 , Rolling Stone asked Hendrix about having testified that he stopped using cannabis ; he laughed and replied : " At least , stop it from growing " . When pressed he answered : " I 'm too ... wrecked right now . " His management was concerned that the incident might provoke cancellations during the concurrent tour , but the story stayed largely unknown until after the tour had ended . The public relations manager , Michael Goldstein , later revealed that he had bribed a member of the Associated Press with a case of liquor to prevent the story from going out on the wire . Goldstein commented : " I knew that a million dollars was riding on that story not getting on UPI and the AP wire ... By his nature , a press agent shouldn 't have to determine someone 's future . "
= = Conspiracy theories = =
Wayne Kramer , a guitarist for MC5 , suggested that Hendrix had been set up as part of a wide @-@ scale crackdown on rock musicians : " I don 't have any doubt in my mind that the right @-@ wing government forces were behind all of that ... There was an effort , a movement , to stop this threat that rock and roll represented . " Hendrix was not the only prominent rock musician who found himself in legal trouble during May 1969 . On May 16 , the US embassy in London revoked John Lennon 's visa in response to his 1968 drug conviction , describing him as " an inadmissible immigrant " . That same day , Jefferson Airplane bassist Jack Casady was arrested for possession of marijuana , and on May 28 , Mick Jagger and Marianne Faithfull were arrested at their London home for marijuana possession .
After the arrest in Toronto , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) opened a file on Hendrix , which grew to seven pages , including documents related to his previous arrests for stealing cars at the age of 19 . Yorke and Fong @-@ Torres wrote , " The populace of Toronto are a very conservative lot , and tend to look with suspicion upon anybody who looks and dresses a little different from themselves . Hendrix looks a lot different . " Lawrence commented : " The prevailing political attitude in Canada regarding Hendrix was ' We have to make an example of this fuzzy @-@ haired black weirdo ' . " Shapiro and Glebbeek asserted their suspicion regarding the presence of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) , who did not typically make arrests at the airport . They also speculated that Canadian authorities had anticipated a public spectacle , intentionally searching the Hendrix entourage in plain view of people at the airport .
According to author John Hagen , Toronto 's then Mayor , William Dennison , was openly antagonistic to the influx of American hippies , draft resisters , and those who supported them who were coming to Canada in large numbers during the height of the Vietnam War . In his 2001 book , Northern Passage : American Vietnam War Resisters in Canada , Hagen wrote : " The mayors of Canada 's largest cities used the ( War Measures Act ) in a backlash against American war resisters . " Dennison stated : " a few hippies and deserters are Toronto 's only problem . " Mayor Jean Drapeau of Montreal asserted that military resisters were part of a " revolutionary conspiracy . " Vancouver 's mayor , Tom Campbell , commented : " I don 't like draft dodgers and I 'll do anything within the law that allows me to get rid of them . " While all three men supported use of the War Measures Act to harass war resisters and hippies , Campbell was the most aggressive ; he told the Toronto Star : " I believe the law should be used against any revolutionary whether he 's a US draft dodger or a hippie . " According to Hagen , the RCMP and the FBI cooperated in their effort to harass American war resisters during the late 1960s .
Although several people expressed the opinion that Mike Jeffrey had set Hendrix up in an effort to control him and create dependency , Shapiro and Glebbeek dispute this theory based on Jeffrey 's severe risk of significant financial shortfall had Hendrix been convicted . Jeffrey 's assistant , Trixie Sullivan , speculated that the drugs had been planted by a fan who became disgruntled after Hendrix refused his sexual advance . Both Mitch Mitchell and Noel Redding later wrote in their autobiographies that the entire Hendrix entourage had been warned about a planned drug bust the day before flying to Toronto ; both men also stated that they believed the incident had been set up and that the drugs had been planted in Hendrix 's bag . According to author Ritchie Unterberger , although Hendrix " took his fair share of drugs " , the commonly accepted view is that he did not use heroin regularly and was not an addict ; his drug use was typical of his peers , but not excessive . Mitchell wrote : " Contrary to what some people have said , Jimi was never a junkie – that is he was never addicted to any drug , particularly heroin , which he tried once or twice but didn 't like . "
= Hurricane Dog ( 1950 ) =
Hurricane Dog was the most intense hurricane in the 1950 Atlantic hurricane season . Prior to reanalysis by the Hurricane Research Division in 2014 , it was considered one of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes on record , equivalent to Category 5 status on the modern Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , with winds of 185 miles per hour ( 298 km / h ) . The fourth named storm of the season , Dog developed on August 30 to the east of Antigua ; after passing through the northern Lesser Antilles , it turned to the north and intensified into a Category 4 hurricane . Dog reached its peak intensity with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) over the open Atlantic , and after weakening it passed within 200 miles ( 320 km ) of Cape Cod , Massachusetts . The storm became extratropical on September 12 .
Hurricane Dog caused extensive damage to the Leeward Islands , and was considered the most severe hurricane on record in Antigua . Many buildings were destroyed or severely damaged on the island , with thousands left homeless just weeks after Hurricane Baker caused serious damage there . In the United States , the hurricane caused moderate coastal damage , including damage to several boats , and resulted in 11 offshore drownings . Strong winds caused widespread power outages across southeastern New England . There were twelve people missing and assumed dead offshore Nova Scotia . Damage across its path totaled about $ 3 million ( 1950 USD , $ 26 @.@ 8 million 2009 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
The exact origins of Hurricane Dog are obscure , due to sparse ship and land observations over the eastern Atlantic Ocean ; the storm may have originated from an easterly wave on August 24 near the Cape Verde islands , but there are no observations to support such development . Ships first encountered the storm on August 30 , when the SS Sibrodin reported gale @-@ force winds and an area of low pressure about 320 miles ( 510 km ) east @-@ southeast of Antigua . The storm is first documented as a hurricane with winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) late on August 30 . With high pressures to its northeast , the storm tracked west @-@ northwestward and rapidly intensified : on August 31 it attained major hurricane status , reaching winds of 130 mph ( 209 km / h ) — the first peak intensity in its life — before entering the Leeward Islands . Early on September 1 , Hurricane Dog passed just north of Antigua as the equivalent of a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . A weather station on Antigua reported a pressure of 28 @.@ 73 inches of mercury ( 973 mb ) , though the eye of the hurricane missed the station . After bypassing Antigua , Hurricane Dog weakened slightly , based on reports by reconnaissance aircraft ; the cyclone made its first and only landfall over Anguilla with winds of 120 to 125 mph ( 193 to 201 km / h ) . The cyclone produced hurricane @-@ force winds over Antigua and the nearby island of Saint Martin , which reported a pressure of 978 @.@ 7 mb ( 28 @.@ 90 inHg ) .
Early on September 2 , Hurricane Dog came under weak steering currents , causing it to drift northward . The cyclone weakened even further : aircraft recorded a central pressure of 962 mb ( 28 @.@ 4 inHg ) , and maximum sustained winds diminished to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . The storm mostly maintained its intensity for two more days , but on September 4 it began to re @-@ intensify as it turned northwestward . On September 5 Hurricane Dog regained Category 4 intensity about 335 miles ( 540 km ) north of the eastern tip of the Dominican Republic . The hurricane strengthened further after turning to the north , and Hurricane Dog reached its second and strongest peak intensity of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) . On September 6 Hurricane Hunters visually estimated peak winds of 185 mph ( 300 km / h ) about 450 miles ( 720 km ) south @-@ southwest of Bermuda ; however , being early in the period of hurricane reconnaissance , such wind speeds — derived from observations of the sea surface — were subjective and sometimes unreliable . In 2014 , a reanalysis of HURDAT by the Hurricane Research Division found that the peak winds in Hurricane Dog were more likely 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) , marking a reduction in the intensity of Hurricane Dog from Category 5 to Category 4 . Nevertheless , while now estimated to have been less intense than assessed operationally in 1950 , Dog was a formidable hurricane while over the western Atlantic , producing wave heights of over 100 feet ( 30 m ) .
Hurricane Dog maintained its peak intensity for about 12 hours . On September 7 , the cyclone attained a central pressure of 948 mbar ( 27 @.@ 99 inHg ) , which was the lowest pressure in association with the hurricane . A building ridge of high pressure to its north caused it to decelerate and weaken steadily for unknown reasons as it turned to the west ; by September 9 , the intensity had decreased to 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) . On September 10 , Hurricane Dog began turning to the northwest , and a day later it headed north and then northeast . Late that day , it briefly re @-@ intensified slightly to 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone with hurricane @-@ force winds . The former hurricane passed within 200 miles ( 320 km ) of Cape Cod on September 12 . Shortly afterwards , the extratropical remnant turned to the east , losing hurricane winds for several days beginning on September 13 . The system eventually turned to the northeast on September 15 , and a day later it regained hurricane @-@ force winds as a vigorous extratropical cyclone . Early on September 17 , the cyclone struck Scotland with winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , but the system persisted until finally losing its identity north of Scotland on September 18 .
= = Preparations = =
In the United States , the threat of the hurricane prompted the National Weather Bureau to issue warnings of gale force winds , high tides , and rough surf from the Outer Banks of North Carolina to Maine . At least 17 naval ships were moved in preparation for the hurricane . Rhode Island state police officers warned homeowners near the coast to be ready to evacuate , if necessary . There , officials also closed several beaches and canceled ferry travel along the state 's southern waterways . On the day of the hurricane 's closest approach to the United States , the National Weather Bureau issued storm warnings from Cape May , New Jersey , to Eastport , Maine .
= = Impact = =
Passing through the Lesser Antilles , Hurricane Dog produced a storm surge of 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in Antigua . Winds on Antigua and Barbuda were estimated at 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) , with a gust of 144 mph ( 232 km / h ) recorded at St. John 's , Antigua and Barbuda . On Antigua , where hurricane @-@ force winds were reported for six hours , residents considered it the most severe hurricane in history . Hurricane Dog left thousands homeless on Antigua , just weeks after Hurricane Baker caused severe damage on the island . Damage throughout the Lesser Antilles totaled $ 1 million ( 1950 USD , $ 8 @.@ 92 million 2009 USD ) , primarily on Antigua and Barbuda , and included many damaged or destroyed homes , ruined crops , blocked roads from washouts or fallen trees , and power outages across the islands . The hurricane resulted in several shipwrecks ; two people drowned when their small boat capsized . The hurricane sank a boat on the island of Saint @-@ Barthélemy , where damage amounted to $ 70 @,@ 000 ( 1950 USD , $ 624 thousand 2009 USD ) .
Heavy rain fell in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States , leading to flash floods in some locations . In Bel Air , Maryland , a car drove into the swollen Little Gunpowder Falls ; three people in the car drowned and a fourth was injured . A further two people drowned in Lexington , Virginia . Though newspaper sources attributed the heavy rainfall to Hurricane Dog , this was not confirmed . The hurricane deposited light to moderate rainfall across southeastern Massachusetts , ranging from around 1 inch ( 25 mm ) to about 4 to 5 inches ( 100 to 125 mm ) near Nantucket . In Provincetown , a car hit a woman — neither the driver nor the victim was able to see due to the rains . A man in Falmouth was paralyzed from the waist downwards after coming into contact with a wet tree limb next to a downed power line .
The hurricane produced high tides and rough surf along the East Coast of the United States , with coastal flooding reported along some beaches in Rhode Island . The hurricane capsized or damaged several boats along the coastline , including two large vessels in Nantucket . In Marblehead , Massachusetts , the surf grounded at least 15 vessels from the harbor onto a coastal causeway . Near Cape Cod , damage to fishermen 's assets totaled $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 1950 USD , $ 1 @.@ 34 million 2009 USD ) . Tides along Nantucket were reported at the highest levels since the 1944 Great Atlantic Hurricane . Hurricane Dog produced powerful wind gusts along coastal areas of New England , which caused widespread power outages , including a loss of power to 15 towns on Cape Cod , to hundreds of residences on Nantucket , and to several other locations in the area . Additionally , winds from the hurricane destroyed two small barns and uprooted a few trees , some of which blocked roads . Overall damage was fairly light , totaling about $ 2 million ( 1950 USD , $ 17 @.@ 8 million 2009 USD ) — a much lower total than would have been expected if the hurricane had made landfall . In all , 12 people died in New England as a result of the hurricane . Two ships went missing during the storm along the coast of Nova Scotia , with a crew of six people each ; their status is unknown , and they are considered storm fatalities .
= = Records , naming , and aftermath = =
Before scientific reexamination reduced its winds , Hurricane Dog was listed as the second @-@ strongest Atlantic hurricane on record , tied with Hurricanes Gilbert in 1988 and Wilma in 2005 ; following reanalysis in 2012 , the 1935 Labor Day hurricane also met this distinction . Only Hurricanes Camille in 1969 and Allen in 1980 were stronger , peaking at 190 mph ( 306 km / h ) . ( However , Camille was later found to have been somewhat weaker than originally estimated , with top winds of 175 mph ( 282 km / h ) . ) During the 1950 , 1951 , and 1952 seasons , Atlantic hurricanes were named using the Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet . However , Hurricane Dog was referred to as " the great hurricane in the central Atlantic " in newspaper reports , and its name was seldom used . Operationally , hurricanes were not referred to by name until 1952 .
A relief fund was organized in the aftermath of the hurricane by The Daily Gleaner , a newspaper from Kingston , Jamaica . The newspaper invited its readers to help assist " their suffering fellow @-@ West Indians in the island of Antigua . " Four days after the hurricane , the fund totaled £ 171 @,@ 000 ( 1950 GBP , $ 4 @.@ 27 million 2009 USD ) . One Antigua official stated the country " would appreciate voluntary assistance from outside , especially food and clothing " . Relief aid was also sent from the United States to the affected islands .
= Hurricane David =
Hurricane David was a Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that reached Category 5 hurricane status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The fourth named tropical cyclone , second hurricane , and first major hurricane of the 1979 Atlantic hurricane season , traversed through the Leeward Islands , Greater Antilles , and East Coast of the United States during late August and early September . David was the first hurricane to affect the Lesser Antilles since Hurricane Inez in 1966 . With winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) , David remains the only storm of Category 5 intensity to make landfall on the Dominican Republic in the 20th century and the deadliest since the 1930 Dominican Republic Hurricane killing over 2 @,@ 000 people in its path . Also , the hurricane was the strongest to hit Dominica in the 20th century , and was the deadliest Dominican tropical cyclone since a hurricane killed over 200 in September of the 1834 season .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 25 , the US National Hurricane Center reported that a tropical depression had developed within an area of disturbed weather , that was located about 1 @,@ 400 km ( 870 mi ) to the southeast of the Cape Verde Islands . During that day the depression gradually developed further as it moved westwards , under the influence of the subtropical ridge of high pressure that was located to the north of the system before during the next day the NHC reported that the system had become a tropical storm and named it David . David continued to strengthen , becoming a hurricane on August 27 . As it moved west @-@ northwestward on from August 27 – 28 , it rapidly intensified to a 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) major hurricane . It weakened slightly to a 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) hurricane , but restrengthened by the time David ravaged the tiny windward Island of Dominica on the 29th .
David continued west @-@ northwest , and became a Category 5 hurricane in the northeast Caribbean Sea , reaching peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) and minimum central pressure of 924 mbar ( hPa ) on August 30 . An upper @-@ level trough pulled David northward into Hispaniola as a Category 5 hurricane on the August 31 . The eye passed almost directly over Santo Domingo , capital of the Dominican Republic with over a million people . The storm crossed over the island and emerged as a weak hurricane after drenching the islands .
After crossing the Windward Passage , David struck eastern Cuba as a minimal hurricane on September 1 . It weakened to a tropical storm over land , but quickly re @-@ strengthened as it again reached open waters . David turned to the northwest along the western periphery of the subtropical ridge , and re @-@ intensified to a 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) Category 2 hurricane while over the Bahamas , where it caused heavy damage . Despite initial forecasts of a Miami , Florida landfall , the hurricane turned to the north @-@ northwest just before landfall to strike near West Palm Beach , Florida on September 3 . It paralleled the Florida coastline just inland until emerging into the western Atlantic Ocean at New Smyrna Beach , Florida later on September 3 . David continued to the north @-@ northwest , and made its final landfall just south of Savannah , Georgia as a minimal hurricane on September 5 . It turned to the northeast while weakening over land , and became extratropical on the 6th over New York . As an extratropical storm , David continued to the northeast over New England and the Canadian Maritimes . David intensified once more as it crossed the far north Atlantic , clipping northwestern Iceland before moving eastward well north of the Faroe Islands on September 10 .
= = Preparations = =
In the days prior to hitting Dominica , David was originally expected to hit Barbados and spare Dominica in the process . However , on August 29 a turn in the hours before moving through the area caused the 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) hurricane to make a direct hit on the southern part of Dominica . Even as it became increasingly clear that David was headed for the island , residents did not appear to take the situation seriously . This can be partly attributed to the fact that local radio warnings were minimal and disaster preparedness schemes were essentially non @-@ existent . Furthermore , Dominica had not experienced a major hurricane since 1930 , thus leading to complacency amongst much of the population . This proved to have disastrous consequences for the island nation .
Some 400 @,@ 000 people evacuated in the United States in anticipation of David , including 300 @,@ 000 in southeastern Florida due to a predicted landfall between the Florida Keys and Palm Beach . Of those , 78 @,@ 000 fled to shelters , while others either stayed at a friend 's house further inland or traveled northward . Making landfall during Labor Day weekend , David forced the cancellations of many activities in the greater Miami area .
= = Impact = =
David is believed to have been responsible for 2 @,@ 068 deaths , making it one of the deadliest hurricanes of the modern era . It caused torrential damage across its path , most of which occurred in the Dominican Republic where the hurricane made landfall as a Category 5 hurricane .
= = = Dominica = = =
During the storm 's onslaught , David dropped up to 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of rain , causing numerous landslides on the mountainous island . Hours of hurricane @-@ force winds severely eroded the coastlines and washed out coastal roads .
Damage was greatest in the southwest portion of the island , especially in the capital city , Roseau , which resembled an air raid target after the storm 's passage . Strong winds from Hurricane David destroyed or damaged 80 percent of the homes ( mostly wood ) on the island , leaving 75 percent of the population homeless , with many others temporarily homeless in the immediate aftermath . In addition , the rainfall turned rivers into torrents , sweeping away everything in their path to the sea . Power lines were completely ripped out , causing the water system to stop as well .
Most severely damaged was the agricultural industry . The worst loss in agriculture was from bananas and coconuts , of which about 75 percent of the crop was destroyed . Banana fields were completely destroyed , and in the southern portion of the island most coconut trees were blown down . Citrus trees fared better , due to the small yet sturdy nature of the trees . In addition , David 's winds uprooted many trees on the tops of mountains , leaving them bare and damaging the ecosystem by disrupting the water levels .
In all , 56 people died in Dominica and 180 were injured . Property and agricultural damage figures in Dominica are unknown .
= = = Lesser Antilles = = =
Aside from Dominica , other islands in the Lesser Antilles experienced minor to moderate damage . Just to the south of Dominica , David brought Martinique winds of up to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) sustained gust in the northeast of the coast of the Caravelle . The capital , Fort @-@ de @-@ France , reported wave heights of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) and experienced strong tropical storm sustained winds at 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) and gust at 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) . David 's strong winds caused severe crop damage , mostly to bananas , amounting to $ 50 million ( $ 150 million in 2007 USD ) in losses . Though no deaths were reported , the hurricane caused 20 to 30 injuries and left 500 homeless .
Guadeloupe experienced moderate to extensive damage on Basse @-@ Terre Island . There , the banana crop was completely destroyed , and combined with other losses , crop damage amounted to $ 100 million ( $ 280 million in 2005 USD ) . David caused no deaths , a few injuries , and left several hundred homeless . Nearby , Marie @-@ Galante and Les Saintes reported some extreme damage while Grande @-@ Terre had some moderate damages .
The island of St. Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands experienced significant rainfall amounting to 10 – 12 inches ( 250 – 300 mm ) but fairly minor damages .
= = = Puerto Rico = = =
Hurricane David was originally going to hit the south coast of Puerto Rico , but a change in course in the middle of the night spared it the damage that the Dominican Republic suffered .
Though it did not hit Puerto Rico , Hurricane David passed less than 100 miles ( 160 km ) south of the island , bringing strong winds and heavy rainfall to the island . Portions of southwestern Puerto Rico experienced sustained winds of up to 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) , while the rest of the island received tropical storm @-@ force winds . While passing by the island , the hurricane caused strong seas and torrential rainfall , amounting to 19 @.@ 9 inches ( 505 mm ) in Mayagüez , Puerto Rico and up to 20 inches ( 510 mm ) in the central mountainous region .
Despite remaining offshore , most of the island felt David 's effects . Agricultural damage was severe , and combined with property damage , the hurricane was responsible for $ 70 million in losses ( $ 200 million in 2005 USD ) . Following the storm , the FEMA declared the island a disaster area . In all , Hurricane David killed seven people in Puerto Rico , four of which resulted from electrocutions .
= = = Dominican Republic = = =
Upon making landfall in the Dominican Republic , David turned unexpectedly to the northwest , causing 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) winds in Santo Domingo and Category 5 winds elsewhere in the country . The storm caused torrential rainfall , resulting in extreme river flooding . The flooding swept away entire villages and isolated communities during the storm 's onslaught . A rail @-@ mounted container crane collapsed in Rio Haina at the sea @-@ land terminal . Many roads in the country were either damaged or destroyed from the heavy rainfall , especially in the towns of Jarabacoa , San Cristobal , and Baní .
Nearly 70 % of the country 's crops were destroyed from the torrential flooding . Extreme river flooding resulted in most of the country 's 2 @,@ 000 fatalities . One particularly deadly example of this was when a rampaging river in the mountainous village of Padre las Casas swept away a church and a school , killing several hundred people who were sheltering there . The flooding destroyed thousands of houses , leaving over 200 @,@ 000 homeless in the aftermath of the hurricane . President Antonio Guzmán Fernández estimated the combination of agricultural , property , and industrial damage to amount to $ 1 billion ( $ 2 @.@ 8 billion in 2005 USD ) .
Neighboring Haiti experienced very little from David , due to the hurricane 's weakened state upon moving through the country .
= = = Bahamas = = =
While passing through the Bahamas , David brought 70 – 80 mph ( 115 – 130 km / h ) winds to Andros Island as the eye crossed the archipelago . David , though still disorganized , produced heavy rainfall in the country peaking at 8 inches ( 200 mm ) . Strong wind gusts uprooted trees , and overall damage was minimal .
= = = United States = = =
David produced widespread damage across the United States amounting to $ 320 million ( $ 900 million in 2005 USD ) . Prior to the hurricane 's arrival , 400 @,@ 000 evacuated from coastal areas . In total , David directly killed five in the United States , and was responsible for ten indirect deaths .
= = = = Florida = = = =
Upon making landfall , David brought a storm surge of only two @-@ four feet ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 m ) , due to its lack of strengthening and the obtuse angle at which it hit . In addition , David caused strong surf and moderate rainfall , amounting to a maximum of 8 @.@ 92 inches ( 227 mm ) in Vero Beach . Though it made landfall as a Category 2 storm , the strongest winds were localized , and the highest reported wind occurred in Fort Pierce , with 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) sustained and 95 mph ( 155 km / h ) gusts .
Because the hurricane remained near the coastline , Hurricane David failed to cause extreme damage in Florida . The storm 's winds shattered windows in stores near the coast and caused property damage , including blowing the frame of the Palm Beach Jai Alai fronton and downing the 186 @-@ foot ( 57 @-@ m ) WJNO AM radio tower in West Palm Beach into the Intracoastal Waterway . A few roofs were torn off , and numerous buildings were flooded from over six inches ( 150 mm ) of rainfall . A 450 @-@ foot ( 140 @-@ m ) crane was even snapped in two at the St. Lucie Nuclear Power Plant . The hurricane spawned over 10 tornadoes while passing over the state , though none caused deaths or injuries . Total damages in Florida amounted to $ 95 million ( $ 270 million in 2005 USD ) , of which $ 30 million occurred in Palm Beach County , mostly from crop damage . Two journalists with TODAY newspaper from Brevard County followed the hurricane path from South Florida to Cocoa , FL and experienced extremely high winds as they reported on the hurricane .
= = = = Georgia = = = =
Hurricane David made landfall in Georgia as a quickly weakening minimal hurricane , bringing a three – five foot ( 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 5 m ) storm surge and heavy surf . Its inner core remained away from major cities , though Savannah recorded sustained winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) and wind gusts of 68 mph ( 109 km / h ) . No major damage occurred in Savannah . High winds downed numerous power lines , leaving many without power for up to two weeks after the storm . Offshore , strong seas disrupted a portion of the coastal reef by moving a sunken ship 300 feet ( 90 m ) . Overall , Hurricane David was responsible for minor damage and two casualties from its heavy surf .
= = = = Southeast , Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England = = = =
Upon entering South Carolina , David retained winds of up to hurricane force , though the highest recorded was 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) sustained in Charleston and a 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) wind gust in Hilton Head Island . Numerous U.S. Navy ships that were in port at the Charleston Naval Station sortied , several of which ( notably the frigate USS Bowen ( FF @-@ 1079 ) and the destroyer tender USS Sierra ( AD @-@ 18 ) sustained severe damage riding the storm out at sea . Similar winds occurred in North Carolina , and lesser readings were recorded throughout the northeastern United States , excluding a 174
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Theatre . He is best known for his play The Playboy of the Western World , which caused riots in Dublin during its opening run at the Abbey Theatre .
Although he came from a privileged Anglo @-@ Irish background , Synge 's writings are mainly concerned with the world of the Roman Catholic peasants of rural Ireland and with what he saw as the essential paganism of their world view . Synge developed Hodgkin 's disease , a metastatic cancer that was then untreatable . He died several weeks short of his 38th birthday as he was trying to complete his last play , Deirdre of the Sorrows .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Synge was born in Newtown Villas , Rathfarnham , County Dublin on 16 April 1871 . He was the youngest son in a family of eight children . His parents were members of the Protestant upper middle class : his father , John Hatch Synge , who was a barrister , came from a family of landed gentry in Glanmore Castle , County Wicklow . Synge 's grandfather , also named John Hatch Synge , was an admirer of the educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and founded an experimental school on the family estate . Synge 's mother had a private income from lands in County Galway , although her father , Robert Traill , had been a Church of Ireland rector in Schull , County Cork , and a member of the Schull Relief Committee during the Great Irish Famine ( 1845 – 1849 ) .
Synge 's father contracted smallpox and died in 1872 at the age of 49 . Synge 's mother moved the family to the house next door to her mother 's house in Rathgar , County Dublin . Synge , although often ill , had a happy childhood there . He developed an interest in bird @-@ watching along the banks of the River Dodder and during family holidays at the seaside resort of Greystones , County Wicklow , and the family estate at Glanmore .
Synge was educated privately at schools in Dublin and Bray , and later studied piano , flute , violin , music theory and counterpoint at the Royal Irish Academy of Music . He traveled to the continent to study music , but changed his mind and decided to focus on literature . He was a talented student and won a scholarship in counterpoint in 1891 . The family moved to the suburb of Kingstown ( now Dún Laoghaire ) in 1888 , and Synge entered Trinity College , Dublin the following year . He graduated with a BA in 1892 , having studied Irish and Hebrew , as well as continuing his music studies and playing with the Academy Orchestra in the Antient Concert Rooms . Between November 1889 to 1894 he took private music lessons with Robert Prescott Stewart .
Synge joined the Dublin Naturalists ' Field Club and read the works of Charles Darwin . He wrote : " When I was about fourteen I obtained a book of Darwin 's .... My studies showed me the force of what I read , [ and ] the more I put it from me the more it rushed back with new instances and power ... Soon afterwards I turned my attention to works of Christian evidence , reading them at first with pleasure , soon with doubt , and at last in some cases with derision . " He then continued , " Soon after I had relinquished the kingdom of God I began to take up a real interest in the kingdom of Ireland . My politics went round ... to a temperate Nationalism . "
Synge later developed an interest in Irish antiquities and the Aran Islands , and became a member of the Irish League for a year . He left the League because , as he told Maud Gonne , " my theory of regeneration for Ireland differs from yours ... I wish to work on my own for the cause of Ireland , and I shall never be able to do so if I get mixed up with a revolutionary and semi @-@ military movement . " In 1893 he published his first known work , a poem influenced by Wordsworth , Kottabos : A College Miscellany .
= = = Emerging writer = = =
After graduating , Synge decided that he wanted to be a professional musician and went to Germany to study music . He stayed in Coblenz during 1893 and moved to Würzburg in January 1894 . Partly because he was shy about performing in public , and partly because of doubt about his ability , he decided to abandon music and pursue his literary interests . He returned to Ireland in June 1894 , and moved to Paris in January 1895 to study literature and languages at the Sorbonne .
During summer holidays with his family in Dublin he met and fell in love with Cherrie Matheson , a friend of one of his cousins and a member of the Plymouth Brethren . He proposed to her in 1895 and again the next year , but she turned him down on both occasions because of their differing views on religion . This rejection affected Synge greatly and reinforced his determination to spend as much time as possible outside Ireland .
In 1896 Synge visited Italy to study the language for a time before returning to Paris . Later that year he met W. B. Yeats , who encouraged him to live for a while in the Aran Islands , and then return to Dublin and devote himself to creative work . That year he joined with Yeats , Augusta , Lady Gregory and George William Russell to form the Irish National Theatre Society , which later established the Abbey Theatre . He also wrote some pieces of literary criticism for Gonne 's Irlande Libre and other journals , as well as unpublished poems and prose in a decadent fin de siècle style . ( These writings were eventually gathered in the 1960s for his Collected Works . ) He also attended lectures at the Sorbonne by the noted Celtic scholar Henri d 'Arbois de Jubainville .
= = = Aran Islands and First Plays = = =
In 1897 Synge had his first attack of Hodgkin 's disease and also had an enlarged gland removed from his neck . The following year he spent the summer in the Aran Islands . He spent the next five summers in the Aran Islands , collecting stories and folklore , and perfecting his Irish , while continuing to live in Paris for most of the rest of each year . He also visited Brittany regularly . During this period he wrote his first play , When the Moon Has Set and sent it to Lady Gregory for the Irish Literary Theatre in 1900 , but she rejected it . ( The play was not published until it appeared in the Collected Works . )
Synge 's first account of life in the Aran Islands was published in the New Ireland Review in 1898 and his book , The Aran Islands , based largely on journals , was completed in 1901 and published in 1907 with illustrations by Jack Butler Yeats . Synge considered the book " my first serious piece of work " . When Lady Gregory read the manuscript she advised Synge to remove any direct naming of places and to add more folk stories , but he refused to do either because he wanted to create something more realistic . The book expresses Synge 's belief that beneath the Catholicism of the islanders it was possible to detect a substratum of the pagan beliefs of their ancestors . His experiences in the Aran Islands were to form the basis for the plays about Irish rural life that Synge went on to write .
In 1903 Synge left Paris and moved to London . He had written two one @-@ act plays , Riders to the Sea and The Shadow of the Glen , the previous year . These met with Lady Gregory 's approval and The Shadow of the Glen was performed at the Molesworth Hall in October 1903 . Riders to the Sea was performed at the same venue in February the following year . The Shadow of the Glen , under the title In the Shadow of the Glen , formed part of the bill for the opening run of the Abbey Theatre from 27 December 1904 to 3 January 1905 . Both plays were based on stories that Synge had collected in the Aran Islands , and Synge relied on props from the Aran Islands to help set the stage for each of them . He also relied on Hiberno @-@ English , the English dialect of Ireland , to reinforce its usefulness as a literary language , partly because he believed that the Irish language could not survive .
The Shadow of the Glen , based on a story about an unfaithful wife , was attacked in print by the Irish nationalist leader Arthur Griffith as " a slur on Irish womanhood " . Years later Synge wrote : " When I was writing The Shadow of the Glen some years ago I got more aid than any learning could have given me from a chink in the floor of the old Wicklow house where I was staying , that let me hear what was being said by the servant girls in the kitchen . " This encouraged more critical attacks alleging that Synge described Irish women in an unfair manner . Riders to the Sea was also attacked by nationalists , this time including Patrick Pearse , who decried it because of the author 's attitude to God and religion . Pearse , Arthur Griffith and other conservative @-@ minded Catholics claimed Synge had done a disservice to Irish nationalism by not idealising his characters . However , later critics have attacked Synge for idealising the Irish peasantry too much . A third one @-@ act play , The Tinker 's Wedding , was drafted around this time , but Synge initially made no attempt to have it performed , largely because of a scene in which a priest is tied up in a sack , which , as he wrote to the publisher Elkin Mathews in 1905 , would probably upset " a good many of our Dublin friends " .
When the Abbey Theatre was set up Synge was appointed literary adviser and soon became one of the directors , along with Yeats and Lady Gregory . He differed from Yeats and Lady Gregory on what he believed the Irish theatre should be , as he wrote to Stephen MacKenna :
I do not believe in the possibility of " a purely fantastic , unmodern , ideal , breezy , spring @-@ dayish , Cuchulainoid National Theatre " ... no drama can grow out of anything other than the fundamental realities of life , which are never fantastic , are neither modern nor unmodern and , as I see them , rarely spring @-@ dayish , or breezy or Cuchulanoid .
Synge 's next play , The Well of the Saints , was staged at the Abbey in 1905 , again to nationalist disapproval , and then in 1906 at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin . The critic Joseph Holloway claimed that the play combined " lyric and dirt " .
= = = Playboy Riots and After = = =
The play widely regarded as Synge 's masterpiece , The Playboy of the Western World , was first performed at the Abbey Theatre on 26 January 1907 . A comedy about apparent patricide , it attracted a hostile reaction from sections of the Irish public . The Freeman 's Journal described it as " an unmitigated , protracted libel upon Irish peasant men , and worse still upon Irish girlhood " . Arthur Griffith , who believed that the Abbey Theatre was insufficiently politically committed , described the play as " a vile and inhuman story told in the foulest language we have ever listened to from a public platform " , and perceived a slight on the virtue of Irish womanhood in the line " ... a drift of chosen females , standing in their shifts ... "
At the time a shift was known as a symbol representing Kitty O 'Shea and adultery . A significant portion of the audience at the first performance rioted , causing the third act of the play to be acted out in dumbshow . Yeats returned from Scotland to address the crowd on the second night , and decided to call in the police . Press opinion soon turned against the rioters and the protests petered out . Yeats referred to this incident in a speech to the Abbey audience in 1926 on the fourth night of Seán O 'Casey 's The Plough and the Stars , when he declared : " You have disgraced yourselves again . Is this to be an ever @-@ recurring celebration of the arrival of Irish genius ? Synge first and then O 'Casey ? "
Although the writing of The Tinker 's Wedding began at the same time as Riders to the Sea and In the Shadow of the Glen , it took Synge five years to complete , and was finished in 1907 . Riders was performed in the Racquet Court theatre in Galway 4 – 8 January 1907 and not performed again until 1909 , and only then in London . The first critic to respond to the play was Daniel Corkery , who said , " One is sorry Synge ever wrote so poor a thing , and one fails to understand why it ever should have been staged anywhere . "
= = Death = =
Synge died at the Elpis Nursing Home in Dublin on 24 March 1909 , aged 37 , and was buried in Mount Jerome Graveyard , Harold 's Cross , Dublin .
A collected volume , Poems and Translations , with a preface by Yeats , was published by the Cuala Press on 8 April 1909 . Yeats and actress and one @-@ time fiancee Molly Allgood completed Synge 's unfinished final play , Deirdre of the Sorrows , and it was presented by the Abbey players in January 1910 with Allgood as Deirdre .
= = = Personality = = =
John Masefield , who knew Synge , wrote that he " gave one from the first the impression of a strange personality " . Masefield felt that Synge 's view of life originated with his poor health . In particular , Masefield claimed that " His relish of the savagery made me feel that he was a dying man clutching at life , and clutching most wildly at violent life , as the sick man does " .
Yeats summarised his view of Synge in one of the stanzas of his poem " In Memory of Major Robert Gregory " :
And that enquiring man John Synge comes next ,
That dying chose the living world for text
And never could have rested in the tomb
But that , long travelling , he had come
Towards nightfall upon certain set apart
In a most desolate stony place ,
Towards nightfall upon a race
Passionate and simple like his heart .
= = = Legacy = = =
Synge 's plays helped to set the dominant style of plays at the Abbey Theatre until the 1940s . The stylised realism of his writing was reflected in the training given at the theatre 's school of acting , and plays of peasant life were the main staple of the repertoire until the end of the 1950s . Sean O 'Casey , the next major dramatist to write for the Abbey , knew Synge 's work well and attempted to do for the Dublin working classes what Synge had done for the rural poor . Brendan Behan , Brinsley MacNamara , and Lennox Robinson were all indebted to Synge .
Critic Vivian Mercier was among the first to recognise Samuel Beckett 's debt to Synge . Beckett was a regular member of the audience at the Abbey in his youth and particularly admired the plays of Yeats , Synge and O 'Casey . Mercier points out parallels between Synge 's casts of tramps , beggars and peasants and many of the figures in Beckett 's novels and dramatic works .
In recent years Synge 's cottage in the Aran Islands has been restored as a tourist attraction . An annual Synge Summer School has been held every summer since 1991 in the village of Rathdrum , County Wicklow . Synge is the subject of Mac Dara Ó Curraidhín 's 1999 documentary film , Synge agus an Domhan Thiar ( Synge and the Western World ) . Joseph O 'Connor wrote a novel , Ghost Light ( 2010 ) , loosely based on Synge 's relationship with Molly Allgood .
= = = Works = = =
In the Shadow of the Glen , 1903
Riders to the Sea , 1904
The Well of the Saints , 1905
The Aran Islands , 1907 ( The book at wikisource : The Aran Islands )
The Playboy of the Western World , 1907
The Tinker 's Wedding , 1908
Poems and Translations , 1909
Deirdre of the Sorrows 1910
In Wicklow and West Kerry , 1912
Collected Works of John Millington Synge 4 vols , 1962 – 1968
Volume 1 Poems , 1962
Volume 2 Prose , 1966
Volumes 3 and 4 Plays , 1968
= Dromedary =
The dromedary ( / ˈdrɒmədɛri / or / -ədri / ) , also called the Arabian camel ( Camelus dromedarius ) , is a large , even @-@ toed ungulate with one hump on its back . It is one of the three species of camel that was given its current binomial name by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . The dromedary is the largest camel after the Bactrian camel ; adult males stand 1 @.@ 8 – 2 m ( 5 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) at the shoulder , while females are 1 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 9 m ( 5 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 2 ft ) tall . Males typically weigh between 400 and 600 kg ( 880 and 1 @,@ 320 lb ) , and females weigh between 300 and 540 kg ( 660 and 1 @,@ 190 lb ) . The species ' distinctive features include its long , curved neck , narrow chest , a single hump ( compared with two on the Bactrian camel ) , and long hairs on the throat , shoulders and hump . The coat is generally a shade of brown . The hump , 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) tall or more , is made of fat bound together by fibrous tissue .
Dromedaries are mainly active during daylight hours . They form herds of about 20 individuals , which are led by a dominant male . This camel feeds on foliage and desert vegetation ; several adaptations , such as the ability to tolerate greater than 30 % of the water content of the body , allow it to thrive in its desert habitat . Mating occurs annually and peaks in the rainy season ; females bear a single calf after a gestation of 15 months .
The dromedary has not occurred naturally in the wild for nearly 2 @,@ 000 years . It was probably first domesticated in Somalia or the Arabian Peninsula about 4 @,@ 000 years ago . In the wild , the dromedary inhabited arid regions , including the Sahara Desert . The domesticated dromedary is generally found in the semi @-@ arid to arid regions of the Old World , mainly in Africa , and a significant feral population occurs in Australia , and were also recently introduced to North America , more specifically , Nevada in the United States . Products of the dromedary , including its meat and milk , support several north Arabian tribes ; it is also commonly used for riding and as a beast of burden .
= = Etymology = =
The common name " dromedary " comes from the Old French dromedaire or the Late Latin dromedarius . These originated from the Greek word dromas , δρομάς ( ο , η ) ( GEN ( γενική ) dromados , δρομάδος ) , meaning " running " or " runner " , used in Greek in the combination δρομάς κάμηλος ( dromas kamelos ) , literally " running camel " , to refer to the dromedary . The first recorded use in English of the name " dromedary " occurred in the 14th century . The dromedary possibly originated in Arabia and is therefore sometimes referred to as the Arabian camel . The word " camel " generally refers either to the dromedary or the congeneric Bactrian ; it may have been derived from the Latin word camelus , the Greek kamēlos , or an old Semitic language such as the Hebrew gāmāl or the Arabic ǧamal .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The dromedary shares the genus Camelus with the Bactrian camel ( C. bactrianus ) and the wild Bactrian camel ( C. ferus , sometimes considered a subspecies of the Bactrian camel ) . The dromedary belongs to the family Camelidae . The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle ( 4th century BC ) was the first to describe the species of Camelus . He named two species in his History of Animals ; the one @-@ humped Arabian camel and the two @-@ humped Bactrian camel . The dromedary was given its current binomial name Camelus dromedarius by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 publication Systema Naturae . In 1927 , British veterinarian Arnold Leese classified dromedaries by their basic habitats ; the hill camels are small , muscular animals and efficient beasts of burden ; the larger plains camels could be further divided into the desert type that can bear light burdens and are apt for riding , and the riverine type – slow animals that can bear heavy burdens ; and those intermediate between these two types .
In 2007 , Peng Cui of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and colleagues carried out a phylogenetic study of the evolutionary relationships between the two tribes of Camelidae ; Camelini – consisting of the three Camelus species ( the study considered the wild Bactrian camel as a subspecies of the Bactrian camel ) – and Lamini , which consists of the alpaca ( Vicugna pacos ) , the guanaco ( Lama guanicoe ) , the llama ( L. glama ) and the vicuña ( V. vicugna ) . The study showed the two tribes had diverged 25 million years ago ( early Miocene ) , earlier than previously estimated from North American fossils . Speciation began first in Lamini as the alpaca came into existence 10 million years ago ( late Pleistocene ) . Nearly two million years later , the dromedary and the Bactrian camel emerged as two independent species .
The dromedary and the Bactrian camel often interbreed to produce fertile offspring . Where the ranges of the species overlap , such as in northern Punjab , Persia and Afghanistan , the phenotypic differences between them tend to decrease as a result of extensive crossbreeding . The fertility of their hybrid has given rise to speculation that the dromedary and the Bactrian camel should be merged into a single species with two varieties . However , a 1994 analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene showed the species display 10 @.@ 3 % divergence in their sequences .
= = Genetics and hybrids = =
The dromedary has 74 diploid chromosomes , the same as other camelids . The autosomes consist of five pairs of small to medium @-@ sized metacentrics and submetacentrics . The X chromosome is the largest in the metacentric and submetacentric group . There are 31 pairs of acrocentrics . The dromedary 's karyotype is similar to that of the Bactrian camel .
Camel hybridisation began in the first millennium BC . For about a thousand years , Bactrian camels and dromedaries have been successfully bred in regions where they are sympatric to form hybrids with either a long , slightly lopsided hump or two humps – one small and one large . These hybrids are larger and stronger than their parents – they can bear greater loads . A cross between a first generation female hybrid and a male Bactrian camel can also produce a hybrid . Hybrids from other combinations tend to be bad @-@ tempered or runts .
= = Evolution = =
The extinct Protylopus , which occurred in North America during the upper Eocene , is the oldest and the smallest @-@ known camel . During the transition from Pliocene to Pleistocene , several mammals faced extinction . This period marked the successful radiation of the Camelus species , which migrated over the Bering Strait and dispersed widely into Asia , eastern Europe and Africa . By the Pleistocene , ancestors of the dromedary occurred in the Middle East and northern Africa .
The modern dromedary probably evolved in the hotter , arid regions of western Asia from the Bactrian camel , which in turn was closely related to the earliest Old World camels . This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the dromedary foetus has two humps , while in the adult male an anterior vestigial hump is present . A jawbone of a dromedary that dated from 8 @,@ 200 BC was found in Saudi Arabia on the southern coast of the Red Sea .
In 1975 , Richard Bulliet of Columbia University wrote that the dromedary exists in large numbers in areas from which the Bactrian camel has disappeared ; the converse is also true to a great extent . He said this substitution could have taken place because of the heavy dependence on the milk , meat and wool of the dromedary by Syrian and Arabian nomads , while the Asiatic people domesticated the Bactrian camel but did not have to depend upon its products .
= = Characteristics = =
The dromedary is the largest camel after the Bactrian camel . Adult males range in height between 1 @.@ 8 and 2 m ( 5 @.@ 9 and 6 @.@ 6 ft ) at the shoulder ; females range between 1 @.@ 7 and 1 @.@ 9 m ( 5 @.@ 6 and 6 @.@ 2 ft ) . Males typically weigh between 400 and 600 kg ( 880 and 1 @,@ 320 lb ) ; females range between 300 and 540 kg ( 660 and 1 @,@ 190 lb ) . The distinctive features are its long , curved neck , narrow chest and single hump ( the Bactrian camel has two ) , thick , double @-@ layered eyelashes and bushy eyebrows . They have sharp vision and a good sense of smell . The male has a soft palate ( dulaa in Arabic ) nearly 18 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , which it inflates to produce a deep pink sac . The palate , which is often mistaken for the tongue , dangles from one side of the mouth and is used to attract females during the mating season .
The coat is generally brown but can range from black to nearly white . Leese reported piebald dromedaries in Kordofan and Darfur in Sudan . The hair is long and concentrated on the throat , shoulders and the hump . The large eyes are protected by prominent supraorbital ridges ; the ears are small and rounded . The hump is at least 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) high . The dromedary has long , powerful legs with two toes on each foot . The feet resemble flat , leathery pads . Like the giraffe , dromedaries moves both legs on one side of the body at the same time .
Compared with the Bactrian camel , the dromedary has a lighter build , longer limbs , shorter hairs , a harder palate and an insigificant or absent ethmoidal fissure . Unlike the camelids of the genus Lama , the dromedary has a hump , and in comparison has a longer tail , smaller ears , squarer feet and a greater height at the shoulder . The dromedary has four teats instead of the two in the Lama species .
= = = Anatomy = = =
The cranium of the dromedary consists of a postorbital bar , a tympanic bulla filled with spongiosa , a well @-@ defined sagittal crest , a long facial part and an indented nasal bone . Typically , there are eight sternal and four non @-@ sternal pairs of ribs . The spinal cord is nearly 214 cm ( 84 in ) long ; it terminates in the second and third sacral vertebra . The fibula is reduced to a malleolar bone . The dromedary is a digitigrade animal ; it walks on its toes , which are known as digits . It lacks the second and fifth digits . The front feet are 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) wide and 18 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) long ; they are larger than the hind feet , which measure 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) wide and 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) long .
The dromedary has 22 milk teeth , which are eventually replaced by 34 permanent teeth . The dental formula for permanent dentition is 1 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 , and 1 @.@ 1 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 for milk dentition . In the juvenile , the lower first molars develop by 12 to 15 months and the permanent lower incisors appear at 4 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 5 years of age . All teeth are in use by 8 years . The lenses of the eyes contain crystallin , which constitutes 8 to 13 % of the protein present there .
The skin is black ; the epidermis is 0 @.@ 038 – 0 @.@ 064 mm ( 0 @.@ 0015 – 0 @.@ 0025 in ) thick and the dermis is 2 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 087 – 0 @.@ 185 in ) thick . The hump is composed of fat bound together by fibrous tissue . There are no glands on the face ; males have glands that appear to be modified apocrine sweat glands that secrete pungent , coffee @-@ coloured fluid during the rut , located on either side of the neck midline . The glands generally grow heavier during the rut , and range from 20 to 115 g ( 0 @.@ 71 to 4 @.@ 06 oz ) . Each cover hair is associated with an arrector pilli muscle , a hair follicle , a ring of sebaceous glands and a sweat gland . Females have cone @-@ shaped , four @-@ chambered mammary glands that are 2 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) long with a base diameter of 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) . These glands can produce milk with up to 90 % water content even if the mother is at risk of dehydration .
The heart weighs around 5 kg ( 11 lb ) ; it has two ventricles with the tip curving to the left . The pulse rate is 50 beats per minute . The dromedary is the only mammal with oval red blood corpuscles . The pH of the blood varies from 7 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 6 ( slightly alkaline ) . The individual 's state of hydration and sex , and the time of year can influence blood values . The lungs lack lobes . A dehydrated camel has a lower breathing rate . Each kidney has a capacity of 858 cm3 ( 52 @.@ 4 cu in ) , and can produce urine with high chloride concentrations . Like the horse , the dromedary has no gall bladder . The grayish violet , crescent @-@ like spleen weighs less than 500 g ( 18 oz ) . The triangular , four @-@ chambered liver weighs 6 @.@ 5 kg ( 14 lb ) ; its dimensions are : 60 × 42 × 18 cm ( 23 @.@ 6 × 16 @.@ 5 × 7 @.@ 1 in ) .
= = = = Reproductive system = = = =
The ovaries are reddish , circular and flattened . They are enclosed in a conical bursa and have the dimensions 4 × 2 @.@ 5 × 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 57 × 0 @.@ 98 × 0 @.@ 20 in ) during anestrus . The oviducts are 25 – 28 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 0 in ) long . The uterus is bicornuate . The vagina is 3 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) long and has well @-@ developed Bartholin 's glands . The vulva is 3 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) deep and has a small clitoris . The placenta is diffuse and epitheliochorial , with a crescent @-@ like chorion .
The penis is covered by a triangular penile sheath that opens backwards ; it is about 60 cm ( 24 in ) long . The scrotum is located high in the perineum with the testicles in separate sacs . Testicles are 7 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long , 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) deep and 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide . The right testicle is often smaller than the left . The typical mass of either testicle is less than 140 g ( 0 @.@ 31 lb ) ; during the rut the mass increases from 165 to 253 g ( 0 @.@ 364 to 0 @.@ 558 lb ) . The Cowper 's gland is white , almond @-@ shaped and lacks seminal vesicles ; the prostate gland is dark yellow , disc @-@ shaped and divided into two lobes .
= = = Health and diseases = = =
The dromedary generally suffers from fewer diseases than other domestic livestock such as goats and cattle . Temperature fluctuations occur throughout the day in a healthy dromedary – the temperature falls to its minimum at dawn , rises until sunset and falls during the night . Nervous camels may vomit if they are carelessly handled ; this does not always indicate a disorder . Rutting males may develop nausea .
The dromedary is prone to trypanosomiasis , a disease caused by a parasite transmitted by the tsetse fly . The main symptoms are recurring fever , anaemia and weakness ; the disease is typically fatal for the camel . Brucellosis is another prominent malady . In an observational study , the seroprevalence of this disease was generally low ( 2 to 5 % ) in nomadic or moderately free dromedaries , but it was higher ( 8 to 15 % ) in denser populations . Brucellosis is caused by different biotypes of Brucella abortus and B. melitensis . Other internal parasites include Fasciola gigantica ( trematode ) , two types of cestode ( tapeworm ) and various nematodes ( roundworms ) . Among external parasites , Sarcoptes species cause sarcoptic mange . In a 2000 study in Jordan , 83 % of the 32 camels studied tested positive for sarcoptic mange . In another study , dromedaries were found to have natural antibodies against the rinderpest and ovine rinderpest viruses .
In 2013 , a seroepidemiological study ( a study investigating the patterns , causes and effects of a disease on a specific population on the basis of serologic tests ) in Egypt was the first to show the dromedary might be a host for the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus ( MERS @-@ CoV ) . A 2013 – 14 study of dromedaries in Saudi Arabia concluded the unusual genetic stability of MERS @-@ CoV coupled with its high seroprevalence in the dromedary makes this camel a highly probable host for the virus . The full genome sequence of MERS @-@ CoV from dromedaries in this study showed a 99 @.@ 9 % match to the genomes of human clade B MERS @-@ CoV . Another study in Saudi Arabia showed the presence of MERS @-@ CoV in 90 % of the evaluated dromedaries and suggested that camels could be the animal source of MERS @-@ CoV .
Fleas and ticks are common causes of physical irritation . In a study in Egypt , a species of Hyalomma was dominant in dromedaries , comprising 95 @.@ 6 % of the adult ticks isolated from the camels . In Israel , the number of ticks per camel ranged from 20 to 105 . Nine camels in the date palm plantations in Arava Valley were injected with ivermectin , which is not effective against Hyalomma tick infestations . Larvae of the camel nasal fly Cephalopsis titillator can cause possibly fatal brain compression and nervous disorders . Illnesses that can affect dromedary productivity are pyogenic diseases and wound infections caused by Corynebacterium and Streptococcus , pulmonary disorders caused by Pasteurella such as hemorrhagic septicemia and Rickettsia species , camelpox , anthrax , and cutaneous necrosis caused by Streptothrix and deficiency of salt in the diet .
= = Ecology = =
The dromedary is diurnal ( active mainly during daylight ) ; free @-@ ranging herds feed and roam throughout the day , though they rest during the hottest hours around noon . The night is mainly spent resting . Dromedaries form cohesive groups of about 20 individuals , which consist of several females led by a dominant male . Females may also lead in turns . Some males either form bachelor groups or roam alone . Herds may congregate to form associations of hundreds of camels during migrations at the time of natural disasters . The males of the herd prevent female members from interacting with bachelor males by standing or walking between them and somtimes driving the bachelor males away . In Australia , short @-@ term home ranges of feral dromedaries cover 50 to 150 km2 ( 19 to 58 sq mi ) ; annual home ranges can spread over several thousand square kilometres .
Special behavioural features of the dromedary include snapping at others without biting them and showing displeasure by stamping their feet . They are generally non @-@ aggressive , with the exception of rutting males . They appear to remember their homes ; females in particular remember the places they first gave birth or suckled their offspring . Males become aggressive in the mating season , and sometimes wrestle . A 1980 study showed androgen levels in males influences their behaviour . Between January and April when these levels are high during the rut , they become difficult to manage , blow out the palate from the mouth , vocalise and throw urine over their backs . Camels scratch parts of their bodies with their legs or with their lower incisors . They may also rub against tree bark and roll in sand .
Free @-@ ranging dromedaries face large predators typical of their regional distribution , which includes wolves , lions and tigers .
= = Diet = =
The dromedary 's diet consists mostly of foliage , dry grasses and desert vegetation – mostly thorny plants . A study said the typical diet of the dromedary is dwarf shrubs ( 47 @.@ 5 % ) , trees ( 29 @.@ 9 % ) , grasses ( 11 @.@ 2 % ) , other herbs ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) and vines ( 11 % ) . The dromedary is primarily a browser ; forbs and shrubs comprise 70 % of its diet in summer and 90 % of its diet in winter . The dromedary may also graze on or suck in tall , young , succulent grasses .
In the Sahara , 332 plant species have been recorded as food plants of the dromedary . These include Aristida pungens , Acacia tortilis , Panicum turgidum , Launaea arborescens and Balanites aegyptiaca . The dromedary eats Acacia , Atriplex and Salsola when they are available . Feral dromedaries in Australia prefer Trichodesma zeylanicum and Euphorbia tannensis . In India , dromedaries are fed with forage plants such as Vigna aconitifolia , V. mungo , Cyamopsis tetragonolaba , Melilotus parviflora , Eruca sativa , Trifolium species and Brassica campestris . Dromedaries keep their mouths open while chewing thorny food . They use their lips to grasp the food and chew each bite 40 to 50 times . Its long eyelashes , eyebrows , lockable nostrils , caudal opening of the prepuce and a relatively small vulva help the camel avoid injuries , especially while feeding . They graze for 8 – 12 hours per day and ruminate for an equal amount of time .
= = Adaptations = =
The dromedary is specially adapted to its desert habitat ; these adaptations are aimed at conserving water and regulating body temperature . The bushy eyebrows and the double row of eyelashes prevent sand and dust from entering the eyes during strong windstorms , = and shield them from the sun 's glare . The dromedary is able to close its nostrils voluntarily ; this assists in water conservation . The dromedary can conserve water by reducing perspiration by fluctuating the body temperature throughout the day from 31 to 41 @.@ 7 ° C ( 87 @.@ 8 to 107 @.@ 1 ° F ) . The kidneys are specialised to minimise water loss through excretion . Groups of camels avoid excess heat from the environment by pressing against each other . The dromedary can tolerate greater than 30 % water loss , which is generally impossible for other mammals . In temperatures between 30 and 40 ° C ( 86 and 104 ° F ) , it needs water every 10 to 15 days . In the hottest temperatures the dromedary takes water every four to seven days . This camel has a quick rate of rehydration and can drink at 10 – 20 L ( 2 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 4 imp gal ) per minute . The dromedary has a rete mirabile , a complex of arteries and veins lying very close to each other which uses countercurrent blood flow to cool blood flowing to the brain . This effectively controls the temperature of the brain .
The hump stores up to 80 lb ( 36 kg ) of fat , which the camel can break down into water and energy to meet its needs when resources are scarce ; the hump also helps dissipate body heat . If the hump is small , the animal can show signs of starvation . In a 2005 study , the mean volume of adipose tissues ( in the external part of the hump that have cells to store lipids ) is related to the dromedary 's unique mechanism of food and water storage . In case of starvation , they can even eat fish and bones , and drink brackish and salty water . The hair is longer on the throat , hump and shoulders . Though the padded hooves effectively support the camel 's weight on the ground , they are not suitable for walking on slippery and muddy surfaces .
= = Reproduction = =
Since camels have a slow growth rate ; they reach sexual maturity only in advanced years . The age of sexual maturity varies geographically and depends on the individual , as does the reproductive period . Both sexes might mature by three to five years of age , though successful breeding could take longer . Mating occurs once a year , and peaks in the rainy season . The mating season lasts three to five months , but may last a year for older animals .
During the reproductive season , males splash their urine on their tails and nether regions . To attract females they extrude their soft palate – a trait unique to the dromedary . As thr male gurgles copious quantites of saliva turns to foam and covers the mouth . Males threaten each other for dominance over the female by trying to stand taller than the other , making low noises and a series of head movements including lowering , lifting and bending their necks backwards . Males tries to defeat other males by biting the opponent 's legs and taking the head between his jaws . Copulation begins with foreplay ; the male smells the female 's genitalia and often bites her there or around her hump . The male forces the female to sit , then grasps her with his forelegs . Camelmen often aid the male insert his penis into the female 's vulva . The male dromedary 's ability to penetrate the female on his own is disputed , though feral populations in Australia reproduce naturally . Copulation takes from 7 to 35 minutes , averaging 11 to 15 minutes . Normally , three to four ejaculations occur . The semen of a Bikaneri dromedary is white and viscous , with a pH of around 7 @.@ 8 .
A single calf is born after a gestation period of 15 months . Calves move freely by the end of their first day . Nursing and maternal care continue for one to two years . In a study to find whether young could exist on milk substitutes , two male , month @-@ old camels were separated from their mothers and were fed on milk substitutes prepared commercially for lambs . For the first 30 days , the changes in their weights were marked . Each gained 0 @.@ 400 kg ( 0 @.@ 88 lb ) and 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) , respectively , per day . They were found to have grown properly and weighed 135 kg ( 298 lb ) and 145 kg ( 320 lb ) – normal weights for male calves of that age . Lactational yield can vary with species , breed , individual , region , diet , management conditions and lactating stage . The largest quantity of milk is produced during the early period of lactation . The lactation period can vary between nine and eighteen months .
Dromedaries are induced ovulators . Oestrus may be cued by the nutritional status of the camel and the daylength . If mating does not occur , the follicle , which grows during oestrus , usually regresses within a few days . In one study , 35 complete oestrous cycles were observed in five nonpregnant females over 15 months . The cycles were about 28 days long ; follicles matured in six days , maintained their size for 13 days , and returned to their original size in eight days . In another study , ovulation could be best induced when the follicle reaches a size of 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 35 – 0 @.@ 75 in ) . In another study , pregnancy in females could be recognized as early as 40 to 45 days of gestation by the swelling of the left uterine horn , where 99 @.@ 5 % of pregnancies were located .
= = Distribution = =
The dromedary has not occurred in the wild for nearly 2 @,@ 000 years . Wild dromedaries inhabited arid regions , particularly the Sahara Desert . The original range of the camel ’ s wild ancestors was probably southern Asia and the Arabian peninsula . Its range included hot , arid regions of northern Africa , Ethiopia , the Near East and western and central Asia . The dromedary typically thrives in areas with a long dry season and a short wet season . They are sensitive to cold and humidity , though some breeds can thrive in humid conditions .
In the early 21st century , the domesticated dromedary is found in the semi @-@ arid to arid regions of the Old World . Africa has more than 80 % of the world 's total dromedary population ; it occurs in almost every desert zone in the northern part of the continent . The Sahel marks the southern extreme of its range , which is nearly 2 – 3 ° S latitude where the annual rainfall is around 550 mm ( 22 in ) . The Horn of Africa has nearly 35 % of the world 's dromedaries , most of the region 's stock is in Somalia , followed by Sudan and Ethiopia ( as of the early 2000s ) . According to the Yearbook of the Food and Agriculture Organisation ( FAO ) for 1984 , eastern Africa had about 10 million dromedaries , the largest population of Africa . Western Africa followed with 2 @.@ 14 million , while northern Africa had nearly 0 @.@ 76 million . Populations in Africa increased by 16 % from 1994 to 2005 .
Feral dromedary populations occur in Australia , where it was introduced in 1840 . The total dromedary population in Australia is 0 @.@ 5 million as of 2005 . Nearly 99 % of the populations are feral , and have annual growth rate of 10 % . Most of the Australian feral camels are dromedaries , with only a few Bactrian camels . Most of the dromedaries occur in Western Australia , with smaller populations in the Northern Territory , Western Queensland and northern South Australia .
In Asia , nearly 70 % of the population occurs in India and Pakistan . The combined population of the dromedary and the Bactrian camel decreased by around 21 % between 1994 and 2004 . The dromedary is sympatric with the Bactrian camel in Afghanistan , Pakistan , and central and southwestern Asia . India has a dromedary population of less than one million , with most ( 0 @.@ 67 million ) in the state of Rajasthan . Populations in Pakistan decreased from 1 @.@ 1 million in 1994 to 0 @.@ 8 million in 2005 – a 29 % decline . According to the FAO , the dromedary population in six countries of the Persian Gulf was nearly 0 @.@ 67 million in 2003 . In the Persian Gulf region the dromedary is locally classified into breeds including Al @-@ Majahem , Al @-@ Hamrah , Al @-@ Safrah , Al @-@ Zarkah and Al @-@ Shakha , based on coat colour . The UAE has three prominent breeds ; Racing camel , Al @-@ Arabiat and Al @-@ Kazmiat .
= = = Domestication = = =
The dromedary was probably first domesticated in Somalia or the Arabian Peninsula about 4 @,@ 000 years ago . In the ninth or tenth century BC , the dromedary became popular in the Near East . The Persian invasion of Egypt under Cambyses in 525 BC introduced domesticated camels to the area . The Persian camels were not well @-@ suited to trading or travel over the Sahara ; journeys across the desert were made on chariots pulled by horses . The dromedary was introduced into Egypt from south @-@ western Asia ( Arabia and Persia ) . The popularity of dromedaries increased after the Islamic conquest of North Africa . While the invasion was accomplished largely on horseback , new links to the Middle East allowed camels to be imported en masse . These camels were well @-@ suited to long desert journeys and could carry a great deal of cargo , allowing substantial trans @-@ Saharan trade for the first time . In Libya , dromedaries were used for transport and their milk and meat constituted the local diet .
Dromedaries were also shipped from south @-@ western Asia to Spain , Italy , Turkey , France , Canary Islands , the Americas and Australia . Dromedaries were introduced into Spain in 1020 AD and to Sicily in 1059 AD . Camels were exported to the Canary Islands in 1405 during the European colonisation of the area , and are still extant there , especially in Lanzarote and to the south of Fuerteventura . Attempts o introduce dromedaries into the Caribbean , Colombia , Peru , Bolivia and Brazil were made between the 17th and 19th centuries ; some were imported to the western United States in the 1850s and some to Namibia in the early 1900s , but presently they exist in small numbers or are absent in these areas .
In 1840 , about six camels were shipped from Tenerife to Adelaide , but only one survived the journey to arrive on 12 October that year . The animal , a male called Harry , was owned by the explorer John Ainsworth Horrocks . Harry was ill @-@ tempered but was included in an expedition the following year because he could carry heavy loads . The next major group of camels were imported into Australia in 1860 , and between 1860 and 1907 10 to 12 thousand were imported . These were used mainly for riding and transport .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The strength and docility of the dromedary make it popular as a domesticated animal . According to Bulliet , they can be used for a wide variety of purposes : riding , transport , ploughing , trading and as a source of milk , meat , wool and leather . The main attraction of the dromedary for nomadic desert @-@ dwellers is the wide variety of resources they provide , which are crucial for their survival . It is important for several Bedouin pastoralist tribes of northern Arabia , such as the Ruwallah , the Shammar and the Mutayr .
= = = Riding camels = = =
Although the role of the camel is diminishing with the advent of technology and modern means of transport , it is still an efficient mode of communication in remote and less @-@ developed areas . The dromedary has been used in warfare since the 2nd century BC , and it remains popular for racing , particularly in the Arab world . Riding camels of Arabia , Egypt and the Sahara are locally known as the Dilool , the Hageen and the Mehara respectively ; several local breeds are included within these groups .
The ideal riding camel is strong , slender and long @-@ legged with thin , supple skin . The special adaptations of the dromedary 's feet allow it to walk with ease on sandy and rough terrain and on cold surfaces . The camels of the Bejas of Sudan and the Anafi camel bred in Sudan are common breeds used as riding camels .
According to Leese , the dromedary walks with four speeds or gaits : walk , jog , fast run and canter . The first is the typical speed of walking , around 4 km / h ( 2 @.@ 5 mph ) . Jog is the most common speed , nearly 8 – 12 km / h ( 5 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 5 mph ) on level ground . He estimated a speed of 14 – 19 km / h ( 8 @.@ 7 – 11 @.@ 8 mph ) during a fast run , by observing northern African and Arabian dromedaries . He gave no speed range to describe the " canter " , but implied it was a type of gallop that if induced could exhaust the camel and the rider . Canter could be used only for short periods of time , for example in races .
The ideal age to start training dromedaries for riding is three years , although they may be stubborn and unruly . At first the camel 's head is controlled , and it is later trained to respond to sitting and standing commands , and to allow mounting . At this stage a camel will often try to escape when a trainer tries to mount it . The next stage involves training it to respond to reins . The animal must be given loads gradually and not forced to carry heavy loads before the age of six . Riding camels should not be struck on their necks , rather they should be struck behind the right leg of the rider . Leese described two types of saddles generally used in camel riding ; the Arabian markloofa used by single riders and the Indian pakra used when two riders mount the same camel .
= = = Baggage and draught camels = = =
The baggage camel should be robust and heavy . Studies have recommended the camel should have either a small or a large head with a narrow aquiline nose , prominent eyes and large lips . The neck should be medium to long so the head is held high . The chest should be deep and the hump should be well @-@ developed with sufficient space behind it to accommodate the saddle . The hindlegs should be heavy , muscular and sturdy . The dromedary can be trained to carry baggage from the age of five years , but must not be given heavy loads before the age of six . The hawia is a typical baggage saddle from Sudan . The methods of training the baggage camels are similar to those for riding camels .
Draught camel are used for several purposes including ploughing , processing in oil mills and pulling carts . There is no clear description for the ideal draught camel , though its strength , its ability to survive without water and the flatness of its feet could be indicators . It may be used for ploughing in pairs or in groups with buffaloes or bullocks . The draught camel can plough at around 2 @.@ 5 km / h ( 1 @.@ 6 mph ) , and should not be used for more than six hours a day – four hours in the morning and two in the afternoon . The camel is not easily exhausted unless diseased or undernourished , and has remarkable endurance and hardiness .
= = = Dairy products = = =
Camel milk is a staple food of nomadic tribes living in deserts . According to a study , it consists of 11 @.@ 7 % solids , 3 % protein , 3 @.@ 6 % fat , 0 @.@ 8 % ash , 4 @.@ 4 % lactose and 0 @.@ 13 % acidity ( pH 6 @.@ 5 ) . The quantities of sodium , potassium , zinc , iron , copper , manganese , niacin and vitamin C were relatively higher than the amounts in cow milk . However , the levels of thiamin , riboflavin , folacin , vitamin B12 , pantothenic acid , vitamin A , lysine , and tryptophan were lower than those in cow milk . The molar percentages of the fatty acids in milk fat were 26 @.@ 7 % for palmitic acid , 25 @.@ 5 % oleic acid , 11 @.@ 4 % myristic acid and 11 % palmitoleic acid . Camel milk has higher thermal stability compared with cow milk , but it does not compare favourably with sheep milk .
Daily milk yield generally varies from 3 @.@ 5 to 35 kg ( 7 @.@ 7 to 77 @.@ 2 lb ) and from 1 @.@ 3 % to 7 @.@ 8 % of the body weight . Milk yield varies geographically and depends upon the animals ' diet and living conditions . At the peak of lactation , a healthy female would typically provide 9 kg ( 20 lb ) milk per day . Leese estimated a lactating female would yield 4 to 9 L ( 0 @.@ 88 to 1 @.@ 98 imp gal ) besides the amount ingested by the calf . The Pakistani dromedary , which is considered a better milker and bigger , can yield 9 @.@ 1 – 14 @.@ 1 kg ( 20 – 31 lb ) when well @-@ fed . Dromedaries in Somalia may be milked between two and four times a day , while those in Afar , Ethiopia , may be milked up to seven times a day .
The acidity of dromedary milk stored at 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) increases at a slower rate than that of cow milk . Though the preparation of butter from dromedary milk is difficult , it has been carried out successfully in 1959 in the USSR . The cream of the dromedary milk , containing 4 @.@ 2 % fat , yielded 25 @.@ 8 % butter . In 2001 , the ability of dromedary milk to form curd was studied ; coagulation did not show curd formation , and had a pH of 4 @.@ 4 . It was much different from curd produced from cow milk , and had a fragile , heterogeneous composition probably composed of casein flakes . Nevertheless , cheese and other dairy products can be made from camel milk . A study found bovine calf rennet could be used to
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be hit the hardest in Iran following of the subsidy reform plan , because many Iranian cement factories are energy inefficient ( Notwithstanding possible adjustment and / or liberalization of commodities prices by the government during implementation ) . Taxi , delivery and truck drivers have also been adversely affected by the recent gas price increase . Experts believe that the removal of subsidies is likely to have an adverse impact on the profitability of the automotive sector for at least the next 2 – 3 years . One major element of pressure on producers is the unchanged exchange regime of the Central Bank of Iran , which puts imported products at an advantage by failing to compensate for the relative increase in production costs of domestic producers .
= = = Second phase = = =
During the second phase , starting in June 2012 , half of the funds from energy and food subsidies will be re @-@ allocated to the people and the remaining 50 % will go to the industrial sector . If approved by the Parliament , the government will pay an extra cash handout of 280 @,@ 000 rials / month to 80 % of the general population ( i.e. people earning less than $ 2000 / month , which is a comfortable income level in Iran ) . In July 2012 , it was announced that implementation of the second phase was suspended awaiting further adjustments by the government and because of raising inflation ( around 22 % as of April 2012 ) . Finally , in fall 2013 , the parliament approved a plan to drop 22 million Iranians — the top 30 percent of earners — from the subsidy system instead . Yet , it was reported in 2014 that out of Iran ’ s population of 77 million , 73 @.@ 6 million registered to receive the cash hand @-@ outs .
= = Effects and criticism = =
= = = 2010 = = =
According to earlier critics , even if half of $ 20 billion is passed as part of the compensation to the poorer 50 % of the Iranian society , it will amount to $ 25 per eligible person per month ; " no way near enough to make up for such inflation rates " .
Critics say that if the government goes for the top of this range inflation could rise up to 40 % through the economy . The International Monetary Fund , however , has predicted a more moderate rise in inflation of just 32 percent . As of January 2010 , the official inflation rate stands at 15 percent . The cost of living in Iran , according to the Majlis Research Center , could rise by up to 60 percent . Ahmadinejad 's administration contends that the negative side effects will be transient and that the projections are based on out @-@ of @-@ date models .
= = = 2011 = = =
According to some western reports , cash payments have been denied to some opponents of the regime during the distribution phase .
Ahmad Tavakkoli , a parliamentarian , accused the government of “ violating the law ” and “ mis @-@ implementing ” the plan because it earned 290,000bn rials ( $ 23.6bn ) from the cut in subsidies in the first 14 months of its implementation but paid people $ 36.7bn of compensation in return ( he says ) .
It has also been reported that while the subsidy reform plan needs further adaptation and fine @-@ tuning , citizens must separate the questions of public policy from the issues of government legitimacy . The IMF has hailed Iran 's economic reform and asked Iran 's expertise to be transferred to other countries . The Economist Intelligence Unit has also praised Iran 's subsidies reform plan for its positive effect on the economy in 2011 .
= = = 2012 = = =
In 2012 , Iran 's head of the Expediency Council , Ayatollah Hashemi Rafsanjani , criticized the government for failing to reinvest the money it saved by restructuring government subsidies . To compensate , the government says it has allowed producers to adjust their prices more liberally and it has given free loans and energy subsidies in some cases . In recent years , income inequality in Iran has declined by different measures , which may be an effect of the subsidy reforms . For example , the income Gini coefficient fell from 0 @.@ 4023 in 2005 to 0 @.@ 3813 in 2010 . Between February 2011 and February 2012 , the government earned 510 trillion rials ( some $ 41 @.@ 6 billion ) by implementing the Subsidy Reform Plan .
According to the World Bank :
In October 2012 , 179 of 240 members of parliament voted in favor of pausing the subsidy reform , because of high inflation ( exacerbated by the sanctions against Iran ) . Consequently , the growth in consumption of subsidized products rebounded in 2012 .
= = = 2014 = = =
In 2014 , Iran started the second phase of its targeted subsidy plan under President Hassan Rohani . Petrol prices were raised by 75 % from 4 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 rials ( $ 0 @.@ 16 to $ 0 @.@ 28 ) per litre which is far from the target price of approx . $ 0 @.@ 90 per litre . As a consequence , fuel smuggling and gasoline imports increased again .
= = = 2015 = = =
Iran 's government reported that the second phase of the subsidy reform plan will continue as originally planned .
= = = 2016 = = =
According to the sixth five @-@ year development plan ( 2016 @-@ 2021 ) , the subsidy reform plan is to be extended until 2021 .
In 2016 , the Iranian Parliament approved subsidy cuts to 24 Million Iranians . Under the changes , the government must end monthly cash payments of around $ 12 a person for many government employees with income above $ 900 per month and citizens who already receive social welfare . Nevertheless the government is reluctant to comply because this would be " unfair " ( allegedly ) despite the risk of running large budget deficits .
= Dr. No ( novel ) =
Dr. No is the sixth novel by the English author Ian Fleming to feature his British Secret Service agent James Bond . Fleming wrote the novel in early 1957 at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica . It was first published in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape on 31 March 1958 . The novel centres on Bond 's investigation into the disappearance in Jamaica of two fellow MI6 operatives . He establishes that they had been investigating Doctor No , a Chinese operator of a guano mine on the fictional Caribbean island of Crab Key . Bond travels to the island and meets Honeychile Rider and later Doctor No .
The novel began as a 1956 screenplay for the producer Henry Morgenthau III for a proposed television show entitled Commander Jamaica . When those plans foundered , Fleming adapted the ideas as the basis for a novel , provisionally titled The Wound Man . The book 's eponymous villain was influenced by Sax Rohmer 's Fu Manchu stories .
Dr. No was the first of Fleming 's novels to face widespread negative criticism in Britain ; Paul Johnson of The New Statesman dismissed the book as one of " Sex , Snobbery and Sadism " . When released on the American market it was received more favourably . Dr. No was serialised in The Daily Express , first in an abridged story form and later as a comic strip . The story was adapted in 1962 as the first film in the Bond series , with Sean Connery in the lead role ; in 2008 BBC Radio 4 broadcast a version , with Toby Stephens as Bond .
= = Plot = =
After recovering from tetrodotoxin poisoning inflicted by the SMERSH agent Rosa Klebb ( in From Russia , with Love ) the MI6 agent James Bond is sent by his superior , M , on a rest cure to the British colony of Jamaica . While there he is instructed to investigate the disappearance of Commander John Strangways , the head of MI6 's Station J in Kingston , and his secretary . Bond is briefed that Strangways had been investigating the activities of Doctor Julius No , a reclusive Chinese @-@ German who lives on the fictional island of Crab Key and runs a guano mine . The island has a colony of roseate spoonbills at one end while local rumour is that a vicious dragon also lives there . The spoonbills are protected by the American National Audubon Society , two of whose representatives died when their plane crashed on No 's airstrip .
On his arrival in Jamaica , Bond soon realises that he is being watched , as his hotel room is searched , a basket of poisoned fruit is delivered to the room ( supposedly a gift from the colonial governor ) and a deadly centipede is placed in his bed while he is sleeping . With the help of an old friend , Quarrel , Bond surreptitiously visits Crab Key to establish whether there is a connection between No and the disappearance of the MI6 personnel . Bond and Quarrel meet Honeychile Rider , who is there to collect valuable shells . Bond and Rider are captured by No 's men after Quarrel is burned to death by the doctor 's " dragon " — a flamethrowing armoured swamp buggy designed to keep away trespassers .
Bond discovers that No is working with the Russians and has built an elaborate underground facility from which he can sabotage US test missiles launched from Cape Canaveral . No had previously been a member of a Chinese tong , but after he stole a large amount of money from their treasury , he was captured by the organisation . The tong 's leaders had No 's hands cut off as a warning to others , and then shot . Because No 's heart was on the right side of his body ( dextrocardia ) , the bullet missed his heart and he survived . Interested in the ability of the human body to withstand and survive pain , No forces Bond to navigate his way through an obstacle course constructed in the facility 's ventilation system . Bond is kept under observation as he suffers electric shocks , burns and an encounter with large poisonous spiders . The ordeal ends in a fight with a captive giant squid , which he defeats by using improvised weapons . After his escape he encounters Rider , who has been pegged out to be eaten by crabs ; they had ignored her and she managed to escape .
Bond kills No by taking over the guano @-@ loading machine at the docks and diverting the flow of guano to bury him alive . Bond and Rider then escape from No 's complex in the " dragon " buggy .
= = Background and writing history = =
In June 1956 the author Ian Fleming began a collaboration with the producer Henry Morgenthau III on a planned television series , Commander Jamaica , which was to feature the Caribbean @-@ based character James Gunn . When the project foundered , and Fleming could not fashion a new plot for his next Bond novel , he used the idea as the basis for Dr. No . By January 1957 he had published four Bond novels in successive years from 1953 — Casino Royale , Live and Let Die , Moonraker and Diamonds Are Forever . A fifth , From Russia , with Love , was being edited and prepared for production . That month Fleming travelled to his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica to write Dr. No . He followed his usual practice , which he later outlined in Books and Bookmen magazine : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " By the time he returned to London in late February , he had completed a 206 @-@ page first draft , which he initially titled The Wound Man .
Although Fleming did not date the event within his novels , John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom wrote books for Ian Fleming Publications — have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . Chancellor put the events of Dr. No in 1956 ; Griswold is more precise , and considers the story to have taken place in February and March of that year .
As with his previous four novels , Fleming came up with the concept of the front cover design ; he considered Honeychile Rider to have a Venus @-@ like quality when introduced in the book and wanted this echoed on the cover . When Fleming commissioned Pat Marriott to illustrate the cover , he instructed that she be shown on a Venus elegans shell .
Prior to the release of Dr. No — and unconnected with the book itself — Bernard Bergonzi , in the March 1958 issue of Twentieth Century , attacked Fleming 's work , saying that it contained " a strongly marked streak of voyeurism and sado @-@ masochism " and that the books showed " the total lack of any ethical frame of reference " . The article also compared Fleming unfavourably to John Buchan and Raymond Chandler in both moral and literary measures . The writer Simon Raven , while appreciating Bergonzi had produced a " quiet and well @-@ argued article " , thought that the critic 's conclusion was naïve , and asked " Since when has it been remarkable in a work of entertainment that it should lack a specific ' ethical frame of reference ' ? " Raven continued , saying Fleming " by reason of his cool and analytical intelligence , his informed use of technical facts , his plausibility , sense of pace , brilliant descriptive powers and superb imagination , provides sheer entertainment such as I , who must read many novels , am seldom lucky enough to find " .
= = Development = =
= = = Plot inspirations = = =
In March 1956 Fleming and his friend Ivar Bryce accompanied Robert Cushman Murphy ( of the American Museum of Natural History ) and Arthur Vernay ( of the Flamingo Protection Society ) on a trip to a flamingo colony on Great Inagua in the south of the Bahamas . The colony was 100 square miles ( 260 km2 ) of dense mangrove swamp and salt flats , home to flamingos , egrets and roseate spoonbills ; the location inspired Crab Key . Much of the travel overland on Great Inagua was by a swamp vehicle , a Land Rover fitted with over @-@ large tyres that became the model for the " dragon " used in the story .
Fleming 's inspiration for the Doctor No character was Sax Rohmer 's villain Dr Fu Manchu , who featured in books Fleming had read and enjoyed in earlier years . Aspects of the plot were influenced by Rohmer 's work , and Winder observes that the use of the centipede was " a straight steal " from a Fu Manchu novel ; other devices from Rohmer 's novels included Doctor No 's secret lair and the use of the mad scientist trope .
After Diamonds Are Forever was published in 1956 , Fleming received a letter from Geoffrey Boothroyd , a Bond enthusiast and gun expert , who criticised the author 's choice of firearm for Bond . Boothroyd suggested that Bond should swap his Beretta for a Walther PPK 7 @.@ 65 mm , an exchange that made it to the novel . Boothroyd also gave Fleming advice on the Berns @-@ Martin triple draw shoulder holster and a number of the weapons used by SMERSH and other villains . In thanks , Fleming gave the MI6 Armourer the name Major Boothroyd in Dr. No and M introduces him to Bond as " the greatest small @-@ arms expert in the world " .
As he had done in his previous novels , Fleming borrowed names from his friends and associates to use in his book ; Ivar Bryce 's housekeeper , May Maxwell , became Bond 's Scottish " treasure " May . One of Fleming 's neighbours in Jamaica , and later his lover , was Blanche Blackwell : Fleming named the guano @-@ collecting ship in Dr. No as Blanche . His friend Patricia Wilder found that her nickname of Honey Chile was used for the novel 's main female character , and John Fox @-@ Strangways — a friend from the gentlemen 's club White 's — saw part of his surname being used for the name of the MI6 station chief in Jamaica . Fleming also used the physical descriptions of people he knew ; Quarrel , who previously appeared in the novel Live and Let Die , was based on a Jamaican fisherman who often took Fleming shark fishing .
= = = Characters = = =
In Dr. No , for the first time in the Bond novels , there is friction between Bond and M , brought about because Bond was nearly killed by the SMERSH agent Rosa Klebb in From Russia , with Love . M orders Bond to use a new gun and sends him on a holiday assignment , which Bond resents . The writer Raymond Benson — who later wrote a series of Bond novels — sees M at his most authoritarian in Dr. No , punishing Bond both in terms of stripping him of his gun and then sending him on what both Bond and M considered at first to be a " soft " assignment .
Honeychile Rider is one of three women in the Bond canon who have been scarred by rape . This follows a pattern where the women Bond comes across are somehow different to the norm , although Black points out that this gives Bond an opportunity to help and save both Rider and the others . Other female characters in the Bond series have flaws , and Rider has a broken nose — the result of the rape she suffered . The cultural historians Janet Woollacott and Tony Bennett , in their analysis of the roles of women in the Bond novels , consider that Rider is " not archetypically feminine " , but is " constructed according to the formula ' equal but yet subordinate ' . " Rider is described in the book as having buttocks like a boy , which brought a response from Fleming 's friend Noël Coward that " I was also slightly shocked by the lascivious announcement that Honeychile 's bottom was like a boy 's . I know that we are all becoming more broadminded nowadays , but really old chap what could you have been thinking of ? "
Fleming 's villain was physically disfigured , similar to many of Bond 's later adversaries ; No is 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) tall , with steel pincers for hands and has dextrocardia . Bond describes him as " a giant venomous worm wrapped in grey tin @-@ foil " . Benson considers that No is " a wickedly successful villain " , the best since Hugo Drax in Moonraker , while Time thought No to be " one of the less forgettable characters in modern fiction " .
Quarrel was Fleming 's idealised concept of a black person , and the character was based on his genuine liking for Jamaicans , whom he saw as " full of goodwill and cheerfulness and humour " . The relationship between Bond and Quarrel was based on a presumption of Bond 's superiority . Fleming described the relationship as " that of a Scots laird with his head stalker ; authority was unspoken and there was no room for servility " . Winder considers the scenes with Quarrel to be " embarrassingly patronising but nonetheless hypnotic " .
= = Style = =
In From Russia , with Love Fleming experimented with an unusual narrative structure that saw Bond 's entry into the story delayed until chapter eleven . For Dr. No he returned to the conventional form with which he felt comfortable — that of the thriller writers of the early 20th century . As a result , the story 's villain is closer to the intellectual " gentleman crook " of the golden age of detective fiction , and the novel 's focus is on action at the expense of character development and depth of plot .
Benson describes the " Fleming Sweep " as taking the reader from one chapter to another using " hooks " at the end of chapters to heighten tension and pull the reader onto the next . He feels that the " Fleming Sweep briskly propels the plot " of Dr. No through chapters that are longer than in previous Bond novels ; the cultural historian Jeremy Black also likes Dr. No 's pacing , despite considering it inconsistent in places . Winder believes that the novel 's plotting is chaotic , although he still feels the book " can be read over and over again with immense pleasure " .
Fleming used known brand names and everyday details to produce a sense of realism , which the writer Kingsley Amis calls " the Fleming effect " . Amis describes " the imaginative use of information , whereby the pervading fantastic nature of Bond 's world ... [ is ] bolted down to some sort of reality , or at least counter @-@ balanced . " The journalist and writer Matthew Parker sees the novel as " the most fantastical , gothic and melodramatic ; and at times frankly , even knowingly , over the top " , while Black considers the fantastic element of Doctor No 's underground lair to be a " weak " and " bizarre " part of the story . When the writer Raymond Chandler reviewed the novel , he thought " that the long sensational business which is the heart of the book not only borders on fantasy . It plunges in with both feet . Ian Fleming 's impetuous imagination has no rules . " Writing in 1963 , Fleming acknowledged his plots were " fantastical while often being based in truth . They go wildly beyond the probable but not , I think , beyond the possible " .
= = Themes = =
Two main themes run through Dr. No : the meaning of power ; and the concept of friendship and loyalty . Bond talks about the meaning of power with several villains in the series . His conversation with Doctor No reveals that the latter believes it can only be secured through the privacy required to maintain the sovereignty of his island . No quotes Carl von Clausewitz 's first principle — about having a secure base from which to operate — in support of his argument . According to Panek , in his examination of 20th century British spy novels , Dr. No " shows a shift towards emphasizing the intellect and organizing power of the individual " , as opposed to a group or nation . Black considers that although it is American assets that are under threat from the Soviet Union , it is British power , through the British agent , that concludes the issue . This is reinforced at the end of the book , when a modern British warship bearing British soldiers is despatched to the island . In Black and Parker 's views , the display of British power , with no assistance from America , portrayed the British Empire as an enduring force .
The concept of friendship and loyalty is the second major theme . The relationship between Bond and Quarrel , the Cayman Islander , is mutually felt . According to Lindner , Quarrel is " an indispensable ally " who had assisted Bond in Live and Let Die . Benson sees no racial discrimination in the relationship between the two men and acknowledges that Bond feels genuine remorse and sadness at Quarrel 's death .
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Publication history = = =
Dr. No was released on 31 March 1958 in the UK as a hardcover edition by the publishers Jonathan Cape . A paperback edition was issued by Pan Books in February 1960 ; over 115 @,@ 000 copies were sold that year . The first American edition was published in June 1958 by Macmillan under the name Doctor No . The largest boost in sales of the novel came in 1962 with the release of the film adaptation . In the seven months after the picture 's release , 1 @.@ 5 million copies of the book were sold . In 1964 the novel was serialised in France @-@ Soir for the French market , which led to increased sales of Bond works in that country ; 480 @,@ 000 French @-@ language copies of the six Bond novels were sold that year . Since its initial publication the book has been issued in numerous hardback and paperback editions , translated into several languages and has never been out of print .
= = = Reviews = = =
For the first time in the Bond series , Fleming encountered harsh criticism . The most virulent came from Paul Johnson of the New Statesman , who opened his review , " Sex , Snobbery and Sadism " , with : " I have just finished what is , without doubt , the nastiest book I have ever read " . He went on to say that " by the time I was a third of the way through , I had to suppress a strong impulse to throw the thing away " . Although he recognised that Bond represented " a social phenomenon of some importance " , he saw this as a negative element , as the phenomenon concerned " three basic ingredients in Dr. No , all unhealthy , all thoroughly English : the sadism of a schoolboy bully , the mechanical , two @-@ dimensional sex @-@ longings of a frustrated adolescent , and the crude , snob @-@ cravings of a suburban adult " . Johnson saw no positives in Dr. No , saying that " Mr Fleming has no literary skill , the construction of the book is chaotic , and entire incidents and situations are inserted , and then forgotten , in a haphazard manner . "
Maurice Richardson , of The Observer , considered the novel " the usual sado @-@ masochistic free @-@ for @-@ all , plus octopuses " . The unnamed critic in The Manchester Guardian referred to Johnson 's " sex , snobbery and sadism " complaint . They highlighted the " sinister ... cult of luxury for its own sake " , with Bond 's enjoyment of branded and bespoke products , but disagreed with part of Johnson 's summary that the novel was a sign of moral decay ; rather , " we should be grateful to Mr. Fleming for providing a conveniently accessible safety @-@ valve for the boiling sensibility of modern man . " This reviewer also conceded that while " the casualties take place on a somewhat narrower front than usual , they are heavy " . In April 1958 , Fleming wrote to The Manchester Guardian in defence of his work , referring to both that paper 's review of Dr. No and the article in The Twentieth Century . Fleming partly accepted the criticism concerning the exclusivity of Bond 's objects , such as cigarettes and food , but defended it on the basis that " I had to fit Bond out with some theatrical props " . These included his cocktail , ( " The Vesper " ) and Bond 's diet . Fleming called these devices " vulgar foibles " which he was saddled with , although maybe , he suggested , " Bond 's luxury meals are simply saying ' no ' to toad @-@ in @-@ the @-@ hole and tele @-@ bickies . "
Writing in The Times Literary Supplement , Philip Stead was more generous to Dr. No . Despite thinking that Fleming was offering " too opulent a feast " with the book , Stead argued that Fleming managed to pull this off , where " a less accomplished writer ... would never have got away with this story . " Raymond Chandler reviewed the novel for The Sunday Times and praised as " masterly " Fleming 's depiction of colonial Kingston in the first chapter . Chandler admired Fleming 's writing , which had " an acute sense of pace . ... You don 't have to work at Ian Fleming . He does the work for you . "
The reviewer for Time acknowledged the critical storm around Fleming and Dr. No , but was broadly welcoming of the book , writing that while " not all readers will agree that Dr. No ... is magnificent writing , ... pages of it , at least , qualify for Ezra Pound 's classic comment on Tropic of Cancer : ' At last , an unprintable book that is readable ' . " In The New York Times , Anthony Boucher — described by Fleming 's biographer John Pearson as " throughout an avid anti @-@ Bond and an anti @-@ Fleming man " — was again damning of Fleming 's work , saying " it 's harder than ever to see why an ardent coterie so admires Ian Fleming 's tales " . Benson described Boucher 's critique as " true to form " and " a tirade " as Boucher concluded his review by saying : " it is 80 @,@ 000 words long , with enough plot for 8 @,@ 000 and enough originality for 800 . "
Glendy Culligan of The Washington Post described the novel as a " thin little whodunit which rocked the British Empire and shook the English Establishment " , adding " Bully for it ! " Culligan admitted that " Confidentially though , we enjoyed Dr. No , and if this be sick , sick , sick , gentlemen , make the most of it . " James Sandoe in his book review for The New York Herald Tribune was very positive about Dr. No and thought that it was " the most artfully bold , dizzyingly poised thriller of the decade . You 'd much better read it than read about it . "
The writer Simon Winder believes that because Fleming was writing about Jamaica , the result was " perhaps the most attractive of all the Bond books — the most relaxed , the most fiendish , the most confident " . According to the literary analyst LeRoy L. Panek , in his examination of 20th century British spy novels , Fleming knew his outdated view of Jamaica would soon be overtaken by events — as evidenced by the novel 's description of how the Queen 's Club would be lost during independence struggles . According to the cultural historian Michael Denning , this acknowledgement of the end @-@ of @-@ empire leads to a " sense of doom " that is the result of " a shadow of real history hanging over the stories " .
= = Adaptations = =
Dr. No was serialised in The Daily Express from 19 March to 1 April 1958 . In 1960 the novel was adapted as a daily comic strip in the paper and was syndicated worldwide . The strip , which ran from May to October , was written by Peter O 'Donnell and illustrated by John McLusky . It was reprinted in 2005 by Titan Books as part of the Dr. No anthology that also includes Diamonds Are Forever and From Russia , with Love . In 1962 the American men 's magazine Stag serialised the story , renaming it as " Nude Girl of Nightmare Key " .
The film Dr. No was released in 1962 , produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , and directed by Terence Young . It was the first Bond film in the Eon Productions series ; Sean Connery portrayed Bond , with Joseph Wiseman as Doctor No and Ursula Andress as Honeychile Rider . Although the story follows the same general storyline , there are some changes : the film shows No to be an operative of the fictional crime organisation SPECTRE and his island fortress is nuclear @-@ powered ; No is killed not by the mountain of guano , but by drowning in reactor coolant . The novel was dramatised for BBC Radio 4 in May 2008 . The actor Toby Stephens played Bond , while No was played by David Suchet .
= Rachel McAdams =
Rachel Anne McAdams ( born November 17 , 1978 ) , is a Canadian actress . After graduating from a four @-@ year theatre program at York University in 2001 , she initially worked in Canadian television and film productions such as the drama film Perfect Pie ( 2002 ) ( for which she received a Genie Award nomination ) , the comedy film My Name Is Tanino ( 2002 ) , and the comedy miniseries Slings and Arrows ( for which she won a Gemini Award ) . In 2002 , she made her Hollywood film debut in the comedy The Hot Chick . McAdams found fame in 2004 , with the character of Regina George in the comedy Mean Girls and with her performance in the romantic drama The Notebook . In 2005 , she starred in the romantic comedy Wedding Crashers , the psychological thriller Red Eye , and the family comedy @-@ drama The Family Stone . She was hailed by the media as Hollywood 's new " it girl " , and received a BAFTA nomination for Best Rising Star .
After a two @-@ year career break , McAdams appeared in two limited release films in 2008 ; the film noir Married Life and the road trip comedy @-@ drama The Lucky Ones . She returned to prominence in 2009 by appearing in the political @-@ thriller State of Play , the science @-@ fiction romantic drama The Time Traveler 's Wife and the mystery action @-@ adventure film Sherlock Holmes . In 2010 , McAdams appeared in her first star vehicle , the comedy Morning Glory . In 2015 , her most high @-@ profile roles were in season two of HBO 's crime drama True Detective , and as journalist Sacha Pfeiffer in Spotlight . For her performance in Spotlight , she received several award nominations , including for a Screen Actors Guild Award , and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress .
= = Early life = =
Rachel McAdams was born in London , Ontario , to Sandra Kay ( née Gale ) , a nurse , and Lance Frederick McAdams , a retired truck driver and furniture mover , and grew up in nearby St. Thomas . She is of English , Irish , Scottish , and Welsh descent ; McAdams ' maternal fifth great @-@ grandfather , James Gray , was a Loyalist ranger during the American Revolution and fled to Canada after the Battles of Saratoga . McAdams is the eldest of three children with a sister , Kayleen , a celebrity make @-@ up artist , and a brother , Daniel . She grew up in a Protestant household . When she was four years old , she began figure skating , but turned down an opportunity to move to Toronto when she was nine years old for pair skating training . Then skating became merely " a hobby " . She competed in skating until the age of eighteen , winning regional awards . She has since said that skating prepared her for physical acting , because it trained her to be " in tune " with her body . McAdams was educated at Myrtle Street Public School , and later Central Elgin Collegiate Institute . She did not enjoy academic work and often would pretend to be sick to avoid going to school . Nonetheless , she was active in student life . In addition to playing sports ( including volleyball , badminton , and soccer ) , McAdams served on the student council , participated in the Crimestoppers program , and was a member of the Peer Helping Team . She worked at a McDonald 's restaurant during the summer holidays for three years .
McAdams first developed an interest in performing when she was seven years old , and while her parents did not discourage her , they did not " go out and find [ her ] an agent " . She attended both Disney and Shakespeare summer camps as a child . From the age of twelve , McAdams participated in Original Kids Theatre Company , London productions . In her late teens , she directed children 's theatre productions . She also was involved in school stage productions , most notably winning a performance award at the Sears Ontario Drama Festival . She was inspired by two of her teachers , who taught her English and drama , respectively , in the eleventh and twelfth grades . McAdams intended to take Cultural studies at the University of Western Ontario before being persuaded by her drama teacher that a professional acting career was a viable option . She enrolled in York University 's four @-@ year theatre program and graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts honours degree in 2001 . While at university , McAdams worked with the Toronto @-@ based Necessary Angel Theatre Company .
= = Career = =
= = = 2001 – 05 : Early work and breakthrough = = =
In 2001 , McAdams made her television debut in the MTV pilot Shotgun Love Dolls as Beth Swanson , which was filmed during spring break from York University . She also made her Canadian film debut that year in the comedy My Name is Tanino . The Italian @-@ Canadian co @-@ production was filmed in Sicily and it marked her first time on an airplane when she was 22 years old . McAdams later earned a Genie Award nomination in her native Canada for her role as a teenage version of Wendy Crewson 's character in the drama Perfect Pie . In 2002 , she made her Hollywood film debut in the comedy The Hot Chick with Rob Schneider and Anna Faris which McAdams has described as a " huge milestone " in her career . She played a catty high school student who swaps bodies with Schneider 's character , a small @-@ time criminal . The Los Angeles Times felt she " emerges as a young actress of much promise " while the Daily Mail described McAdams and Faris as " talents to watch , but they are let down by everything around them " . The film grossed $ 54 million worldwide . Afterwards , McAdams returned to Canada to star as Kate McNab in the comedy mini @-@ series Slings and Arrows about backstage theatre life at the fictional New Burbage Shakespearean Festival . She was written out of the second season of the program following her success in the United States . She received two Gemini Award nominations for her work on the program , with one win .
McAdams ' break @-@ out role came in 2004 , when she starred in the comedy film Mean Girls opposite Lindsay Lohan , Lacey Chabert and Amanda Seyfried . McAdams was 25 years old when she was cast as Regina George , the frenemy of Lohan 's character Cady Heron and the meanest and popular queen bee in the school , and she modelled her character from Alec Baldwin 's performance in the 1992 drama Glengarry Glen Ross . USA Today praised her " comic flair " while The Daily Telegraph found her " delightfully hateful " . The San Francisco Chronicle felt that " McAdams brings glamour and magnetism to Regina , but also the right hint of comic distance . " The film grossed $ 129 million worldwide and earned McAdams two MTV Movie Awards . Mean Girls later reached No. 12 in an Entertainment Weekly list of the Greatest Ever High School Movies . Tina Fey , who co ‑ starred in the film and wrote the screenplay , has credited McAdams with teaching her how to act in front of a camera rather than an audience : " She 's a film actor . She 's not pushing . And so I kind of learned that lesson from watching her . "
Afterwards in 2004 , McAdams starred opposite fellow Canadian Ryan Gosling in the romantic drama The Notebook directed by Nick Cassavetes and based on Nicholas Sparks 's novel of the same name . She played Allie Hamilton , a wealthy southern belle who has a forbidden love affair with Gosling 's character Noah Calhoun , a poor labourer . McAdams spent time in Charleston , South Carolina prior to filming to familiarize herself with the southern accent she used , and took ballet and etiquette classes . Filming took place from late 2002 to early 2003 . Although McAdams and Gosling became romantically involved in 2005 , they had a combative relationship on set . " We inspired the worst in each other " , Gosling has said . " It was a strange experience , making a love story and not getting along with your co @-@ star in any way . " At one point , Gosling asked Cassavetes to " bring somebody else in for my off @-@ camera shot " because he felt McAdams was being uncooperative . The New York Times praised the " spontaneous and combustible " performances of the two leads while Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times was won over by the " beauty and clarity " of McAdams 's performance . The Chicago Tribune declared her " a real discovery " who " infuses young Allie with that radiant , breathlessly winning ingénue grace and charm that breaks hearts " . The film grossed over $ 115 million worldwide . McAdams won an MTV Movie Award and four Teen Choice Awards . Entertainment Weekly has said that the movie contains the All @-@ Time Best Movie Kiss while the Los Angeles Times has included a scene from the film in a list of the 50 Classic Movie Kisses . The Notebook has appeared on many Most Romantic Movies lists . " I 'm so grateful to have a film that people respond to in that way " , McAdams told Elle in 2011 . " It was a big deal " .
In 2005 , McAdams starred in the romantic comedy Wedding Crashers with Owen Wilson , Vince Vaughn and Bradley Cooper . McAdams played the daughter of an influential politician , who is caught in a love triangle with Wilson and Cooper 's characters . McAdams listened repeatedly to Fleetwood Mac 's 1975 song " Landslide " to prepare for emotional scenes and Wilson has said the song made her cry immediately : " It was like turning on a faucet " . She trained for a sailing certification for a boating sequence because her character was said to be an accomplished sailor . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times felt McAdams " makes the most of her underdeveloped character " and " grows more appealing with every new role " . Variety found her " a beguiling presence " who " actually creates a real character – a rarity for females in one of these lad @-@ mag escapades " . From a production budget of $ 40 million , the film grossed over $ 285 million worldwide .
Afterwards , McAdams starred opposite Cillian Murphy in Wes Craven 's thriller Red Eye where she played a young hotel manager who is held captive by Murphy 's character while aboard a red @-@ eye flight . Craven has said McAdams was the only actress he considered for the part . She was drawn to the relatable qualities of her character : " She was not some sweaty , tank @-@ top @-@ wearing , Uzi @-@ carrying super woman " . Variety found her " increasingly impressive " while Roger Ebert asserted that " she brings more presence and credibility to her role than is really expected ; she acts without betraying the slightest awareness that she 's inside a genre . Her performance qualifies her for heavy @-@ duty roles . " Upon release , the film , which was made on a budget of $ 26 million , earned over $ 95 million at the worldwide box office .
In late @-@ 2005 , McAdams starred in the seasonal family comedy @-@ drama The Family Stone alongside Sarah Jessica Parker , Diane Keaton and Paul Schneider , which gave McAdams an opportunity to play a dishevelled and sardonic sister , rather than the usual " obvious " girlfriend or wife roles . She was eager to work with Keaton and remarked , " It 's never about line counts for me . It 's about the people I get to work with . " Variety noted that " a deglammed but still radiant McAdams proves once again that she 's the real deal , delivering a deliciously feisty performance " . The New York Times felt that her " engaging screen presence holds your attention and sympathy despite the handicap presented by her character 's personality . " The film was a commercial success : it cost $ 18 million to make and grossed over $ 92 million worldwide .
= = = 2006 – 10 : Career hiatus and return = = =
At this point in her career , McAdams was hailed as " the next Julia Roberts " and the new " Hollywood it girl " . Vanity Fair invited McAdams , along with actresses Scarlett Johansson and Keira Knightley , to appear on its March 2006 cover , the annual Hollywood issue . Upon arrival on the photo set , McAdams discovered it was a nude session , declined and left . She later parted ways with her publicist at the time , who had not informed her in advance . Knightley later recounted , " Quite early on Rachel just said , ' No , I 'm not into that . ' She 's a lovely girl , and I really respect her for doing that . " When asked about the incident in 2008 , McAdams had " no regrets " .
McAdams took a break from her film career from 2006 to 2007 . " There were a lot of cooks in the kitchen , a lot of voices around me , and I wanted to step away so I could hear my own voice again " , McAdams said in 2013 . " Truthfully , I never really wanted to be a big movie star . I never even wanted to work outside of Canada , or outside of the theatre . " During that period , McAdams turned down roles in the films The Devil Wears Prada , Casino Royale , Mission : Impossible III and Get Smart . In February 2006 , she made a one @-@ off stage appearance in The Vagina Monologues at St. Lawrence Centre for the Arts , Toronto to raise funds for V @-@ Day . That same year , McAdams received a Rising Star Award nomination from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts and hosted the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement .
McAdams returned to her film career in 2008 and starred in the 1940s film noir Married Life with Pierce Brosnan and Chris Cooper where she played Kay Nesbitt , a young widow who wins the affections of Brosnan and Cooper 's older characters . In preparation for the role , McAdams studied old films , particularly those of Kim Novak . She has said the film shoot re @-@ energized and re @-@ inspired her and made her eager to continue working more often again . Entertainment Weekly found McAdams " a particularly delightful vision after her two @-@ year intermission " . Variety criticized her break from the big screen but felt that , despite a performance of " tender feeling " , " her natural vivaciousness and spontaneity are straightjacketed " by the film noir format . The film had a limited release and was a box @-@ office failure . It grossed just over $ 2 million worldwide , failing to recoup its production budget of $ 12 million .
Afterwards , McAdams starred in the road trip comedy @-@ drama The Lucky Ones with Tim Robbins and Michael Peña , a story about three Iraq War soldiers on a brief road trip back in the United States . She trained at a real boot camp , at Fort Campbell , Kentucky , prior to filming . In 2011 , McAdams said that Colee Dunn was " probably one of my favorite characters I 've ever played " . The film also had a limited release and The New York Times found her " luminous as always " while Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times hailed the performance as " her coming of age as an actress " . " Previously she has been seen mostly as a hot chick or an idealized sweetheart " , he wrote . " Here she is feisty , vulnerable , plucky , warm , funny ... Watch the poignancy of the scene when she meets her boyfriend 's family . " Entertainment Weekly found her " feisty , gorgeous , and as mercurial as a mood ring " . The Lucky Ones is the least commercially successful film of McAdams 's career as of 2012 , having grossed just $ 266 @,@ 967 worldwide .
In 2009 , McAdams starred with Russell Crowe , Helen Mirren , and Ben Affleck in the political thriller State of Play , based on the BBC drama television series of the same name . McAdams played Della Frye , an online reporter who investigates a possible conspiracy with Crowe 's character , a veteran print journalist . McAdams visited The Washington Post 's offices and met with politicians on Capitol Hill for her research . Entertainment Weekly felt she was " perfectly cast as an ambitious wonkette " while The Daily Telegraph noted that " McAdams , with her lively eyes and large , expressive forehead , holds her own against Crowe . Mercifully , she avoids any temptation to play girly and demure to his grizzled alpha male . " The film grossed over $ 87 million worldwide .
Also in 2009 , McAdams starred opposite Eric Bana in the science fiction romantic drama The Time Traveler 's Wife , based on Audrey Niffenegger 's best @-@ selling novel of the same name . McAdams fell " madly in love " with the novel but was initially slightly hesitant to accept the role because Clare Abshire , the long @-@ suffering wife is a " character that people have already cast in their heads " . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said , " I 'd watch the vibrant Rachel McAdams and Eric Bana in anything , but The Time Traveler 's Wife is pushing it . " The Los Angeles Times found her " luminous [ yet ] , sadly , her facility as an actress is mostly wasted . " Writing in The Chicago Tribune , Michael Phillips , in an otherwise tepid review , said of her performance : " Every scene she 's in , even the silly ones , becomes better — truer , often against long odds — because she 's in it . Her work feels emotionally spontaneous yet technically precise . She has an unusually easy touch with both comedy and drama , and she never holds a melodramatic moment hostage . " The film was a commercial success , earning over $ 101 million worldwide .
In late 2009 , McAdams starred in the mystery / action @-@ adventure film Sherlock Holmes with Robert Downey , Jr. and Jude Law . She played Irene Adler , an antagonist and love interest of Downey 's title character Sherlock Holmes , and welcomed the opportunity to play a character who is " her own boss and a real free spirit " . Variety felt her character was " not very well integrated into the rest of the story , a shortcoming the normally resourceful McAdams is unable to do much about " . The New York Times stated , " Ms. McAdams is a perfectly charming actress and performs gamely as the third wheel of this action @-@ bromance tricycle . But Irene feels in this movie more like a somewhat cynical commercial contrivance . She offers a little something for the ladies and also something for the lads , who , much as they may dig fights and explosions and guns and chases , also like girls . " The film was a major commercial success , earning over $ 524 million at the worldwide box office .
In 2010 , McAdams starred with her The Family Stone co @-@ star Diane Keaton and Harrison Ford in the comedy Morning Glory directed by Roger Michell , where she played a television producer attempting to improve the poor ratings of a morning television program . The film was billed as a starring vehicle for McAdams . She initially felt she was unsuited to the role saying , " I 'm not funny . So I said , ' if you need me to be funny , you might want to look somewhere else ' " . Michell had a number of dinners with McAdams and persuaded her to join the cast . Since working with Keaton , McAdams has described her as a mentor figure . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said McAdams " gives the kind of performance we go to the movies for " while Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times felt she played " as lovable a lead as anyone since Amy Adams in Junebug " in an otherwise " routine " movie . The New York Post was impressed by " her gift for physical comedy " , as was Variety . While the New York Times felt she " plays her role exceptionally well " and is " effortlessly likable " , it called on Hollywood to give her parts " worthy " of her talent . " Ms. McAdams has to rely on her dimples to get by . She does , but she could do better . " The film was a modest commercial success , grossing $ 58 million worldwide from a production budget of $ 40 million . McAdams was disappointed that the film failed to find a larger audience , remarking that " I only hear these businesspeople : ' Well , no one was sure who it was for . ' "
= = = 2011 – 14 : Big @-@ name auteur projects = = =
In 2011 , McAdams starred in Woody Allen 's fantasy romantic comedy Midnight in Paris with her Wedding Crashers co @-@ star Owen Wilson and Michael Sheen . The film opened the 2011 Cannes Film Festival . McAdams played Inez , the shrewish fiancée of Wilson 's character Gil . Allen wrote McAdams ' part for her , after hearing " glowing reports " from his friend and her former co @-@ star Diane Keaton . He said that he was " crazy about Rachel " and wanted to give her the opportunity to play something other than " beautiful girls " . The film was shot on location in Paris and McAdams has said that the experience " will always have a great place in my heart " . The Guardian criticized that she " has morphed from the sweet thing in Wedding Crashers to the dream @-@ crushing bitch that , according to American comedies , women become once they ensnare their man " . Richard Corliss of Time " felt sorry for McAdams , whose usually winning presence is ground into hostile cliché " . However , the Los Angeles Times felt she " deftly handles a part that is less amiable than usual for her " and The New York Times found her " superbly speeded @-@ up " . It became Allen 's highest grossing film ever in North America and was the most commercially successful independent film of 2011 . With a production budget of $ 17 million , the film has grossed over $ 151 million worldwide . McAdams , along with six other members of the cast , received a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture nomination . Allen won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay and the film itself was nominated for three other Academy Awards , including Best Picture .
McAdams reprised her role as Irene Adler in the mystery / action @-@ adventure sequel Sherlock Holmes : A Game of Shadows , but the female lead role was played by Noomi Rapace . Joel Silver , the film 's producer , has said that " we always intended to have a different kind of girl for each movie " in the vein of Bond girls . He found it " complicated " to persuade McAdams to return in a smaller role : " She loved being with us , but she hoped to have a bigger role . " The Wall Street Journal felt " she vanishes all too soon in this overproduced , self @-@ enchanted sequel , and so does the spirit of bright invention that made the previous film such a pleasant surprise . " The Huffington Post remarked that she " exhibits far more personality and roguish charm in her few moments here than she did in all of the previous film . Freed from the constraints of being the de @-@ facto love interest , McAdams relishes the chance to go full @-@ villain . " The film has grossed over $ 543 million worldwide .
In 2012 , McAdams starred opposite Channing Tatum in the romantic drama The Vow , based on a true story . McAdams and Tatum played a newlywed couple who try to rebuild their relationship after a car crash leaves the wife with no recollections of who he is or their marriage . McAdams was drawn to the " roller coaster " faced by her character and found it interesting that the story was told " through the guy 's eyes " . The New York Times stated that " the dimply and adorable Rachel McAdams " brings " enough physical charm and emotional warmth to distract from the threadbare setting and the paper @-@ thin plot " . Newsday felt that McAdams , " exuding her usual uncanny warmth on @-@ screen " , " is the real draw " . However , the Los Angeles Times felt she was " wasted " in the role : " She is such an appealing actress that it 's hard not to wish someone could make better use " of her . Time found the film an example of McAdams " coasting " in " unabashedly romantic " movies and asserted that " she 's a much more versatile and clever actress " than such projects would suggest . The film , financed for $ 30 million , was a major commercial success and became her biggest box @-@ office hit in a leading role . It topped the U.S. box office and has grossed over $ 196 million worldwide .
In 2013 , McAdams appeared opposite Ben Affleck in Terrence Malick 's romantic drama To the Wonder . McAdams played a horse ranch worker in Oklahoma and the love interest of Affleck 's character . She found Malick to be an " incredibly helpful " director ; they discussed her character in detail and he took her on a tour of the local town , pointing out which house she would have grown up in and where she would have attended school . Upon its U.S. limited theatrical release , the film polarized film critics , some of whom found McAdams ' role to be " fairly small " ; IndieWire noted that " McAdams has the least to do of the principals , but is wonderfully haunted and sad in her brief appearances " .
Afterwards , McAdams starred in Brian De Palma 's erotic thriller Passion opposite Noomi Rapace ; they played two business executives in a power struggle . De Palma saw McAdams ' performance in Mean Girls and decided to cast her as Christine . The movie was released in selected theaters in the US , receiving average reviews from critics ; Entertainment Weekly noted that McAdams " uses her sexy billboard smile and emphatic delivery to nail a certain type of troublemaker boss who embeds her aggression in pert ' sincerity ' " while the Los Angeles Times remarked : " McAdams and Rapace are gesturally awkward and wildly miscast — more sorority sisters in a spat than cross @-@ generational power antagonists . " She was honoured a plaque dedicated to her on the St. Thomas Wall of Fame in her hometown of St. Thomas , Ontario .
In late 2013 , McAdams starred in Richard Curtis ' romantic comedy @-@ drama About Time with Domhnall Gleeson , where she played the love interest of Gleeson 's character . The story 's time @-@ travel element illustrates the importance of living in the moment . Zooey Deschanel was originally slated to play McAdams 's role but dropped out shortly before filming began . A fan of Curtis for years , McAdams wanted to have the chance to work with him it was supposedly Curtis ' last project as a director . The film was a commercial success at the international box office , and McAdams had a positive reception among critics , with Variety praising her and Gleeson for their " radiant , believable chemistry " which " keeps the film aloft . "
In 2014 , McAdams starred opposite Philip Seymour Hoffman in an adaptation of John le Carré 's espionage thriller A Most Wanted Man , directed by Anton Corbijn . Despite learning to speak with German accent as a preparation for her role , reviewers criticized her for it . Vanity Fair noted that McAdams had a " little less success with her accent " than her co @-@ star Hoffman but , nonetheless , she " proves as intelligent , soulful , and magnetic a presence as ever " . In late 2014 , McAdams received a star on Canada 's Walk of Fame .
= = = 2015 – present : Critical achievements = = =
In 2015 , McAdams appeared as journalist Sacha Pfeiffer in Thomas McCarthy 's ensemble drama Spotlight , about the child @-@ abuse scandal in Boston 's Catholic Church . To prepare for her role , McAdams tried to find out from Pfeiffer herself every detail about her character and her work covering the child molestation allegations , persistently calling and sendind her texts . " I bugged Sacha a lot and she was very gracious about it , ” McAdams once stated during an interview . The movie garnered universal critical acclaim , mainly for its detailed story and the cast performances . David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that she " exudes a warmth that gets strangers to spill their darkest stories to her " while Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times stated that Pfeiffer was " empathetically played by the protean McAdams " . For her role , McAdams has received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress , Critics ' Choice Movie Award for Best Supporting Actress and Screen Actors Guild Award nominations in the categories of Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role and Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture .
McAdams appeared in three other 2015 films . She starred opposite Emma Stone , Bradley Cooper , and Bill Murray in the Cameron Crowe @-@ directed romantic comedy Aloha , playing Cooper 's former girlfriend who is now married and has two children . The movie received a May 29 release , to a negative reaction from critics and audiences alike . She had a supporting role as the wife of Jake Gyllenhaal 's character in the boxing drama Southpaw ( 2015 ) . The film received mixed reviews but A.O. Scott of The New York Times conceded : " It features some pretty appealing players . There are worse things to see at the multiplex than Ms. McAdams playing a tough cookie standing by her man . " Her next movie , Wim Wenders 's drama Every Thing Will Be Fine , received an U.S. limited release in December 2015 .
In 2015 television work , McAdams starred as Ani Bezzerides in the second season of HBO 's anthology crime drama True Detective , alongside Taylor Kitsch , Vince Vaughn and Colin Farrell . While the season received mixed reviews , McAdams 's work was praised . The Guardian remarked : " If there 's anyone with any chance of enjoying a McConaughaissance here it 's probably McAdams – an actor whose characters are more usually associated with the death of the romcom than murders involving people with eyes burned out by acid . Here , her Ani is a convincing mess . " She received a nomination for the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Movie / Miniseries for her role . Also in 2015 , McAdams played Buttercup in a one @-@ off , staged LACMA Live Read of The Princess Bride .
Upcoming projects include an animated version of The Little Prince and the superhero film Doctor Strange .
= = Philanthropy = =
= = = Environmental activism = = =
McAdams is an environmentalist . She ran an eco @-@ friendly lifestyle website GreenIsSexy.org with two of her friends for five years , from 2007 to 2011 . Her house is powered by Bullfrog renewable energy . She travels around Toronto by bicycle and does not own a car , but drives when in Los Angeles because it is " a harder town to cycle in " . She volunteered in Biloxi , Mississippi and Louisiana in fall of 2005 , as part of the clean @-@ up effort following Hurricane Katrina . McAdams sat on a TreeHugger / Live Earth judging panel in 2007 . She appealed for donations during the Canada for Haiti telethon in 2010 . She was involved in Matter of Trust 's " hair boom " efforts following the 2010 Gulf of Mexico oil spill . In 2011 , McAdams supported Foodstock , a protest against a proposed limestone mega quarry in Melancthon , Ontario . In 2013 , she filmed two promotional videos for the Food & Water First Movement , aiming to preserve prime farmland and source water in Ontario , Canada . In 2014 , she narrated the feature documentary Take Me To The River , which investigates what is being done to try to save iconic rivers .
= = = Other causes = = =
In 2006 , McAdams took part in the " Day Without Immigrants " demonstration in Los Angeles , protesting the federal government 's attempts to further criminalize illegal immigrants living in the United States . In 2011 , she attended the Occupy Toronto demonstration . In 2013 , McAdams volunteered with Habitat for Humanity in her hometown of St. Thomas . She has also worked with charities including the Sunshine Foundation of Canada , the Alzheimer 's Association , the READ Campaign , and United Way of Canada .
= = Personal life = =
McAdams resides in the Harbord Village neighbourhood of Toronto , Ontario , Canada . She holds a U.S. green card but has remarked , " The world has become so small these days , and most films aren ’ t shot in Hollywood anymore , so there 's no point living there . " She practices kundalini yoga daily .
McAdams dated Canadian actor Ryan Gosling from mid ‑ 2005 to mid ‑ 2007 , and they briefly reunited in 2008 . She dated Welsh actor Michael Sheen from mid @-@ 2010 to early 2013 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
McAdams has been given many awards and nominations , including winning one Screen Actors Guild Award , out of three nominations , and a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for Spotlight .
= Solar 2 =
Solar 2 is an open world sandbox video game developed by Jay Watts ' video game studio , Murudai . It was released on 17 June 2011 on Steam for Microsoft Windows and on 19 June 2011 on Xbox Live Indie Games for the Xbox 360 . The game was developed with Microsoft 's XNA tools , and its development was inspired by indie games such as flOw . The game follows the player in their mission to accumulate enough mass to become several astronomical objects , eventually becoming a big crunch , which then produces a Big Bang .
The game is a sequel to Solar ( 2009 ) , and features most of the same key gameplay elements of its predecessor , expanded and polished considerably . It was developed over ten months and includes a score composed by sound designer and musician JP Neufeld . Solar 2 received mainly positive reviews from video game journalists , scoring 72 out of 100 on aggregate website Metacritic . It was awarded the first prize at the 2011 Microsoft Dream Build Play competition , and was among the video games showcased at the 10th Penny Arcade Expo .
= = Gameplay = =
Solar 2 is an open world sandbox video game played from a two @-@ dimensional perspective . The player is given an asteroid , and their main mission is to accumulate enough mass to become several astronomical objects . The game ends when and if the player manages to accummulate enough mass to become a big crunch , which then produces a Big Bang . However , the player is free to not finish the game , and is able to stay at the form of the object of their preference . Six different object are available in the game : small planet , life planet , small star , medium star , large star and black hole .
The game takes place in a borderless and randomly generated universe , filled with asteroids , planets , stars and solar systems . Life forms are also present in the game . They appear on planets sufficiently big to store life , and are represented by a variety of ships of different size and attack power . Spaceships are coloured green if they belong to the player 's planet , or to a planet that belongs to the player 's solar system ; red if they belong to an enemy planet or solar system ; and white if they don 't belong to any planet or system . All the spaceships in the map are controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) , and they will constantly engage in combat against enemy ships , asteroids or planets to destroy them .
At the beginning of the game , the player accumulates mass by colliding their asteroid against other asteroids until enough mass has been gathered to become a small planet . From there , the player has to absorb other asteroids to make their planet grow enough to become a life planet ; crashing against other objects will decrease the player 's mass . At this point , life forms will evolve in the planet , creating spaceships , planetary shields and cannons . If the player wishes , they can accumulate more mass until their planet becomes a star . Life forms will disappear , but the player will be able to attract planets to form a solar system , further grow the star by absorbing other planets , or a combination of both . The player can also create multi @-@ star systems by selecting planets from their system and make them absorb asteroids until they become another star .
Growing the star will increase its gravitational force , which increases the number of planets the solar system can have . They will also be able to attract solar systems composed of stars with lower mass than that of the player , or being attracted to stars with bigger mass . If both stars collide , they will be reduced to a lesser size within the same type of object . For example , if the player controls a small star and collides against a medium star , the player will be disintegrated while the AI @-@ controlled star will be reduced to a small star . Being reduced from small star to life planet is not possible , as well as being reduced from small planet to asteroid . In these cases , the player is respawned , with random mass , close to the place where they collided .
Solar 2 also includes a variety of achievements and object @-@ oriented missions that can be played at any time . Missions can be found following the directional arrows in the interface , and the AI keeps track of which missions the player has finished . The game also keeps record of several accomplishments the player has reached , such as the distance travelled , the amount of objects and enemies destroyed by the player or the spaceships belonging to the player . Solar 2 allows the player to save progress at any point . A " save system " feature is also present ; it allows the player to save specific configurations of stars and planets that the player has created . The player can respawn from them at any time .
= = Development = =
Solar 2 was developed by Jay Watts under his video game studio Murudai . Watts , who received a degree in biotechnology from an Australian college , had no previous knowledge of video game development prior to coding Solar 2 's predecessor , Solar , for the Xbox 360 . Development of Solar started in July 2008 as a Flash game . Many of the key gameplay elements featured in the sequel , such as the infinite sandbox , were envisioned during this timespan . In an interview with FleshEatingZipper , Watts revealed that Thatgamecompany 's indie game flOw was an inspiration for him : " I loved the simplicity of the game and the ambiance . " Solar , released in 2009 , became a commercial success ; it sold 30 @,@ 000 copies and allowed Watts to work full @-@ time on its sequel .
Development of Solar 2 lasted for at least ten months . The game was developed using Microsoft XNA , a set of tools focused on video game development created by Microsoft . According to Watts , Solar 2 was " mainly expanding on [ Solar 's ] original idea and polishing it to perfection . " However , he commented that the concept of both games took several design iterations to reach its final version : " I played with many , many ideas before finally settling on what I have now . " Sound designer and musician JP Neufeld composed the game 's score . According to Watts , this was done because there was " no way I could do music as good as he can . " Both the Windows and Xbox 360 version of the game were developed simultaneously . About the Xbox 360 version , Watts commented
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for a fresh attack every 55 overs . With 13 wickets in the Tests , Miller was third among the Australians behind Lindwall and Johnston , who took 27 apiece . Due to his fragility , Miller was used sparingly compared to the other four Australian frontline bowlers : Lindwall , Johnston , Toshack and Johnson . Toshack and Johnson each delivered more than 170 overs despite playing in one less Test , while Lindwall bowled 224 and Johnston 306 in five matches . In all first @-@ class matches , Miller took 56 wickets at 17 @.@ 58 and held onto 20 catches . There were many consecutive matches during the tour with no intervening rest day , so Bradman ensured that his leading pace duo remained fresh for the new ball bursts in the Tests by giving them a smaller proportion of the bowling during the tour matches . During all first @-@ class matches , Johnston bowled 851 @.@ 1 overs , Johnson 668 , Lindwall 573 @.@ 4 and Toshack 502 , while Miller bowled only 429 @.@ 4 overs . Doug Ring — who was only selected in one Test — bowled 542 @.@ 4 overs , while all rounders Colin McCool and Loxton bowled 399 @.@ 4 and 361 @.@ 2 overs respectively . McCool did not play in any Tests , while Loxton was only entrusted with 63 overs against England . As such , in some tour matches , Miller was not asked to bowl at all , in order to keep him fresh for the Tests .
After the tour , Bradman was full of praise for Miller , although somewhat critical of his aggressive batting , which the Australian captain thought to be reckless :
One of the most volatile cricketers of any age . Long , rangy , athletic type — drove the ball with tremendous power — tried to hit sixes with abandon . Many of them would have been prodigious . Would have been a far better player had he curbed this propensity and showed more judgement in his hitting . Dangerous bowler with the new ball , swinging it both ways not much short of [ Ray ] Lindwall 's speed . [ ... ] In 1948 he was the best slip field in the world . Altogether , a crowd @-@ pleasing personality ... whose limitations were caused mainly by his own failure to concentrate .
Bradman criticised Miller 's hitting of sixes ( 26 ) , feeling that his mercurial all rounder lacked restraint and concentration . In contrast , Fingleton praised Miller 's attitude to cricket , saying " He is never one to accept runs when they are there for the taking ... I acknowledge myself the supreme believer in Miller as a cricketer . He had given me joy in the game approached by others . " With respect to his persistent bouncing of Hutton and Compton , Fingleton said that it was up to England to develop bowlers of express pace — which they lacked at the time — to retaliate against or deter the Australians from pursuing such tactics . Miller 's persistent disagreements with Bradman soon caught up with him , despite the latter 's retirement after the tour . During Bradman 's testimonial match , Miller bowled three consecutive bouncers at his retired captain , dismissing him with the last of these and drawing an angry look . Bradman was one of three members of the national selection panel , and Miller was dropped for the next series against South Africa in 1949 – 50 . Although Bradman denied voting for the omission , most of the players in the team did not believe this .
= Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana Andriandrazaka =
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana Andriandrazaka ( also Andriantsimitoviaminandriandrazaka ) was King of Avaradrano in the central highlands of Madagascar from 1710 to 1730 , and king of neighboring Ambohidrabiby after defeating his brother , Andrianavalonimerina . He was a son of Andriamasinavalona , sovereign of the former Kingdom of Imerina , and his wife Ratompoindraoandriana . Sometime during his life Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana adopted Rakotomavo , who would later succeed him as King Andriambelomasina .
As a child , Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana was sent to live in a village that his father named Ambohimanga . As a young man , his father granted him the region of Avaradrano surrounding the village , and while his father still lived he managed the daily affairs of state in Avaradrano without taking the title of king . He declared Ambohimanga the capital of the region , building numerous structures on the site and adding its first set of defensive walls , ditches and gates . The site 's historic and cultural significance was recognized in 2001 when UNESCO declared it a World Heritage Site , the only one in the cultural category in Madagascar . He became an independent king upon his father 's death and the resulting partition of the Kingdom of Imerina in 1710 , from which he received Avaradrano , the easternmost and largest territory . He died around 1730 and was buried at Ambohimanga .
= = Early life and family = =
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana Andriandrazaka was a son of Andriamasinavalona , monarch of the former Kingdom of Imerina , and his wife Queen Ratompoindraoandriana . As a child , Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana was sent to live in a village that his father named Ambohimanga , where he occupied a house at a place called Mahazaza .
As a young man he married Rampanambonitany . Oral history provides two conflicting accounts of their marriage . According to one version , the couple had no children of their own , leading the king to adopt the eight daughters and five sons of his sister Rangorinimerina . In another version , at least some of the five sons and eight daughters issued from the king 's marriage , and his son Rakotomavo was adopted from a woman called Rangorimanana . The remaining four sons were named Andriantoarana , Andriamohara , Ratsimanjaka and Andriampalimana . The names of only three of his eight daughters are preserved in the oral histories : Randriamizaza , Rahisatra and Rahira .
= = = Adoption of Rakotomavo = = =
Two accounts exist regarding the adoption of Rakotomavo , whom Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana designated to rule after him as King Andriambelomasina . According to the first version , Rakotomavo and Mandriamohara were sons of Rangorimanana . Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana sent messengers to Ranorimanana to bring the boys to him with the instructions to take note of which child stood closer to the central pillar ( andry , symbolic of strength ) of their mother 's house . When the boys entered the house , Rakotomavo stood closer to the pillar . The children 's relatives refused to allow the messengers to take the children , so the king sent them back with rice , milk , honey and other goods and successfully lured the boys away .
In another version of the story , the king adopted all of the children of his sister Rangorimanana . He then devised a test to determine which one would succeed him . He requested his messengers to bring the children a package including lemons , meat , honey , rice , milk and a reed , and to note which child took the reed and stood near the central pillar of the house ; this child was Rakotomavo .
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana selected Rakotomavo to succeed him and assigned the child to be the guardian of his sacred zebu herd . Members of the powerful Tsimahafotsy clan of Ambohimanga declared that his throne name would be Andriambelomasina .
= = Reign = =
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana became an independent king upon his father 's death in 1710 and the consequent partition of the Kingdom of Imerina , from which he received the eastern quadrant of Avaradrano , the largest piece . He established his capital at the village of Ambohimanga ; the cultural and historical significance of this site was recognized by UNESCO in 2001 when it was declared Madagascar 's first cultural World Heritage Site . Throughout his reign as King of Avaradrano ( 1710 – 1730 ) , Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana fought to strengthen the authority of his governance at Ambohimanga and attract residents to settle in the surrounding villages while battling his brothers to increase the land under his control .
= = = Expansion and management of territory = = =
The expansion of Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana 's realm began with the capture of his brother Andrianavalonimerina 's territory , which he ruled from Ambohitrabiby . The king led his brother to believe that they were on friendly terms and that they should work together to support one another . When the king launched a surprise attack on Ambohitrabiby , his brother was unprepared to deflect the offensive and Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana successfully seized control of the territory , which he incorporated into his own .
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana gave four of his sons fiefdoms to rule . His son Andriantoarana was given Alasora and lived there with his brother Andriamohara , who was not given a fief of his own to rule . He gave Ratsimanjaka the fief of Anosiarivo and designated Andriampalimana to rule at Tsirangaina . Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana gave his adoptive son Rakotomavo the capital of Ambohimanga to rule after his death ; Rakotomavo succeeded Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana as King Andriambelomasina .
= = = Fortification of Ambohimanga = = =
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana was the first to systematically establish a network of defenses around the royal residence on the hilltop of Ambohimanga . He built the site 's defensive walls and its first set of seven gates . He also undertook three expansions of the settlement , beginning with the expansion of Bevato , which he surrounded by trenches , and the creation of a southern gateway called Ambavahadikely . This expansion was followed by the construction of trenches bordering a second adjoining space to the northeast with three access points . These he named Ambavahadikely , Ampanidinamporona , and Ambavahaditsiombiomby , the latter a natural gateway formed by two boulders . Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana then expanded toward the west to a series of natural defenses , including stony cliffs and steep forested slopes that obviated the need to dig defensive trenches ; he instead constructed several additional gates which he named Ambavahadimahazaza , Andranomboahangy and Ambavahadiantandranomasina . In addition , the king sanctified a number of stones on the site . A stone he named Fidasiana became the site where all future sovereigns were to stand during their enthronement ceremony . He laid this stone at Ambohimanga with Andriamborona , the hill 's first permanent occupant , in honor of Andriamborona 's willingness to vacate the hill for the establishment of Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana 's capital . The king buried white and red pearls and a piastre beneath the stone , sacrificed a zebu on it , and declared that it would thereafter ensure the protection and sanctity of Ambohimanga . He also assigned two other stones at Manganihany and Antsahamasina key roles in the royal circumcision ceremony .
= = = Decrees = = =
This king established a number of enduring traditions in Imerina . A law imposing a fine on a homeowner whose house fire destroys neighboring property was promulgated by Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana . He also established the rule that all citizens of Ambohimanga or Antananarivo should pass to offer hasina to the sovereign and wish him or her a long life if a fire ever broke out in their city , and that citizens should likewise congratulate the owners of houses that were spared from destruction if a fire had occurred nearby . He designated specific areas where water could be drawn for use in royal circumcision ceremonies . Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana also created three formal ways of pronouncing a sacred and binding oath ; these included the mively rano ( striking the surface of a body of water with a stick ) , the milefon 'omby ( striking a calf with a spear ) and the misotro vokaka ( drinking water mixed with ashes taken from a king 's tomb ) . After capturing Ambohitrabiby , he obliged all the andriana ( nobles ) and other powerful figures in the community there to formalize their allegiance to him by enacting one of these oaths .
= = Death = =
Andriantsimitoviaminiandriana died around 1730 at Ambohimanga . His successor , King Andriambelomasina , entombed him at the Mahandrihono compound within the rova at Ambohimanga .
= Breathe ( Kylie Minogue song ) =
" Breathe " is a song by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue from her sixth studio album , Impossible Princess ( 1997 ) . The song was released on 16 March 1998 , as the third single from the album , and her final one for the label , Deconstruction Records . " Breathe " was co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Minogue with Dave Ball and Ingo Vauk . Backed by synthesisers and keyboards , it is an electronica track . The lyrics revolve around contemplation and calmness . " Breathe " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , some who highlighted the track as an album stand @-@ out and commended the lyrical and vocal delivery . However , some critics were unimpressed by the composition .
Released in Australia , New Zealand and the United Kingdom , it peaked at number twenty @-@ three and fourteen on the Australian Singles Chart and the UK Singles Chart , respectively . This was her last charting single in the UK until her 2000 single " Spinning Around " . To promote " Breathe " , Minogue performed the song on Top of the Pops and her Intimate and Live Tour . Kieran Evans directed the song 's music video , which features Minogue floating in an open airspace with spiral effects that were generated by CGI . The video was positively received for the production and the visual effects .
= = Background and composition = =
" Breathe " is about contemplation and holding back emotions . The lyrics were written by Minogue in Tokyo during her trips with her boyfriend , Stéphane Sednaoui , in late @-@ 1995 . She explained the idea came to mind when her friends were worried about her being silent : " My girlfriend told me ' You don 't realize how loud you are when you are quiet ' . " She felt that it was " typical " of her to be thinking and " deciding what was wrong " because she felt that things in her head " were not clear . "
" Breathe " is an electronica song that lasts a duration of four minutes and thirty @-@ eight seconds . Minogue composed the bridge section using a synthesiser and keyboards . Livingston Brown played the bass guitar , and Steve Sidelnyk played the drums on the track ; other additional instruments were handled by Ball and Vauk . " Breathe " was recorded in London , England at Ball and Vauk 's home studio 's while additional recording was handled at Mayfair Studios . Minogue flew to Chicago , USA to re @-@ record her vocals for the remix by American producer and disc jockey , Todd Terry .
= = Release and commercial response = =
" Breathe " was released on 16 March 1998 as the third single from Impossible Princess . It was her final single for the labels , Deconstruction and BMG . Like " Did It Again " , " Breathe " appeared as a double @-@ set of CD singles . The CD set features remixes and the album version , where the first set includes an interactive music video of " Did It Again " . The artwork for the singles was shot by Sednaoui , who had photographed the album cover and photo shoot for Impossible Princess . Both CD sets feature close @-@ up shots of Minogue 's face , individually taken from different directions . The song was released as a promotional CD and cassette single in the UK and in vinyl format in Spain , Australia and the UK .
" Breathe " debuted at number 14 on the UK Singles Chart on the week end of 21 March 1998 . The song lasted four weeks in the chart . The song was the fourth highest debut single from that week , the highest being Spice Girls ' single " Stop " at number 2 . This became Minogue 's twenty @-@ eighth consecutive top forty single . " Breathe " and " Did It Again " were equally Minogue 's highest charting singles from Impossible Princess . " Breathe " debuted and peaked at number twenty @-@ three on the Australian Singles Chart on the week end of 26 April 1998 . The song lasted thirteen weeks in the top fifty , one of her longest spanning singles in the chart .
= = Critical reception = =
" Breathe " received mostly positive commentary from music critics . Michael R. Smith from Daily Vault said " Breathe " and album track " Did It Again " are " most notable for the videos that went along with them and are fair representations of the album at large ( which should be the purpose of singles ) , though there are many more undiscovered gems here . " Nick Levine from Digital Spy selected the song as the album 's best track by writing " Truth be told , this album lacks an absolute classic to match ' Confide in Me ' , but ' Breathe ' – subtle but sneakily catchy with it – could be one of [ Minogue ] ' s most underrated singles . " While reviewing Minogue 's 2004 compilation , Ultimate Kylie , Jaime Gill from Yahoo ! Music gave it a mixed review by writing " Beginning in 1994 with the gorgeously glacial , slinkily synthetic ' Confide In Me ' , Kylie enjoyed brief success before fans fled in droves from awkward faux @-@ rock like ' Some Kind of Bliss ' ( not included ) and flimsy house like ' Breathe ' . " Reviewing her 2002 compilation , Hits + , Mackenzie Wilson from Allmusic commended Minogue 's " seductive vocals " on " Breathe " , " Automatic Love " and " Confide in Me " .
Chris True , also from Allmusic , selected the song as a standout track on her Greatest Hits 87 @-@ 97 album . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard listed " Breathe " at four on their " Kylie Minogue Primer : The Top 10 Past Hits You Need to Know " stating " ' Breathe ’ is the obvious stand out , sounding almost like a Nine Inch Nails throwaway in its opening seconds and morphing into a silky , sexy defence of Minogue 's experimental side . " Louis Virtel from The Backlot listed " Breathe " at number 14 on their " Kylie Minogue ’ s 50 Best Songs , in Honor of Her Birthday " and said " ' Breathe ' would be a meditative masterpiece if it weren 't so confrontational , deadpan , and sexually domineering . Impossible Princess unassuming heart stopper trips into unexpected carnality in its choruses , assuring you ' It won ’ t be long now ' as you try to time your hyperventilation . " According to Tom Parker , who provided the special edition album notes for Impossible Princess , " [ ' Breathe ' ] is a seductive electronic groove , with a hypnotic subtlety and timelessness befitting the theme inward contemplating and resolve . " Larry Flick from Billboard said that " Breathe " is a " user @-@ friendly jam " which is " largely due to its big @-@ beat electronic groove and ear @-@ tickling pop chorus . "
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video was directed by Welsh film director Kieran Evans . " Breathe " was Evan 's directional debut and he went on to work for Heavenly Films , a sister project of British record label Heavenly Recordings . It opens with close @-@ up shots of Minogue 's body parts . Throughout the video , a giant glass orb is seen on the screen and a mysterious light is shown . From there onwards , it shows Minogue in an airspace of spiral effects , all produced by green screen and CGI effects . In the second verse , it has three shots of Minogue layering over top , with one of the scenes having her singing the track . The video then finishes with Minogue floating away , being an in @-@ set of her own eye , which was seen at the start of the video . For the radio @-@ video version , the song is sped up at a faster tempo .
One of the shots of the video was used as the album cover for her 2002 greatest hits compilation , Confide in Me . The music video is featured on other of Minogue 's releases including The Kylie Tapes 94 – 98 , Greatest Hits 1987 – 1999 , Kylie Minogue : Artist Collection and the most recent was on her 2004 DVD , Ultimate Kylie .
= = Live performances = =
Minogue performed " Breathe " in April 1998 on The Ben Elton Show , and on the Australian evening TV series , Hey Hey It 's Saturday . The song was included on several live shows including the Top of the Pops , The National Lottery Live and Live & Kicking music show .
Minogue included the song on the Intimate and Live Tour . The song was featured on the second segment for the tour for which Minogue wore a black , long @-@ collared shirt and three @-@ quarter pants , similar to the " Indie Kylie " costume from her music video ' Did It Again ' . Like the rest of the costumes on the tour , including the performance of " Breathe " , it features Minogue with a lot of " princess " -inspired outfits . The performance was recorded on 30 June and 1 July at Capitol Theatre in Sydney , and appeared on the related CD and DVD . " Breathe " was performed by Minogue on Money Can 't Buy , a one @-@ off concert show held on 15 November 2003 at Hammersmith Apollo , London , to promote her ninth studio album Body Language . The " Bardello " act of the concert commenced with a mashup of " Breathe " and " Je t 'aime ... moi non plus " , a 1969 French duet between Serge Gainsbourg and Jane Birkin . Craig McLean from the Daily Telegraph described the backup dancers during this segment as " Tour de France cyclists moonlighting as Moulin Rouge hostesses . " The performance was later added to Minogue 's Body Language Live DVD from the concert .
In 2011 , Minogue sang an acoustic version while on her 2011 Aphrodite World Tour . In 2012 , the orchestral version of the song didn 't make the track list of The Abbey Road Sessions but was uploaded on Minogue 's official YouTube account . In 2014 and 2015 , Minogue sampled the song as an introduction for her Kiss Me Once Tour and Kylie Summer 2015 Tour respectly .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Breathe " .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from both maxi @-@ single liner notes .
= = = Song credits = = =
Kylie Minogue – vocals , song writing , production , synthesiser , keyboards
Dave Ball – songwriting , production , other instruments
Ingo Vauk – songwriting , production , other instruments
Livingstone Brown – bass guitar
Steve Sidelnyk – drums , percussion
Richard Lowe – engineer , mixing
Sunny Lizic – engineer , mixing
= = = Cover credits = = =
Kylie Minogue – model
Stephane Sednaoui – photographer , designer
Farrow Design – cover sleeve programmer
= = Charts = =
= Twyford Down =
Twyford Down is an area of chalk downland lying directly to the southeast of Winchester , Hampshire , England . It is situated near the South Downs National Park , next to St. Catherine 's Hill . The down has been used as a settlement since pre @-@ Roman times , and has hosted a fort and a chapel , as well as being a popular 17th and 18th century coaching route .
In 1991 , the down became the site of a major road protest against the completion of a section of the M3 motorway from London to the south coast of England . There had been plans since the 1970s to replace an earlier 1930s @-@ built bypass of Winchester , which became regularly congested due to design features that had become out of date . This became problematic due to the lack of available land between Winchester College and St. Catherine 's Hill . After several public inquiries , particularly with problems using the water meadows near the college , a route was chosen that took the motorway over the down , ultimately in a cutting . Although protesting against the M3 had been ongoing since the early 1970s , the protest @-@ action on top of the down , described in 1994 as the most controversial British motorway project ever to start construction , attracted a wider group of classes of people than had previously been the case , and included physical violence from onsite security officers .
The motorway was completed as planned , and provided an important link of continuous motorway between Greater London and the South Coast ports . Nevertheless , the protests attracted interest from the national media , and drew attention to this form of campaigning . Subsequent road schemes were altered to take greater account of the environment or cancelled altogether . Several protesters at Twyford Down subsequently went on to form campaign groups such as the Campaign for Better Transport .
= = History = =
Twyford Down sits to the southeast of Winchester and the northeast of Twyford , and is part of the Winchester @-@ East Meon Anticline . The down 's 142 @-@ metre ( 466 ft ) summit , known as Deacon Hill , is towards the north @-@ eastern edge of the area which is renowned for its dramatic rolling scenery and ecologically rich grassland . Its history can be traced back to pre @-@ Roman times . Along it run a series of trackways known as " dongas " , which resulted from farmers herding animals to surrounding markets . St Catherine 's Hill , in the centre of the down has been identified as a human settlement more than 3 @,@ 000 years ago and pre @-@ dates the foundation of Winchester . In the 3rd century , a fort was constructed on the hill , while in the 12th , a Norman chapel was constructed on the site . During the Middle Ages , paths along the down formed part of the Pilgrim 's Trail from Winchester to Normandy via Portsmouth . This is commemorated by the modern Pilgrims ' Trail which crosses the down .
In 1675 , John Ogilby noted that the main coaching route from London to Southampton ran over the top of the down , going directly from Alresford to Twyford , avoiding Winchester . This remained the main coaching route until about 1800 , when an alternative route via Winchester ( now mostly the A31 and former A33 ) was formed . During this time , and up to the 19th century , the area was sometimes known as Morestead Down after the nearby village of Morestead .
Hockley Golf Club was established as a private members ' club on the down in 1914 .
= = The M3 motorway extension = =
= = = Background = = =
Outline strategic planning for the route of what was to be later known as the M3 motorway had begun in the late 1930s . The route was to link London to Basingstoke , in order to reduce the pressure on the A30 . Detailed planning for the first phase of construction , a 40 miles ( 64 km ) section , between Sunbury on Thames and Popham , began in 1962 @-@ 3 . The 26 miles ( 42 km ) section , between Lightwater and Popham , where the A30 and the A303 separated , opened in June 1971 ; this was followed by the Sunbury to Lightwater section which opened in July 1974 . The second phase was to extend the motorway 10 miles ( 16 km ) southwards between Popham and Winchester , ending at Compton . Planning began with the first public inquiry which was held in 1971 , to set the line of the motorway , and this second section was opened in 1985 . The third and final phase was to extend the motorway from Winchester to Southampton and the M27 motorway , and the northern part of this section was to impact on Winchester 's bypass .
Winchester had been a traffic bottleneck for many years as several major routes passed through the historic city centre , including the A31 , A33 and A34 , as well as smaller routes like the A272 . In the 1930s , a by @-@ pass was planned to the east of the city , passing immediately west of St. Catherine 's Hill , opening to traffic on 1 February 1940 . Construction of this had been controversial as it affected the Itchen Valley and offered only a partial solution to congestion , with some people calling instead for a by @-@ pass to the north and west of Winchester .
As a 1930s road construction project , the bypass was built to then @-@ contemporary standards , including at @-@ grade crossings at Bar End and at Hockley . As time progressed , the bypass became more and more of a bottleneck as roads around it were improved to higher standards , particularly after the opening of the A33 Chandler 's Ford Bypass in 1968 and the A34 King 's Worthy Link the following year , which meant all long distance traffic , as opposed to merely that from London to Southampton , was using the bypass . Morgan Morgan @-@ Giles described the bypass as " utterly inadequate and dangerous , as everybody who lives in or near Winchester will agree . The accident figures are appalling . Therefore , a new motorway somewhere to relieve the traffic is urgently needed . " The crossing at Bar End was grade separated in 1973 , but the junction at Hockley remained a key point of congestion .
= = = Public inquiries = = =
At this point , the option of going over or through Twyford Down had not been considered , and the alignment of the proposed six @-@ lane M3 motorway ( three lines in each direction ) was to run through the Itchen valley roughly west of the existing four @-@ lane bypass . This would also require the realignment of the Itchen Navigation into the water meadows . However , there would be further screening of the motorway and pedestrian access to St. Catherine 's Hill from the city . These proposals had gone through two public inquiries in 1971 and 1976 , respectively . The first in 1971 , the line order inquiry , had considered the proposed route of the motorway ; and in 1973 the government approved this route . The second inquiry , in 1976 , was to consider both the stopping up of side roads and the compulsory purchase orders for the land needed to build the motorway . The latter inquiry in particular had drawn significant objection from protesters , including masters from Winchester College . Morgan @-@ Giles argued in parliament to support the scheme , pointing out that Winchester and the Down had been cut off since construction of the old bypass anyway , and growth of Southampton Docks meant that improved links from London and the Midlands would become increasingly essential . This schema was eventually rejected due to intensifying local pollution and disturbance .
In 1981 , Kenneth Clarke , then the Secretary of State for Transport , stated that , since the route of the M3 was then fixed as far as Bar End , to the north of St. Catherine 's Hill , that its route from there to Compton would undergo a fresh study , specifically stating that the Winchester Bypass should continue to be operational during construction of any new road , and that environmental matters were a key concern . By February 1983 , consulting engineers Mott Hay and Anderson had submitted a recommendation to complete the M3 through Twyford Down . Following the completion of the motorway to Bar End in the summer of 1985 , the junction at Hockley was the only set of traffic lights between London and Southampton .
The Ministry of Transport ( MoT ) had trouble purchasing the land required to complete the route past Winchester . The land required , east of the city on Twyford Down , was owned by Winchester College , which refused to sell the land to the government because part was a water meadow . The desired route , however , had been chosen to avoid St. Catherine 's Hill , and pass to the south . Proposals were made for a tunnel through Twyford Down , but the estimated cost for this was £ 75 million more than the estimated cost for a cutting , and the government dismissed the plans . The final route chosen ran to the south of St. Catherine 's Hill , taking 1 @.@ 91 hectares ( 4 @.@ 7 acres ) ( approximately 4 @.@ 5 % ) of the Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , and went to a public inquiry in 1985 , where the then Planning Officer of Winchester City Council described the route as " bold " and an " imaginative solution " In February 1992 , the M3 was improved between Southampton and Compton , and soon afterwards work began on clearing the route across the down . Part of the contract stipulated that the old bypass would be removed and restored to nature , restoring direct access to St. Catherine 's Hill .
= = = Physical protests = = =
Protests against the completion of the M3 had been ongoing since 1973 , with the formation of the M3 Joint Action Group by David Pare . The group gathered together a petition of 19 @,@ 000 , of which 11 @,@ 227 were Winchester residents . The group was also active in distributing leaflets to the local community .
In March 1992 , two travellers pitched a camp on the down , and discovered from local ramblers about the Bar End - Compton contract , meaning the land they were sitting on would soon be excavated . In response , noting that public inquiries had failed to stop construction , they decided to gather support . In May 1992 , environmental organisations attempted to take Department for Transport to the High Court , stating that the road was against the government 's own environmental protection laws . The European Commission dropped the case that August . David Croker , who had become head of the protest group Twyford Down Association , said they " had come to depend on the European Commission so we 're very disappointed . "
The principal arguments of the protesters were their concern about making wildlife species , such as the Chalkhill Blue butterfly , extinct , putting a highly visible scar on the landscape , and that they believed the new motorway would not adequately resolve traffic problems .
Protesters demonstrated their opposition to the road 's construction by blocking the path of construction equipment , but generally not involving themselves in physical altercations . They were met by security officers from Group 4 . In December 1992 , in view of a film crew from The Observer , a protester was assaulted by five officers . Another protester , according to a report by local MP John Denham , was strangled by officers and left unconscious on top of the Down for 30 minutes . Maggie Lambert , then a mature photography student , took numerous photographs of the protest , and challenged an injunction which suggested she had been involved with direct action . While Lord Justice Mann admitted there was no evidence to suggest she had done anything more than take photographs , the injunction was upheld . Protester Rebecca Lush Blum , who had stayed on the down from September to the night of eviction , later claimed " It was a horrific experience and very violent . We were dragged through thorns and we were being kicked and punched and someone pulled out a clump of my hair . " In March 1993 , Kenneth Carlisle , then Minister for Roads and Traffic , refused to order an inquiry into any wrongdoing or excessive force by security officers , stating it was a matter for the police .
The protest attracted different classes of people , the majority of which were peaceful . According to Denham , a popular phrase amongst those protesting was " I never thought that I would find myself doing something like this . " Stephen Ward , who had been involved in the original 1970s protest , decided in early 1993 that excessive force was being used against protesters , and started keeping a log of events . He used this log when defending other protesters in court , visited those who had been imprisoned , and offered them bail . He subsequently established a legal precedent of the right for protesters and demonstrators to have a witness while being questioned .
= = = Outcome = = =
The motorway section that was eventually constructed through Twyford Down completed the route of the M3 motorway . This removed traffic from the earlier Winchester Bypass , allowing its closure , and significantly reduced heavy traffic volumes from the village of Twyford . When interviewed for The Independent , local residents said the removal had transformed the place , one adding " St. Catherine 's Hill used to be cut off from Winchester by the A33 . Now there 's open , peaceful countryside . It 's wonderful . " To redress the loss of 1 @.@ 91 hectares ( 4 @.@ 7 acres ) of SSSI land , the old route of the A33 was planted with 7 @.@ 2 hectares ( 18 acres ) of species @-@
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rich grassland under the supervision and monitoring of The Institute of Terrestrial Ecology .
In 1994 , a government committee concluded that building more roads encourages more traffic and that the way to ease congestion and pollution was to take measures to control car use rather than accommodate more . When Labour came to power in 1997 , most of the road schemes were cancelled .
In 2000 , campaigners mounted legal action to preserve an area of grassland created on the route of the old A33 Winchester bypass in mitigation of the land lost to the motorway which was threatened by a Park and Ride site . The legal action failed and the campaigners claimed that they had been betrayed for a second time . Land was provided elsewhere in mitigation .
In 2004 , Winchester Cathedral received £ 86 @,@ 000 from the Highways Agency in compensation for increased traffic noise from the M3 . The Rev. Michael Till explained that " the noise comes beaming straight across The Close . It does change life having a perpetual background noise " . Also in that year , veterans of a Twyford Down protest threatened a new campaign of direct action in response to 200 new road @-@ building proposals in the government 's recently unveiled ten @-@ year transport plan . Rebecca Lush Blum went on to found Road Block in 2005 , which became part of the Campaign for Better Transport ( UK ) in 2007 . Veteran road protester Chris Gillam believes that his efforts in protesting against Twyford Down , where he took an active role in confronting security officers and crawling under razor wire , helped later road schemes , such as the Hindhead Tunnel to be planned with greater consideration about the environment .
In 2012 , several of the original protesters returned to the down to hold a 20th anniversary celebration of the protest .
In 2011 , Twyford Down became part of the western extremity of the South Downs National Park , having previously been designated as part of the East Hampshire AONB ( Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ) .
= Fernão Pires de Andrade =
Captain Fernão Pires de Andrade ( also spelled as Fernão Peres de Andrade ; in contemporary sources , Fernam ( Fernã ) Perez Dandrade ) ( died 1552 ) was a Portuguese merchant , pharmacist , and official diplomat under the explorer and Portuguese Malacca governor Afonso de Albuquerque . His encounter with Ming China in 1517 — after initial contacts by Jorge Álvares and Rafael Perestrello in 1513 and 1516 , respectively — marked the resumption of direct European commercial and diplomatic contact with China . ( Even though there were Europeans in Medieval China , notably Marco Polo , that period of contact had been interrupted by the fall of the Yuan dynasty . ) Although de Andrade 's mission was initially a success that allowed a Portuguese embassy to proceed all the way to Beijing , relations were soon spoiled by culminating events that led to an extremely negative impression of the Portuguese in China . This included acts of his brother Simão that enraged the Chinese , false reports of the Portuguese being cannibals of kidnapped Chinese children and true reports of their conquest of Malacca , a loyal Ming tributary state . Normalized trade and relations between Portugal and the Ming dynasty would not resume until the late 1540s and the 1557 establishment of Portuguese rule over Macau .
Andrade was referred to as a " Folangji " ( 佛郎機 ) in Ming dynastic archives . Folangji comes from Franques or Franks , which was a generic name the Muslims called Europeans since the Crusades , and which spawned the Indian @-@ Southeast Asian term ferengi . The Chinese adopted the convention when they first thought the Portuguese were related to those Muslim guides and interpreters during Fernão 's first encounter and before Europeans directly convened with Chinese .
= = Voyages abroad = =
= = = India , Sumatra , and Malacca = = =
Fernão Pires de Andrade commanded a vessel in the naval venture of the Portuguese explorer and conqueror Afonso de Albuquerque from Cochin in India to conquer the Malacca Sultanate in 1511 . The Portuguese historian João de Barros ( 1496 – 1570 ) wrote that when a violent storm arose as Albuquerque 's fleet entered the vast waters between Sri Lanka and Aceh , a ship commanded by Simão Martinho was sunk , but his entire crew was rescued by Fernão and taken aboard his ship . To make up for this loss , the Portuguese captured and commandeered five ships from Gujarat that were sailing between Malacca and Sumatra . The small fleet of Albuquerque engaged an enemy " junk " ship of the Malaccan " Moors " near an island between Lumut and Belawan . According to Barros , they fought against this ship for two days . The enemy crew employed tactics of lighting fire to its own ship as a means to burn Albuquerque 's ships as they employed ramming techniques and close @-@ range volleys of artillery . Although the ship surrendered ; the Portuguese gained such an admiration for the junk and its crew that they nicknamed it O Bravo ( The Brave Junk ) . The Portuguese crew pleaded with Fernão Pires to convince Albuquerque that the crew should be spared and viewed vassals of Portugal who were simply unaware of who they were actually fighting . Albuquerque eventually agreed to this .
While writing of Afonso de Albuquerque 's ventures in Sumatra , João de Barros noted that the Chinese were the first to control trade between Sumatra and India , and noted the presence of Chinese people living in Sumatra . Barros also noted that while Fernão Pires was loading Southeast Asian spices onto his ship in Pacem ( a kingdom in Sumatra ) in order to sell or present them as gifts in China , two different kings were killed and their position usurped . Apparently the usurpation of kings caused little tumult or crisis in this state , as Barros noted any leader there was believed by the locals not to have divine right to rule if he was able to be killed by a royal kinsman . Historian Mark Dion notes that Fernão related the same story in his writing , only adding that a Muslim in their society was the only acceptable replacement as ruler .
= = = Initial contact with China = = =
After the conquest of Malacca in 1511 , not only did the Portuguese monopolize the European spice trade , but they also met and traded avidly with Chinese merchants . When Portuguese under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira had earlier arrived in Malacca in 1509 to open trade relations , he was supported by the local Chinese merchants there ( along with Javanese and Tamil merchants ) . D 'Albuquerque sent Jorge Álvares to explore northward ; his expedition sailed along the coast of Guangdong in 1513 and hoisted a flag on " Tuen Mun island " . This mission was followed up later that year by Rafael Perestrello , who later traded with Chinese merchants of Canton in 1516 . He provided an enticing report to other Portuguese on the lucrative trade in China . This prompted Andrade to speed up the course of his mission while stalled in Malacca and debate with his crew on whether to go to China or Bengal .
= = = Mission of Manuel I to China = = =
= = = = Choosing the ambassadors = = = =
King Manuel I authorized a trade mission in 1517 when Andrade set sail with 7 cannon @-@ armed merchant vessels with a Muslim interpreter on June 17 , 1517 . Andrade had been chosen for this mission in Lisbon back in 1515 , so that — as a pharmacist — he could investigate the types of pharmaceutical drugs used in East Asia for the benefit of the Portuguese and Europe . Florentine merchant Giovanni da Empoli , who had written a report about trade with China while stationed in India , was also chosen for the mission as the chief commercial agent between the Portuguese and Chinese . However , Giovanni would die in China during the early mission on October 15 , 1517 when the ship he was on accidentally caught on fire . Tomé Pires , a royal apothecary who had also traveled to India and written a landmark work in 1515 on Asian trade , was chosen as the chief ambassador for the mission .
= = = = First contact = = = =
Although the mission was stalled once they lost a ship in the Strait of Malacca , they nonetheless landed at the Pearl River estuary on August 15 with eight ships and negotiated with Chinese officials for possible silk and porcelain trade at Canton . The Chinese naval commander of Nantou ( under the jurisdiction of Zhongshan , located at the mouth of the Pearl River ) stalled Andrade 's small fleet of ships for an entire month while Andrade waited for permission to sail upriver to Canton . After Andrade threatened to sail upriver without permission , the naval commander finally decided to let him pass , granting him pilots to assist his travel .
Once the ships sailed into port at Canton , they alarmed the Chinese residents and officials there by discharging cannon fire , what they believed was a friendly salute since the Chinese merchants had done so when the Portuguese earlier arrived in Malacca . Chinese officials became even more cautious in dealing with the Portuguese , since the deposed King of Malacca had been a loyal tributary to the imperial Ming court . The Portuguese explained that in deposing the Malaccan king , they were helping the Chinese merchants there who were being oppressed under his rule . In the eyes of the Canton officials , this added further negative speculations about the Portuguese visitors , because private Chinese overseas trade was banned under the current hai jin laws that stated only the Chinese government could conduct foreign trade .
Although the local Canton officials watched the Portuguese and their ships closely , once the provincial authorities arrived at Canton they greeted the Portuguese with a warm reception , providing them comfortable lodgings and had their trade goods brought ashore . The Chinese became suspicious once again of Andrade , this time for being a spy , when he sent a ship along the Fujian coast to look for further trade prospects , but he left a good impression when he gave the order that any locals who might be harmed by a Portuguese should seek him for redress . Besides exploring Fujian , Andrade sent one of his captains named Jorge de Mascarenhas to explore the Ryukyu Islands after he heard of their beauty while stationed in Malacca .
= = = = Andrade 's brother and spoiled relations = = = =
Simão de Andrade , brother to Fernão Pires , sailed from Malacca to China with a small crew on three junks in August 1519 . Simào immediately made a bad impression upon the Chinese when he built a fort at the center of Tuen Mun , an island designated for all foreigners to trade . Soon after , Simão ceremoniously executed a Portuguese and barred other foreigners ( mostly Siamese and other South East Asians ) from trading on the island , which drew even more attention to him . When a Chinese official visited the island and began reasserting Ming authority over it , Simão became aggressive and hit him , knocking the official 's hat off .
The greatest offense to the Chinese was the supposed kidnapping of children by the Portuguese so they could eat them . In reality , Simão had earned the Portuguese a bad reputation for buying young Chinese slaves , presumably some of whom were kidnapped after Simão offered local Chinese huge sums of money for child slaves . In fact , some boys and girls from wealthy Chinese families were later found by Portuguese authorities at Diu in western India . However , there were no official reports of Simão 's abuses , even though he stayed until September 1520 ; yet rumors of his behavior ( which became associated with all Portuguese ) no doubt reached as far as the court of Beijing , which would soon condemn the Portuguese for this and other reasons .
Although he had left Canton , Simão de Andrade landed at Xiamen and Ningbo , establishing settlements there . Simào continued to defy local Chinese laws at Ningbo , and when his men were cheated on a trade deal with a Chinese man in 1545 , Simão sent a band of armed men into the town , pillaged it , and took local women and young girls as their captives . The outraged locals banded together and slaughtered the Portuguese under Simão . A similar episode occurred later when Coelho de Sousa seized the house of a wealthy foreign resident in Jinzhou of Fujian , which led authorities to cut off supplies to the Portuguese ; the Portuguese then attacked and ransacked a nearby village for supplies , which prompted Chinese authorities to destroy thirteen of their ships while thirty Portuguese survivors of this settlement fled to the Portuguese settlement at Macau in 1549 .
= = = = End of the mission = = = =
The embassy party left behind in Canton in 1518 proceeded north in January 1520 with the rest of the Portuguese under Tomé Pires and Fernão Pires de Andrade . The embassy reached Nanjing , where the Zhengde Emperor was touring in May 1520 , granting the Portuguese embassy a quick audience . However , further diplomatic negotiations were to be resumed once the emperor returned to Beijing ; hence , the Portuguese embassy was sent there to wait for the emperor 's return .
Although no Chinese sources detail the event , Portuguese sources tell of how the Portuguese were summoned on the first and fifteenth days of each lunar month to ceremoniously prostrate themselves before a wall of the Forbidden City to seek another audience with the emperor . From Beijing , the Portuguese embassy heard reports that the emperor reached Tongzhou in January 1521 and had the rebel Prince of Ning executed there . The Portuguese embassy had also become aware that ambassadors from the exiled King of Malacca were sent to Beijing seeking assistance from the Chinese emperor in expelling the conquering Portuguese so that their king could be reinstalled there . The Portuguese also knew of two officials in the Censorate — Qiu Daolong and He Ao — who sent memorials to the throne that condemned the Portuguese conquest of Malacca and that their embassy should be rejected . There were also reports sent to Beijing by Canton officials stating that the Portuguese were bothersome foreigners who sought to build their own trading post .
With the death of the Zhengde Emperor on April 19 , 1521 , mourning ceremonies were initiated that cancelled all other ceremonies , including the reception of foreign embassies . The newly appointed Grand Secretary , Yang Tinghe , soon turned against the powerful eunuch influence at court , which had grown even more powerful under the Zhengde Emperor . Although Ming officials were of the opinion that only foreign tributary states listed during the beginning of the dynasty should be accepted at court , it was the eunuchs who wanted to expand commercial ties with new foreign countries . These desires were given free rein under the Zhengde Emperor , who was intrigued with and desired to learn about foreign and exotic peoples . However , with his death , eunuch influence at court was challenged by Yang Tinghe , who announced the rejection of the Portuguese embassy under Pires and Andrade the day after the emperor 's death ; the embassy was forced to leave and arrived back in Canton in September .
= = = Open hostility to reopening of relations = = =
Earlier , in April and May 1521 , five Portuguese ships docked at Tuen Mun to begin trading , but were ordered to leave once officials came to the region to announce the emperor 's death . The Portuguese refused this demand , so the Chinese sent a naval squadron to drive them out , sinking one ship , killing many , and taking the rest as prisoners ( First Battle of Tamao ) . Two more Portuguese vessels arrived in June , were attacked by Chinese ships , but were able to fend off the Chinese attack . Three more Portuguese ships barely fended off another attack in September , the same month that Fernão Pires de Andrade and Tomé Pires arrived back at Canton . Ming authorities would not permit Fernão and Pires to see the prisoners captured in the sea battles and made inventories of their goods and the goods captured from the Portuguese ships .
In August 1522 , Martim Afonso de Melo Coutinho arrived at Tuen Mun with three ships , unaware of the conflict and expecting to meet with Chinese officials on establishing consent for a Portuguese trade base in China . Two of his ships were captured in a surprise Chinese attack , while the survivors escaped back to Portugal on the third ship ( see Second Battle of Tamao ) . These encounters and others with the Portuguese brought the first breech @-@ loading culverins into China , mentioned even by the philosopher and scholar @-@ official Wang Yangming in 1519 when he suppressed Zhu Chenhao 's rebellion in Jiangxi .
The prisoners of these sea battles were eventually executed in 1523 for crimes of " robbery in the high seas " and cannibalism , while Tomé Pires was kept prisoner so that he could write letters to the King of Portugal , the Viceroy of Portuguese India , and the Governor of Malacca conveying the new Ming emperor 's message that the Portuguese should leave Malacca and restore it to the rightful rule of its deposed king . By some accounts , Fernão Pires de Andrade simply died while imprisoned ; others say Andrade was one of those beheaded when a crime of false credentials was placed upon him after a court examined if his embassy was legitimate or spurious due to negative accounts of the Portuguese ( i.e. acts committed by those such as Fernão Pires ' brother Simào ) . Tomé Pires died while living as a prisoner in China ; there is speculation on whether Tomé Pires died in 1524 or 1540 . Two survivors of this embassy were still alive around 1536 , when they sent letters to Malacca and Goa detailing plans for how the Portuguese could capture Canton by force . Other survivors of these missions retired to nearby Lampaco ( Lampa ) in Guangdong , where a trade post would exist for several decades ; in 1537 , there were written records of the Portuguese having three warehouses at Lampa , Shangchuan Island , and Macau , and were initially allowed there with the excuse of drying their goods in a storm .
Despite initial hostilities , good relations between the Portuguese and Chinese would resume in 1549 with annual Portuguese trade missions to Shangchuan Island , following an event where the Portuguese helped Ming authorities eliminate coastal pirates . In 1554 , Leonel de Sousa — a later Governor of Macau — established positive relations through an agreement with Cantonese authorities and in 1557 the Ming court finally gave consent for a permanent and official Portuguese trade base at Macau . Although Fernão Pires de Andrade and his Portuguese comrades were the first to open up China to the West , another significant diplomatic mission reaching all the way to Beijing would not be carried out until an Italian , the Jesuit Matteo Ricci ( 1552 – 1610 ) ventured there in 1598 .
= National Football League =
The National Football League ( NFL ) is a professional American football league consisting of 32 teams , divided equally between the National Football Conference ( NFC ) and the American Football Conference ( AFC ) . The NFL is one of the four major professional sports leagues in North America , and the highest professional level of American football in the world . The NFL 's 17 @-@ week regular season runs from the week after Labor Day to the week after Christmas , with each team playing 16 games and having one bye week . Following the conclusion of the regular season , six teams from each conference ( four division winners and two wild card teams ) advance to the playoffs , a single @-@ elimination tournament culminating in the Super Bowl , played between the champions of the NFC and AFC .
The NFL was formed in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association ( APFA ) before renaming itself the National Football League for the 1922 season . The NFL agreed to merge with the American Football League ( AFL ) in 1966 , and the first Super Bowl was held at the end of that season ; the merger was completed in 1970 . Today , the NFL has the highest average attendance ( 67 @,@ 591 ) of any professional sports league in the world and is the most popular sports league in the United States . The Super Bowl is among the biggest club sporting events in the world and individual Super Bowl games account for many of the most watched television programs in American history , all occupying the Nielsen 's Top 5 tally of the all @-@ time most watched U.S. television broadcasts by 2015 . The NFL 's executive officer is the commissioner , who has broad authority in governing the league .
The team with the most NFL championships is the Green Bay Packers with thirteen ; the team with the most Super Bowl championships is the Pittsburgh Steelers with six . The current NFL champions are the Denver Broncos , who defeated the Carolina Panthers 24 – 10 in Super Bowl 50 .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and history = = =
On August 20 , 1920 , a meeting was held by representatives of the Akron Pros , Canton Bulldogs , Cleveland Indians , Rock Island Islanders and Dayton Triangles at the Jordan and Hupmobile auto showroom in Canton , Ohio . This meeting resulted in the formation of the American Professional Football Conference ( APFC ) , a group who , according to the Canton Evening Repository , intended to " raise the standard of professional football in every way possible , to eliminate bidding for players between rival clubs and to secure cooperation in the formation of schedules " . Another meeting held on September 17 , 1920 resulted in the renaming of the league to the American Professional Football Association ( APFA ) . The league hired Jim Thorpe as its first president , and consisted of 14 teams . Only two of these teams , the Decatur Staleys ( now the Chicago Bears ) and the Chicago Cardinals ( now the Arizona Cardinals ) , remain .
Although the league did not maintain official standings for its 1920 inaugural season and teams played schedules that included non @-@ league opponents , the APFA awarded the Akron Pros the championship by virtue of their 8 – 0 – 3 ( 8 wins , 0 losses , and 3 ties ) record . The first event occurred on September 26 , 1920 when the Rock Island Independents defeated the non @-@ league St. Paul Ideals 48 @-@ 0 at Douglas Park . On October 3 , 1920 , the first full week of league play occurred . The following season resulted in the Chicago Staleys controversially winning the title over the Buffalo All @-@ Americans . In 1922 , the APFA changed its name to the National Football League ( NFL ) .
In 1932 , the season ended with the Chicago Bears ( 6 @-@ 1 @-@ 6 ) and the Portsmouth Spartans ( 6 @-@ 1 @-@ 4 ) tied for first in the league standings . At the time , teams were ranked on a single table and the team with the highest winning percentage ( not including ties , which were not counted towards the standings ) at the end of the season was declared the champion ; the only tiebreaker was that in the event of a tie , if two teams played twice in a season , the result of the second game determined the title ( the source of the 1921 controversy ) . This method had been used since the league 's creation in 1920 , but no situation had been encountered where two teams were tied for first . The league quickly determined that a playoff game between Chicago and Portsmouth was needed to decide the league 's champion . The teams were originally scheduled to play the playoff game , officially a regular season game that would count towards the regular season standings , at Wrigley Field in Chicago , but a combination of heavy snow and extreme cold forced the game to be moved indoors to Chicago Stadium , which did not have a regulation @-@ size football field . Playing with altered rules to accommodate the smaller playing field , the Bears won the game 9 @-@ 0 and thus won the championship . Fan interest in the de facto championship game led the NFL , beginning in 1933 , to split into two divisions with a championship game to be played between the division champions . The 1934 season also marked the first of 12 seasons in which African Americans were absent from the league . The de facto ban was rescinded in 1946 , following public pressure and coinciding with the removal of a similar ban in Major League Baseball .
The NFL was always the foremost professional football league in the United States ; it nevertheless faced a large number of rival professional leagues through the 1930s and 1940s . Rival leagues included at least three separate American Football Leagues and the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) , on top of various regional leagues of varying caliber . Three NFL teams trace their histories to these rival leagues , including the Los Angeles Rams ( who came from a 1936 iteration of the American Football League ) , the Cleveland Browns and San Francisco 49ers ( the last two of which came from the AAFC ) . By the 1950s , the NFL had an effective monopoly on professional football in the United States ; its only competition in North America was the professional Canadian football circuit , which formally became the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) in 1958 . With Canadian football being a different football code than the American game , the CFL established a niche market in Canada and still survives as an independent league .
A new professional league , the fourth American Football League ( AFL ) , began play in 1960 . The upstart AFL began to challenge the established NFL in popularity , gaining lucrative television contracts and engaging in a bidding war with the NFL for free agents and draft picks . The two leagues announced a merger on June 8 , 1966 , to take full effect in 1970 . In the meantime , the leagues would hold a common draft and championship game . The game , the Super Bowl , was held four times before the merger , with the NFL winning Super Bowl I and Super Bowl II , and the AFL winning Super Bowl III and Super Bowl IV . After the league merged , it was reorganized into two conferences : the National Football Conference ( NFC ) , consisting of most of the pre @-@ merger NFL teams , and the American Football Conference ( AFC ) , consisting of all of the AFL teams as well as three pre @-@ merger NFL teams .
Today , the NFL is considered the most popular sports league in North America ; much of its growth is attributed to former Commissioner Pete Rozelle , who led the league from 1960 to 1989 . Overall annual attendance increased from three million at the beginning of his tenure to seventeen million by the end of his tenure , and 400 million viewers watched 1989 's Super Bowl XXIII . The NFL established NFL Properties in 1963 . The league 's licensing wing , NFL Properties earns the league billions of dollars annually ; Rozelle 's tenure also marked the creation of NFL Charities and a national partnership with United Way . Paul Tagliabue was elected as commissioner to succeed Rozelle ; his seventeen @-@ year tenure , which ended in 2006 , was marked by large increases in television contracts and the addition of four expansion teams , as well as the introduction of league initiatives to increase the number of minorities in league and team management roles . The league 's current Commissioner , Roger Goodell , has focused on reducing the number of illegal hits and making the sport safer , mainly through fining or suspending players who break rules . These actions are among many the NFL is taking to reduce concussions and improve player safety .
= = = Season and playoff development = = =
From 1920 to 1934 , the NFL did not have a set number of games for teams to play , instead setting a minimum . The league mandated a 12 @-@ game regular season for each team beginning in 1935 , later shortening this to 11 games in 1937 and 10 games in 1943 , mainly due to World War II . After the war ended , the number of games returned to 11 games in 1946 and to 12 in 1947 . The NFL went to a 14 @-@ game schedule in 1961 , which it retained until switching to the current 16 @-@ game schedule in 1978 . Proposals to increase the regular season to 18 games have been made , but have been rejected in labor negotiations with the National Football League Players Association ( NFLPA ) .
The NFL operated in a two @-@ conference system from 1933 to 1966 , where the champions of each conference would meet in the NFL Championship Game . If two teams tied for the conference lead , they would meet in a one @-@ game playoff to determine the conference champion . In 1967 , the NFL expanded from 15 teams to 16 teams . Instead of just evening out the conferences by adding the expansion New Orleans Saints to the seven @-@ member Western Conference , the NFL realigned the conferences and split each into two four @-@ team divisions . The four conference champions would meet in the NFL playoffs , a two @-@ round playoff . The NFL also operated the Playoff Bowl ( officially the Bert Bell Benefit Bowl ) from 1960 to 1969 . Effectively a third @-@ place game , pitting the two conference runners @-@ up against each other , the league considers Playoff Bowls to have been exhibitions rather than playoff games . The league discontinued the Playoff Bowl in 1970 due to its perception as a game for losers .
Following the addition of the former AFL teams into the NFL in 1970 , the NFL split into two conferences with three divisions each . The expanded league , now with twenty @-@ six teams , would also feature an expanded eight @-@ team eight playoff , the participants being the three division champions from each conference as well as one ' wild card ' team ( the team with the best win percentage ) from each conference . In 1978 , the league added a second wild card team from each conference , bringing the total number of playoff teams to ten , and a further two wild card teams were added in 1990 to bring the total to twelve . When the NFL expanded to 32 teams in 2002 , the league realigned , changing the division structure from three divisions in each conference to four divisions in each conference . As each division champion gets a playoff bid , the number of wild card teams from each conference dropped from three to two .
= = Corporate structure = =
At the corporate level , the National Football League considers itself a trade association made up of and financed by its 32 member teams . Up until 2015 , the league was an unincorporated nonprofit 501 ( c ) ( 6 ) association . Section 501 ( c ) ( 6 ) of the Internal Revenue Code provides an exemption from federal income taxation for " Business leagues , chambers of commerce , real @-@ estate boards , boards of trade , or professional football leagues ( whether or not administering a pension fund for football players ) , not organized for profit and no part of the net earnings of which inures to the benefit of any private shareholder or individual . " . In contrast , each individual team ( except the non @-@ profit Green Bay Packers ) is subject to tax because they make a profit . The NFL gave up the tax exempt status in 2015 following public criticism ; in a letter to the club owners , Commissioner Roger Goodell labeled it a " distraction " , saying " the effects of the tax exempt status of the league office have been mischaracterized repeatedly in recent years ... Every dollar of income generated through television rights fees , licensing agreements , sponsorships , ticket sales , and other means is earned by the 32 clubs and is taxable there . This will remain the case even when the league office and Management Council file returns as taxable entities , and the change in filing status will make no material difference to our business " . As a result , the league office might owe around US $ 10 million , but is no longer required to disclose the salaries of its executive officers .
The league has three defined officers : the commissioner , secretary , and treasurer . Each conference has one officer , the president . The commissioner is elected by affirmative vote of two @-@ thirds or 18 ( whichever is greater ) of the members of the league , while the president of each conference is elected by an affirmative vote of three @-@ fourths or ten of the conference members . The commissioner appoints the secretary and treasurer and has broad authority in disputes between clubs , players , coaches , and employees . He is the " principal executive officer " of the NFL and also has authority in hiring league employees , negotiating television contracts , disciplining individuals that own part or all of an NFL team , clubs , or employed individuals of an NFL club if they have violated league bylaws or committed " conduct detrimental to the welfare of the League or professional football " . The commissioner can , in the event of misconduct by a party associated with the league , suspend individuals , hand down a fine of up to US $ 500 @,@ 000 , cancel contracts with the league , and award or strip teams of draft picks .
In extreme cases , the commissioner can offer recommendations to the NFL 's Executive Committee up to and including the " cancellation or forfeiture " of a club 's franchise or any other action he deems necessary . The commissioner can also issue sanctions up to and including a lifetime ban from the league if an individual connected to the NFL has bet on games or failed to notify the league of conspiracies or plans to bet on or fix games . The current Commissioner of the National Football League is Roger Goodell , who was elected in 2006 after Paul Tagliabue , the previous commissioner , retired .
= = Clubs = =
The NFL consists of 32 clubs divided into two conferences of 16 teams in each . Each conference is divided into four divisions of four clubs in each . During the regular season , each team is allowed a maximum of 53 players on its roster ; only 46 of these may be active ( eligible to play ) on game days . Each team can also have a 10 @-@ player practice squad separate from its main roster , but the practice squad may only be composed of players who were not active for at least nine games in any of their seasons in the league . A player can only be on a practice squad for a maximum of three seasons .
Each NFL club is granted a franchise , the league 's authorization for the team to operate in its home city . This franchise covers ' Home Territory ' ( the 75 miles surrounding the city limits , or , if the team is within 100 miles of another league city , half the distance between the two cities ) and ' Home Marketing Area ' ( Home Territory plus the rest of the state the club operates in , as well as the area the team operates its training camp in for the duration of the camp ) . Each NFL member has the exclusive right to host professional football games inside its Home Territory and the exclusive right to advertise , promote , and host events in its Home Marketing Area . There are several exceptions to this rule , mostly relating to teams with close proximity to each other : the San Francisco 49ers and Oakland Raiders only have exclusive rights in their cities and share rights outside of it ; and teams that operate in the same city ( e.g. New York Giants and New York Jets ) or the same state ( e.g. California , Florida , and Texas ) share the rights to the city 's Home Territory and the state 's Home Marketing Area , respectively .
Every NFL team is based in the contiguous United States . Although no team is based in a foreign country , the Buffalo Bills played one home game every season at Rogers Centre in Toronto , Ontario , as part of the Bills Toronto Series from 2008 to 2013 , and the Jacksonville Jaguars will play one home game a year from 2013 to 2016 at Wembley Stadium in London , England , as part of the NFL International Series . Mexico also has hosted an NFL regular @-@ season game , a 2005 game between the San Francisco 49ers and Arizona Cardinals known as " Fútbol Americano " , and 39 international preseason games were played from 1986 to 2005 as part of the American Bowl series . The Raiders and Houston Texans will play a game in Mexico City at Estadio Azteca on November 21 , 2016 .
According to Forbes , the Dallas Cowboys , at approximately US $ 4 billion , are the most valuable NFL franchise and the most valuable sports team in the world . Also , all 32 NFL teams rank among the Top 50 most valuable sports teams in the world ; and 14 of the NFL 's owners are listed on the Forbes 400 , the most of any sports league or organization .
= = Season format = =
The NFL season format consists of a four @-@ week preseason , a seventeen @-@ week regular season ( each team plays 16 games ) , and a twelve @-@ team single @-@ elimination playoff culminating in the Super Bowl , the league 's championship game .
= = = Preseason = = =
The NFL preseason begins with the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game , played at Fawcett Stadium in Canton . Each NFL team is required to schedule four preseason games , two of which must be at its home stadium , but the teams involved in the Hall of Fame game , as well as any teams playing in an American Bowl game , play five preseason games . Preseason games are exhibition matches and do not count towards regular @-@ season totals . Because the preseason does not count towards standings , teams do not focus on winning games ; instead , they are used by coaches to evaluate their teams and by players to show their performance , both to their current team and to other teams if they get cut . The quality of preseason games has been criticized by some fans , who dislike having to pay full price for exhibition games , as well as by some players and coaches , who dislike the risk of injury the games have , while others have felt the preseason is a necessary part of the NFL season .
= = = Regular season = = =
Currently , the thirteen opponents each team faces over the 16 @-@ game regular season schedule are set using a pre @-@ determined formula :
The National Football League runs a seventeen @-@ week , 256 @-@ game regular season . Since 2001 , the season has begun the week after Labor Day and concluded the week after Christmas . The opening game of the season is normally a primetime home game for the league 's defending champion .
Most NFL games are played on Sundays , with a Monday night game typically held at least once a week and Thursday night games occurring on most weeks as well . NFL games are not normally played on Fridays or Saturdays until late in the regular season , as federal law prohibits professional football leagues from competing with college or high school football . Because high school and college teams typically play games on Friday and Saturday , respectively , the NFL cannot hold games on those days until the third Friday in December . NFL games are rarely scheduled for Tuesday or Wednesday , and those days have only been used twice since 1948 : in 2010 , when a Sunday game was rescheduled to Tuesday due to a blizzard , and in 2012 , when the Kickoff game was moved from Thursday to Wednesday to avoid conflict with the Democratic National Convention .
NFL regular season matchups are determined according to a scheduling formula . Within a division , all four teams play fourteen out of their sixteen games against common opponents - two games ( home and away ) are played against the other three teams in the division , while one game is held against all the members of a division from the NFC and a division from the AFC division as determined by a rotating cycle ( three years for the conference the team is in , and four years in the conference they are not in ) . The other two games are intraconference games , determined by the standings of the previous year - for example , if a team finishes first in its division , it will play two other first @-@ place teams in its conference , while a team that finishes last would play two other last @-@ place teams in the conference . In total , each team plays sixteen games and has one bye week , where they do not play any games .
Although the teams any given club will play are known by the end of the previous year 's regular season , the exact dates , times , and home / away status for NFL games are not determined until much later because the league has to account for , among other things , the Major League Baseball postseason and local events that could pose a scheduling conflict with NFL games . During the 2010 season , over 500 @,@ 000 potential schedules were created by computers , 5 @,@ 000 of which were considered " playable schedules " and were reviewed by the NFL 's scheduling team . After arriving at what they felt was the best schedule out of the group , nearly 50 more potential schedules were developed to try and ensure that the chosen schedule would be the best possible one .
= = = Postseason = = =
Following the conclusion of the regular season , a twelve @-@ team single elimination tournament , the NFL Playoffs , is held . Six teams are selected from each conference : the winners of each of the four divisions as well as two wild card teams ( the two remaining teams with the best overall record ) . These teams are seeded according to overall record , with the division champions always ranking higher than either of the wild card teams . The top two teams ( seeded one and two ) from each conference are awarded a bye week , while the remaining four teams ( seeded 3 @-@ 6 ) from each conference compete in the first round of the playoffs , the Wild Card round , with the third seed competing against the sixth seed and the fourth seed competing against the fifth seed . The winners of the Wild Card round advance to the Divisional Round , which matches the lower seeded team against the first seed and the higher seeded team against the second seed . The winners of those games then compete in the Conference Championships , with the higher remaining seed hosting the lower remaining seed . The AFC and NFC champions then compete in the Super Bowl to determine the league champion .
The only other postseason event hosted by the NFL is the Pro Bowl , the league 's all @-@ star game . The Pro Bowl is held the week before the Super Bowl . The Pro Bowl is not considered as competitive as a regular @-@ season game because the biggest concern of teams is to avoid injuries to the star players .
= = Trophies and awards = =
= = = Team trophies = = =
The National Football League has used three different trophies to honor its champion over its existence . The first trophy , the Brunswick @-@ Balke Collender Cup , was donated to the NFL ( then APFA ) in 1920 by the Brunswick @-@ Balke Collender Corporation . The trophy , the appearance of which is only known by its description as a " silver loving cup " , was intended to be a traveling trophy and not to become permanent until a team had won at least three titles . The league awarded it to the Akron Pros , champions of the inaugural 1920 season ; however , the trophy was discontinued and its current whereabouts are unknown .
A second trophy , the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy , was issued by the NFL from 1934 to 1969 . The trophy 's namesake , Ed Thorp , was a referee in the league and a friend to many early league owners ; upon his death in 1934 , the league created the trophy to honor him . In addition to the main trophy , which would be in the possession of the current league champion , the league issued a smaller replica trophy to each champion , who would maintain permanent control over it . The current location of the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy , like that of its predecessor , is unknown . The predominant theory is that the Minnesota Vikings , the last team to be awarded the trophy , somehow misplaced it after the 1969 season .
The current trophy of the NFL is the Vince Lombardi Trophy . The Super Bowl trophy was officially renamed in 1970 after Vince Lombardi , who as head coach led the Green Bay Packers to victories in the first two Super Bowls . Unlike the previous trophies , a new Vince Lombardi Trophy is issued to each year 's champion , who maintains permanent control of it . Lombardi Trophies are made by Tiffany & Co. out of sterling
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reelected Speaker . As the session began , many in the Democratic caucus were determined to repeal the Specie Payment Resumption Act of 1875 . That Act , passed when Republicans last controlled the House , was intended to gradually withdraw all greenbacks from circulation , replacing them with dollars backed in specie ( i.e. , gold or silver ) . With the elimination of the silver dollar in 1873 , this would effectively return the United States to the gold standard for the first time since before the Civil War . Randall , who had voted against the act in 1875 , agreed to let the House vote on its repeal , which narrowly passed . The Senate , still controlled by Republicans , declined to act on the bill .
The attempt at repeal did not end the controversy over silver . Democratic Representative Richard P. Bland of Missouri proposed a bill that would require the United States to buy as much silver as miners could sell the government and strike it into coins , a system that would increase the money supply and aid debtors . In short , silver miners would sell the government metal worth fifty to seventy cents , and receive back a silver dollar . Randall allowed the bill to come to the floor for an up @-@ or @-@ down vote during a special session in November 1877 : the result was its passage by a vote of 163 to 34 ( with 94 members absent ) . The pro @-@ silver idea cut across party lines , and William B. Allison , a Republican from Iowa led the effort in the Senate . Allison offered an amendment in the Senate requiring the purchase of two to four million dollars per month of silver , but not allowing private deposit of silver at the mints . Thus , the seignorage , or difference between the face value of the coin and the worth of the metal contained within it accrued to the government 's credit , not private citizens . President Hayes vetoed the bill , but Congress overrode the veto , and the Bland – Allison Act became law .
= = = Potter committee = = =
As the 1880 presidential elections approached , many Democrats remained convinced Tilden had been robbed of the presidency in 1876 . In the House , Tilden supporter Clarkson Nott Potter of New York sought an investigation into the 1876 election in Florida and Louisiana , hoping that evidence of Republican malfeasance would harm that party 's candidate in 1880 . The Democratic caucus , including Randall , unanimously endorsed the idea , and the committee convened in May 1878 . Some in the caucus wished to investigate the entire election , but Randall and the more moderate members worked to limit the committee 's reach to the two disputed states .
Randall left no doubt about his sympathies when he assigned members to the committee , stacking it with Hayes 's enemies from both parties . The committee 's investigation had the opposite of the Democrats ' intended effect , uncovering telegrams from Tilden 's nephew , William Tilden Pelton , offering bribes to Southern Republicans in the disputed states to help Tilden claim their votes . The Pelton telegrams were in code , which the committee was able to decode ; Republicans had also sent ciphered dispatches , but the committee was unable to decode them . The ensuing excitement fizzled out by June 1878 as the Congress went into recess .
= = = Reelected Speaker = = =
As the 46th Congress convened in 1879 , the Democratic caucus was reduced , but they still held a plurality of seats . The new House contained 152 Democrats , 139 Republicans , and 20 independents , most of whom were affiliated with the Greenback Party . Many of Randall 's fellow Democrats differed with him over protectionism and his lack of support for Southern railroad subsidies , and considered choosing Joseph Clay Stiles Blackburn of Kentucky as their nominee for Speaker , instead . Several other Southerners ' names were floated , too , as anti @-@ Randall Democrats tried to coalesce around a single candidate ; in the end , none could be found and the caucus chose Randall as their nominee with 107 votes out of 152 . With some Democrats not yet present , however , the Democrats began to fear that the Republicans and Greenbackers would strike a deal to combine their votes to elect James A. Garfield of Ohio as Speaker . When the time for the vote came , however , Garfield refused to make any compromises with the third @-@ party men , and Randall and the Democrats were able to organize the House once more .
= = = Civil rights and the army = = =
Randall 's determination to cut spending , combined with Southern Democrats ' desire to reduce federal power in their home states , led the House to pass an army appropriation bill with a rider that repealed the Enforcement Acts , which had been used to suppress the Ku Klux Klan . The Enforcement Acts , passed during Reconstruction over Democratic opposition , made it a crime to prevent someone from voting because of his race . Hayes was determined to preserve the law protecting black voters , and he vetoed the appropriation . The Democrats did not have enough votes to override the veto , but they passed a new bill with the same rider . Hayes vetoed this as well , and the process was repeated three times more . Finally , Hayes signed an appropriation without the rider , but Congress refused to pass another bill to fund federal marshals , who were vital to the enforcement of the Enforcement Acts . The election laws remained in effect , but the funds to enforce them were curtailed . Randall 's role in the process was limited , but the Democrats ' failure to force Hayes 's acquiescence weakened his appeal as a potential presidential candidate in 1880 .
= = = 1880 presidential election = = =
As the 1880 elections approached , Randall had two goals : to increase his control of the Pennsylvania Democratic Party , and to nominate Tilden for president . His efforts at the former in 1875 had been successful , but Senator William Wallace 's faction was again growing powerful . If he wanted to hold the Speakership , as well as to wield influence in the next presidential canvass , Randall believed he must have a united state party behind him . To that end , Randall spent much of his time outside of Congress travelling around his home state to line up support at the state convention in 1880 . Some of his allies ' enthusiasm backfired against him , however , after McMullen and some supporters broke up an anti @-@ Randall meeting in Philadelphia 's 5th ward with such violence that one man was left dead .
When the state convention gathered in April 1880 , Randall was confident of victory , but soon found that the Wallace faction outnumbered his . Wallace 's majority scrambled the party 's organization in Philadelphia and , although some Randall supporters received seats , the majority owed allegiance to the senator . Despite the defeat , Randall pressed on for Tilden , both in Pennsylvania and elsewhere . As rumors circulated that Tilden 's health would keep him from running again , Randall remained a loyal Tilden man up to the national convention that June . After the first ballot , the New York delegation released a letter from Tilden in which he withdrew from consideration . Randall hoped for the ex @-@ Tilden delegates to rally to him . Many did so , and Randall surged to second place on the second ballot , but the momentum had shifted to another candidate , Major General Winfield Scott Hancock . Nearly all of the delegates shifted to Hancock , and he was nominated .
Randall believed he had been betrayed by many he had thought would support him , but carried on regardless in support of his party 's nominee . Hancock ( who remained on active duty ) and the Republican nominee , James A. Garfield , did not campaign directly , in keeping with the customs of that time , but campaigns were conducted by other party members , including Randall . Speaking in Pennsylvania and around the Midwest , Randall did his best to rally the people to Hancock against Garfield , but without success . Garfield was elected with 214 electoral votes — including those of Pennsylvania . Worse still for Randall , Garfield 's victory had swept the Republicans back into a majority in the House , meaning Randall 's time as Speaker was at an end .
= = Later House service = =
= = = Tariffs = = =
When Randall returned to Washington in 1881 to begin his term in the 47th Congress , the legislature was controlled by Republicans . After Garfield 's assassination later that year , Vice President Chester A. Arthur assumed the presidency . Arthur , like most Republicans , favored high tariffs , but he sought to simplify the tariff structure and to reduce excise taxes . Randall , who had returned to his seat on the Appropriations Committee , favored the president 's plan , and was among the few Democrats in the House to support the it . The bill that emerged from the Ways and Means Committee , dominated by protectionists , provided for only a 10 percent reduction . After conference with the Senate , the resulting bill had an even smaller effect , reducing tariffs by an average of 1 @.@ 47 percent . It passed both houses narrowly on March 3 , 1883 , the last full day of the 47th Congress ; Arthur signed the measure into law . Toward the end , Randall took less part in the debate , feeling the tension between his supporters in the House , who wanted more reductions , and his constituents at home , who wanted less .
The Democrats recaptured the House after the 1882 elections , but the incoming majority in the 48th Congress was divided on tariffs , with Randall 's protectionist faction in the minority . The new Democratic caucus was more Southern and Western than in previous Congresses , and contained many new members who were unfamiliar with Randall . This led many to propose selecting a Speaker more in line with their own views , rather than returning Randall to the office . Randall 's attempt to canvass the incoming representatives was further hampered by an attack of the gout . In the end , John G. Carlisle of Kentucky , an advocate of tariff reform , bested Randall in a poll of the Democratic caucus by a vote of 104 to 53 .
Carlisle selected William Ralls Morrison , another tariff reformer , to lead the Ways and Means committee , but allowed Randall to take charge of Appropriations . Morrison 's committee produced a bill proposing tariff reductions of 20 % ; Randall opposed the idea from the start , as did the Republicans . Another bout of illness kept Randall away from Congress at a crucial time in April 1884 , and the tariff bill passed a procedural hurdle by just two votes . Two days later , Randall 's Appropriations committee reported several funding bills with his support . Many Democrats who had voted for Morrison 's tariff were thereby reminded that Randall had the power to defeat spending that was important to them ; when the final vote came , enough switched sides to join with Republicans in defeating the reform 156 to 151 .
= = = Presidential election of 1884 = = =
As in 1880 , the contest for the Democratic nomination for president in 1884 began under the shadow of Tilden . Declining health forced Tilden 's withdrawal by June 1884 , and Randall felt free to pursue his own chance at the presidency . He gathered some of the Pennsylvania delegates to his cause , but by the time the convention assembled in July , most of the former Tilden adherents had gathered around New York governor Grover Cleveland . Early in the convention , Randall met with Daniel Manning , Cleveland 's campaign manager , and soon thereafter Randall 's delegates were instructed to cast their votes for Cleveland . As his biographer , House , wrote , the " actual bargain struck between Randall and Manning is not known , but ... events would seem to show that Randall was promised control of federal patronage in Pennsylvania . "
Cleveland 's campaign made extensive use of Randall , as he made speeches for Cleveland in New England , Pennsylvania , Ohio , Virginia , New York , and Connecticut , mainly in places where potential voters needed to be reassured that the Democrats did not want to lower the tariff so much that they would lose their jobs . In a close election , Cleveland was elected over his Republican opponent , James G. Blaine . Randall also took two tours of the South in 1884 after the election . Although , he claimed the trips to be of a personal nature , they generated speculation that Randall was gathering support for another run at the Speakership in 1885 .
= = = Resisting tariff reform = = =
As the 49th Congress gathered in 1885 , Cleveland 's position on the tariff was still largely unknown . Randall declined to challenge Carlisle for Speaker , busying himself instead with the federal patronage in Pennsylvania and continued leadership of the Appropriations committee . In February 1886 , Morrison , still the chairman of Ways and Means , proposed a bill to decrease the surplus by buying and cancelling $ 10 million worth of federal bonds each month . Cleveland opposed the plan , and Randall joined 13 Democrats and most Republicans in defeating it . Later that year , however , Cleveland supported Morrison 's attempt to reduce the tariff . Again , Republicans and Randall 's protectionist bloc combined to sink the measure . In the lame @-@ duck session of 1887 , Randall attempted a compromise tariff that would eliminate duties on some raw materials while also dispensing with excises on tobacco and some liquors . The bill attracted some support from Southern Democrats and Randall 's protectionists , but Republicans and the rest of the Democratic caucus rejected it .
= = = Declining influence = = =
The tariff fight continued into the 50th Congress , which opened in 1887 , in which Democrats retained control of the House , with a reduced majority . By that time , Cleveland had openly sided with the tariff reformers and backed the proposals introduced in 1888 by Representative Roger Q. Mills of Texas . Mills had replaced Morrison at Ways and Means after the latter 's defeat for reelection , and was as much in favor of tariff reform as the Illinoisan had been . Mills 's bill would make small cuts to tariffs on raw materials , but relatively deeper cuts to those on manufactured goods ; Randall , representing a manufacturing district , opposed it immediately . Randall was again ill and absent from the House when the Mills tariff passed by a 162 to 149 vote . The Senate , now Republican @-@ controlled , refused to consider the bill , and it died with the 50th Congress in 1889 .
Mills 's and Cleveland 's defeat on the tariff bill could be considered a victory for Randall , but the vote showed how isolated the former Speaker 's protectionist ideas now made him in his party : only four Democrats voted against the tariff reductions . The state party likewise turned against Randall and toward free trade , adopting a pro @-@ tariff revision platform at the 1888 state Democratic convention . At the same time , Randall seemingly reversed his long @-@ standing commitment to fiscal economy by voting with the Republicans to override Cleveland 's veto of the Dependent and Disability Pension Act . The Act would have given a pension to every Union veteran ( or their widows ) who claimed he could no longer perform physical labor , regardless of whether his disability was war @-@ related . Cleveland 's veto was in line with his record of small @-@ government cost @-@ cutting , with which Randall would normally have sympathized . Randall , perhaps in an effort to gain favor with veterans in his district , joined the Republicans in an unsuccessful attempt to override Cleveland 's veto . Another possibility proposed by biographer House is that Randall saw the federal budget surplus as reason to cut tariffs ; by increasing federal spending , he hoped to decrease the surplus and maintain the need for high tariffs . Whatever the reason , the attempt failed and left Randall further alienated from his fellow Democrats .
= = = Death = = =
Randall 's positions on tariffs and pensions had made him , according to The New York Times , " a practical Republican " by 1888 . Voting with the opposing party so frequently was an effective tactic , as he faced only token Republican opposition for reelection that year . Randall 's health continued to decline . When the new congress began in 1889 , he received special permission to be sworn into office from his bed , where he was confined . The new Speaker , Republican Thomas Brackett Reed of Maine , appointed Randall to the Rules and Appropriations committees , but he had no impact during that term .
On April 12 , 1890 , Randall died of colon cancer in his Washington home . He had recently joined the First Presbyterian Church in the capital , and his funeral was held there . He was buried in Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia . Elected every two years from 1862 to 1888 , Randall was the only prominent Democrat continuously on the national scene between those years . In an obituary , the Bulletin of the American Iron and Steel Association described the congressman who had consistently protected their industry : " Not a great scholar , nor a great orator , nor a great writer , Samuel J. Randall was nevertheless a man of sterling common sense , quick perceptions , great courage , broad views and extraordinary capacity for work . " The only scholarly works on his life are a master 's thesis by Sidney I. Pomerantz , written in 1932 , and a doctoral dissertation by Albert V. House , from 1934 ; both are unpublished . His papers were collected by the University of Pennsylvania library in the 1950s and he has been the subject of several journal articles ( many by House ) , but , as of 2015 , awaits a full scholarly biography .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Articles = = =
= = = Dissertation = = =
= = = Newspapers = = =
= Ai no Uta ( Words of Love ) =
" Ai no Uta ( Words of Love ) " ( Japanese : 愛の詩 ( words of love ) ; , " Love Poem ( words of love ) ) is a song recorded by Japanese recording artist Haruka Chisuga , taken from her debut studio album Try ! ( 2016 ) . It was released as the fifth single from the album by Victor Entertainment and their subsidiary label Flying Dog on April 27 , 2016 . The lyrics were written by Yamada Toshiaki and the music was composed and produced by Swedish electronic dance musician Rasmus Faber . Musically , " Ai no Uta ( Words of Love ) " is an electronic dance song , influenced by four on the floor that features synthesizers and string arrangements in its instrumentation .
Upon its release , it received positive reviews from music critics . Some complimented the composition , noting a departure from her previous J @-@ pop influenced music , and commended the songwriting . Commercially , the song fared better in Japan than her previous releases , peaking at number 47 on the Oricon Singles Chart . An accompanying music video was directed by Nozomi Tanaka , which featured Chisuga in a large aquarium surrounded by bright lights . To promote the single , Chisuga appeared on radio stations throughout Japan including Rajira Sunday and Hiroshi Kamiya 's All Night , and was used as the closing theme song for the second season of Japanese anime television series , The Asterisk War .
= = Background and release = =
On October 4 , 2015 , it was confirmed through Anime News Network that Chisuga was to voice over the character Sylvia Lyyneheym for the second season of Japanese anime television series , The Asterisk War . However , Chisuga did not comment about a potential theme song recording for the show . Then in February 2016 , Chisuga confirmed that a new song , titled " Ai no Uta ( Words of Love ) " , would serve as the show 's ending theme song . " Ai no Uta ( Words of Love ) " was written by Yamada Toshiaki and produced by Swedish electronic dance musician Rasmus Faber . Musically , it is an electronic dance song , influenced by four on the floor and incorporates " elegant strings " sections , as described by a staff member at CD Journal .
The single was released as the album 's fifth single by Flying Dog , a subsidiary label owned by Victor Entertainment , on April 27 , 2016 . It was released on a CD single in Japan , which included the track , two B @-@ side songs " Lonely Feather " and " Ai no Taiyou " , and an acapella version of " Lonely Feather " . It also included the instrumental versions of the first three tracks . The digital EP included the four recordings but omitted the instrumental versions . Through CDJapan.com , pre @-@ ordered versions of the CD single included a large B2 @-@ sized poster and a scanned hand @-@ written letter by Chisuga herself , which was then signed .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , it received positive reviews from music critics . A staff member at Amazon.com complimented Faber 's production and arrangement , who believed he was able to " expand " Chisuga 's sound outside of J @-@ pop . The reviewer also complimented the songwriting and her vocal performance . In a similar review , a CD Journal staff member praised Chisuga 's " free " and " vigorous " vocal performance , alongside its " glossy " production . The review concluded with the reviewer calling it a " high degree of completion " .
Commercially , the song fared better in Japan than her previous releases . It debuted at number 47 on the Oricon Singles Chart , her highest selling entry and first top 50 single since " Planet Cradle " / " Wandering " in 2013 ; it sold 1 @,@ 462 units . Despite falling outside of the top 50 the following week , it lasted eight weeks inside the top 200 . As of June 2016 , " Ai no Uta ( Words of Love ) " is her second best selling single according to Oricon Style .
= = Promotion = =
To promote the single , Chisuga appeared on several radio stations in Japan including Rajira Sunday and Hiroshi Kamiya 's All Night radio show through Nippon Broadcasting System . She also held a live event to promote the single in Osaka , Japan , May 2015 . Then throughout early @-@ mid May 2016 , Chisuga visited the Japanese music store Animate in cities Yokohama , Nagoya , Kyoto , Sannomiya , and Osaka , and signed autographs . She then followed up by visiting stores Namba Shop and Akiba Sofmap in Japan . On July 9 , Chisuga will perform " Ai no Uta ( Words of Love ) " for the first time , in order to promote the single . An accompanying music video was directed by Nozomi Tanaka . It was shot in an aquarium , and included Chisuga sitting down and observing several fishes . Along with this , she was surrounded by several glow lights and spot lights . It was released on YouTube by Victor Entertainment , Chisuga 's parent label , and premiered through Japanese music television on April 8 , 2016 .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the CD liner notes of " Ai no Uta ( Words of Love ) " .
Recording and management
Recorded in 2016 . Management and record label Flying Dog and Victor Entertainment .
Credits
Haruka Chisuga – vocals , background vocals
Yamada Toshiaki – songwriting ( track 1 )
Yūho Iwasato – songwriting ( track 3 )
Rasmus Faber – songwriting ( track 2 ) , production , arranging , composing
Nozomi Tanaka – music video director
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Hurricane Ella ( 1958 ) =
Hurricane Ella brought flooding to the Greater Antilles and Texas in September 1958 . The fifth named storm and third hurricane of the annual season , Ella developed from a tropical wave located just east of the Lesser Antilles on August 30 . Initially a tropical depression , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Ella six hours later . The system crossed the Leeward Islands and entered the Caribbean Sea late on August 30 . Ella headed westward and by August 31 , intensified into a Category 1 hurricane . Hours later , it strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The storm curved northwestward while south of Hispaniola and as a result , struck the Tiburon Peninsula of Haiti on September 1 . Flooding in that country killed 30 people in Aux Cayes and left 3 other missing . Additionally , thousands were left homeless , about one @-@ third of crops were washed out , and numerous cattle were killed .
After re @-@ emerging into the Caribbean Sea , Ella deepened further and peaked as 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane on September 2 , while it was making landfall near Santiago de Cuba , Cuba . Heavy rainfall lead to flooding , which in turn caused hundreds to flee their homes , and resulted in 5 fatalities . Hundreds of livestock drowned , and telephone and telegraph services were disrupted in many areas . The storm became disorganized while moving across the southern coast of Cuba and weakened to a tropical storm by later on September 2 . Ella reached the Gulf of Mexico on September 4 and briefly re @-@ strengthened . However , it began to weaken again while approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States . The storm made landfall as a weak tropical storm near Corpus Christi , Texas on September 6 . It rapidly weakened inland and dissipated later that day . Rainfall and rough surf caused both inland and coastal flooding in Texas . Offshore , the captain of a snapper boat fell overboard and went missing ; he was later presumed to have drowned .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave was first observed near 50 ° W on August 29 . Later that day , reconnaissance aircraft flight reported a wind shirt and above average shower and thunderstorm activity , but no low @-@ level circulation . At 0600 UTC on August 30 , a tropical depression developed just east of the Lesser Antilles . Six hours later , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Ella . The storm moved through the Leeward Islands and entered the Caribbean Sea late on August 30 . A reconnaissance aircraft into Ella reported sustained winds between 55 and 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . It was around that time that the Weather Bureau Office in San Juan , Puerto Rico began issuing bulletins and advisories . Ella strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane at 1200 UTC on August 31 , six hours later , before becoming a Category 2 hurricane . On September 1 , Ella curved west @-@ northwestward , and by later that day , made landfall on the Tiburon Peninsula of Haiti with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . However , the storm was operationally thought to have remained offshore .
Ella re @-@ emerged into the Caribbean Sea on September 1 and immediately resumed strengthening . While becoming a Category 3 hurricane at 0000 UTC on September 2 , Ella attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 989 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) . Around that time , the storm made landfall near Santiago de Cuba , Cuba at the same intensity . Rough terrain over the island caused Ella to weaken to a Category 1 hurricane on September 2 . Later that day , it further weakened to a tropical storm . The storm re @-@ strengthened to a 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) before reaching the Gulf of Mexico on September 4 . Ella maintained this intensity for approximately 48 hours while moving west @-@ northwestward , but began to weaken again on September 6 . Hours later , the storm made landfall near Corpus Christi , Texas with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . It weakened back to a tropical depression and dissipated by late on September 6 .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
Wind gusts in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands were between 40 and 50 mph ( 64 and 80 km / h ) . Heavy rainfall in the former caused local flooding . Damage was minor in both locations , confined mostly to crops . In preparation for Ella on the island of Hispaniola , a hurricane warning was issued from Barahona , Dominican Republic , and along the Haitian coastline to Saint @-@ Marc . Ella brought heavy rains , peaking at 9 @.@ 63 in ( 245 mm ) in Polo , Barahona . Damage from the resultant flooding in southwestern Dominican Republic reached $ 100 @,@ 000 . Additionally , wind gusts up to 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) were reported in Santo Domingo . Heavy precipitation in Haiti caused flash floods that killed 30 people near Aux Cayes , and three other people were listed as missing . As much as 5 to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) of water covered roads in low @-@ lying areas . A combination of strong winds and flooding also rendered thousands homeless . Damage to agriculture was heavy , with numerous cattle killed and about one @-@ third of crops washed out , mostly to bananas and sugar cane . There was no monetary damage estimate , though losses in Haiti were noted to have been " considerable " .
Flooding also occurred in Cuba . Hundreds were evacuated their homes in four different provinces in Cuba , including 400 peasant families in Oriente Province . Near Santiago de Cuba , 25 houses were swept away after the Bayamo River overflowed . In the same area , a woman and her four sons drowned due to the swollen river . Additionally , a body of a man was recovered near Santa Cruz del Sur . Hundreds of livestock drowned , and telephone and telegraph services were disrupted in many areas . Losses in Cuba were estimated to have reached $ 100 @,@ 000 . Ella had a role in the Cuban Revolution as the government troops of Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar stayed in their barracks during the storm while the rebels made progress under cover of Ella . Later , when the guerrillas heard about Hurricane Fifi on the radio , Che Guevara taught his illiterate comrades that entities like tropical cyclones are named in alphabetical order .
The outerbands of Ella produced gale force winds in the Florida Keys , causing damage mainly to antennas , fences , shrubbery , and signs . Winds on Stock Island damaged and overturned 4 trailers . Further north in Miami , a freighter was disabled and had to be towed in to port by the United States Coast Guard . Due to fears of a storm similar to Hurricane Audrey in the previous year , some residents evacuated southwestern Louisiana . An estimated 1 @,@ 500 fled inland as Ella approached , leaving only 100 people to ride out the storm . In Louisiana , squalls from Ella caused the collision of two ocean @-@ bound freighters along the Mississippi River near New Orleans . Impact elsewhere in Louisiana was limited to minor damage to rice crops in the southwestern portion of the state . On 35 oil platforms offshore of Houston , Texas , 1 @,@ 400 people were alerted about possible evacuations if Ella were to approach the area . Along the coast , there were evacuations in Indianola , Port Alto , Port O 'Connor , and Sabine Pass . Ella brought heavy rains to eastern and southern Texas , including 13 @.@ 1 in ( 330 mm ) in Galveston . Precipitation brought minor flooding to low lying areas of the Bolivar Peninsula , Galveston Island , Kemah , La Marque , the Matagorda Peninsula , Seabrook , and Texas City . Ella also brought swells to the coast of Texas . A portion of Texas State Highway 87 was closed due to inundation between Sabine Pass and High Island . Further south , tidal flooding along Texas State Highway 316 caused the closure of the portion near Indianola . Offshore , a 65 ft ( 20 m ) shrimp trawler sank during the storm , after being smashed against the rocks near Galveston . The crew fled to the life boats and were later rescued by a United States Coast Guard Patrol Vessel . The captain of the snapper boat E. W. Fowler went missing after he was washed overboard ; the man was later presumed to have drowned .
= The Story of Miss Moppet =
The Story of Miss Moppet is a tale about teasing , featuring a kitten and a mouse , that was written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter . It was published by Frederick Warne & Co for the 1906 Christmas season . Potter was born in London in 1866 , and between 1902 and 1905 published a series of small format children 's books with Warne . In 1906 , she experimented with an atypical panorama design for Miss Moppet , which booksellers disliked ; the story was reprinted in 1916 in small book format .
Miss Moppet , the story 's eponymous main character , is a kitten teased by a mouse . While pursuing him she bumps her head on a cupboard . She then wraps a duster about her head , and sits before the fire " looking very ill " . The curious mouse creeps closer , is captured , " and because the Mouse has teased Miss Moppet — Miss Moppet thinks she will tease the Mouse ; which is not at all nice of Miss Moppet " . She ties him up in the duster and tosses him about . However , the mouse makes his escape , and once safely out of reach , dances a jig atop the cupboard .
Although , critically , The Story of Miss Moppet is considered one of Potter 's lesser efforts , for young children it is valued as an introduction to books in general , and to the world of Peter Rabbit . The character of Miss Moppet was released as a porcelain figurine in 1954 and a plush toy in 1973 . The book has been published in a Braille version , translated into seven languages , and was released in an electronic format in 2005 . First editions in the original format are available through antiquarian booksellers .
= = Background = =
Helen Beatrix Potter was born on July 28 1866 to barrister Rupert William Potter and his wife Helen ( Leech ) Potter in London . She was educated by governesses and tutors , and passed a quiet childhood reading , painting , drawing , tending a nursery menagerie of small animals , and visiting museums and art exhibitions . Her interests in the natural world and country life were nurtured with holidays in Scotland , the Lake District , and Camfield Place , the Hertfordshire home of her paternal grandparents .
Potter 's adolescence was as quiet as her childhood . She matured into a spinsterish young woman whose parents groomed her to be a permanent resident and housekeeper in their home . She continued to paint and draw , and experienced her first professional artistic success in 1890 when she sold six illustrations of her pet rabbit to a greeting card publisher . She hoped to lead a useful life independent of her parents , and tentatively considered a career in mycology , but the all @-@ male scientific community regarded her as nothing more than an amateur and she abandoned fungi .
In 1900 , Potter revised a tale that she had written for a child in 1893 , fashioning it into a dummy book similar to the size and style of Helen Bannerman 's The Story of Little Black Sambo . Unable to find a buyer for her book , partially because the children 's book market of the time depended on brightly coloured illustrations unlike Potter 's line drawings , she decided to publish it privately in December 1901 . Frederick Warne & Co had once rejected the tale but , to maintain their position in the small format children 's book market , reconsidered and accepted the " bunny book " ( as the firm called it ) following the recommendation of their prominent children 's book artist L. Leslie Brooke . Potter agreed to colour her pen and ink illustrations according to Warne 's requirements , and she suggested Warne use the new Hentschel three @-@ colour printing technique in the printing process for The Tale of Peter Rabbit .
Potter continued to publish children 's books with Warne , and by 1905 she found herself financially independent . Her books were selling well , and her income , combined with a small inheritance , allowed her to buy Hill Top , a farm of 34 acres ( 14 ha ) at Near Sawrey in the Lake District in July of that year . When her longtime editor and fiancé Norman Warne died a few weeks after their secret engagement , she became depressed , but went on to devote herself to her stories .
= = Development and publication = =
In 1906 , as Potter was finishing The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher , she considered developing books for a younger audience . Three stories were the result : The Story of Miss Moppet , The Story of A Fierce Bad Rabbit and The Sly Old Cat . Inspired by George Cruikshank 's illustrations , she intended to have the stories published in " panoramic format in the style of Cruikshank 's Comic Alphabet " , as explained by Taylor . The panorama format consisted of " long strips of paper , on which the individual pages of pictures and text were arranged in order from left to right . "
Potter was at Hill Top in July 1906 during the development of Miss Moppet , and the kitten she borrowed as a model from a mason from Windermere was a difficult subject . " [ A ] n exasperating model , " Potter wrote , " I have borrowed a Kitten and I am rather glad of the opportunity of working at the drawings . It is very young and pretty and a most fearful pickle . " Biographer Linda Lear explains that " pickle " was a word Potter used to describe " free @-@ thinking exuberant people , like her cousin Caroline , or mischievous kittens and small children . " Potter used the same drawings of the kitten as a model for her next book , The Tale of Tom Kitten , which she dedicated in 1907 " to all Pickles — especially those that get upon my garden wall " . Miss Moppet is one of Tom Kitten 's sisters , and appears as a character in both books featuring him : The Tale of Tom Kitten and The Tale of Samuel Whiskers or The Roly @-@ Poly Pudding ( 1908 ) .
Potter was an admirer of American author Joel Chandler Harris and created a series of plates in the 1890s for his Uncle Remus stories , possibly in an attempt to find career direction . So deep was her admiration , Lear speculates the scene of Miss Moppet wrapping her head in the duster comes from a similar scene in an Uncle Remus tale in which Br 'er Fox " feigns illness in a rocking chair , wrapped up with flannel " . Potter was modeling her sketches from a young kitten and , wanting not to show cruelty , she wrote of the kitten : " She should catch him by the tail / less unpleasant " . Children 's literature scholar Peter Hunt writes that Potter was careful to protect her young audience from graphic details and she refused to depict death in her stories .
Ten thousand copies of The Story of Miss Moppet were released in a panorama format priced at a shilling in November 1906 , and another 10 @,@ 000 copies in December 1906 . There were no subsequent printings in the panorama format . The strip folded accordion @-@ fashion into a grey cloth wallet measuring 108 by 89 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 3 in × 3 @.@ 5 in ) . When opened , the panorama strip measured 108 by 2 @,@ 492 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 3 in × 98 @.@ 1 in ) . As Lear writes , Potter " experimented with a panorama format of fourteen pictures on one long strip of paper which folded into a wallet tied with a ribbon " . Lear explains that the format " although popular with readers was ultimately unsuccessful , because shopkeepers found them difficult to keep folded " . Potter referred to this fact late in life when she said , " Bad Rabbit and Moppet were originally printed on long strips — The shops sensibly refused to stock them because they got unrolled and so bad to fold up again " . MacDonald points out that the fragile panorama format was inappropriate for very young children .
Twenty thousand copies of The Story of A Fierce Bad Rabbit were published in panorama format in November and December 1906 in exactly the same measurements as Miss Moppet . Both were later published in a small book 122 by 103 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 8 in × 4 @.@ 1 in ) format . The Sly Old Cat was scheduled for publication in 1907 but fell victim to the pressures exerted by booksellers . It was set aside , but was proposed for publication in 1916 as The Story of the Sly Old Cat . Potter 's eyesight was failing and she refused to develop it . The story was published in book format with Potter 's 1906 rough sketches for the first time in 1971 . It is not included in the standard 23 @-@ volume Peter Rabbit library .
By 1916 Frederick Warne & Co had discontinued Miss Moppet in its panorama format , and republished the story in a book format that year . Potter illustrated a frontispiece of the kitten and mouse seated in profile , and a title page vignette of a mouse on all fours facing the reader for the book format . At 113 by 92 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 4 by 3 @.@ 6 in ) , the book 's dimensions were smaller than other Peter Rabbit books . In 1917 , she suggested to her publisher that Appley Dapply 's Nursery Rhymes be published in the smaller Miss Moppet format .
= = Plot = =
The tale opens with an illustration of a wide @-@ eyed kitten : " This is a Pussy called Miss Moppet , she thinks she has heard a mouse ! " The following illustration depicts a mouse wearing a pink bowtie and green jacket " peeping out behind the cupboard , and making fun of Miss Moppet . He is not afraid of a kitten . " Miss Moppet darts at him , but misses and bumps her head on the cupboard . She hits the cupboard very hard and rubs her nose . The mouse scurries to the top of the cupboard and watches her .
Miss Moppet ties a duster about her head and sits before the fire on a red hassock . The mouse 's curiosity is piqued ; he thinks she looks very ill and comes sliding down the bell @-@ pull . " Miss Moppet looks worse and worse . " The mouse creeps nearer . Miss Moppet holds her head in her paws and peeks at the mouse through a hole in the duster . " The Mouse comes very close . " Miss Moppet jumps and snags him by the tail .
" And because the Mouse has teased Miss Moppet — Miss Moppet thinks she will tease the Mouse ; which is not at all nice of Miss Moppet . " The kitten ties the mouse up in the duster then tosses it about like a ball . The mouse peeks from the hole in the duster . In the last illustration but one , Miss Moppet is seated upright on her rump and staring at the reader . The duster lies opened and empty in her paws . " She forgot about that hole in the duster " , and the mouse has escaped . He dances a jig safely out of Miss Moppet 's reach atop the cupboard .
= = Scholarly commentaries = =
James M. Redfield , a classics professor at the University of Chicago , in his article " An Aristotelian Analysis of Miss Moppet " finds the story follows the tenets of Aristotle 's Poetics , with a definite beginning ( the unsuccessful attempt to catch the mouse ) , middle ( Miss Moppet pretending to be hurt and catching the mouse ) , and end ( Miss Moppet teasing the mouse and his escape ) . Redfield notes that Potter makes the outcome of the plot uncertain and creates parity between the characters , which are naturally predator and prey ; Potter makes Miss Moppet " young , inexperienced , female , and a pet " , while the mouse is " mature , courageous , male , and independent " . Redfield praises Potter 's skill as an author ; she uses the hole in the duster twice — to allow Miss Moppet to catch the mouse , but then for him to escape her — and uses phrases particularly suited for a parent to read aloud to a child ( " This is the mouse ... " ) . Redfield concludes that while teasing is bad in the story — dangerous for the mouse , and cruel for the cat — Potter herself teases the reader in a good way , showing " us that teasing is a kind of loving when it is a kind of teaching . The poet plays with us , and by taking us through an unreal experience , teaches us what it is to live in the real world . "
In her essay " Thoroughly Post @-@ Victorian , Pre @-@ Modern Beatrix " professor of English Katherine Chandler points out that Potter , unlike most Victorian writers of children 's books , wrote original stories based on the realism of animal behaviour . Chandler notes that Potter avoids moralizing in her tales , making Miss Moppet nothing more than a story describing the natural behaviour of kittens . Potter 's anthropomorphized animals are in fact slightly naughty , yet in their naughtiness the punishment is never the moral of the tale . At the end of Miss Moppet , the kitten is not punished and the mouse dances on the cupboard . This leads Chandler to quote literary scholar of modernism Humphrey Carpenter , " there is nothing in [ Potter 's ] work that resembles the moral tale . In fact if might be argued that she is writing something pretty close to a series of immoral tales " . In addition Chandler notes that Potter 's economic use of prose presages modernism , comparing her writing to that of Ernest Hemingway .
Ruth K. MacDonald , English and children 's literature professor at New Mexico State University , agrees , writing in Beatrix Potter that Miss Moppet demonstrates Potter 's ability to pare text and illustrations to essentials noting that she worked best with more complicated plots , more complicated characters , and stories with specific settings rather than generalized backgrounds . Miss Moppet is a vignette , she indicates , rather than the typical Potter tale of causality , extended plot , and variety of character , and depends upon the archetypal animosity between cat and mouse with the cat being the dominant character .
Miss Moppet was more successful than its companion piece The Story of A Fierce Bad Rabbit according to M. Daphne Kutzer , an English professor at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh and author of Beatrix Potter : Writing in Code ( 2003 ) . Kutzer writes : " the illustrations are more fluid and the storyline more humorous and less moralistic " . Potter was never at her best when writing for a clearly defined audience , Kutzer observes , and in writing a Victorian moral tale about teasing , Potter failed to completely engage the reader 's imagination in either the story or the illustrations . Though , as MacDonald notes , Miss Moppet remains in the Potter canon , and serves as a good initial approach to Potter 's literature .
= = Merchandise = =
Potter asserted her tales would one day be nursery classics , and part of the " longevity of her books comes from strategy " , writes Potter biographer Ruth MacDonald . She was the first to exploit the commercial possibilities of her characters and tales ; between 1903 and 1905 these included a Peter Rabbit stuffed toy , an unpublished board game , and nursery wallpaper . Similar " side @-@ shows " ( as she termed the ancillary merchandise ) were produced throughout her life . For a number of years Potter designed Christmas cards with characters from her books that were sold to raise money for charities .
Potter died on December 22 , 1943 , and left her home and the original illustrations for almost all of her books , including Miss Moppet , to the National Trust . Hilltop was opened to visitors in 1946 , and displayed her original artwork there until 1985 . After Potter 's death , Frederick Warne & Co granted licences to various firms for the production of merchandise based on her characters . Beswick Pottery of Longton , Staffordshire released a porcelain figurine of Miss Moppet in 1954 ; the firm was eventually acquired by Royal Doulton which continued to issue the figurine under the " Royal Albert " brand until it was discontinued in 2002 . From 1980 to 1995 when it went out of business , Schmid & Co. of Toronto and Randolph , Massachusetts produced a Miss Moppet music box figurine . From 1983 to 1991 , Schmid distributed two Miss Moppet Christmas ornaments ( 3 and 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 76 and 38 mm ) tall ) , made by the Italian firm ANRI . Stuffed toy manufacturers requested licensing for Potter 's figures early in the 20th century ; however she refused to grant permission , having been disappointed with the quality of the proposed stuffed toys . Frederick Warne & Co retained rights to all Potter merchandise and in 1973 granted a license to the Eden Toys company of Jersey City , New Jersey to manufacture stuffed animals based on Potter 's characters . Beginning in 1975 these included a plush Miss Moppet , which was discontinued in 2001 when Eden Toys went out of business .
= = Reprints and translations = =
As of 2010 , all 23 of Potter 's small format books , including Miss Moppet , remain in print , and are available as a complete set in a presentation box . A 400 @-@ page omnibus edition is also available , as is an electronic format , released in 2005 . First edition and early edition Potter books are offered by antiquarian booksellers .
Although sold to Penguin Books in 1984 , Frederick Warne & Co remained a subsidiary company and continues to publish Potter 's books . A 2002 Publishers Weekly article , written for the centennial of the publication of The Tale of Peter Rabbit , reported that Potter was considered one of the most popular classic writers , that anniversary editions of her work were published in 1993 and 2002 , and the artwork has been " re @-@ scanned to make the illustrations look fresher and brighter " . The Frederick Warne name still appears on editions of Potter 's books in English .
Languages that Miss Moppet has been translated into include Chinese , French , German , Italian , Japanese , Spanish , and Vietnamese , and a Braille edition in English has been prepared . Miss Moppet was parodied by Nicholas Garland in a policial cartoon in the 11 June 1976 issue of the New Statesman . Margaret Thatcher had lost a motion of no confidence in the government of Prime Minister James Callaghan , and Garland 's cartoon copied the text and parodied four panels of the story , with Callaghan as the mouse who escapes Thatcher the kitten . In 1986 , MacDonald observed that Potter 's books had become a " traditional part of childhood in most only English @-@ speaking countries and in many of the countries into whose languages Potter 's books have been translated " .
= 1907 Tiflis bank robbery =
The 1907 Tiflis bank robbery , also known as the Yerevan Square expropriation , was an armed robbery on 26 June 1907 in the city of Tiflis ( now Georgia 's capital , Tbilisi ) . A bank cash shipment was stolen by Bolsheviks to fund their revolutionary activities . The robbers attacked a bank stagecoach and surrounding police and military using bombs and guns while the stagecoach was transporting money through Yerevan Square ( now Freedom Square ) between the post office and the Tiflis branch of the State Bank of the Russian Empire . The attack killed forty people and injured fifty others , according to official archive documents . The robbers escaped with 341 @,@ 000 rubles ( equivalent to around US 3 @.@ 4 million in 2008 ) .
The robbery was organized by a number of top @-@ level Bolsheviks , including Vladimir Lenin , Joseph Stalin , Maxim Litvinov , Leonid Krasin , and Alexander Bogdanov , and executed by a gang of revolutionaries led by Stalin 's early associate Ter @-@ Petrosian ( Kamo ) . Because such activities were explicitly prohibited by the 5th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party ( RSDLP ) , the robbery and the killings caused outrage within the party against the Bolsheviks ( a faction within the RSDLP ) . As a result , Lenin and Stalin tried to distance themselves from the robbery . The events surrounding the incident and similar robberies split the Bolshevik leadership , with Lenin against Bogdanov and Krasin . Despite the success of the robbery and the large sum involved , the Bolsheviks could not use most of the large bank notes obtained from the robbery because their serial numbers were known to the police . Lenin conceived of a plan to have various individuals cash the large bank notes at once at various locations throughout Europe in January 1908 , but this strategy failed , resulting in a number of arrests , worldwide publicity , and negative reaction from European social democrats .
Kamo was caught in Germany shortly after the robbery but successfully avoided a criminal trial by feigning insanity for more than three years . He managed to escape from his psychiatric ward but was captured two years later while planning another robbery . Kamo was then sentenced to death for his crimes including the 1907 robbery , but his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment ; he was released after the 1917 Revolution . None of the other major participants or organizers of the robbery were ever brought to trial . After his death , a grave and monument to Kamo was erected near Yerevan Square in Pushkin Gardens . This monument was later removed , and Kamo 's remains moved elsewhere .
= = Background = =
The RSDLP , the predecessor to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , was formed in 1898 . The goal of the RSDLP was to change the economic and political system in the Russian Empire through a proletarian revolution in accordance with Marxist doctrine . Alongside their political activities , the RSDLP and other revolutionary groups ( such as anarchists and Socialist Revolutionaries ) practised a range of militant operations , including " expropriations " , a euphemism for armed robberies of government or private funds to support revolutionary activities .
From 1903 onwards , the RSDLP were divided between two major groups : the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks . After the suppression of the 1905 Revolution by the Russian Empire , the RSDLP held its 5th Congress in May – June 1907 in London with the hopes of resolving differences between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks . One issue that still separated the two groups was the divergence of their views on militant activities , and in particular , " expropriations " . The most militant Bolsheviks , led at the 5th Congress by Vladimir Lenin , supported continuation of the use of robberies , while Mensheviks advocated a more peaceful and gradual approach to revolution , and opposed militant operations . At the 5th Congress , a resolution was passed condemning participation in or assistance to all militant activity , including " expropriations " as " disorganizing and demoralizing " , and called for all party militias to be disbanded . This resolution passed with 65 per cent supporting and 6 per cent opposing ( others abstained or did not vote ) with all Mensheviks and even some Bolsheviks supporting the resolution .
Despite the unified party 's prohibition on separate committees , during the 5th Congress the Bolsheviks elected their own governing body , called the Bolshevik Centre , and kept it secret from the rest of the RSDLP . The Bolshevik Centre was headed by a " Finance Group " consisting of Lenin , Leonid Krasin and Alexander Bogdanov . Among other party activities , the Bolshevik leadership had already planned a number of " expropriations " in different parts of Russia by the time of the 5th Congress and was awaiting a major robbery in Tiflis , which occurred only weeks after the 5th Congress ended .
= = Preparation = =
Before the 5th Congress met , high @-@ ranking Bolsheviks held a meeting in Berlin in April 1907 to discuss staging a robbery to obtain funds to purchase arms . Attendees included Lenin , Krasin , Bogdanov , Joseph Stalin , and Maxim Litvinov . The group decided that Stalin , then known by his earlier nom de guerre Koba , and the Armenian Simon Ter @-@ Petrossian , known as Kamo , should organize a bank robbery in the city of Tiflis .
The 29 @-@ year @-@ old Stalin was living in Tiflis with his wife Ekaterina and newborn son Yakov . Stalin was experienced at organizing robberies , and these exploits had helped him gain a reputation as the Centre 's principal financier . Kamo , four years younger than Stalin , had a reputation for ruthlessness ; later in his life he cut a man 's heart from his chest . At the time of the conspiracy , Kamo ran a criminal organization called " the Outfit " . Stalin said that Kamo was " a master of disguise " , and Lenin called Kamo his " Caucasian bandit " . Stalin and Kamo had grown up together , and Stalin had converted Kamo to Marxism .
After the April meeting , Stalin and Litvinov travelled to Tiflis to inform Kamo of the plans and to organize the raid . According to Roman Brackman 's The Secret File of Joseph Stalin : A Hidden Life , while Stalin was working with the Bolsheviks to organize criminal activities , he was also acting as an informant for the Okhrana , the Russian secret police . Brackman alleges that once the group returned to Tiflis , Stalin informed his Okhrana contact , Officer Mukhtarov , about the bank robbery plans and promised to provide the Okhrana with more information at a later time .
In Tiflis , Stalin began planning for the robbery . He established contact with two individuals with inside information about the State Bank 's operations : a bank clerk named Gigo Kasradze and an old school friend of Stalin 's named Voznesensky who worked at the Tiflis banking mail office . Voznesensky later stated that he had helped out in the theft out of admiration for Stalin 's romantic poetry . Voznesensky worked in the Tiflis banking mail office , giving him access to a secret schedule that showed the times that cash would be transferred by stagecoach to the Tiflis branch of the State Bank . Voznesensky notified Stalin that the bank would be receiving a large shipment of money by horse @-@ drawn carriage on 26 June 1907 .
Krasin helped manufacture bombs to use in the attack on the stagecoach . Kamo 's gang smuggled bombs into Tiflis by hiding them inside a sofa . Only weeks before the robbery , Kamo accidentally detonated one of Krasin 's bombs while trying to set the fuse . The blast severely injured him in the eye , leaving a permanent scar . Kamo was confined to his bed for a month owing to intense pain , and had not fully recovered by the time of the robbery .
= = Day of the robbery = =
On the day of the robbery , 26 June 1907 , the 20 organizers , including Stalin , met near Yerevan Square ( just 2 minutes from the seminary , bank and viceroy 's palace ) to finalize their plans , and after the meeting , they went to their designated places in preparation for the attack . The Russian authorities had become aware that some large action was being planned by revolutionaries in Tiflis , and had increased the security presence in the main square ; just prior to the robbery , they had been tipped off and were guarding every street corner in Yerevan Square . To deal with the increased security , gang members spotted patrolling gendarmes and police prior to the robbery and lookouts were posted looking down on the square from above .
The gang members mostly dressed themselves as peasants and waited on street corners with revolvers and grenades . In contrast to the others , Kamo was disguised as a cavalry captain and came to the square in a horse @-@ drawn phaeton , a type of open carriage .
The conspirators took over the Tilipuchuri tavern facing the square in preparation for the robbery . A witness , David Sagirashvili , later stated that he had been walking in Yerevan Square when a friend named Bachua Kupriashvili , who later turned out to be one of the robbers , invited him into a tavern and asked him to stay . Once inside the tavern , Sagirashvili realized that armed men were stopping people from leaving . When they received a signal that the bank stagecoach was nearing the square , the armed men quickly left the building with pistols drawn .
The Tiflis branch of the State Bank of the Russian Empire had arranged to transport funds between the post office and the State Bank by horse @-@ drawn stagecoach . Inside the stagecoach was the money , two guards with rifles , a bank cashier , and a bank accountant . A phaeton filled with armed soldiers rode behind the stagecoach , and mounted cossacks rode in front , next to , and behind the carriages .
= = = Attack = = =
The stagecoach made its way through the crowded square at about 10 : 30 am . Kupriashvili gave the signal , and the robbers hit the carriage with grenades , killing many of the horses and guards , and began shooting security men guarding the stagecoach and the square . Bombs were thrown from all directions . The Georgian newspaper Isari reported : " No one could tell if the terrible shooting was the boom of cannons or explosion of bombs ... The sound caused panic everywhere ... almost across the whole city , people started running . Carriages and carts were galloping away " . The blasts were so strong that they knocked over nearby chimneys and broke every pane of glass for a mile around . Ekaterina Svanidze , Stalin 's wife , was standing on a balcony at their home near the square with her family and young child . When they heard the explosions , they rushed back into the house terrified .
One of the injured horses harnessed to the bank stagecoach bolted , pulling the stagecoach with it , chased by Kupriashvili , Kamo , and another robber , Datiko Chibriashvili . Kupriashvili threw a grenade that blew off the horse 's legs , but Kupriashvili was caught in the explosion , landing stunned on the ground . He regained consciousness and sneaked out of the square before police and military reinforcements arrived . Chibriashvili snatched the sacks of money from the stagecoach while Kamo rode up firing his pistol , and they and another robber threw the money into Kamo 's phaeton . Pressed for time , they inadvertently left twenty thousand rubles behind , some of which was pocketed by one of the stagecoach drivers who was later arrested for the theft .
= = = Escape and aftermath = = =
After securing the money , Kamo quickly rode out of the square ; encountering a police carriage , he pretended to be a captain of the cavalry , shouting , " The money 's safe . Run to the square . " The deputy in the carriage obeyed , realizing only later that he had been fooled by an escaping robber . Kamo then rode to the gang 's headquarters where he changed out of his uniform . All of the robbers quickly scattered , and none were caught .
One of the robbers , Eliso Lominadze , stole a teacher 's uniform to disguise himself and came back to the square , gazing at the carnage . Fifty casualties lay wounded in the square along with the dead people and horses . The authorities stated that only three people had died , but documents in the Okhrana archives reveal that the true number was around forty .
The State Bank was not sure how much it actually lost from the robbery , but the best estimates were around 341 @,@ 000 rubles , worth around 3 @.@ 4 million US dollars as of 2008 . About 91 @,@ 000 rubles were in small untraceable bills , with the rest in large 500 @-@ ruble notes that were difficult to exchange because their serial numbers were known to the police .
= = = Stalin 's role = = =
Stalin 's exact actions on the day of the robbery are unknown and disputed . One source , P. A. Pavlenko , claimed that Stalin attacked the carriage itself and had been wounded by a bomb fragment . Kamo later stated that Stalin took no active part in the robbery and had watched it from a distance . Another source
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Terror Trips , the second volume of the graphic novel trilogy Goosebumps Graphix , includes an adaptation that was illustrated by Jill Thompson . R. J. Carter , of The Trades , wrote that some panels of the comic were influenced by manga . Despite Jennifer Feigelman , of Kliatt , writing that the adaptation has " frenetic lines and mismatched panel sizing " , she said that the graphic novel , in which the adaptation is contained , is " destined to be a hit with the " tween " crowd " .
Goosebumps HorrorLand is a book series that takes place in HorrorLand .
= = = Episodes = = =
The book was adapted into a two @-@ part episode for the Goosebumps television series . Airing as episodes 8 and 9 of the third season , the first episode aired on October 25 , 1997 and the second episode aired on November 1 , 1997 . The character Clay was not included in the episodes . A reviewer on DVD Talk wrote , " This two @-@ part episode is largely enjoyable , with some pretty scary moments , though it has a disturbing subtext and an ending that may leave younger children especially feeling squeamish " .
= = = = Cast = = = =
Heather Brown as Lizzy Morris
Michael Caloz as Luke Morris
Jonathan Whittaker as Mr. Morris
Kirsten Bishop as Mrs. Morris
Neil Crone as the Host , Blek , and Makeup Artist
= = Home media = =
The VHS release of the television episodes was reported as the fourteenth best @-@ selling children 's video in the November 14 , 1998 issue of Billboard . The VHS , along with two other Goosebumps releases , were advertised on millions of products by General Mills , with coupons and a sweepstakes for a Goosebumps stage production .
The DVD was released in 2008 , with no special features . Jeffrey Kauffman , writing for DVD Talk , said that the DVD release is " a completely average television presentation all around " with " typical " sound .
= Wall Street ( 1987 film ) =
Wall Street is a 1987 American drama film , directed and co @-@ written by Oliver Stone , which stars Michael Douglas , Charlie Sheen , Daryl Hannah and Martin Sheen . The film tells the story of Bud Fox ( Sheen ) , a young stockbroker who becomes involved with Gordon Gekko ( Douglas ) , a wealthy , unscrupulous corporate raider .
Stone made the film as a tribute to his father , Lou Stone , a stockbroker during the Great Depression . The character of Gekko is said to be a composite of several people , including Owen Morrisey , Dennis Levine , Ivan Boesky , Carl Icahn , Asher Edelman , Michael Ovitz , Michael Milken , and Stone himself . The character of Sir Lawrence Wildman , meanwhile , was modeled on the prominent British financier and corporate raider Sir James Goldsmith . Originally , the studio wanted Warren Beatty to play Gekko , but he was not interested ; Stone , meanwhile , wanted Richard Gere , but Gere passed on the role . Stone went with Douglas even though he had been advised by others in Hollywood not to cast him .
The film was well received among major film critics . Douglas won the Academy Award for Best Actor , and the film has come to be seen as the archetypal portrayal of 1980s excess , with Douglas ' character memorably declaring that " greed is good . " It has also proven influential in inspiring people to work on Wall Street , with Sheen , Douglas , and Stone commenting over the years how people still approach them and say that they became stockbrokers because of their respective characters in the film .
Stone and Douglas reunited for a sequel titled Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps , which was released theatrically on September 24 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
In 1985 , Bud Fox ( Charlie Sheen ) is working as a junior stockbroker in New York City at Jackson Steinem & Co . He wants to work with his hero , Gordon Gekko ( Michael Douglas ) , a legendary Wall Street player . After calling Gekko 's office 59 days in a row trying to land an appointment , Bud visits Gekko on his birthday with a box of Gekko 's favorite , contraband Cuban cigars . Impressed at his sheer boldness , Gekko grants Bud an interview . Bud pitches him stocks , but Gekko is unimpressed . Desperate , Bud provides him some inside information about Bluestar Airlines , which Bud learned in a casual conversation from his father , Carl ( Martin Sheen ) , the union leader for the company 's maintenance workers . Intrigued , Gekko tells Bud he will think about it , but also that he " [ looks ] at a hundred deals a day , " but " [ chooses ] one . " A dejected Bud returns to his office . However , Gekko places an order for Bluestar stock and becomes one of Bud 's clients . Gekko gives Bud some capital to manage , but the other stocks Bud selects lose money .
Gekko gives Bud another chance , and tells him to spy on British CEO Sir Lawrence Wildman ( Terence Stamp ) and discern Wildman 's next move . Bud learns that Wildman is making a bid for a steel company . Through Bud 's spying , Gekko makes big money , and Wildman is forced to buy Gekko 's shares off him to complete his takeover .
Bud becomes wealthy , enjoying Gekko 's promised perks , including a penthouse on Manhattan 's Upper East Side and a trophy girlfriend , interior decorator Darien ( Daryl Hannah ) . Bud is promoted to a senior stockbroker as a result of the large commission fees he is bringing in from Gekko 's trading , and is given a corner office with a view . He continues to maximize inside information and use friends as straw buyers to provide more income for him and Gekko . Unknown to Bud , several of his trades attract the attention of the Securities and Exchange Commission .
Bud pitches a new idea to Gekko : buy Bluestar Airlines and expand the company , with Bud as president , using savings achieved by union concessions and the overfunded pension . Even though Bud is unable to persuade his father to support him and Gekko , he is able to get the unions to push for the deal . Soon afterward , Bud learns that Gekko plans to dissolve the company and sell off Bluestar 's assets in order to access cash in the company 's pension plan , leaving Carl and the entire Bluestar staff unemployed . Although this would leave Bud as a very rich man , he is angered by Gekko 's deceit and racked with the guilt of being an accessory to Bluestar 's impending destruction , especially after his father suffers a heart attack . Bud resolves to disrupt Gekko 's plans , and breaks up with Darien when she refuses to go against Gekko , her former lover .
Bud devises a plan to drive up Bluestar 's stock before manipulating it back down . He and the other union presidents then secretly meet with Wildman and arrange for him to buy controlling interest in Bluestar at a significant discount . Gekko , realizing that his stock is plummeting , dumps his remaining interest in the company on Bud 's advice . However , when Gekko learns on the evening news that Wildman is buying Bluestar , he realizes that Bud engineered the entire scheme . Bud triumphantly goes back to work at Jackson Steinem the following day , only to be arrested for insider trading .
Sometime later , Bud confronts Gekko in Central Park . Gekko physically assaults Bud as he berates him for his role with Bluestar and accuses him of ingratitude for several of their illicit trades . Following the confrontation , it is revealed that Bud has turned state 's evidence and was wearing a wire to record his encounter with Gekko . He turns the wire tapes over to the authorities , who suggest that he may get a lighter sentence in exchange for helping them make a case against Gekko . Later on , Bud 's parents drive him down FDR Drive towards the New York State Supreme Court Building downtown to answer for the crimes he committed under Gekko 's influence . Carl tells him he did right in saving the airline . The film ends with Bud going up the steps of the courthouse , knowing that while he is likely going to prison and his career is ruined , he now has a clear conscience , and that all is right with the corporate world again .
= = Cast = =
Michael Douglas as Gordon Gekko
Charlie Sheen as Bud Fox
Daryl Hannah as Darien Taylor
Martin Sheen as Carl Fox
John C. McGinley as Marvin
Terence Stamp as Sir Larry Wildman
James Karen as Harry Lynch
Hal Holbrook as Lou Mannheim
Sean Young as Kate Gekko
James Spader as Roger Barnes
= = Production and origins = =
After the success of Platoon ( 1986 ) , Stone wanted film school friend and Los Angeles screenwriter Stanley Weiser to research and write a screenplay about quiz show scandals in the 1950s . During a story conference , Stone suggested making a film about Wall Street instead . The director pitched the premise of two investment partners getting involved in questionable financial dealings , using each other , and they are tailed by a prosecutor as in Crime and Punishment . The director had been thinking about this kind of a movie as early as 1981 and was inspired by his father , Lou Stone , a broker during the Great Depression at Hayden Stone .
The filmmaker knew a New York businessman who was making millions and working long days putting together deals all over the world . This man started making mistakes that cost him everything . Stone remembers that the " story frames what happens in my movie , which is basically a Pilgrim ’ s Progress of a boy who is seduced and corrupted by the allure of easy money . And in the third act , he sets out to redeem himself " . Stone asked Weiser to read Crime and Punishment , but Weiser found that its story did not mix well with their own . Stone then asked Weiser to read The Great Gatsby for material that they could use , but it was not the right fit either . Weiser had no prior knowledge of the financial world and immersed himself in researching the world of stock trading , junk bonds , and corporate takeovers . He and Stone spent three weeks visiting brokerage houses and interviewing investors .
= = = Screenplay = = =
Weiser wrote the first draft , initially called Greed , with Stone writing another draft . Originally , the lead character was a young Jewish broker named Freddie Goldsmith , but Stone changed it to Bud Fox to avoid the stereotype that Wall Street was controlled by Jews . Reportedly , Gordon Gekko is said to be a composite of several people : Wall Street broker Owen Morrisey , an old friend of Stone 's who was involved in a $ 20 million insider trading scandal in 1985 , Dennis Levine , Ivan Boesky , corporate raider Carl Icahn , art collector Asher Edelman , agent Michael Ovitz , and Stone himself . For example , the famous " Greed is good " line was based on a speech by Boesky where he said , " Greed is right " .
According to Edward R. Pressman , producer of the film , " Originally , there was no one individual who Gekko was modeled on " , he adds , " But Gekko was partly Milken " . Also , Pressman has said that the character of Sir Larry Wildman was " modeled on Jimmy Goldsmith " , the famous Anglo @-@ French billionaire and corporate @-@ raider .
According to Weiser , Gekko 's style of speaking was inspired by Stone . " When I was writing some of the dialogue I would listen to Oliver on the phone and sometimes he talks very rapid @-@ fire , the way Gordon Gekko does " . Stone cites as influences on his approach to business , the novels of Upton Sinclair , Sinclair Lewis and Victor Hugo , and the films of Paddy Chayefsky because they were able to make a complicated subject clear to the audience . Stone set the film in 1985 because insider trading scandals culminated in 1985 and 1986 . This led to anachronisms in the script , including a reference to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster , which had not yet occurred .
= = = Casting = = =
Stone met with Tom Cruise about playing Bud Fox , but the director had already committed to Charlie Sheen for the role . Stone liked the " stiffness " of Sheen 's acting style and used it to convey Bud 's naivete . Michael Douglas had just come off heroic roles like the one in Romancing the Stone and was looking for something dark and edgy . The studio wanted Warren Beatty to play Gekko , but he was not interested . Stone initially wanted Richard Gere but the actor passed , so Stone went with Douglas despite having been advised by others in Hollywood not to cast him . Stone remembers , " I was warned by everyone in Hollywood that Michael couldn 't act , that he was a producer more than an actor and would spend all his time in his trailer on the phone " . Nevertheless , Stone found out that " when he 's acting he gives it his all " . Stone said that he saw " that villain quality " in Douglas and always thought he was a smart businessman . Douglas remembers that when he first read the screenplay , " I thought it was a great part . It was a long script , and there were some incredibly long and intense monologues to open with . I ’ d never seen a screenplay where there were two or three pages of single @-@ spaced type for a monologue . I thought , whoa ! I mean , it was unbelievable " . For research , he read profiles of corporate raiders T. Boone Pickens and Carl Icahn .
Stone gave Charlie Sheen the choice of Jack Lemmon or Martin Sheen to play his father in the film , and Sheen picked his father . The elder Sheen related to the moral sense of his character . Stone cast Daryl Hannah as Bud Fox 's materialistic girlfriend Darien Taylor , but felt that she was never happy with the role and did not know why she accepted it . He tried to explain the character to Hannah repeatedly , and thought that the materialism of the character conflicted with Hannah 's idealism . Stone said later that he was aware early on that she was not right for the part . " Daryl Hannah was not happy doing the role and I should have let her go . All my crew wanted to get rid of her after one day of shooting . My pride was such that I kept saying I was going to make it work " . Stone also had difficulties with Sean Young , who made her opinions known that Hannah should be fired and that she should play that role instead . Young would show up to the set late and unprepared . She did not get along with Charlie Sheen , which caused further friction on the set . In retrospect , Stone felt that Young was right and he should have swapped Hannah 's role with hers . Stone admits that he had " some problems " with Young , but was not willing to confirm or deny rumors that she walked off with all of her costumes when she completed filming .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Stone wanted to shoot the movie in New York City and that required a budget of at least $ 15 million , a moderate shooting budget by 1980s standards . The studio that backed Platoon felt that it was too risky a project to bankroll and passed . Stone and producer Edward R. Pressman took it to 20th Century Fox and filming began in April 1987 and ended on July 4 of the same year . According to Stone , he was " making a movie about sharks , about feeding frenzies . Bob [ director of photography Robert Richardson ] and I wanted the camera to become a predator . There is no letup until you get to the fixed world of Charlie ’ s father , where the stationary camera gives you a sense of immutable values " . The director saw Wall Street as a battle zone and " filmed it as such " including shooting conversations like physical confrontations and in ensemble shots had the camera circle the actors " in a way that makes you feel you 're in a pool with sharks " .
Jeffrey " Mad Dog " Beck , a star investment banker at the time with Drexel Burnham Lambert , was one of the film 's technical advisers and has a cameo appearance in the film as the man speaking at the meeting discussing the breakup of Bluestar . Kenneth Lipper , investment banker and former deputy mayor of New York for Finance and Economic Development , was also hired as chief technical adviser . At first , he turned Stone down because he felt that the film would be a one @-@ sided attack . Stone asked him to reconsider and Lipper read the script responding with a 13 @-@ page critique . For example , he argued that it was unrealistic to have all the characters be " morally bankrupt " . Lipper advised Stone on the kind of computers used on the trading floor , the accurate proportion of women at a business meeting , and the kinds of extras that should be seated at the annual shareholders meeting where Gekko delivers his " Greed is good " speech . Stone agreed with Lipper 's criticism and asked him to rewrite the script . Lipper brought a balance to the film and this helped Stone get permission to shoot on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange during trading hours . Lipper and Stone disagreed over the character of Lou Mannheim . Stone shot a scene showing the honest Mannheim giving in to insider trading , but Lipper argued that audiences might conclude that everyone on Wall Street is corrupt and insisted that the film needed an unimpeachable character . Stone cut the scene .
Stone also consulted with Carl Icahn , Asher Edelman , convicted inside trader David Brown , several government prosecutors , and Wall Street investment bankers . In addition , traders were brought in to coach actors on the set on how to hold phones , write out tickets , and talk to clients . Stone asked Lipper to design a six @-@ week course that would expose Charlie Sheen to a cross section of young Wall Street business people . The actor said , " I was impressed and very , very respectful of the fact that they could maintain that kind of aggressiveness and drive " .
Douglas worked with a speech instructor on breath control in order to become better acclimatized to the fast rhythm of the film 's dialogue . Early on in the shoot , Stone tested Douglas by enhancing his " repressed anger " , according to the actor . At one point , Stone came into Douglas ' trailer and asked him if he was doing drugs because " you look like you haven 't acted before " . This shocked Douglas , who did more research and worked on his lines again and again , pushing himself harder than he had before . All of this hard work culminated with the " Greed is good " speech . Stone planned to use a Fortune magazine cover in exchange for promotional advertisements , but Forbes magazine made a similar offer . Stone stuck with Fortune , which upset Forbes publisher Malcolm Forbes , who turned down a later request to use his private yacht . Stone switched from 12- to 14 @-@ hour shooting days in the last few weeks in order to finish principal photography before an impending Directors Guild of America strike and finished five days ahead of schedule . Sheen remembered that Stone was always looking at the script and at his watch .
= = Soundtrack = =
The original score composed by Stewart Copeland was released on LP record in 1988 with the first 5 tracks are from Talk Radio , followed by a CD version in 1993 .
= = Themes = =
The film has come to be seen as the archetypal portrayal of 1980s excess , with Douglas advocating " greed , for lack of a better word , is good " . Wall Street defines itself through a number of morality conflicts putting wealth and power against simplicity and honesty , and an attack on the value system of extreme competitiveness where ethics and the law are simply irrelevant parts of the show .
Carl ( Martin Sheen 's character ) represents the working class in the film : he is the union leader for the maintenance workers at Bluestar . He constantly attacks big business , money , mandatory drug screening , greedy manufacturers , and anything that he sees as a threat to his union . The conflict between Gekko 's relentless pursuit of wealth and Carl Fox 's leftward leanings form the basis of the film 's subtext . This subtext could be described as the concept of the two fathers battling for control over the morals of the son , a concept Stone had also used in Platoon . In Wall Street the hard @-@ working Carl Fox and the cutthroat businessman Gordon Gekko represent the fathers . The producers of the film use Carl as their voice in the film , a voice of reason amid the creative destruction brought about by Gekko 's unrestrained personal philosophy .
A significant scene in the film is a speech by Gekko to a shareholders ' meeting of Teldar Paper , a company he is planning to take over . Stone uses this scene to give Gekko , and by extension , the Wall Street raiders he personifies , the chance to justify their actions , which he memorably does , portraying himself as a liberator of the company value from the ineffective and excessively compensated executives . The inspiration for the " Greed is good " speech seems to have come from two sources . The first part , where Gekko complains that the company 's management owns less than three percent of its stock , and that it has too many vice presidents , is taken from similar speeches and comments made by Carl Icahn about companies he was trying to take over . The defense of greed is a paraphrase of the May 18 , 1986 , commencement address at the UC Berkeley 's School of Business Administration , delivered by arbitrageur Ivan Boesky ( who himself was later convicted of insider trading charges ) , in which he said , " Greed is all right , by the way . I want you to know that . I think greed is healthy . You can be greedy and still feel good about yourself " .
Wall Street is not a wholesale criticism of capitalism , but of the cynical , quick @-@ buck culture of the 1980s . The " good " characters in the film are themselves capitalists , but in a more steady , hardworking sense . In one scene , Gekko scoffs at Bud Fox 's question as to the moral value of hard work , quoting the example of his ( Gekko 's ) father , who worked hard his entire life only to die in debt . Lou Mannheim , the films ' archetypal mentor , says early in the film , that " good things sometimes take time " , referring to IBM and Hilton — in contrast , Gekko 's " Greed is Good " credo typifies the short @-@ term view prevalent in the 1980s .
= = Reception = =
Wall Street was released on December 11 , 1987 , in 730 theaters and grossed $ 4 @.@ 1 million on its opening weekend . It went on to make $ 43 @.@ 8 million in North America .
The film has a 78 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes and a 56 metascore on Metacritic . In his review for The New York Times , Vincent Canby , while quite critical of the film overall , praised Douglas ' work as " the funniest , canniest performance of his career " . Roger Ebert gave the film three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and praised it for allowing " all the financial wheeling and dealing to seem complicated and convincing , and yet always have it make sense . The movie can be followed by anybody , because the details of stock manipulation are all filtered through transparent layers of greed . Most of the time we know what 's going on . All of the time , we know why " . Time magazine 's Richard Corliss wrote , " This time he works up a salty sweat to end up nowhere , like a triathlete on a treadmill . But as long as he keeps his players in venal , perpetual motion , it is great scary fun to watch him work out " . In his review for the Globe and Mail , Jay Scott praised the performances of the two leads : " But Douglas 's portrayal of Gordon Gekko is an oily triumph and as the kid Gekko thinks he has found in Fox ( ' Poor , smart and hungry ; no feelings ' ) , Charlie Sheen evolves persuasively from gung @-@ ho capitalist child to wily adolescent corporate raider to morally appalled adult " . Rita Kempley in the Washington Post wrote that the film " is at its weakest when it preaches visually or verbally . Stone doesn 't trust the time @-@ honored story line , supplementing the obvious moral with plenty of soapboxery " .
Michael Douglas won the Academy Award for Best Actor and thanked Oliver Stone for " casting me in a part that almost nobody thought I could play " . However , Daryl Hannah 's performance was not as well received and earned her a Razzie for Worst Supporting Actress , thus making this the only film to date to win both an Oscar and a Razzie . The " quintessential financial high @-@ roller 's attire " of Michael Douglas in the movie , designed by Alan Flusser , was emulated in the 1980s by yuppies .
Wall Street enjoyed renewed interest in 1990 when the cover of Newsweek magazine asked , " Is Greed Dead ? " after 1980s icons like Michael Milken and Ivan Boesky ran afoul of insider trading laws . Over the years , the film 's screenwriter Stanley Weiser has been approached by numerous people who told him , " The movie changed my life . Once I saw it I knew that I wanted to get into such and such business . I wanted to be like Gordon Gekko " . In addition , both Charlie Sheen and Michael Douglas still have people come up to them and say that they became stockbrokers because of their respective characters in the film . In recent years , Stone was asked how the financial market depicted in Wall Street has changed and he replied , " The problems that existed in the 1980s market grew and grew into a much larger phenomenon . Enron is a fiction , in a sense , in the same way that Gordon Gekko 's buying and selling was a fiction ... Kenny Lay — he 's the new Gordon Gekko " . Entertainment Weekly magazine 's Owen Gleiberman recently commented that the film , " reveals something now which it couldn 't back then : that the Gordon Gekkos of the world weren 't just getting rich — they were creating an alternate reality that was going to crash down on all of us " .
A 20th @-@ anniversary edition was released on September 18 , 2007 . New extras include an on @-@ camera introduction by Stone , extensive deleted scenes , " Greed is Good " featurettes , and interviews with Michael Douglas and Martin Sheen .
In reviewing the film 's sequel 23 years later , Variety noted that though the original film was " intended as a cautionary tale on the pitfalls of unchecked ambition and greed , Stone 's 1987 original instead had the effect of turning Douglas ' hugely charismatic ( and Oscar @-@ winning ) villain into a household name and boardroom icon -- an inspiration to the very power players and Wall Street wannabes for whom he set such a terrible example " .
= = Sequel = =
In 2007 , The New York Times reported that a sequel , Money Never Sleeps , was in pre @-@ production . Michael Douglas reprised his role as Gordon Gekko . The film focused on Gekko , recently released from prison , and re @-@ entering a much more chaotic financial world than the one he once oversaw . Charlie Sheen reprised his character of Bud Fox in a cameo role . Daryl Hannah was not involved in the sequel .
In April 2009 , 20th Century Fox confirmed that the sequel was still in development and announced that Oliver Stone would direct . In addition , Shia LaBeouf was cast , with Josh Brolin . Javier Bardem had been considered , but dropped out due to scheduling conflicts . The film was released on September 24 , 2010 .
= Siva ( 1989 Telugu film ) =
Siva ( also spelt Shiva ) is a 1989 Indian Telugu @-@ language crime drama film written and directed by Ram Gopal Varma in his directorial debut . Produced by Akkineni Venkat and Yarlagadda Surendra under their banners of Annapurna Studios and SS Creations , Siva starred Akkineni Nagarjuna , Amala , and Raghuvaran . The film 's basic plot , adapted from Bruce Lee 's Way of the Dragon ( 1972 ) , revolves around the conflict between college student @-@ turned @-@ gangster Siva and Bhavani , a reputed crime boss mentored by the politician Machiraju . Siva explores the concepts of student exploitation by anti @-@ social elements and the impact of crowd psychology .
Varma 's script was based on his experiences as a student at Siddhartha Engineering College in Vijayawada . Tanikella Bharani wrote the dialogue . Ilaiyaraaja composed Siva 's soundtrack and score , and S. Gopala Reddy was its director of photography . Thota Tharani and Sattibabu were the film 's art director and editor , respectively . Its principal photography began on 16 February 1989 , and was completed in 55 working days . Except for three days of shooting in Madras ( now Chennai ) , Siva was filmed in Andhra Pradesh .
Produced on a budget of ₹ 7 @.@ 5 million , Siva was released on 5 October 1989 to critical acclaim , primarily for its technology and sound design . Although Venkat and Surendra expected the film to have average earnings , it was commercially successful ; Siva completed a 100 @-@ day run in 22 centres and a 175 @-@ day run in five centres . It was the only Telugu film screened at the International Film Festival of India , held on 19 January 1990 . In addition to the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Telugu , Siva won three Nandi Awards : Best Director ( Varma ) , Best First Film of a Director , and Best Dialogue Writer ( Bharani ) . A documentary titled Exploring Shiva after 25 Years was released on the film 's silver anniversary ; it is the first documentary about a Telugu film .
Siva , which attained cult status , is considered Nagarjuna 's breakthrough film . It is credited with the introduction of steadicam and new sound recording techniques in Telugu cinema , encouraging filmmakers to explore a variety of themes and make experimental films . For the April 2013 centennial of Indian cinema , CNN @-@ News18 included Siva on its list of 100 greatest Indian films of all time . Its Tamil @-@ dubbed version , Udhayam , was also successful . Varma remade the film twice in Hindi with the same title . The first , starring Nagarjuna , Amala and Raghuvaran , performed well at the box office , but the second , with Mohit Ahlawat and Priyanka Kothari , did not .
= = Plot = =
Siva , a student , comes to Vijayawada from a nearby town to pursue his education . He lives with his brother Sharath 's family , and enrolls in the VAS College of Arts and Sciences . Although Sharath and his daughter Keerthi get along well with Siva , his wife considers him a financial burden . Siva befriends a group of students and falls in love with Asha , sister of the honest police inspector Venkat .
The college 's ( unopposed ) student @-@ union president , J. Durga Rao ( known as J. D. ) is the lowest rung in a gang ladder reaching through the gangster Ganesh to crime boss Bhavani . Bhavani uses the network to support his mentor Machiraju , a politician . Although J. D. is arrested many times , Bhavani continues to bail him out . When J. D. teases Asha on campus , Siva attacks him with a bicycle chain ; a rivalry then develops between him and Ganesh .
The incident encourages Siva 's friends to ask him to stand for the student @-@ union presidency , but he wants them to nominate Naresh ( one of the group ) instead . Ganesh 's attempts to pacify Siva fail , and Bhavani learns about him . He considers Siva a potential replacement for J. D. , whose weakness annoys him .
Naresh is fatally assaulted by J. D. and Bhavani 's henchmen , and is taken to hospital . Siva retaliates , infuriating Bhavani . When Siva 's friends attend a wedding , they are attacked by Ganesh and others . One of Siva 's friends , Malli , is murdered and Siva swears revenge . Sensing a risk to Sharath 's family after an attempt on Keerthi 's life , Siva leaves their house and moves into his friend Chinna 's hostel .
He agrees to contest the student @-@ union presidential election . Bhavani cheats labour @-@ union leader Krishna Reddy , who changes his allegiance to Siva . Around this time , Asha and Siva marry . Bhavani begins attacking and murdering Siva 's close aides , and Siva ensures that Sharath relocates to Visakhapatnam as a part of his job . Siva attacks Bhavani 's henchmen , and helps Venkat arrest Ganesh .
Machiraju sees Siva as a potential replacement for Bhavani , and stops supporting the latter . Bhavani learns about Siva 's relationship to Sharath , and kidnaps Keerthi . Ganesh appears in court , and an arrest warrant is issued for Bhavani . Insulted and humiliated , Bhavani kills Keerthi and Machiraju . Siva and Bhavani later duel on a shopping @-@ complex terrace . Bhavani commits suicide , and Siva walks out as Asha and Venkat watch in dismay .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After he graduated with a degree in civil engineering from Siddhartha Engineering College in Vijayawada , Ram Gopal Varma opened a video @-@ rental shop in Ameerpet . Noting his son 's interest in films , Penmatsa Krishnamraju ( a former sound recordist for Annapurna Studios ) helped Varma join the teams of Collector Gari Abbai ( 1987 ) and Rao Gari Illu ( 1988 ) as an assistant director . Varma befriended actor Akkineni Nagarjuna , and filmmakers Akkineni Venkat and Yarlagadda Surendra . He presented his script for Raathri to them . When Nagarjuna rejected it , Varma presented another script based on his life as a student in Vijayawada . He earlier narrated this script to filmmaker Kovelamudi Raghavendra Rao who suggested few changes because of its serious tone . Varma watched Rao 's Kaliyuga Pandavulu ( 1986 ) and backed out after understanding Rao 's point of view .
When Rao Gari Illu was nearly completed , Varma asked co @-@ director Siva Nageswara Rao to join him . He approached Tanikella Bharani to write the dialogue after observing his work in Ladies Tailor ( 1985 ) and Shri Kanakamalaxmi Recording Dance Troupe ( 1987 ) . Bharani found the plot ( as described by Varma ) similar to those of K. S. R. Das ' films . Varma rejected Bharani 's comic version , and asked to rewrite it as a crime drama . Although Bharani 's usual fee was ₹ 25 @,@ 000 , he received ₹ 35 @,@ 000 for Siva . Gunasekhar and Teja , who later pursued career as filmmakers , joined the film 's crew as assistant directors .
Venkat and Surendra produced Siva under their banners of Annapurna Studios and SS Creations , respectively . The production began in February 1989 . Varma wanted M. M. Keeravani to compose the film 's soundtrack and score , since Keeravani had assisted K. Chakravarthy on Rao Gari Illu . As both were inexperienced , Keeravani suggested that Varma choose a more seasoned technician and Ilaiyaraaja was signed instead . S. Gopala Reddy , Thota Tharani and Sattibabu were the film 's director of photography , art director and editor , respectively . Gopala Reddy was inspired by Gordon Willis ' work in Francis Ford Coppola 's crime drama , The Godfather ( 1972 ) .
= = = Casting = = =
Siva is Nagarjuna 's 17th film as an actor . Varma found him the only actor who could understand his perspective . Nagarjuna and Varma had discussed astronomy and realised that they shared similar sensibilities . That , and Varma 's passion for and dedication to films , prompted Nagarjuna to work with him . Amala , who worked with Nagarjuna in Prema Yuddham ( 1990 ) , was chosen as the female lead . Siva was the first film in her career where the script was explained shot by shot . When Varma approached Rohini to dub Amala 's portions , she agreed to dub for Amala only after watching about three reels of footage .
Varma chose Raghuvaran to play the local crime boss , Bhavani . Varma wanted him to underplay the character , which was based on real life . Before accepting the role , Raghuvaran studied the mannerisms and lifestyles of mob leaders and criminals in Mumbai for 20 days . Varma wanted to name the characters played by Nagarjuna and Raghuvaran as Bhavani and Siva respectively . At Nagarjuna 's request , he reversed the names . Varma chose newcomers Chakravarthy , Jithendra , and Ramjagan to play J. D. , Chinna , and Naresh after auditioning them at Annapurna Studios . Uttej , one of Varma 's assistant directors , played a comic role of a server in the college canteen . He recommended Varma to cast Sushma for Keerthi 's role .
Saikumar was initially supposed to play J. D. , but the role went to Chakravarthy . Varma met the latter on the film 's sets and asked him to perform a scene of his choice . Despite an unsuccessful screen test , Varma selected Chakravarthy after a meeting on the next day after observing the depth in his expression . Seasoned actors such as Murali Mohan , Gollapudi Maruti Rao , Kota Srinivasa Rao , Subhalekha Sudhakar , and Saichand played supporting roles . Bharani agreed to play Bhavani 's assistant , Nanaji , at Varma 's insistence . Producer Akkineni Venkat made a cameo appearance as one of Bhavani 's clients , and Siva Nageswara Rao dubbed his portion . Brahmaji was cast as Bhavani 's henchman .
= = = Filming = = =
Varma read about steadicam in American Cinematographer , and enquired about the possibility of a similar camera in India . After learning that steadicam was available in Chennai for four years and was already obsolete , Varma decided to use it despite Gopala Reddy 's apprehension . Varma chose Rasool Ellore over Rajiv Menon and Deenpal to assist Gopala Reddy with the steadicam . Principal photography began on 16 February 1989 , and wrapped in 55 working days . Except for three days in Chennai , the film was shot in Andhra Pradesh .
The scenes of the protagonist 's college life were filmed at Keyes High school , near Secunderabad Junction railway station . A school wall was demolished and a gate was repaired for the film 's opening scene . Raghuvaran was carried away during the shoot of few action sequences and slapped Brahmaji for nearly six times in a row . To avoid such issues in the case of murder scenes , Varma decided to complete few of them by using plain close @-@ ups of the victims . Sudhakar 's murder scene was filmed near Keesara in Ranga Reddy district . Gopala Reddy and Ellore placed a camera in a bag and ran behind him for a shaky effect . In the cycle @-@ chain scene in which Siva uses a cycle chain to fight with J. D. , the hand pulling the chain was Ellore 's ; in the next shot , Nagarjuna is shown holding the chain . The scene in which Naresh is killed near his home was filmed in the streets of Vengala Rao Nagar . The cycle chase scenes were filmed in Somajiguda and the slums behind Yashoda Hospitals . The bus chase scene was shot in Yusufguda . The film 's climax was filmed at the Swapnalok complex in Secunderabad , and Bhavani 's suicide was filmed on a set at Venus Studios in Chennai .
Several romantic scenes with Nagarjuna and Amala were initially filmed at Ushakiron Movies in Secunderabad . Dissatisfied with the results , Varma reshot them at the Osman Ali House . Mugur Sundar choreographed the songs , and " Anando Brahma " was filmed at the Borra Caves in Vishakhapatnam . The film crew had to crawl into the caves , making Siva the first Telugu film shot in its interiors . The remaining songs were filmed on sets at Annapurna Studios . Srinivasa Rao filmed his scenes in one day . The fights , choreographed by Varma , featured hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and attacks with hooks as he was trained in kickboxing .
= = Themes and influences = =
Siva explores the exploitation of students by anti @-@ social elements against a mafia backdrop and the impact on them of crowd psychology . It also focuses on politics and betrayal in the scene where Bhavani murders Machiraju and his enemy Viswanadham . As a student , Varma observed and participated in gang wars and student politics besides analysing the impact of a gangster 's lifestyle and body language on students . Those experiences inspired him to begin writing Siva .
Most of the characters , including Bhavani , were inspired by real life . Bhavani was based on Radha , an actual crime boss with a reputation for violence in Vijayawada ; Bhavani , like Radha , is also a woman 's name . Siva 's character was comparatively fictitious whom Varma considered an " ideal person " making the society " too dramatic " . Siva was partially based on Varma 's friend , Golla Ravi , who lived in Punjagutta . Assistant director Krishna Vamsi found the film 's story similar to Rahul Rawail 's Arjun ( 1985 ) . Varma said that Arjun was an inspiration for Siva , since Sunny Deol 's title character in Arjun was a hero who " does not bend to forces larger than himself " . Apart from Arjun , Varma was also inspired by Govind Nihalani 's Ardh Satya ( 1983 ) and Dilip Shanker 's Kaal Chakra ( 1988 ) .
The basic plot of Bruce Lee 's Way of the Dragon ( 1972 ) was adapted by Varma for Siva . In Way of the Dragon , Lee comes from Hong Kong to work in a Chinese restaurant in Rome and fights local gangsters who try to intimidate the owners ; this leads to a rivalry with a crime boss ( played by Chuck Norris ) . In Siva , Nagarjuna comes from a nearby town to Vijayawada to further his education , fights gangsters and develops a rivalry with Raghuvaran . While Lee and Norris fight at the Colosseum at the climax of Way of the Dragon , Nagarjuna and Raghuvaran duel on a building terrace in Siva .
In addition to Way of the Dragon , Varma adapted scenes from a number of other films . Malli 's mother slapping a police inspector for failing to save him was inspired by Steven Spielberg ’ s Jaws ( 1975 ) , and the cycle chase scene was based on a similar scene in Arjun . A scene in which goons demand donations to build a temple for Ganesha was from Kaal Chakra . Although Varma wanted to film a fight between Nagarjuna and Chakravarthy during a football match ( based on a similar scene in 1978 's Damien : Omen II ) , Venkat was indifferent to the idea .
= = Music = =
The five @-@ song soundtrack album and background score of Siva were composed by Ilaiyaraaja , with Veturi Sundararama Murthy writing the lyrics of " Anando Brahma " , " Enniyallo " , and " Kiss Me Hello " . Sirivennela Sitaramasastri wrote the lyrics for the remaining two songs : " Botany " and " Sarasalu " . S. P. Balasubrahmanyam , S. Janaki , K. S. Chithra , and Mano were the singers . Due to a strike in Madras , Ilaiyaraaja and Varma completed the background score in Mumbai . The producers suggested Varma to use stock tunes instead for the score . Nagarjuna noticed this and asked them to provide what Varma asked for , and offered to pay the additional expenses incurred if any . For an action scene , Ilaiyaraaja used moving string music ; when Varma asked why , he answered : " They have come here to study and they are fighting . So I just felt sad for them " .
Varma was impressed with Deepan Chatterjee 's work in Sindhoora Puvvu ( 1988 ) and recruited him as Siva 's sound designer . Ismail Darbar , who later composed the music for Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam ( 1999 ) and Devdas ( 2002 ) , worked with Ilaiyaraaja on Siva as a violinist . The soundtrack was successful , and Chatterjee 's sound design was critically acclaimed . Varma dedicated the background score of his Rowdy ( 2014 ) , composed by Sai Karthik , to Ilaiyaraaja . Adapting the background score of the cycle @-@ chase scene in Rowdy , Varma said that his main interest was " to bring back this composition to express the great idea of the genius [ Ilaiyaraaja 's ] 1989 soundtrack ( of Siva ) to 2014 " .
= = Release and reception = =
Siva was produced on a budget of ₹ 7 @.@ 5 million . Venkat and Surendra retained the distribution rights for Nizam , Vishakhapatnam and the East and West Godavari regions . Released on 5 October 1989 , it was critically acclaimed , with major praise directed towards its usage of technology and sound design . The distributors were concerned about the film 's violence , saying that it would alienate women and families ( whom the film industry believed were the majority of the audience ) . Although Venkat and Surendra expected that the film would have average earnings , Siva was a commercial success and earned ₹ 10 million in the Nizam region alone ( a first in Telugu cinema ) . In addition to ₹ 50 @,@ 000 , Varma received five percent of Siva 's profits . The film had a 100 @-@ day run in 22 centres and a 175 @-@ day run in five centres . It was the only Telugu film screened at the International Film Festival of India , held on 19 January 1990 at the Empire Theatre in Kolkata . For the April 2013 centennial of Indian cinema CNN @-@ News18 included Siva on its list of 100 greatest Indian films of all time , calling it a " completely new take on student politics and the ideologies driving it " and saying that the film 's ideas " found a reflection in many university elections during a later stage " .
The Tamil remake rights to Siva were initially sold for ₹ 100 @,@ 000 . After the film 's release , Venkat and Surendra dubbed it into Tamil as Udhayam and sold its distribution rights for ₹ 8 @.@ 5 million . Released on 12 January 1990 in 24 centres , Udhayam was commercially successful and earned more than ₹ 20 million . Akkineni Nageswara Rao advised Varma to place an advertisement thanking the audience for the film 's success . Varma opposed it , believing that a film 's success should be credited to the production team and its failure attributed to the director . When Varma 's second film , Kshana Kshanam ( 1991 ) under @-@ performed at the box office , Siva 's success was considered accidental . In addition to the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Telugu , Siva won three Nandi Awards : Best Director ( Varma ) , Best First Film of a Director , and Best Dialogue Writer ( Bharani ) .
= = Remakes = =
Siva was remade by Varma in Hindi as Shiva in 1990 , and was Nagarjuna 's acting debut in Hindi cinema . It was the last Hindi film with Amala in a lead role . Minor changes were made to the remake 's cast and crew . All the songs in the Telugu version were used unchanged except for " Botany " , which was reshot at Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University in Rajendranagar . Telugu filmmaker Puri Jagannadh was cast as one of Nagarjuna 's friends in the remake . Jagannadh wanted to assist Varma and approached him for an opportunity . Varma insisted Jagannadh to act and he obliged , feeling that this experience would teach him something . Produced in association with Atluri Purnachandra Rao on a budget of ₹ 11 @.@ 5 million , Shiva was released on 7 December 1990 and was successful in Mumbai and Kolkata .
During the production of James ( 2005 ) , Varma planned to remake Siva . The second remake , also entitled Shiva , featured Mohit Ahlawat and Priyanka Kothari as the characters played by Nagarjuna and Amala in the original . Unlike Siva , the protagonist in the second remake is an honest man who joins the Mumbai Police as a new recruit ; the cycle @-@ chain scene and Raghuvaran 's character were omitted . Shiva received negative reviews ; Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com wrote that the film " dare [ d ] to ridiculously rest on the incapable shoulders of a non @-@ acting cast " , and nastiness was " defined as a scowling ogre " . Director Riingo Banerjee acknowledged Siva as a source of inspiration for his 2006 Bengali film Kranti .
= = Documentary , digitisation , and sequel plans = =
In September 2014 , Siva was digitally remastered for theatrical release . Supriya Yarlagadda of Annapurna Studios said that the decision to remaster and digitise was made after observing the challenges in storing and preserving old film prints . The process ( carried out in Mumbai ) took a year , and the film 's colour and sound quality were enhanced to meet current standards . At the time , Varma said that he would release a documentary on the making of the film entitled Exploring Shiva after 25 Years . The first documentary based on a Telugu film , it provided a " holistic view of the film " and featured interviews with the cast and crew and segments on its sound and filming locations . The documentary was released on 5 October 2014 , coinciding with Siva 's silver anniversary .
A silver jubilee event was held on 7 October 2014 in Hyderabad , where Nagarjuna announced that Siva 's digitised version would be released on 17 October 2014 on nearly 100 screens . In April 2015 , Varma told Indo @-@ Asian News Service that the digitised release was postponed until 15 May because of restoration delays . In September Nagarjuna said that a sequel to Siva would be a viable alternative to a digitised version , and proposed a film about Siva , Asha , and their two sons . Advising Varma to develop a script , he asked the director to cast Amala , Naga Chaitanya and Akhil Akkineni . The sequel would reportedly be produced by Annapurna Studios .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Influence on film personalities = = =
Siva , which attained cult status in Telugu cinema , is one of the first Telugu films produced after the migration of Telugu film industry from Madras to Hyderabad to feature characters speaking the Telangana dialect . The film made Nagarjuna a superstar in Telugu cinema ; it changed his career , and earned him a reputation for encouraging new directors . Nagarjuna considered Siva a milestone in his personal life as well since he and Amala , who were in a relationship during the film 's shoot , decided to marry after its completion . According to filmmaker V. V. Vinayak and writer Pulagam Chinnarayana , Siva divided Telugu cinema into two eras : before and after the film . With Siva , Varma was credited with the introduction of steadicams and new sound recording techniques in Telugu films . Within a year of the film 's release , more than ten steadicams were imported into India . Siva attracted the young audience during its theatrical run , and its success encouraged filmmakers to explore a variety of themes and make experimental Telugu films .
Bharani broke through as an actor and dialogue writer with the film . Chakravarthy , Jithendra and Ramjagan achieved success with Siva , and the former two adapted J. D. and Chinna as screen names . Kannada actor and filmmaker Upendra reworked the narrative of Om ( 1995 ) when he found the previous version similar to Siva . Telugu filmmaker S. S. Rajamouli understood the importance of heightening tension in action sequences , and the impact created by proper use of sound after watching Siva . Sreenu Vaitla , Sudheer Varma , and Praveen Sri were inspired by Siva to pursue careers as directors ; Sri assisted Ram Gopal Varma before he made his directorial debut with Gaayam 2 ( 2010 ) . Music director Munna Kasi was inspired by Ilaiyaraaja 's work in Siva , and wanted to work with Varma after he graduated . On the rise of antisocial @-@ element @-@ based scripts in Tamil cinema , trade analyst Sreedhar Pillai said in May 2002 that Siva 's Tamil @-@ dubbed version ( Udhayam ) was the " forerunner " of city @-@ based crime films .
Tamil actor Ganesh Venkatraman was " mesmerised " as a child by Siva , admiring Nagarjuna and carrying a cycle chain in his schoolbag . About the impact of Baahubali : The Beginning ( 2015 ) on Indian cinema , Rana Daggubati said that regional films can gain national acceptance for their content and cited the success of Siva and Roja ( 1992 ) as examples . In March 2016 , Karthi said that he admired Nagarjuna after seeing Siva and Idhayathai Thirudathe ( 1989 ) and found working with him in Oopiri ( 2016 ) " a great chance to know him . "
= = = In popular culture = = =
The cycle @-@ chain scene became popular , with people telling Varma that they broke a cycle chain after seeing Siva ; the director called them the " ultimate example of how imagination can take over and become a reality in time " . The chain used in the film is currently owned by Chakravarthy . Film @-@ poster designers Anil and Bhanu said that posters should be designed to make a subconscious impact on the viewer , citing the title logo of Siva ( with Nagarjuna and the cycle chain ) as an example . Inspired by Varma 's work in Siva , Rajamouli composed the action sequence during the intermission of his directorial debut Student No. 1 ( 2002 ) , and followed the shot division of the cycle @-@ chain scene for the same .
Chakravarthy agreed to play the antagonist in Naga Chaitanya 's acting debut , Josh ( 2009 ) , and said that its makers are " trying to get JD of Shiva who actually ran away mid way from college " . Bangalore Mirror and other reviewers noted similarities between Josh and Siva , which Chaitanya called a " coincidence " . Chaitanya 's films , Bezawada ( 2011 ) — produced by Varma — and Autonagar Surya ( 2014 ) , were noted for similarities to Siva . Siva was parodied in several films such as Lakshmi ( 2006 ) , Oosaravelli ( 2011 ) , Katha Screenplay Darsakatvam Appalaraju ( 2011 ) ( also directed by Varma ) , and Sudigadu ( 2012 ) .
Amala listed Siva with Pushpaka Vimana ( 1987 ) , Vedham Pudhithu ( 1987 ) , Agni Natchathiram ( 1988 ) , and Karpoora Mullai ( 1991 ) as her most memorable films . Geethika Chandrahasan Sudip of The Hindu listed Siva for the letter S in the July 2015 " ABCD of Telugu cinema " . In August 2015 , Pooja Darade of The Times of India included the film on her list of " Telugu movies one must watch before dying " . Fahad Usmani of The Hindu compared Siva to Mother India ( 1957 ) , Sholay ( 1975 ) , Mr. India ( 1987 ) , Agneepath ( 1990 ) , and Ghayal ( 1990 ) , noting that their antagonists became more popular than their heroes .
= Return to Sender ( Dexter ) =
" Return to Sender " is the sixth episode of the first season of the American television drama series Dexter , which first aired on November 5 , 2006 on Showtime in the United States . The episode was written by Timothy Schlattmann and was directed by Tony Goldwyn . In the episode , Dexter Morgan ( Michael C. Hall ) investigates a murder scene where one of his own victims has returned after he disposed of the body . Meanwhile , his girlfriend Rita Bennett ( Julie Benz ) tries to prevent her husband Paul from attending their daughter 's birthday party , and Lt. María LaGuerta ( Lauren Vélez ) considers adopting a young witness of the murder whom she finds at the crime scene .
Though set in Miami , Florida , the episode was filmed at various locations in and around Los Angeles , California including a salvage yard , a field by Tujunga Wash and a waterfront house on Hibiscus Island . Goldwyn , who Erik King said was " a joy to work with " , allowed actor C.S. Lee to improvise and David Zayas to memorize his Spanish lines in English and translate them mentally during each take . " Return to Sender " received generally positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
While eating breakfast at Rita 's house , Dexter is called to a crime scene , only to discover that it is the same salvage yard where he committed a double murder the previous night . He finds Valerie Castillo 's ( Valerie Dillman ) body lying in the Airstream trailer where he killed her and her husband Jorge ( José Zúñiga ) , despite having thrown the corpses into the ocean . He deduces that the " Ice Truck Killer " — a serial killer with whom Dexter has a personal connection — dived underwater to retrieve the woman 's body and plant it in the trailer . In the yard , LaGuerta , Sgt. James Doakes ( Erik King ) and Dexter 's sister Debra ( Jennifer Carpenter ) discover a young Cuban boy , Oscar ( Cesar Flores ) , hiding in the trunk of a car who claims to have seen somebody take Valerie into the trailer . He begins to fear discovery , and experiences his first nightmare : Debra is a serial killer with an identical modus operandi to Dexter . As the investigation proceeds , he attempts to shoot down each of his colleagues ' leads on the case . When Debra asks him to read through her report on the killer , profiling a man sharing many of Dexter 's characteristics , he second @-@ guesses her theory and she is hurt . Worried about coming under suspicion , he throws all of his knives overboard from his boat , but while looking at the blood drops from his victims , he notices that Valerie 's slide has a happy face etched into the blood . He realizes that this is a hint from the Ice Truck Killer , and plants Jorge 's fingerprints and a dry drop of Valerie 's blood onto a knife , which he hides in a car at the salvage yard . He convinces Doakes to organize another search of the yard , where an officer ( Denver Dowridge ) finds the knife . After successfully framing Jorge for Valerie 's murder , Dexter discovers that Oscar 's description of the man who " saved " him from Valerie is in fact Jesus Christ .
Meanwhile , Rita dissuades her abusive husband Paul from attending their daughter Astor 's ( Christina Robinson ) birthday party after he is released early from prison . Doakes takes Debra to dinner with his mother ( Vernee Watson @-@ Johnson ) and sisters , while LaGuerta bonds with Oscar and considers adopting him until his uncle ( Gabriel Salvador ) arrives to take him home .
In flashbacks , a teenage Debra ( Haley King ) pleads with her father Harry ( James Remar ) to bring her on his and Dexter 's ( Devon Graye ) hunting trips . When Harry forbids her from joining them , she steals his gun and practices shooting cans by herself . Later , Debra lashes out at Dexter in jealousy of the time that he spends alone with their father .
= = Production = =
The day of filming in the salvage yard , which took place at LA Japanese Auto Parts in Sun Valley , California , was abnormally hot according to Lauren Vélez . The Airstream trailer in which Dexter 's victim is found was brought into the salvage yard for filming externally , but was assembled on a studio sound stage for shooting scenes inside the trailer . Erik King remarked that the trailer was dirty , odorous and humid — " all the things we needed it to be " . Other filming locations included a waterfront house on Hibiscus Island in Biscayne Bay , Florida as the Castillos ' home , an empty field next to Sun Valley 's Tujunga Wash where a young Debra practices shooting with Harry 's pistol , and a house in a residential neighborhood of Long Beach , California which stands in for Dexter 's childhood home .
King said that Tony Goldwyn was " a joy to work with " , while Vélez called him " an absolute actors ' director " . Shooting a scene in which Det . Angel Batista converses with a witness entirely in Spanish , David Zayas did not feel confident to memorize all of his Spanish lines . Instead , he learned his lines in English and translated the dialogue mentally during each take . In a scene between Dexter and Vince Masuka ( C.S. Lee ) , Masuka pauses after examining a corpse and says , " I 'm hungry . " Michael C. Hall said that " C.S. [ Lee 's ] ad libs are different every time . When he said , ' I 'm hungry , ' that was the only take that I didn 't laugh . " When asked about improvising on the show , Lee said that the writers " come up with some good lines themselves . [ ... ] So I pretty much leave it up to them . "
= = Reception = =
" Return to Sender " was generally praised by critics . Eric Goldman of IGN wrote that the episode 's " most interesting facet " was its flashbacks to Dexter 's youth from Debra 's perspective , though he felt that the young Debra 's hasty apology to Dexter after insulting him was " a slightly cheesy moment " . He thought that LaGuerta 's bonding with Oscar " was okay , but [ the storyline ] fell a little flat " . TV Guide 's Paula Paige " love [ d ] " the episode , saying that " It just keeps getting better and better " , but was unsure " what Deb having dinner with the Doakes ' family has to do with anything " . Writing for TV Squad , Jonathan Toomey opened his review of " Return to Sender " by saying , " Dexter did it again . Wowed me . Amazed me . Edge of my seat for the whole hour . " He was amused that Debra 's profile of Valerie 's murderer matched Dexter , but was uninterested in Rita 's storyline with her husband .
Both Malene Arpe of the Toronto Star and Daniel Fienberg of Zap2it were disappointed with the episode 's audio commentary featuring Jennifer Carpenter , Erik King , Lauren Vélez and David Zayas on the first season DVD .
= 1990 Strangeways Prison riot =
The 1990 Strangeways Prison riot was a 25 @-@ day prison riot and rooftop protest at Strangeways Prison in Manchester , England . The riot began on 1 April 1990 when prisoners took control of the prison chapel , and the riot quickly spread throughout most of the prison . The riot and rooftop protest ended on 25 April when the final five prisoners were removed from the rooftop , making it the longest prison riot in British penal history . One prisoner was killed during the riot , and 147 prison officers and 47 prisoners were injured . Much of the prison was damaged or destroyed with the cost of repairs coming to £ 90 million .
The riot sparked a series of disturbances in prisons across England , Scotland and Wales , resulting in the British government announcing a public inquiry into the riots headed by Lord Woolf . The resulting Woolf Report concluded that conditions in the prison had been intolerable , and recommended major reform of the prison system . The Guardian newspaper described the report as a blueprint for the restoration of " decency and justice into jails where conditions had become intolerable " .
= = Background = =
Manchester 's Strangeways Prison , which opened in 1868 , was a " local prison " designed to hold prisoners from the surrounding area , mainly those on remand or serving sentences of less than five years . At the time of the riot , the main prison consisted of six wings connected by a central rotunda known as the Centre . Convicted adult prisoners were held in wings A , B , C and D , and convicted young offenders were held in E wing , which was physically separated from the Centre by gates . Convicted prisoners on Rule 43 ( a ) were held on landings C1 and C2 of C wing , and remand prisoners on Rule 43 ( a ) were held on the fourth landing on E wing . F wing contained administrative offices on the lower floor and the chapel on the upper floor . Remand prisoners were held in wings G , H , I and K of a separate prison , linked to the main prison through workshops and a kitchen . The Certified Normal Accommodation Figure for Strangeways , the number of prisoners the prison was designed to hold , was 970 . The population of the prison had increased in the months before the riot , from 1 @,@ 417 in January 1990 to a peak of 1 @,@ 658 on 27 March . On 1 April , the prison contained 1 @,@ 647 prisoners – about 925 convicted adult prisoners , 500 remand prisoners and 210 convicted young offenders .
Prisoners felt their complaints about conditions were being ignored . Remand prisoners were only allowed out of their cells for 18 hours per week , and Category A prisoners were locked in their cells for 22 hours a day , and rarely left their cells except for " slopping out " , a one @-@ hour exercise period each day or a weekly shower . In March 1990 , Dominic Noonan was transferred from Strangeways to HM Prison Hull . Noonan was the organiser of the Prisoners ' League Association ( PLA ) , an organisation formed in 1989 which campaigned for prisoners ' rights . Its aims included initiating legal proceedings against prison staff for mistreatment of prisoners , and picketing outside prisons in which prisoners were mistreated . The PLA were active at Strangeways Prison , and Noonan 's transfer demonstrates prison officers were aware of rising tensions inside the prison . On 26 March , Barry Morton was taken to the " punishment block " and strip @-@ searched after being visited by his mother , as prison officers believed she had brought drugs into the prison for him . During a struggle he sustained a black eye and swollen nose , and the following day he was released back into the main prison along with another prisoner , Tony Bush . Later the same day , Bush and Morton climbed onto the roof of the prison and staged a twenty @-@ hour rooftop protest . On 31 March there was a 30 @-@ minute sit @-@ down protest in the chapel after a film was shown , which ended after a prison officer promised to listen to the prisoners ' grievances . The same evening it is reported that a black prisoner was assaulted by prison officers in front of other prisoners , and injected with Largactil – a sedative used to control prisoners , known in prisons as the " liquid cosh " . Prisoners then decided to stage a further protest in the chapel the following day , 1 April .
= = The riot = =
= = = Disturbance in the chapel = = =
Prison officers had advance warning that an incident would occur in the chapel on 1 April , and security was increased . Extra prison officers were used to escort prisoners to the service , and fourteen officers were inside the chapel supervising the service instead of the usual total of eight . An additional seven officers were also stationed in the vestry outside the chapel . The service was attended by 309 prisoners which was about the usual attendance , but all Rule 43 ( a ) prisoners were prevented from attending as a precautionary measure . A senior prison officer believed the prisoners would attempt another sit @-@ down protest with the possibility of hostage @-@ taking , and instructed staff to evacuate the chapel if trouble began . At approximately 11 : 00 am , a visiting Church of England preacher had just delivered the sermon , and the prison chaplain , Reverend Noel Proctor , stood to thank the preacher when prisoner Paul Taylor took the microphone from him and addressed the congregation . Reverend Proctor was recording the service for distribution to a prayer group , and the subsequent events were recorded :
Noel Proctor : After that remarkable message that has ...
Paul Taylor : I would like to say , right , that this man has just talked about blessing of the heart and a hardened heart can be delivered . No it cannot , not with resentment , anger and bitterness and hatred being instilled in people .
[ General noise , over which ]
A prisoner : Fuck your system , fuck your rules .
[ Applause ]
Noel Proctor : Right lads , sit down .
[ More noise ]
Noel Proctor : Right lads , down . Down . Come on , this is no way to carry on in God 's house .
[ More noise ]
A prisoner : Fuck your system .
[ More noise ]
Noel Proctor : Right lads , sit down . This is completely out of order . Sit down .
A prisoner : Why is it ? It 's been waiting to happen for ever . It will never change .
Noel Proctor : Come on . This is terrible .
[ More noise , banging , shouting , cheering ]
Noel Proctor : All of you who want to go back to your cells go the back of the church please .
A prisoner : What ? You 're a fucking hypocrite , you .
Noel Proctor : I 'm trying to help you , to keep you .
A prisoner : Leave it , mate .
[ More noise until microphone goes dead ]
As Reverend Proctor was appealing for calm , a prisoner brandishing two sticks shouted out " You 've heard enough , let 's do it , get the bastards " . Other prisoners responded by donning masks and brandishing weapons , and three prison officers started to leave the chapel as earlier instructed . A set of keys was taken from a prison officer when a number of officers were attacked by prisoners wielding fire extinguishers , table legs and fire buckets . A number of prisoners attempted to leave the chapel via the vestry ; at the same time , the seven prison officers there attempted to gain entry to the chapel . Once they managed to do so , the officers were attacked by prisoners , and a second set of keys was taken from one of them . Some prisoners helped to get injured officers and Reverend Proctor to a place of safety via the vestry , while others barricaded entrances to the chapel or attempted to gain access
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2 January 1941 , the two ships , under the command of Admiral Günther Lütjens , left port for the North Atlantic . They were detected in the Skagerrak and the heavy units of the British Home Fleet deployed to cover the passage between Iceland and the Faroes . The Germans ' radar detected the British at long range , which allowed Lütjens to avoid the British patrols , with the aid of a squall . By 3 February , the two battleships had evaded the last British cruiser patrol , and had broken into the open Atlantic .
On 6 February , the two ships refueled from the tanker Schlettstadt south of Cape Farewell . Shortly after 08 : 30 on 8 February , lookouts spotted convoy HX @-@ 106 , escorted by the battleship Ramillies . Lütjens ' orders prohibited him from engaging Allied capital ships , and so the attack was called off . Scharnhorst 's commander , KzS Hoffmann , however , closed to 23 @,@ 000 m ( 25 @,@ 000 yd ) in an attempt to lure Ramillies away from the convoy so that Gneisenau could attack the convoy . Lütjens ordered Hoffmann to rejoin the flagship immediately . The two battleships steamed off to the northwest to search for more shipping . On 22 February , the pair spotted an empty convoy sailing west , which dispersed at the appearance of the battleships . Scharnhorst managed to sink only one ship during the encounter , the 6000 ton tanker Lustrous .
Lütjens then decided to move to a new area , as the surviving members of the dispersed convoy had sent distress signals . He chose the Cape Town @-@ Gibraltar convoy route , and positioned himself to the northwest of Cape Verde . The two ships encountered another convoy , escorted by the battleship Malaya , on 8 March . Lütjens again forbade an attack , but he shadowed the convoy and directed U @-@ boats to attack . A pair of U @-@ boats sank a total of 28488 tons of shipping on the night of 8 – 9 March . Malaya turned on the two battleships and closed to 24 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) , well within the range of the Germans ' guns , but Lütjens refused to be drawn into an engagement . He instead turned toward the mid @-@ Atlantic , where Scharnhorst sank the Greek cargo ship Marathon . The two ships then refueled from the tankers Uckermark and Ermland on 12 March .
On 15 March , the two battleships , with the two tankers in company , encountered a dispersed convoy in the mid @-@ Atlantic . Scharnhorst sank two ships . Several days later , the main body of the convoy was located , and Scharnhorst sank another seven ships totaling 27277 tons . One of the surviving ships radioed the location of the German battleships , which summoned the powerful British battleships Rodney and King George V. Scharnhorst and Gneisenau used their high speed to escape in a squall , and the intervention by the British battleships convinced Lütjens that the chances of further success were small . He therefore decided to head for Brest in occupied France , which the ships reached on 22 March . Throughout the operation , Scharnhorst had difficulties with the superheater tubes in her boilers . Work lasted until July , which caused the ship to be unavailable during Operation Rheinübung , the sortie by the new battleship Bismarck in May 1941 .
= = = Air raid on 24 July 1941 = = =
After repairs were completed in July , Scharnhorst went to La Pallice for trials on the 21st , where she easily steamed at 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . On 24 July , RAF B @-@ 17s and B @-@ 24s attacked the ship while she was anchored there . The bombers scored five hits in an almost straight line on the starboard side , parallel to the centerline . Three of the bombs were 454 kg ( 1 @,@ 001 lb ) armor @-@ piercing bombs , and the other two were 227 kg ( 500 lb ) high @-@ explosive bombs . One of the 227 kg bombs hit the deck just forward of the starboard 15 cm twin turret next to the conning tower . It passed through the upper and middle decks before exploding on the main armored deck , which contained the blast . The joints with the torpedo bulkhead were weakened enough to cause leaking . The second 227 kg bomb fell forward of the rear main battery turret and penetrated the first two decks . It also exploded on the armored deck and tore a small hole in it . The explosion caused splinter damage and disabled the ammunition hoists for the 37 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns .
Two of the 454 kg bombs hit amidships between the 15 cm and 10 @.@ 5 cm gun turrets ; both failed to explode and penetrated the ship completely . The first went through each deck and exited the ship through the double bottom , while the other was deflected by the torpedo bulkhead and penetrated the hull beneath the side belt armor . The third 454 kg bomb hit abaft of the rear 28 cm turret , about 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) from the side of the ship . It too failed to detonate , and passed through the side of the hull , which was not protected by the main armor belt . These three hits caused significant flooding and caused an 8 degree list to starboard . The forward and rear gun turrets were temporarily disabled , along with half of her anti @-@ aircraft battery . Two men were killed and fifteen were injured in the attack . Damage control teams managed to correct the list with counter @-@ flooding , and although draft increased by 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) , Scharnhorst was able to leave for Brest at 19 : 30 . On the morning of 25 July , one of the escorting destroyers shot down a British patrol plane . The ship reached Brest later that day and went into dry dock for repairs . While the damage was being repaired , a new radar system was installed aft , the power output for the forward radar was increased to 100 kW , and the 53 @.@ 3 cm torpedo tubes were installed .
= = = Operation Cerberus = = =
On 12 January 1942 , the German Naval Command , in a conference with Hitler , made the decision to return Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen to Germany . The intention was to deploy the vessels to Norway to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union . The so @-@ called " Channel Dash " , codenamed Operation Cerberus , would avoid the increasingly effective Allied radar and patrol aircraft in the Atlantic . Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax , Scharnhorst 's first commander , was given command of the operation . In early February , minesweepers swept a route through the English Channel undetected by the British .
At 23 : 00 on 11 February , Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and Prinz Eugen left Brest . They entered the Channel an hour later ; the three ships sped at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , hugging the French coast along the voyage . The British failed to detect their departure , as the submarine that had been tasked with observing the port had withdrawn to recharge its batteries . By 06 : 30 , they had passed Cherbourg , at which point they were joined by a flotilla of torpedo boats . The torpedo boats were led by Kapitän Erich Bey , aboard the destroyer Z29 . General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighter Force ) Adolf Galland directed Luftwaffe fighter and bomber forces ( Operation Donnerkeil ) during Cerberus . The fighters flew at masthead @-@ height to avoid detection by the British radar network . Liaison officers were present on all three ships . German aircraft arrived later to jam British radar with chaff . By 13 : 00 , the ships had cleared the Strait of Dover Half an hour later , a flight of six Swordfish torpedo bombers , with Spitfire escort , attacked the Germans . The British failed to penetrate the Luftwaffe fighter shield , and all six Swordfish were destroyed .
Scharnhorst did not make the voyage unscathed , however ; at 15 : 31 she struck an air @-@ dropped magnetic mine in the mouth of the Scheldt , abreast of the forward superfiring turret . The blast damaged the ship 's circuit breakers and knocked out her electrical system for 20 minutes . The explosive shock caused serious damage ; turret Bruno was jammed , as were the twin and single 15 cm mounts on the port side . The blast also damaged the fuel oil pumps and the bearings in the turbo @-@ generators , which brought the ship to a halt . The power outage disabled the emergency shut @-@ off switches to the boilers and turbines , which could not be turned off until power was restored . The explosion tore a large gash in the side of the hull and allowed 1 @,@ 220 t ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ; 1 @,@ 340 short tons ) of water into the ship , flooding 30 watertight spaces within five main watertight compartments . Scharnhorst took on a list of one degree and was down by the bows by a meter .
While the ship was immobilized , Admiral Ciliax transferred to Z29 . The engine room crews managed to restart the first turbine at 15 : 49 , nearly twenty minutes after the mine explosion . The second and third turbines were restarted at 15 : 55 and 16 : 01 , respectively , which permitted a speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . At around the time the last turbine was restarted , a single bomber dropped several bombs approximately 90 m ( 98 yd ) off Scharnhorst 's port side , which caused no damage . Once the ship was back under way , twelve Beauforts launched a 10 @-@ minute attack that was beaten off by anti @-@ aircraft fire and the escorting Luftwaffe fighters . The British carried out a series of attacks that were all unsuccessful ; Scharnhorst 's anti @-@ aircraft guns were red @-@ hot by the end of the action , and one 20 mm gun had burst from the strain .
The ship struck another mine off Terschelling on the starboard side at 22 : 34 . The mine briefly knocked out the power system and temporarily disabled the rudders . Two of the three turbines were jammed , and the third had to be turned off . Another 300 t ( 300 long tons ; 330 short tons ) tons of water flooded ten watertight spaces in four main compartments . Only the centerline shaft was operational , which permitted a speed of only 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Partial power was eventually restored to the starboard turbine , which allowed speed to be increased to 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The shock damaged the rotating parts of all of the ship 's gun turrets , and three of the 15 cm turrets were seriously jammed . By 08 : 00 , Scharnhorst had reached the Jade Bight but ice prevented the ship from entering Wilhelmshaven . While waiting outside the port , Admiral Ciliax returned to the ship . The ice had been cleared by noon , permitting Scharnhorst 's entrance to Wilhelmshaven . Two days later , Scharnhorst went to Kiel for permanent repairs . Work was conducted in a floating dry dock and lasted until July 1942 . Afterward , another round of trials were conducted in the Baltic , which revealed the necessity of replacing several of the boiler tubes .
= = = Deployment to Norway = = =
In early August 1942 , Scharnhorst conducted exercises in cooperation with several U @-@ boats . During the maneuvers , she collided with the German submarine U @-@ 523 , which caused damage that necessitated dry @-@ docking for repairs . Work was completed by September , and the ship conducted further training in the Baltic . Scharnhorst steamed to Gotenhafen in late October for a new rudder , the design of which was based on the lessons learned from the torpedoing of Prinz Eugen and Lützow earlier in the year . Boiler and turbine troubles kept the ship in Germany for the remainder of 1942 . By December , only two of the three shafts were operational and a complete overhaul of the propulsion system was required . In early January 1943 , the ship was back in service , and after trials , left Germany on 7 January in company with Prinz Eugen and five destroyers . Reports of heavy activity in British airfields near the coast prompted the force to return to port , however . Another attempt to reach Norway was canceled under similar circumstances . On 8 March , however , poor weather grounded the British bombers , and so Scharnhorst and four destroyers were able to make the journey to Norway . A severe storm off Bergen forced the destroyers to seek shelter but Scharnhorst was able to continue on at the reduced speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . At 16 : 00 on 14 March , Scharnhorst dropped anchor in Bogen Bay outside Narvik . There she met Lützow and the battleship Tirpitz .
On 22 March , Scharnhorst , Tirpitz , and Lützow steamed to Altafjord for repairs to damage incurred in heavy storms . In early April , Scharnhorst , Tirpitz , and nine destroyers conducted a training mission to Bear Island in the Arctic Ocean . On the 8th , a serious internal explosion occurred in the aft auxiliary machinery space above the armor deck . The explosion killed or injured 34 men and prompted the crew to flood the magazines for turret Caesar as a precaution against a magazine explosion . A repair ship completed work on the vessel in two weeks . Fuel shortages prevented major operations for the next six months , during which Scharnhorst was able to conduct only short training maneuvers .
Scharnhorst , Tirpitz , and nine destroyers embarked from Altafjord on an offensive on 6 September known as Operation Sicily ; the ships were tasked with bombarding the island of Spitzbergen . During the operation , Scharnhorst destroyed a battery of two 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns and shelled fuel tanks , coal mines , harbor facilities , and military installations . Of particular importance was the weather station that was transmitting weather information to the Allies , which was used to schedule convoys to the Soviet Union . The destroyers landed some 1 @,@ 000 troops , which pushed the Norwegian garrison into the mountains , completing the mission without major loss . On 22 September , a pair of British X @-@ craft mini @-@ submarines attacked and seriously damaged Tirpitz , which reduced the Arctic Task Force to Scharnhorst and her five escorting destroyers .
On 25 November 1943 Scharnhorst carried out a two @-@ hour full power trial achieving 29 @.@ 6 knots ( 54 @.@ 8 km / h ; 34 @.@ 1 mph ) and it was noted that her draught had increased by over .5 metres ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) from her 1940 trials where she had attained 31 @.@ 14 knots ( 57 @.@ 67 km / h ; 35 @.@ 84 mph ) .
= = = Battle of the North Cape = = =
With the rapidly deteriorating military situation for the German Army on the Eastern Front , it became increasingly important to interrupt the flow of supplies from the Western Allies to the Soviet Union . By December 1943 , the German Army was forced into continuous retreat . The Luftwaffe had been seriously weakened by four long years of war , and increasing Allied anti @-@ submarine capabilities were steadily degrading the effectiveness of the U @-@ boats . The only effective weapon at the disposal of the Germans in Norway was Scharnhorst — Tirpitz was badly damaged , and the four remaining heavy cruisers were committed to the Baltic . During a conference with Hitler on 19 – 20 December , Großadmiral Karl Dönitz decided to employ Scharnhorst against the next Allied convoy that presented itself . Erich Bey , by now promoted to Konteradmiral , was given command of the task force .
On 22 December Dönitz ordered Bey to be ready to go to sea on a three @-@ hour notice . Later that day , reconnaissance aircraft located a convoy of some 20 transports escorted by cruisers and destroyers approximately 400 nmi ( 740 km ; 460 mi ) west of Tromsø . The convoy was spotted again two days later , and it was determined that the course was definitively toward the Soviet Union . A U @-@ boat reported the convoy 's location at 09 : 00 on 25 December , and Dönitz ordered Scharnhorst into action . In his instructions to Bey , Dönitz advised him to break off the engagement if presented with superior forces , but to remain aggressive . Bey planned to attack the convoy at 10 : 00 on 26 December if the conditions were favorable for the attack . At this time of year , there was only 45 minutes of full daylight and six hours of twilight , which significantly limited Bey 's operational freedom . The Germans were concerned with developments in Allied radar @-@ directed fire control , which allowed British battleships to fire with great accuracy in the darkness ; German radar capabilities lagged behind those of their opponents .
Scharnhorst and her five destroyers left port at around 19 : 00 and were in the open sea four hours later . At 03 : 19 , Bey received instructions from the Fleet Command that Scharnhorst was to conduct the attack alone if heavy seas interfered with the destroyers ' ability to fight . Unbeknown to the Germans , the British were reading the radio transmissions between Scharnhorst and the Fleet Command ; Admirals Robert Burnett and Bruce Fraser were aware of Bey 's plan for the attack on the convoy and could position their forces accordingly . At 07 : 03 , Scharnhorst was some 40 nmi ( 74 km ; 46 mi ) southwest of Bear Island when she made a turn that would put her in position to attack the convoy at 10 : 00 . Admiral Burnett , commanding the three cruisers Norfolk , Belfast , and Sheffield escorting Convoy JW 55B , placed his ships between the convoy and Scharnhorst 's expected direction of attack . Fraser in the powerful battleship Duke of York , along with the cruiser Jamaica and four destroyers , moved to a position southwest of Scharnhorst to block a possible escape attempt .
An hour after making the turn , Bey deployed his destroyers in a line screening Scharnhorst , which remained 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) behind . Half an hour later , Scharnhorst 's loudspeakers called the crew to battle stations in preparation for the attack . At 08 : 40 , Belfast picked up Scharnhorst on her radar . The Germans were unaware that they had been detected , and they had turned off their radar to prevent the British from picking up on the signals . At 09 : 21 , Belfast 's lookouts spotted Scharnhorst at a range of 11 @,@ 000 m ( 12 @,@ 000 yd ) . The cruiser opened fire three minutes later , followed by Norfolk two minutes after . Scharnhorst fired a salvo from turret Caesar before turning and increasing speed to disengage from the cruisers . The battleship was hit twice by 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 in ) shells ; the first failed to explode and caused negligible damage , but the second struck the forward rangefinders and destroyed the radar antenna . The aft radar , which possessed only a limited forward arc , was the ship 's only remaining radar capability .
Scharnhorst turned south and attempted to work around the cruisers , but the superior British radar prevented Bey from successfully carrying out the maneuver . By 12 : 00 , Scharnhorst was to the northeast of the convoy , but Belfast had reestablished radar contact ; it took the cruisers twenty minutes to close the range and begin firing . Scharnhorst detected the cruisers with her aft radar and opened fire with her main battery guns before turning away to disengage a second time . Shortly before 12 : 25 , Scharnhorst hit Norfolk twice with 28 cm shells . The first shell hit the forward superstructure and disabled Norfolk 's gunnery radar . The second 28 cm round struck the ship 's " X " barbette and disabled the turret . Scharnhorst then turned again and increased speed , in the hopes of escaping the cruisers and finding the convoy . Burnett chose to keep his distance and shadow Scharnhorst with radar while Fraser made his way to the scene in Duke of York . Meanwhile , the five German destroyers continued searching for the convoy without success . At 13 : 15 , Bey decided to return to base , and at 13 : 43 , he dismissed the destroyers and instructed them to return to port .
At 16 : 17 , Duke of York made radar contact with Scharnhorst ; thirty minutes later , Belfast illuminated the German battleship with star shells . At 16 : 50 , Duke of York opened fire at a range of 11 @,@ 000 m ( 12 @,@ 000 yd ) ; Scharnhorst quickly returned the fire . Five minutes after opening fire , one of Duke of York 's 14 in ( 35 @.@ 6 cm ) shells struck Scharnhorst abreast of her forward gun turret . The shell hit jammed the turret 's training gears , putting it out of action . Shell splinters started a fire in the ammunition magazine , which forced the Germans to flood both forward magazines to prevent an explosion . Turret Bruno 's magazine was quickly drained . The ship was now fighting with only two @-@ thirds of her main battery . Shortly thereafter , another 14 in shell struck the ventilation trunk attached to Bruno , which caused the turret to be flooded with noxious propellant gases every time the breeches were opened . A third shell hit the deck next to turret Caesar and caused some flooding ; shell splinters caused significant casualties . At 17 : 30 , shells struck the forward 15 cm gun turrets and destroyed them both .
At around 18 : 00 , another 14 in shell struck the ship on the starboard side , passed through the thin upper belt armor , and exploded in the number 1 boiler room . It caused significant damage to the ship 's propulsion system and slowed the ship to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . Temporary repairs allowed Scharnhorst to return to 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . She managed to add 5 @,@ 000 m ( 5 @,@ 500 yd ) to the distance between her and Duke of York , while straddling the ship with several salvos . Shell splinters rained on Duke of York and disabled the fire @-@ control radar .
At 18 : 42 , Duke of York ceased fire , after having fired 52 salvos and scoring at least 13 hits , but Scharnhorst was pulling away . Many of these hits had badly damaged the ship 's secondary armament , which left her open to destroyer attacks , which Fraser ordered . The destroyers Scorpion and HNoMS Stord launched a total of eight torpedoes at 18 : 50 , four of which hit . One torpedo exploded abreast of turret Bruno , which caused it to jam . The second torpedo hit the ship on the port side and caused some minor flooding , and the third struck toward the rear of the ship and damaged the port propeller shaft . The fourth hit the ship in the bow . The torpedoes slowed Scharnhorst to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , which allowed Duke of York to close to 9 @,@ 100 m ( 10 @,@ 000 yd ) . With only turret Caesar operational , all available men were sent to retrieve ammunition from the forward turrets to keep the last heavy guns supplied . Fraser then ordered Jamaica and Belfast to move into range and finish the crippled ship off with torpedoes . After several more torpedo hits , Scharnhorst settled further into the water and began to list to starboard . At 19 : 45 , the ship went down by the bows , with her propellers still slowly turning . British ships began searching for survivors , but were soon ordered away after just a few were pulled out of the water where voices could still be heard calling for help from the darkness . Of the crew of 1 @,@ 968 officers and enlisted men , only 36 men survived .
= = Wreck discovery = =
In September 2000 , a joint expedition to find the sunken battleship conducted by the BBC , NRK , and the Royal Norwegian Navy began . The underwater survey vessel Sverdrup II , operated by the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment , was used to scan the sea floor . After locating a large submerged object , the research team then used the Royal Norwegian Navy 's underwater recovery vessel HNoMS Tyr to examine the object visually . The wreck was positively identified by an ROV on 10 September , which located armament consistent with that of Scharnhorst . The ship sank in approximately 290 m ( 950 ft ) of water . The hull lies upside down on the seabed , with debris , including the main mast and rangefinders , scattered around the wreck . Extensive damage from shellfire and torpedoes is evident ; the bow was blown off , presumably from a magazine explosion in the forward turrets , and lies in a tangled mass of steel some distance from the rest of the hull .
= Actions along the Matanikau =
The Actions along the Matanikau — sometimes referred to as the Second and Third Battles of the Matanikau — were two separate but related engagements , which took place in the months of September and October 1942 , among a series of engagements between the United States and Imperial Japanese naval and ground forces around the Matanikau River on Guadalcanal ( island in the south @-@ western Pacific , northeast of Australia ) during the Guadalcanal Campaign . These particular engagements — the first taking place between 23 and 27 September , and the second between 6 and 9 October — were two of the largest and most significant of the Matanikau actions .
The Matanikau River area on Guadalcanal included a peninsula called Point Cruz , the village of Kokumbona , and a series of ridges and ravines stretching inland from the coast . Japanese forces used the area to regroup from attacks against U.S. forces on the island , to launch further attacks on the U.S. defenses that guarded the Allied airfield ( called Henderson Field ) located at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal , as a base to defend against Allied attacks directed at Japanese troop and supply encampments between Point Cruz and Cape Esperance on western Guadalcanal , and as a location for watching and reporting on Allied activity around Henderson Field .
In the first action , elements of three U.S. Marine battalions under the command of U.S. Marine Major General Alexander Vandegrift attacked Japanese troop concentrations at several points around the Matanikau River . The Marine attacks were intended to " mop @-@ up " Japanese stragglers retreating towards the Matanikau from the recent Battle of Edson 's Ridge , to disrupt Japanese attempts to use the Matanikau area as a base for attacks on the Marine Lunga defenses , and to destroy any Japanese forces in the area . The Japanese — under the overall command of Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi — repulsed the Marine attacks . During the action , three U.S. Marine companies were surrounded by Japanese forces , took heavy losses , and barely escaped with assistance from a U.S. Navy destroyer and landing craft manned by U.S. Coast Guard personnel .
In the second action two weeks later , a larger force of U.S. Marines successfully crossed the Matanikau River , attacked Japanese forces under the command of newly arrived generals Masao Maruyama and Yumio Nasu , and inflicted heavy casualties on a Japanese infantry regiment . The second action forced the Japanese to retreat from their positions east of the Matanikau and hindered Japanese preparations for their planned major offensive on the U.S. Lunga defenses set for later in October 1942 that resulted in the Battle for Henderson Field .
= = Background = =
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily American ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of neutralizing the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal Campaign . Taking the Japanese by surprise , by nightfall on 8 August the Allied landing forces had secured Tulagi and nearby small islands , as well as an airfield , later called Henderson Field by Allied forces , under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal .
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army — a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Harukichi Hyakutake — with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces . The 17th Army , by this time heavily involved with the Japanese campaign in New Guinea , had only a few units available to send to the southern Solomons area . Of these units , the 35th Infantry Brigade under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi was at Palau , the 4th ( Aoba ) Infantry Regiment was in the Philippines and the 28th ( Ichiki ) Infantry Regiment was embarked on transport ships near Guam . The different units began to move towards Guadalcanal immediately , but Ichiki 's regiment — being the closest — arrived first . The " First Element " of Ichiki 's unit — consisting of about 917 soldiers — landed from destroyers at Taivu Point , east of the Lunga perimeter , on 19 August , attacked the U.S. Marine defenses , and were almost completely annihilated during the resulting Battle of the Tenaru on 21 August .
Between 29 August and 7 September , Japanese destroyers ( called " Tokyo Express " by Allied forces ) , plus a convoy of slow barges , delivered the 6 @,@ 000 men of Kawaguchi 's brigade , including the rest of Ichiki 's regiment ( called the Kuma Battalion ) and much of the Aoba regiment , to Guadalcanal . General Kawaguchi and 5 @,@ 000 of the troops landed 20 mi ( 32 km ) east of the Lunga Perimeter at Taivu Point . The other 1 @,@ 000 troops — under the command of Colonel Akinosuke Oka — landed west of the Lunga Perimeter at Kokumbona . During this time , Vandegrift continued to direct efforts to strengthen and improve the defenses of the Lunga perimeter . Between 21 August and 3 September , he relocated three Marine battalions — including the 1st Raider Battalion , under U.S. Lieutenant Colonel Merritt A. Edson ( Edson 's Raiders ) — from Tulagi and Gavutu to Guadalcanal .
Kawaguchi 's Center Body of 3 @,@ 000 troops began their attacks on a ridge south of Henderson Field beginning on 12 September in what was later called the Battle of Edson 's Ridge . After numerous frontal assaults , Kawaguchi 's attack was repulsed with heavy losses for the Japanese , who retreated back into the jungle on 14 September . Oka 's assault in the west and the Kuma Battalion 's assault in the east were also repulsed by the U.S. Marines over the same two days . Kawaguchi 's units were ordered to withdraw west to the Matanikau Valley to join with Oka 's unit on the west side of the Lunga Perimeter . Most of Kawaguchi 's men reached the Matanikau by 20 September .
As the Japanese regrouped west of the Matanikau , the U.S. forces concentrated on shoring up and strengthening their Lunga defenses . On 18 September , an Allied naval convoy delivered 4 @,@ 157 men from the 3rd Provisional Marine Brigade ( U.S. 7th Marine Regiment ) to Guadalcanal . These reinforcements allowed Vandegrift — beginning on 19 September — to establish an unbroken line of defense completely around the Lunga perimeter .
The Japanese immediately began to prepare for their next attempt to recapture Henderson Field . The 3rd Battalion , 4th ( Aoba ) Infantry Regiment had landed at Kamimbo Bay on the western end of Guadalcanal on 11 September , too late to join Kawaguchi 's attack on the U.S. Marines . By then , though , the battalion had joined Oka 's forces near the Matanikau . Subsequent Tokyo Express runs — beginning on 15 September — brought food and ammunition — as well as 280 men from the 1st Battalion , Aoba Regiment — to Kamimbo on Guadalcanal .
U.S. Marine Lieutenant General Vandegrift and his staff were aware that Kawaguchi 's troops had retreated to the area west of the Matanikau and that numerous groups of Japanese stragglers were scattered throughout the area between the Lunga Perimeter and the Matanikau River . Two previous raids by Marines — on 19 and 29 August — had killed some of the Japanese forces camped in that area but had failed to deny the location as an assembly area and defensive position for the Japanese forces threatening the western portion of the Marine defenses . Vandegrift , therefore , decided to conduct another series of small unit operations around the Matanikau Valley . The purpose of these operations was to " mop @-@ up " the scattered groups of Japanese troops east of the Matanikau and to keep the main body of Japanese soldiers off @-@ balance to prevent them from consolidating their positions so close to the main Marine defenses at Lunga Point . The first operation was assigned to the 1st Battalion , 7th Marine Regiment under Lieutenant Colonel Chesty Puller with a start date of 23 September . The operation would be supported by artillery fire from the U.S. 11th Marine Regiment .
= = September action = =
= = = Prelude = = =
The U.S. Marine plan called for Puller 's battalion to march west from the Lunga perimeter , scale a large terrain feature called Mount Austen , cross the Matanikau River , and then reconnoiter the area between the Matanikau and Kokumbona village . At the same time , the 1st Raider Battalion — now under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Samuel B. Griffith — was to cross at the mouth of the Matanikau to explore the area between the river , Kokumbona , and further west towards Tassafaronga . The Marines thought that there were about 400 Japanese in that area .
The number of Japanese troops in the Matanikau Valley was actually much higher than the Marine estimate . Believing that the Allies might attempt a major amphibious landing near the Matanikau River , Kawaguchi assigned Oka 's 124th Infantry Regiment — numbering about 1 @,@ 900 men — to defend the Matanikau . Oka deployed his " Maizuru " Battalion around the base of Mount Austen and along the west and east banks of the Matanikau River . The rest of Oka 's force was located west of the Matanikau , but in position to respond quickly to any Allied attacks in that area . Including other Japanese troops located near Kokumbona , total Japanese forces in the general Matanikau area numbered about 4 @,@ 000 .
= = = Action = = =
The 930 men of Puller 's battalion marched west from the Lunga perimeter early on the morning of 23 September . Later that morning , Puller 's troops chased away two Japanese patrols that were reconnoitering the Marine Lunga defenses . Puller 's battalion then camped for the night and prepared to climb Mount Austen the next day .
At 17 : 00 on 24 September , as Puller 's men hiked up the northeast slope of Mount Austen , they surprised and killed a bivouac of 16 Japanese soldiers . The noise from the skirmish alerted several companies of Oka 's Maizuru Battalion , who were emplaced nearby . The Maizuru troops quickly attacked Puller 's Marines , who took cover and returned fire . Acting on Oka 's orders , the Japanese slowly disengaged while withdrawing towards the Matanikau River , and the engagement was over by nightfall . The Marines counted 30 dead Japanese and had suffered 13 dead and 25 wounded . Puller radioed headquarters and requested help to evacuate the wounded . Vandegrift replied that he would send the 2nd Battalion , 5th Marine Regiment ( 2 / 5 ) as reinforcements the next day .
2 / 5 — under Lieutenant Colonel David McDougal — rendezvoused with Puller 's unit early on 25 September . Puller sent his casualties back to the Lunga perimeter with three companies of his battalion and continued on with the mission with his remaining company ( Company C ) , his headquarters staff , and 2 / 5 , and they bivouacked for the night between Mount Austen and the Matanikau River .
On the morning of 26 September , Puller and McDougal 's troops reached the Matanikau River and attempted to cross over a bridge previously built by the Japanese that was called the " one @-@ log bridge " . Because of resistance by about 100 Japanese defenders around the bridge , the Marines instead proceeded north along the east bank of the Matanikau to the sand spit on the coast at the mouth of the river . Oka 's troops repulsed a Marine attempt to cross the Matanikau at the sand spit as well as another attempt to cross the one @-@ log bridge later in the afternoon . In the meantime , Griffith 's Raider battalion — along with Merritt A. Edson , commander of the 5th Marine Regiment — joined Puller and McDougal 's troops at the mouth of the Matanikau .
Edson brought with him a " hastily devised " plan of attack — primarily written by Lieutenant Colonel Merrill B. Twining , a member of Vandegrift 's division staff — that called for Griffith 's Raiders — along with Puller 's Company C — to cross the one @-@ log bridge and then outflank the Japanese at the river mouth / sand spit from the south . At the same time , McDougal 's battalion was to attack across the sand spit . If the attacks were successful , the rest of Puller 's battalion would land by boat west of Point Cruz to take the Japanese by surprise from the rear . Aircraft from Henderson Field — as well as Marine 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) and 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) artillery — would provide support for the operation . The Marine offensive would begin the next day , on 27 September .
The Marine attack on the morning of 27 September did not make much headway . Griffith 's Raiders were unable to advance at the one @-@ log bridge over the Matanikau , suffering several casualties , including the death of Major Kenneth D. Bailey and the wounding of Griffith . A flanking attempt by the Raiders further upstream also failed . The Japanese , who had reinforced their units at the mouth of the Matanikau during the night with additional companies from the 124th Infantry Regiment , repulsed the attacks by McDougal 's men .
As a result of " garbled " messages from Griffith because of a Japanese air raid on Henderson Field that disrupted the Marine communication 's net , Vandegrift and Edson believed that the Raiders had succeeded in crossing the Matanikau . Therefore , Puller 's battalion was ordered to proceed with the planned landing west of Point Cruz . Three companies of Puller 's battalion , under Major Otho Rogers , landed from nine landing craft just west of Point Cruz at 13 : 00 . Rogers ' Marines pushed inland and occupied a ridge , called Hill 84 , about 600 yd ( 550 m ) from the landing area . Oka — recognizing the seriousness of this landing — ordered his forces to close on Rogers ' Marines from both the west and east .
Soon after occupying the ridge , Rogers ' men came under heavy fire from two directions from Oka 's forces . Major Rogers was hit by a mortar shell that blew him in half , killing him instantly . Captain Charles Kelley — commander of one of the companies — took command and deployed the Marines in a perimeter defense around the ridge to fight back . The Marines on Hill 84 were without radio communication and thus could not call for help . The Marines improvised by using white undershirts to spell out the word " H @-@ E @-@ L @-@ P " on the ridge . A Cactus Air Force ( the name for the Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson Field ) SBD Dauntless supporting the operation spotted the undershirt message and relayed the message to Edson by radio .
Paul Moore , Jr . , a Marine veteran who participated in the battle , described it :
Each ... [ platoon ] was to run across the sandspit until they were opposite the bank , wade across the river , and attack the Japanese battalion , which was dug in with automatic weapons and hand grenades and mortars in the bank .... Well , one platoon went over and got annihilated . Another platoon went over and got annihilated . Then another ... we all realized it was insane ... But if you 're a Marine , you 're ordered across the goddamn beach and you go .
Edson received a message from the Raider Battalion reporting their failure to cross the Matanikau . Edson , speaking to those around him , stated , " I guess we better call them off . They can 't seem to cross the river . " Puller angrily replied , " You 're not going to throw these men away ! " apparently in reference to his men trapped on the west side of the Matanikau , and " stormed " off toward the beach where , with the help of his personal signalman , Puller was able to hail the Navy destroyer USS Monssen that was supporting the operation . Once aboard Monssen , Puller and the destroyer led 10 landing craft towards Point Cruz and established communications with Kelley on the ridge by signal flag .
By this time , Oka 's troops had moved into position to completely cut off the Marines on Hill 84 from the coast . Therefore , Monssen — coordinated by Puller — began to blast a path between the ridge and the beach . After about 30 minutes of firing by the destroyer , the way was clear for the Marines to escape to the beach . Despite taking some casualties from their own artillery fire , most of the Marines made it to the beach near Point Cruz by 16 : 30 . Oka 's troops put heavy fire on the Marines at the beach in effort to keep them from successfully evacuating , and the U.S. Coast Guard crews manning the U.S. landing craft responded with their own heavy fire to cover the Marines ' withdrawal . Under fire , the Marines boarded the landing craft and successfully returned to the Lunga perimeter , ending the action . U.S. Coast Guard Signalman First Class Douglas Albert Munro — Officer @-@ in @-@ Charge of the group of Higgins boats — was killed while providing covering fire from his landing craft for the Marines as they evacuated the beach and was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for the action , to date the only Coast Guardsman to receive the decoration .
= = = Aftermath = = =
The results of the action were gratifying to the Japanese , still recovering from their defeat at Edson 's Ridge two weeks prior . Oka 's troops counted 32 bodies of U.S. Marines around Hill 84 , and they captured 15 rifles and several machine guns that the Marines left behind . Major General Akisaburo Futami — chief of staff for the 17th Army at Rabaul — noted in his diary that this action was " the first good news to come from Guadalcanal . "
The action — described as " an embarrassing defeat " for the U.S. Marines — resulted in " finger @-@ pointing " among the Marine commanders as they sought to attribute blame . Puller blamed Griffith and Edson , Griffith blamed Edson , and Twining blamed Puller and Edson . Colonel Gerald Thomas — Vandegrift 's operations officer — blamed Twining . The Marines , however , learned from the experience , and the defeat was the only one of that size suffered by U.S. Marine forces during the Guadalcanal campaign .
= = October action = =
= = = Prelude = = =
The Japanese continued to deliver additional forces to Guadalcanal in preparation for their planned major offensive in late October . Between 1 and 5 October , Tokyo Express runs delivered troops from the 2nd Infantry Division , including their commander , Lieutenant General Masao Maruyama . These troops consisted of units from the 4th , 16th , and 29th Infantry Regiments . In an attempt to exploit the advantage gained in the September Matanikau action , Maruyama deployed the three battalions of the 4th Infantry Regiment with additional supporting units under Major General Yumio Nasu along the west side of the Matanikau River south of Point Cruz with three companies from the 4th Infantry Regiment placed on the east side of the river . Oka 's exhausted troops were withdrawn from the immediate Matanikau area . The Japanese units east of the river were to assist in preparing positions from which heavy artillery could fire into the U.S. Marines ' perimeter around Lunga Point .
Aware of the Japanese activity around the Matanikau , the U.S. Marines prepared for another offensive in the area with the objective of driving Japanese forces west and away from the Matanikau valley . Applying lessons learned from the September action , this time the Marines prepared a carefully coordinated plan of action involving five battalions : two from the 5th Marine Regiment , two from the 7th Marine Regiment , and one from the 2nd Marine Regiment augmented with Marine scout and sniper personnel ( called the Whaling Group after its commander Colonel William J. Whaling ) . The 5th Marine 's battalions were to attack across the mouth of the Matanikau while the other three battalions were to cross the Matanikau inland at the " one @-@ log bridge " , turn north , and attempt to trap the Japanese forces between themselves and the coast . This time the Marine division headquarters planned to retain control of the entire operation and carefully arranged detailed support for the operation from artillery and aircraft .
= = = Action = = =
On the morning of 7 October , the two 5th Marine battalions attacked west from the Lunga perimeter towards the Matanikau . With direct @-@ fire support from 75 mm guns mounted on halftracks , plus additional troops supplied by the 1st Raider Battalion , the Marines forced 200 soldiers from the Japanese 3rd Company , 1st Battalion , 4th Infantry into a small pocket on the east side of the Matanikau about 400 yd ( 370 m ) from the river mouth . The Japanese 2nd Company tried to come to the aid of their comrades in the 3rd Company but were unable to cross the Matanikau and took casualties from Marine gunfire . Meanwhile , the two 7th Marine battalions and the Whaling Group reached positions east of the one @-@ log bridge unopposed and bivouacked for the night .
Oblivious of the U.S. Marine offensive , General Nasu sent the 9th Company of the 4th Infantry Regiment 's 3rd Battalion across the Matanikau on the evening of 7 October . The Japanese regiment commander received word of the U.S. Marine operation about 03 : 00 on 8 October and immediately ordered his 1st and 2nd battalions closer to the river to counter the Marine operation .
Rain on 8 October slowed the U.S. 7th Marines and the Whaling Group as they attempted to cross the Matanikau . Near evening the U.S. 3rd Battalion 2nd Marines reached the first ridge west of the Matanikau about 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Point Cruz . Opposite their position on the east bank of the river , Company H from the U.S. 2nd Battalion 7th Marines unknowingly advanced into an exposed position between the Japanese 9th Company on the east bank and the rest of the Japanese 3rd Battalion on the west bank and was forced to withdraw . As a result , the Marines halted their attack for the night and prepared to resume it the next day . Unaware that the Marines threatened their positions on the west bank of the Matanikau , the Japanese commanders — including Maruyama and Nasu — ordered their units to hold in place .
During the night , the survivors of the Japanese 3rd Company , about 150 men , attempted to break out of their pocket and cross the sandbar at the mouth of the Matanikau . The 3rd Company soldiers overran two platoons from the 1st Raiders , who were not expecting an attack from that direction , and the resulting hand @-@ to @-@ hand melee left 12 Marines and 59 Japanese dead . The remaining 3rd Company survivors were able to cross the river and reach friendly lines . According to Frank J. Guidone , a Marine participant in the engagement , " The fight was hours of hell . There was yelling , screams of the wounded and dying ; rifle firing and machine guns with tracers piercing the night – ( a ) combination of fog , smoke , and the natural darkness . Truly an arena of death . "
On the morning of 9 October , the U.S. Marines renewed their offensive west of the Matanikau . The Whaling Group and the 2nd Battalion 7th Marines — commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Herman H. Hanneken — reached the shoreline around Point Cruz and trapped large numbers of Japanese troops between themselves and the Matanikau River , where the Japanese took heavy losses from U.S. artillery and aircraft bombardment . Further west , Puller 's 1st Battalion , 7th Marines trapped the Japanese 2nd Battalion , 4th Infantry in a wooded ravine . After calling for massed artillery fire into the ravine , Puller added the fire of his battalion 's mortars to create , in Puller 's words , a " machine for extermination " . The trapped Japanese troops attempted several times to escape by climbing the opposite side of the ravine , only to be cut down in large numbers by massed Marine rifle and machine gun fire . Having received intelligence information that the Japanese were planning a large surprise offensive somewhere on Guadalcanal , Vandegrift ordered all the Marine units west of the Matanikau to disengage and return to the east side of the river , which was accomplished by the evening of 9 October .
= = = Aftermath and significance = = =
The Marine offensive inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese 4th Infantry Regiment , killing around 700 Japanese troops . During this operation , 65 Marines were killed .
The same night that the U.S. Marine Matanikau operation ended on 9 October , Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake — the Japanese 17th Army commander — landed on Guadalcanal to personally lead the Japanese forces in their planned large offensive scheduled for later in October . Hyakutake was immediately briefed on the loss of the Japanese positions on the east bank of the Matanikau and the annihilation of one of the 4th Infantry Regiment 's battalions . Hyakutake communicated the news directly to the Army 's General Staff in Tokyo where Lieutenant General Moritake Tanabe of the Operations Division noted in his diary that the loss of the Matanikau position was a " very bad omen " for the planned October offensive .
The Japanese determined that the reestablishment of their forces on the east bank of the Matanikau would be prohibitive in terms of the number of troops required to accomplish it . Therefore , the Japanese devised a plan of attack for their scheduled offensive that sent many of their troops on a long and arduous journey to attack the U.S. Lunga perimeter from inland . The march — which began on 16 October — exhausted the Japanese troops involved to such an extent that it was later considered as one of the major factors in the decisive Japanese defeat in the subsequent Battle for Henderson Field from 23 – 26 October 1942 . Thus , the failure of the Japanese to gain and hold a strong position on the Matanikau proved to have lasting strategic consequences in the battle for Guadalcanal , significantly contributing to the ultimate Allied victory in the campaign .
= Romania in the Early Middle Ages =
The Early Middle Ages in Romania started with the withdrawal of the Roman troops and administration from Dacia province in the 270s . In the next millennium a series of peoples , most of whom only controlled two or three of the nearly ten historical regions that now form Romania , arrived . During this period , society and culture underwent fundamental changes . Town life came to an end in Dacia with the Roman withdrawal , and in Scythia Minor – the other Roman province in the territory of present @-@ day Romania – 400 years later . Fine vessels made on fast potter 's wheels disappeared and hand @-@ made pottery became dominant from the 450s . Burial rites changed more than once from cremation to inhumation and vice versa until inhumation became dominant by the end of the 10th century .
The East Germanic Goths and Gepids , who lived in sedentary communities , were the first new arrivals . The Goths dominated Moldavia and Wallachia from the 290s , and parts of Transylvania from the 330s . Their power collapsed under attacks by the nomadic Huns in 376 . The Huns controlled Eastern and Central Europe from around 400 , but their empire disintegrated in 454 . Thereafter the regions west of the Carpathian Mountains – Banat , Crişana , and Transylvania – and Oltenia were dominated by the Gepids . Within a century , the lands east of the mountains became important centers of the Antes and Sclavenes . Hydronyms and place names of Slavic origin also prove the one @-@ time presence of Early Slavs in the regions west of the Carpathians .
The nomadic Avars subjugated the Gepids in 568 and dominated the Carpathian Basin up until around 800 . The Bulgars also established a powerful empire in the 670s which included Dobruja and other territories along the Lower Danube . Bulgaria officially adopted the Eastern Orthodox variant of Christianity in 864 . An armed conflict between Bulgaria and the nomadic Hungarians forced the latter to depart from the Pontic steppes and began the conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 895 . Their invasion gave rise to the earliest reference , recorded some centuries later in the Gesta Hungarorum , to a polity ruled by a Romanian duke named Gelou . The same source also makes mention of the presence of the Székelys in Crişana around 895 . The first contemporaneous references to Romanians – who used to be known as Vlachs – in the regions now forming Romania were recorded in the 12th and 13th centuries . References to Vlachs inhabiting the lands to the south of the Lower Danube abound in the same period .
Banat , Crişana and Transylvania were integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary in the 11th century . These regions were subject to plundering raids by the nomadic Pechenegs and Cumans , who dominated the lowlands east of the mountains . Hungarian monarchs promoted the immigration of Western European colonists to Transylvania from the 1150s . The colonists ' descendants , who were known as Transylvanian Saxons from the early 13th century , received collective privileges in 1224 . Because of the settlement of the Saxons in their former territories , the Székelys were moved to the easternmost zones of the kingdom . The emergence of the Mongol Empire in the Eurasian Steppes in the first decades of the 13th century had lasting effects on the history of the region . The Mongols subjugated the Cumans in the 1230s and destroyed many settlements throughout the Kingdom of Hungary in 1241 and 1242 , bringing the Early Middle Ages to an end .
= = Background = =
= = = Roman provinces and native tribes = = =
Contacts between the Roman Empire – which developed into the largest empire in the history of Europe – and the natives of the regions now forming Romania commenced in the 2nd century BC . These regions were inhabited by Dacians , Bastarnae and other peoples whose incursions posed a threat to the empire . The Romans initially attempted to secure their frontiers by various means , including the creation of buffer zones . Finally , they decided that the annexation of the lands of these fierce " barbarians " is the best measure . The territory of the Getae between the river Danube and the Black Sea ( modern Dobruja ) was the first region to be incorporated into the empire . It was attached to the Roman province of Moesia in 46 AD .
The Lower Danube marked the boundary between the empire and " Barbaricum " until Emperor Trajan decided to expand the frontiers over territories controlled by the Dacian Kingdom . He achieved his goal through two military campaigns , the second of which ended with the annihilation of the Dacian state and the establishment of the province of Dacia in 106 . It included Oltenia and large portions of Banat , Transylvania , and Wallachia . Many colonists " from all over the Roman world " arrived and settled in the new province in the following decades .
Dacia was situated over the empire 's natural borders . It was surrounded by native tribes inhabiting the regions of Crișana , Maramureș , Moldavia which are now integral part of Romania , but the Romans never annexed them . Dacia province was plundered by neighboring tribes , including the Carpians , Sarmatians , from the 230s , and by the Goths from the 250s . As the frontiers were to be shortened for defensive purposes , the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Dacia began in the 260s . The province officially ceased to exist under Emperor Aurelian ( 270 – 275 ) who " withdrew the Romans from the cities and countryside of Dacia " . Garrisons stationed in Drobeta and Sucidava remained on the northern bank of the river .
= = = Origin of the Romanians = = =
Romanians speak a language originating from the dialects of the Roman provinces north of the " Jireček Line " . This line divided , in Roman times , the predominantly Greek @-@ speaking southern provinces from those where Latin was the principal language of communication . The emergence of Proto @-@ Romanian from Vulgar Latin is first demonstrated by the words " torna , torna , frater " ( " turn around , turn around , brother " ) recorded in connection with an Eastern Roman military action in 587 or 588 . The soldier shouting them " in his native tongue " spoke an Eastern Romance dialect of the Balkan Mountains .
Grigore Nandris writes that the Romanian vocabulary suggests that the Romanians ' ancestors were " reduced to a pastoral life in the mountains and to agricultural pursuits in the foothills of their pasture lands " following the collapse of the Roman rule . A great number of Romanian words of uncertain origin are related to animal husbandry : baci ( " chief shepherd " ) , balegă ( " dung " ) , and brânză ( " cheese " ) , for instance , belong to this group . Many words related to a more settled form of animal husbandry were borrowed from Slavic , including coteţ ( " poultry house " ) , grajd ( " stable " ) , and stână ( " fenced pasture " ) . Romanian has preserved Latin terms for agriculture and the Latin names of certain crops , but a significant part of its agricultural lexis originates from a Slavic @-@ speaking population . The first group includes a ara ( " to plough " ) , a semăna ( " to sow " ) , a culege ( " to harvest " ) , a secera ( " to reap " ) , grâu ( " wheat " ) , in ( " flax " ) , and furcă ( " pitchfork " ) , while a croi ( " to cut out " ) , a plivi ( " to weed " ) , brazdă ( " furrow " ) , cobilă ( " plow line " ) , coasă ( " scythe " ) , lopată ( " shovel " ) and many others are Slavic loanwords .
The Romanian religious vocabulary is also divided , with a small number of basic terms preserved from Latin and a significant number of borrowings from Old Church Slavonic . Romanian did not preserve Latin words connected to urbanized society . Likewise , the term sat ( " village " ) may have been borrowed from the Albanian language and not directly inherited . The Medieval Romanian word obște ( " village community " ) came from Slavic , and the Romanian word for its boundaries ( hotar ) is of Hungarian origin .
The Romanians ' ethnogenesis cannot be understood based exclusively on written sources , because the earliest records on their ancestors were made by 11th @-@ century Byzantine historians . When referring to the Romance @-@ speaking population of Southeastern Europe , early medieval sources used the Vlach exonym or its cognates , which all derived from the Common Slavic term for speakers of the Latin language . The earliest sources write of the Vlachs of the central territories of the Balkan Peninsula .
= = Late Roman Age = =
= = = Scythia Minor and the limes on the Lower Danube ( c . 270 – c . 700 ) = = =
The territory between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea remained a fully integrated part of the Roman Empire , even after the abandonment of Trajan 's Dacia . It was transformed into a separate province under the name of Scythia Minor around 293 . Before 300 , the Romans erected small forts at Dierna and in other places on the northern bank of the Danube in modern @-@ day Banat . In their wider region , Roman coins from the period — mostly of bronze — have been found .
The existence of Christian communities in Scythia Minor became evident under Emperor Diocletian ( 284 – 305 ) . He and his co @-@ emperors ordered the persecution of Christians throughout the empire , causing the death of many between 303 and 313 . Under Emperor Constantine the Great ( 306 – 337 ) , a bridge across the Danube was constructed at Sucidava , a new fort ( Constantiana Daphne ) was built , and ancient roads were repaired in Oltenia . The Lower Danube again became the empire 's northern boundary in 369 at the latest , when Emperor Valens met Athanar
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in the Tisa plains up until the 460s .
= = = Gutthiuda : land of the Goths ( c . 290 – c . 455 ) = = =
The Goths started penetrating into territories west of the river Dniester from the 230s . Two distinct groups separated by the river , the Thervingi and the Greuthungi , quickly emerged among them . The one @-@ time province of Dacia was held by " the Taifali , Victohali , and Thervingi " around 350 .
The Goths ' success is marked by the expansion of the multiethnic " Sântana de Mureş @-@ Chernyakhov culture " . Settlements of the culture appeared in Moldavia and Wallachia at the end of the 3rd century , and in Transylvania after 330 . These lands were inhabited by a sedentary population engaged in farming and cattle @-@ breeding . Pottery , comb @-@ making and other handicrafts flourished in the villages . Wheel @-@ made fine pottery is a featuring item of the period , but hand @-@ made cups of the local tradition were also preserved . Plowshares similar to those made in nearby Roman provinces and Scandinavian @-@ style brooches indicate trade contacts with these regions . " Sântana de Mureş @-@ Chernyakhov " villages , sometimes covering an area exceeding 20 hectares ( 49 acres ) , were not fortified and comprised two types of houses : sunken huts with walls made of wattle and daub and surface buildings with plastered timber walls . Sunken huts had for centuries been typical for settlements east of the Carpathians , but now they appeared in distant zones of the Pontic steppes .
The multiethnic Gutthiuda was divided into smaller political units or kuni , each headed by tribal chiefs or reiks . In case of emergency , the tribal chiefs ' council elected a supreme leader who was known as iudex regum ( " judge of kings " ) by St Ambrose . Christian prisoners of war were the first missionaries among the Goths . Ulfilas , himself a descendant of a Cappadocian captive , was ordained bishop " of the Christians in the land of the Goths " in 341 . Expelled from Gutthiuda during a persecution of Christians , Ulfilas settled in Moesia in 348 .
Gothic dominance collapsed when the Huns arrived and attacked the Thervingi in 376 . Most of the Thervingi sought asylum in the Roman Empire , and were followed by large groups of Greuthungi and Taifali . All the same , significant groups of Goths stayed in the territories north of the Danube . For instance , Athanaric " retired with all his men to Caucalanda " — probably to the valley of the river Olt — from where they " drove out the Sarmatians " . A hoard of Roman coins issued under Valentinian I and Valens suggests that the gates of the amphitheatre at Ulpia Traiana were blocked around the same time . The Pietroasele Treasure which was hidden around 450 also implies the presence of a Gothic tribal or religious leader in the lands between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube . It contains a torc bearing the inscription GUTANI O WI HAILAG , which is interpreted by Malcolm Todd as " God who protects the Goths , most holy and inviolate " .
= = = Gepidia : land of the Gepids ( c . 290 – c . 630 ) = = =
The earliest reference to Gepids – an East Germanic tribe closely related to the Goths – is found in a formal speech of 291 . The anonymous author wrote that the Thervingi joined " battle with the Vandals and Gepids " at that time . The center of an early Gepidia , on the plains northwest of the Meseş Mountains , appears to have been located around Şimleu Silvaniei , where early 5th @-@ century precious objects of Roman provenance have been unearthed .
The Huns imposed their authority over the Gepids by the 420s , but the latter remained united under the rule of their king named Ardaric . Although he was one of the favorites of Attila , king of the Huns , he initiated an uprising against the Huns when Attila died in 453 . The Gepids regained their independence and " ruled as victors over the extent of all Dacia " .
Three sumptuous tombs found at Apahida evidence the wealth accumulated by Gepid royals through their connections with the Eastern Roman Empire . A golden ring with crosses found in one of the graves implies its owner 's Christian faith . John of Biclar refers to an Arian bishop of the Gepids which suggests that they adopted Christianity through their connection with the Arian Goths .
New settlements appearing along the rivers Mureş , Someş , and Târnava reflects a period of tranquility in Gepidia until around 568 . The common people in Biharia , Cenad , Moreşti , and other villages lived in sunken huts covered with gabled roofs but with no hearths or ovens . They were primarily farmers , but looms , combs , and other products evidence the existence of local workshops . Trading contacts between Gepidia and faraway regions is evidenced by finds of amber beads and brooches manufactured in the Crimea , Mazovia or Scandinavia .
The Avar invasion of 568 ended the independent Gepidia . Written sources evidence the survival of Gepid groups within the Avar Empire . For instance , Eastern Roman troops " encountered three Gepid settlements " on the Tisa plains in 599 or 600 .
= = = Hunnic Empire ( c . 400 – c . 460 ) = = =
The Huns , a people of uncertain origin , were nomadic and wandered " with the wagons " in the 370s . They were eminent mounted archers who imposed their authority over an increasing number of neighboring peoples . Their first ruler whose seat was located in the Lower Danube region was Uldin , initially an important ally and later an enemy of the Eastern Roman Empire between 401 and 408 .
The Eastern Roman government paid an annual tribute to the Huns from the 420s . Gold flowing from the empire transformed the Hun society . The introduction of a centralized monarchy is evidenced in a report written by Priscus of Panium , an Eastern Roman envoy sent to the ruler of the Huns , Attila , in 448 . At that time , Gothic was widely spoken in the royal court since " the subjects of the Huns " spoke " besides their own barbarous tongues , either Hunnic or Gothic , or — as many as have commercial dealings with the western Romans — Latin " .
The Huns imposed their authority on a sedentary population . Priscus of Panium refers to a village where he and his retinue were supplied " with millet instead of corn " and " medos ( mead ) instead of wine " . Attila 's sudden death in 453 caused a civil war among his sons . The subject peoples revolted and emerged the victors at the Battle of Nedao in 454 . The remnants of the Huns withdrew to the Pontic steppes . One of their groups was admitted to settle in Scythia Minor in 460 .
= = After the first migrations = =
= = = Between Huns and Avars ( c . 450 – c . 565 ) = = =
The last " Sântana de Mureş @-@ Chernyakhov " objects once widespread in Gutthiuda – such as fine wares and weapons – are dated to the period ending around 430 . According to Coriolan H. Opreanu , the same period is characterized by " population shifts " which caused the abandonment of many villages and the appearance of new settlements . Botoşana , Dodeşti , and other sites east of the Carpathians demonstrate the simplification of pottery forms and a decline in the use of the fast potter 's wheel from the 450s . Around the same time , semi @-@ sunken huts with stone or clay ovens appeared in Moldavia and Wallachia , forming ephemeral settlements with an area smaller than 5 hectares ( 12 acres ) . The locals practiced an " itinerant form of agriculture " , instead of manuring the soil . Differences in local pottery indicate the coexistence of communities isolated from each other by marshes , forests or hills . For instance , contemporary Cândeşti produced a significant quantity of wheel @-@ made pottery , Târgşor was characterized by crushed @-@ shard tempered vessels , and a sample of the most common " Kolochin " vessels was found in the Budureasca Valley .
There are few known cemeteries from the second half of the 5th century , pointing to common use of cremation without the use of urns or pits . On the other hand , a huge biritual necropolis at Sărata @-@ Monteoru produced more than 1 @,@ 600 cremation burials , either in wheel @-@ made urns or in pits without urns . Small cemeteries with inhumation graves have been found at Nichiteni and Secuieni .
Jordanes , Procopius and other 6th @-@ century authors used the terms " Sclavenes " and " Antes " to refer to the peoples inhabiting the territory north of the Lower Danube . The Antes launched their first campaign over the Lower Danube in 518 . After they concluded a treaty with the Eastern Roman Empire in 545 , the Sclavenes started to plunder the Balkan provinces . Both ethnic groups seized many prisoners of wars during their raids , but they were ready to integrate them " as free men and friends " .
The names of early 6th @-@ century leaders of the Sclavenes or Antes are unknown . This supports ancient authors ' claims that both ethnic groups lived " under a democracy " . The same conclusion can be drawn from Procopius 's report of the " phoney Chilbudius " – a young Antian serf who " spoke the Latin tongue " – who was dispatched by his fellow tribesmen to negotiate with the Eastern Roman Empire in 545 .
The disappearance of bronze and gold coins from sites north of the Lower Danube demonstrates an " economic closure of the frontier " of the Eastern Roman Empire between 545 and 565 . The same period is characterized by a tendency towards cultural unification in Moldavia , Oltenia and Wallachia . Handmade pots with very similar incised designs evidence the " existence of a cross @-@ regional set of symbols shared " by either potters or consumers . Pots , spindle whorls and other objects decorated with crosses or swastikas have been unearthed at Cândeşti , Lozna , and other sites . The use of handmade clay pans for baking bread was spreading from the regions south and east of the Carpathians towards lands over the Dniester and the Lower Danube .
= = = Avar Empire ( c . 565 – c . 800 ) = = =
The Avars occupied Gepidia in 567 , less than a decade after their arrival in Europe . They were nomadic pastoralists , who settled in the lowlands . Stirrups found at Sânpetru German are among the earliest finds in Romania attributed to the Avars . They received agricultural products from farming communities settled in their domains and neighboring peoples subjected to their authority . Emperor Justin II hired , in 578 , the Avars to attack the Sclavenes who resumed their plundering raids against the empire around that time . The names of some of the Sclavene leaders were first recorded in the following period . One of them , Musocius , " was called rex in the barbarian tongue " .
Graves of males interred together with horses found at Aiud and Band prove the Avars ' settlement in Transylvania in the early 7th century . Their cemeteries are centered around salt mines . Spurs — never found in Avar context but widely used in Western Slav territories — were unearthed in Şura Mică and Medişoru Mare , suggesting the employment of non @-@ Avar horsemen in the 8th century .
Large " Late Avar " cemeteries used by several generations between c . 700 and c . 800 imply " an advanced degree of sedentization " of the entire society . The Avar Empire collapsed after the Franks launched three campaigns against the westernmost Avar territories between 791 and 803 . Soon afterwards the Bulgars attacked the Avars from the southeast , and Charlemagne settled Avar groups in Pannonia .
= = = Emergence of new powers ( c . 600 – c . 895 ) = = =
The Lower Danube region experienced a period of stability after the establishment of the Avar Empire . Archaeological sites in Moldavia , Oltenia and Wallachia became characterized by the growing popularity of hand @-@ made vessels with finger impressions and by a decline in detectable cemeteries . Ananias of Shirak , a 7th @-@ century Armenian geographer described the " large country of Dacia " as inhabited by Slavs who formed " twenty @-@ five tribes " .
Villages of sunken huts with stone ovens appeared in Transylvania around 600 . Their network was expanding along the rivers Mureş , Olt and Someş . The so @-@ called " Mediaş group " of cremation or mixed cemeteries emerged in this period near salt mines . The Hungarian and the Romanian vocabulary of salt mining was taken from Slavic , suggesting that Slavs were employed in the mines for centuries . Bistriţa ( " swift " ) , Crasna ( " nice " or " red " ) , Sibiu ( " dogwood " ) , and many other rivers and settlements with names of Slavic origin also evidence the presence of Slavs in Transylvania .
The Turkic @-@ speaking Bulgars arrived in the territories west of the river Dniester around 670 . At the Battle of Ongal they defeated the Eastern Roman ( or Byzantine ) Emperor Constantine IV in 680 or 681 and occupied Dobruja . They soon imposed their authority over some of the neighboring tribes . The great variety in burial rites evidences the multi @-@ ethnic character of the Bulgarian Empire . Even the Bulgars were divided in this respect ; some of them practiced inhumation and others cremation . Initially , a sharp distinction existed between the Bulgars and their subjects , but the Slavicization of the Bulgars soon began .
Opreanu writes that the " new cultural synthesis " known as the " Dridu culture " developed in the Lower Danube region around 680 . New settlements and large cemeteries show that the region experienced a steady demographic rise in the 8th century . The large , unfortified " Dridu " settlements were characterized by traditional semi @-@ sunken huts , but a few houses with ground @-@ level floors have also been unearthed in Dodeşti , Spinoasa , and other places .
" Dridu " communities produced and used gray or yellow fine pottery , but hand @-@ made vessels were still predominant . Fine , gray vessels were also unearthed in the 9th @-@ century " Blandiana A " cemeteries in the area of Alba @-@ Iulia , which constitutes a " cultural enclave " in Transylvania . Near these cemeteries , necropolises of graves with west – east orientation form the distinct " Ciumbrud group " . Female dress accessories from " Ciumbrud graves " are strikingly similar to those from Christian cemeteries in Bulgaria and Moravia . From an earlier date are the cremation cemeteries of the " Nuşfalau @-@ Someşeni group " in northwestern Transylvania , with their 8th- and 9th @-@ century tumuli , similar to the kurgans of East Slavic territories .
Contemporaneous authors rarely dwelled on early medieval Southeastern Europe . For instance , the Royal Frankish Annals makes a passing reference to Abodrites living " in Dacia adjacent to the Danube near the Bulgarian border " on the occasion of their envoys ' arrival in Aachen in 824 . Bulgaria 's territory increased under Krum ( c . 803 – 814 ) , who took Adrianople and forced at least 10 @,@ 000 of the town 's inhabitants to settle north of the Lower Danube in 813 . The ambitions of his son Omurtag ( 814 – 831 ) in the regions of the rivers Dnieper and Tisa are attested by two columns erected in the memory of Bulgar military leaders who drowned in these rivers during military campaigns . Emperor Arnulf sent envoys , in 894 , to the Bulgarians to " ask that they should not sell salt to the Moravians " , suggesting a Bulgarian control over either the Transylvanian salt mines or the roads to Moravia .
In the same year , the nomadic Hungarians – who had arrived in the Lower Danube region from the steppes of Eastern Europe in 837 or 838 – became involved in a conflict between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire on the latter 's behalf . The Bulgarians incited another nomadic tribe , the Pechenegs , to invade the Hungarians from the east , while the Bulgarians also attacked them from the south . The two synchronized attacks forced the Hungarians to cross the Carpathian Mountains in search for a new homeland .
About 300 years later , Anonymus , the author of Gesta Hungarorum , wrote a comprehensive list of polities and peoples of the Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries . He wrote about the Hungarian conquest of the territory but did not mention Simeon I of Bulgaria , Svatopluk of Moravia and the conquerors ' opponents known from contemporary sources . Instead , he wrote of a number of personalities unknown by other chroniclers . In Gesta Hungarorum , Menumorut ruled over " the peoples that are called Kozár " in Crişana . Anonymus also wrote of the Székelys ( " previously the peoples of King Attila " ) living in the territory for centuries who joined the invading Hungarians . Banat , according to Anonymus , was ruled by Glad who had come " from the castle of Vidin . " Glad is described to employ " Cumans , Bulgarians and Vlachs " in his army . Anonymous also wrote of Gelou , " a certain Vlach " ruling in Transylvania , a land inhabited by " Vlachs and Slavs " . Gelou 's subjects are portrayed as having " suffered many injuries from the Cumans and Pechenegs " .
= = Formation of new states and the last waves of migrations = =
= = = First Bulgarian Empire after conversion ( 864 – 1018 ) = = =
Boris I , the ruler of Bulgaria , converted to Orthodox Christianity in 864 . He promoted vernacular worship services , thus Old Church Slavonic was declared the language of liturgy in the Bulgarian Orthodox Church in 893 . One of the earliest examples of Cyrillic script — an alphabet strongly associated with Slavonic liturgy — was found in Mircea Vodă in Romania . The Cyrillic inscription from 943 refers to a " župan Dimitrie " .
Byzantine troops occupied large portions of Bulgaria , including modern Dobruja , under Emperor John I Tzimiskes ( 969 – 976 ) . After his death an anti @-@ Byzantine uprising led by four brothers broke out . One of the brothers , David , was killed by Vlachs in the present @-@ day border region between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia . In 1018 , the Byzantines conquered the whole territory of the Bulgarian Empire and the Archbishop of Ohrid acquired ecclesiastic jurisdiction in 1020 over the Vlachs living there .
= = = Hungarians in the Carpathian Basin ( c . 895 – c . 1000 ) = = =
The way taken by the Hungarians across the Carpathian Mountains when they started the conquest of the Carpathian Basin varies from source to source . According to Gesta Hungarorum , the Hungarians descended through the northern passes to the lowlands , bypassing Transylvania , and only began the invasion of the regions east of the Tisa after the conquest of the western regions . Gesta Hungarorum says the Vlach Gelou of Transylvania died fighting the Hungarians , while his subjects chose " for themselves as lord Tétény " , one of the Hungarian leaders . Anonymus also wrote of Menumorut 's defeat , but said he preserved his rule in Crişana until his death by giving his daughter in marriage to Zolta , heir to Árpád , the head of the Hungarians . In a contrasting account , the Illuminated Chronicle writes of Hungarians fleeing through the eastern passes of the Carpathian Mountains to Transylvania where they " remained quietly " and " rested their herds " for a while before moving further west . The so @-@ called " Cluj group " of small inhumation cemeteries — graves with west – east orientation , often containing remains of horses — appeared on both sides of the Apuseni Mountains around 900 . Their military character evidences that the people using them formed a " double defensive line " organized against the Pechenegs . Transylvanian cemeteries of the " Cluj group " cluster around salt mines .
Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus identified " the whole settlement " of Hungary with the lands where the rivers Criş , Mureş , Timiş , Tisa and Toutis – possibly the Bega — ran around 950 . The concentration of objects of Byzantine provenance at the confluence of the Mureş and Tisa shows that this territory was a regional center of power . Accordingly , the seat of Gyula , a Hungarian chieftain baptized in Constantinople around 952 , most probably existed in this region . On the other hand , Hungarian chronicles associate Gyula 's family with Transylvania . Place names from the nomadic stratum of Hungarian toponymy — those corresponding to proper names or Hungarian tribal names , including Decea , Hotoan , and Ineu — also evidence that major Hungarian groups settled in Transylvania from the 950s . An early " Bijelo Brdo " cemetery belonging to a 10th- and 11th @-@ century archaeological culture with finds from all over the Carpathian Basin was found at Deva .
= = = Patzinakia : land of the Pechenegs ( c . 895 – c . 1120 ) = = =
The Turkic @-@ speaking Pechenegs took the control of the territories east of the Carpathians from the Hungarians around 895 . Emperor Constantine VII wrote that two Pecheneg " provinces " or " clans " ( " Kato Gyla " and " Giazichopon " ) were located in Moldavia and Wallachia around 950 . The change of dominion had no major effect on the sedentary " Dridu " villages in the region . The settlements in Moldavia and Wallachia , most of them built on river banks or lake shores , remained unfortified . Sporadic finds of horse brasses and other " nomadic " objects evidence the presence of Pechenegs in " Dridu " communities . Snaffle bits with rigid mouthpieces and round stirrups — novelties of the early 10th century — were also unearthed in Moldavia and Wallachia . Cemeteries of the locals show that inhumation replaced cremation by the end of the 10th century .
The Eymund 's saga narrates that Pechenegs ( Tyrkir ) with Blökumen " and a good many other nasty people " were involved in the disputes for the throne of Kievan Rus ' in 1019 . An 11th @-@ century runic inscription on a stone from Gotland narrates that a Varangian man was murdered " on a voyage abroad " by Blakumen . Both Blökumen and Blakumen may refer to Vlachs inhabiting the regions east of the Carpathians , although their translation to " black men " cannot be excluded . Graffiti depicting ships and dragons in Scandinavian style were found in the Basarabi Cave Complex at Murfatlar .
Large groups of Pechenegs pressured from the east by the Ouzes received asylum in the Byzantine Empire in 1046 and 1047 . All the same , Pecheneg populations remained in the regions north of the Lower Danube even thereafter . Some of them were admitted into the Kingdom of Hungary in the next decades , where they were settled in southern Transylvania and other regions .
= = = Byzantine revival and the Second Bulgarian Empire ( 970s – c . 1185 ) = = =
Around 971 , Emperor John I Tzimiskes established the theme or " district " of Paristrion in the territories occupied between the Balkan Mountains and the Lower Danube . Naval bases were built at Capidava , Noviodunum , and Păcuiul lui Soare on the river . Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the annexed territories often expressed their hostility towards imperial rule . Anna Comnena relates how local Vlachs showed " the way through the passes " of the Balkan Mountains to invading Cumans in 1094 . All the same , Vlachs served in the imperial army , for instance during an imperial campaign against the Kingdom of Hungary in 1166 . New taxes imposed by imperial authorities caused a rebellion of Vlachs and Bulgarians in 1185 , which led to the establishment of the Second Bulgarian Empire . The Vlachs ' eminent status within the new state is evidenced by the writings of Robert of Clari and other western authors , who refer either to the new state or to its mountainous regions as " Vlachia " until the 1250s .
= = = Kingdom of Hungary ( c . 1000 – 1241 ) = = =
Stephen I , the first crowned king of Hungary whose reign began in 1000 or 1001 , unified the Carpathian Basin . Around 1003 , he launched a campaign against " his maternal uncle , King Gyula " and occupied Transylvania . Stephen I later turned against Ahtum , " who had been baptised in the Orthodox faith in Vidin " , and conquered Banat . Hartvik , Stephen I 's hagiographer , wrote that the monarch " divided his territories in ten bishoprics " . In the territory of modern Romania , three Roman Catholic dioceses were established with their seats in Alba Iulia , Biharea ( from the last decades of the 11th century in Oradea ) , and Cenad .
Royal administration in the entire kingdom was based on counties organized around royal fortresses . In modern Romania 's territory , references to an ispán or count of Alba in 1097 , and to a count of Bihor in 1111 evidence the appearance of the county system . The counties in Banat and Crişana remained under direct royal authority , but a great officer of the realm , the voivode , supervised the ispáns of the Transylvanian counties from the end of the 12th century .
Eastward expansion of " Bijelo Brdo " villages along the Mureş continued in the 11th century . Cauldrons and huts with hearths carved into the soil were the characterizing items of the period . Nevertheless , semi @-@ sunken huts with stone ovens from Sfântu Gheorghe , Şimoneşti and other villages evidence the survival of the local population . The lands between the Carpathians and the Tisa were plundered by Pechenegs in the 1010s and in 1068 , by Ouzes in 1085 , and by Cumans in 1091 . Cluj , Dăbâca and other royal forts built of earth and timber were strengthened after the 1068 attack . In these forts appeared the so @-@ called " Citfalău cemeteries " , dependent upon late 11th @-@ century royal legislation forcing commoners to set up their graveyards around churches .
The early presence of Székelys at Tileagd in Crişana , and at Gârbova , Saschiz , and Sebeş in Transylvania is attested by royal charters . Székely groups from Gârbova , Saschiz , and Sebeş were moved around 1150 into the easternmost regions of Transylvania , when the monarchs granted these territories to new settlers arriving from Western Europe . The Székelys were organized into " seats " instead of counties , and a royal officer , the " Count of the Székelys " became the head of their community from the 1220s . The Székelys provided military services to the monarchs and remained exempt of royal taxes .
A great number of Flemish , German , and Walloon " guest settlers " arrived in Transylvania around 1150 . Wheel @-@ made fine vessels with analogies in Thuringia found at Şelimbăr demonstrate the advanced technology they introduced to their new home . An account of royal revenues from the 1190s shows that almost one @-@ tenth of all royal income derived from taxes they paid . In 1224 , King Andrew II granted collective privileges to those inhabiting the region between Orăștie and Baraolt . The Diploma Andreanum confirmed the custom of freely electing their priests and local leaders ; only the right to appoint the head of their community , the " Count of Sibiu " , was preserved for the monarchs . The Transylvanian Saxons — as they were collectively mentioned from the early 13th century — also received the right to " use the forests of the Romanians and the Pechenegs " along with these peoples .
The earliest royal charter referring to Romanians in Transylvania is connected to the foundation of the Cistercian abbey at Cârţa around 1202 , which was granted land , up to that time possessed by Romanians . Another royal charter reveals that Romanians fought in Bulgaria along with Saxons , Székelys and Pechenegs under the leadership of the Count of Sibiu in 1210 . The Orthodox Romanians remained exempt from the tithe payable by all Catholic peasants to the Church . Furthermore , they only paid a special in kind tax , the " fiftieth " on their herds .
Colonization continued with the arrival of the Teutonic Knights in Ţara Bârsei in 1211 . They were granted the right to freely pass through " the land of the Székelys and the land of the Vlachs " in 1222 . The knights tried to free themselves from the monarch 's authority , thus King Andrew II expelled them from the region in 1225 . Thereafter , the king appointed his heir , Béla , with the title of duke , to administer Transylvania . Duke Béla occupied Oltenia and set up a new province , the Banate of Severin , in the 1230s .
= = = Cumania : land of the Cumans ( c . 1060 – 1241 ) = = =
The arrival of the Cumans in the Lower Danube region was first recorded in 1055 . A 17th @-@ century version of the Turkic chronicle Oghuzname relates that Quipchaq , the ancient Cuman hero , fought against the Ulak ( Romanians ) , along with other nations . Cuman groups assisted the rebelling Bulgarians and Vlachs against the Byzantines between 1186 and 1197 .
" Dridu " villages of the lowlands east of the Carpathians were abandoned between 1050 and 1080 , around which time new settlements appeared on higher land on both banks of the Prut . A sharp decrease from 300 to 35 in the number of archaeological sites — settlements , cemeteries and coin hords — evidences a population decline which continued well into the 13th century . Byzantine troops marching towards Transylvania through the territory east of the Carpathians encountered " a land entirely bereft of men " in 1166 .
A coalition of Rus ' princes and Cuman tribes suffered a sound defeat by the Mongols in the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223 . Shortly thereafter Boricius , a Cuman chieftain , accepted baptism and the supremacy of the king of Hungary . The Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania was set up in his territories in 1228 . A letter of 1234 written by Pope Gregory IX refers to a " certain people within the Cuman bishopric called Walati " ( Vlachs ) who even persuaded Catholic Hungarians and Germans to accept the ecclesiastic authority of Orthodox prelates .
= = = Mongol invasion ( 1241 – 1242 ) = = =
The Mongols , who had decided to invade Europe in 1235 , attacked the Cumans in 1238 . Masses of Cumans sought refuge in Bulgaria and Hungary . The Mongols crossed the Carpathians in March 1241 , and soon afterwards they destroyed " the rich village of the Germans " ( Rodna ) , and took Bistrița , Cluj , and Oradea . Another Mongol army " proceeded by way of the Qara @-@ Ulagh " ( " Black Vlachs " ) , and defeated their leader named " Mishlav " . They also entered Transylvania , sacked Alba Iulia , Sibiu , the abbeys at Cârţa and Igriș , and Cenad .
The Mongol invasion lasted for a year , and the Mongols devastated huge swathes of territory of the kingdom before their unexpected withdrawal in 1242 . Matthew Paris and other contemporaneous scholars considered the Mongol invasion as a " sign of apocalypse " . Whole villages were destroyed , and many were never rebuilt . According to a royal charter of 1246 , Alba Iulia , Harina , Gilău , Mărişelu , Tășnad and Zalău were almost depopulated . Another charter from 1252 evidences that Zec a village on the Olt was totally deserted .
After the devastation of the region , they [ the Mongols ] surrounded the great village with a combined force of some Tatars together with Russians , Cumans and their Hungarian prisoners . They sent first the Hungarian prisoners ahead and when they were all slain , the Russians , the Ishmaelites , and Cumans went into battle . The Tatars , standing behind them all at the back , laughed at their plight and ruin and killed those who retreated from the battle and subjected as many as they could to their devouring swords , so that after fighting for a week , day and night , and filling up the moat , they captured the village . Then they made the soldiers and ladies , of whom there were many , stand in a field on one side and the peasants on the other . Having robbed them of their money , clothing and other goods , they cruelly executed them with axes and swords , leaving only some of the ladies and girls alive , whom they took for their entertainment .
= = Aftermath = =
A new period of intensive colonization began in Banat , Transylvania and other regions within the Kingdom of Hungary after the withdrawal of the Mongols . King Béla IV was also considering settling the Knights Hospitallers in the lands between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube . His diploma of 1247 for the Knights evidences the existence of four Romanian polities in the region . They were under the rule of voivodes Litovoi and Seneslau , and of knezes Farcaş and John .
Internal conflicts characterized the last decades of the 13th century in the Kingdom of Hungary . For instance , a feud between King Béla and his son , Stephen caused a civil war which lasted from 1261 to 1266 . Taking advantage of the emerging anarchy , Voivode Litovoi attempted to get rid of the Hungarian monarchs ' suzerainty in the 1270s , but he fell in a battle while fighting against royal troops . One of his successors , Basarab I of Wallachia was the first Romanian monarch whose sovereignty was internationally recognized after his victory over King Charles I of Hungary in the Battle of Posada of 1330 .
= Tilbury Fort =
Tilbury Fort , also known historically as the Thermitage Bulwark and the West Tilbury Blockhouse , is an artillery fort on the north bank of the River Thames in England . The earliest version of the fort , comprising a small blockhouse with artillery covering the river , was constructed by King Henry VIII to protect London against attack from France as part of his Device programme . It was reinforced during the 1588 Spanish Armada invasion scare , after which it was reinforced with earthwork bastion , and Parliamentary forces used it to help secure the capital during the English Civil War of the 1640s . Following naval raids during the Anglo @-@ Dutch Wars , the fort was enlarged by Sir Bernard de Gomme from 1670 onwards to form a star @-@ shaped defensive work , with angular bastions , water @-@ filled moats and two lines of guns facing onto the river .
In addition to protecting the Thames , in the 18th century Tilbury also began to be used a transit depot and for storing gunpowder . It continued to be essential for the defence of the capital and a new artillery battery was added in the south @-@ east corner during the Napoleonic Wars . The fort became increasingly less significant as a defensive structure , however , as military technology developed in the 19th century . It was redeveloped to hold heavy artillery after 1868 , providing a second @-@ line of defence along the river , but further changes in technology meant that it had become obsolete by the end of the century . Instead Tilbury became a strategic depot , forming a logistical hub for storing and moving troops and materiel throughout the First World War . The fort had only a limited role in the Second World War and was demobilised in 1950 .
Tilbury Fort is now operated by the heritage agency English Heritage as a tourist attraction , receiving 16 @,@ 154 visitors in 2014 . Many of the more modern military features were demolished during the 1950s , with further restoration work taking place during the 1970s ahead of the site opening to the public in 1983 . The 17th @-@ century defences are considered by the historian Paul Pattison to be the " best surviving example of their kind in Britain " , and the fort includes the only surviving early 18th century gunpowder magazines in Britain .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
The first permanent fortification at Tilbury in Essex was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Basic defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon , and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and he took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
The River Thames was strategically important , as the city of London and the newly constructed royal dockyards of Deptford and Woolwich were vulnerable to seaborne attacks arriving up the estuary , which was a major maritime route , carrying 80 percent of England 's exports . At the mouth of the estuary , the Thames narrowed considerably , forming a natural hub for communications : the " Long Ferry " took passengers into the capital , and the " Cross Ferry " moved traffic across the river . This was also the first point that an invasion force would be able to easily disembark along the Thames , as before this point the mudflats along the sides of the estuary would have made landings difficult . Temporary defences had been constructed at Tilbury as early as the 14th and 15th centuries , although little is known about their design .
Under the King 's new programme of work , the Thames was protected with a mutually reinforcing network of blockhouses at Gravesend , Milton , and Higham on the south side of the river , and West and East Tilbury on the opposite bank . West Tilbury Blockhouse , part of the inner line , was initially called the " Thermitage Bulwark " , because it was on the site of a hermitage dissolved by the King in 1536 . It was designed by James Nedeham and Christopher Morice , supported by three overseers ; prior to the work , the estimated cost had been given as £ 211 , allowing for stone , timber , 150 @,@ 000 bricks and 200 tonnes ( 200 long tons ; 220 short tons ) of chalk . The D @-@ shaped blockhouse was curved at the front , with two storeys of gun @-@ ports , and probably had additional gun platforms stretching along the river on either side of it ; ancillary buildings were placed at the rear and the whole site was protected by a rampart and a ditch , with extensive marshlands and creeks giving additional protection to the east . It was initially commanded by Captain Francis Grant and his deputy , and garrisoned with a porter , two soldiers and four gunners , equipped with up to five artillery pieces including a demi @-@ cannon and sakers .
The invasion threat passed and in 1553 all of the blockhouses were ordered to return their guns ; Milton and Higham were demolished . In the summer of 1588 , however , there was a fresh threat of invasion by the Spanish Armada . An army was mobilised to protect the mouth of the estuary and emergency improvements to the fortifications at Tilbury Blockhouse were made by Rober Dudley , the Earl of Leicester . Queen Elizabeth I visited the fort by barge on 8 August 1588 and rode in procession to the nearby army camp , where she gave a speech to the assembled forces . Fears of invasion continued even after the defeat of the Armada , and over the course of the next year the Italian engineer , Federigo Giambelli , reinforced the blockhouse with probably two concentric earthwork ramparts , with ditches and a palisade . A boom was stretched across the river to Gravesend at a cost of £ 305 .
= = = 17th century = = =
In the early 1600s , England was at peace with France and Spain and as a result the coastal defences received little attention ; surveys reported multiple problems with Tilbury Fort including flooding caused by the estuary tides , and ferry passengers and animals making their way uninvited into the fort . In 1642 civil war broke out between the supporters of King Charles I and those of Parliament . Tilbury was controlled by Parliament , who placed the Tilbury and Gravesend forts under the command of a military governor , using them to control traffic entering London and to search for spies ; it saw no military action during the war . Tilbury remained in use during the interregnum , having a garrison of three officers and sixty @-@ six men in 1651 .
After Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 , he began a wide @-@ ranging programme of work on the coastal defences . The Dutch fleet then attacked up the Thames in June 1667 , but were deterred from going further for fear of the Tilbury and Gravesend fortifications . In reality , the forts were poorly prepared to resist a Dutch attack ; at Tilbury there were only two guns ready for action . The Dutch struck the English fleet at Medway instead , giving enough time for the government to improve the defences along the Thames and mount 80 guns on the forts . In the wake of the conflict , the King instructed his Chief Engineer , a Dutchman called Sir Bernard de Gomme , to develop Tilbury Fort 's defences further .
De Gomme prepared several plans for the King in 1665 ; a further iteration of the designs was submitted in 1670 and given royal approval . Work began the same year butit took until 1685 to complete the project . The work was carried out by skilled contractors , who were supplemented by large teams of pressed men brought in from across the region ; during 1671 , up to 256 workers were employed on the site . Around 3 @,@ 000 timber piles had to be brought from Norway for the project in 1671 to support the foundations in the marshy ground . The resources needed for the King 's multiple defence projects became stretched , and one of the planned bastions at Tilbury , originally planned to face the river , was cancelled in 1681 , in part to save money . The total cost of the project is unknown , but was significantly more than the original estimate of £ 47 @,@ 000 .
The result was a large , five @-@ sided , star @-@ shaped fort with four angular bastions , revetted in brick , with an outer curtain of defences , including two moats and a redoubt ; two new gatehouses defended the entrance from the north . Two gun lines of gun platforms , facing the river , stretched alongside either the side of the fort . The Henrician blockhouse was incorporated into the defences , but the Elizabethan earthworks were destroyed . The interior of the fort was raised up above the level of the marshes to prevent flooding , and barracks and other buildings were constructed inside . The writer John Evelyn praised the new fort as " a Royal work indeede " . Further work after 1694 replaced the wooden gun platforms alongside the river with more durable stone equivalents .
= = = 18th – 19th centuries = = =
By the start of the 18th century , Tilbury Fort was one of the most powerful in Britain . The number of artillery guns varied ; in 1715 there were 17 demi @-@ cannon and 26 culverins mounted on the west gun platform , and 31 demi @-@ cannons and one culverin on the east ; the following year there were reported to be 161 guns in total at the fort , although 92 of these were in poor repair and inoperable .
In addition to its role in protecting the Thames , the fort had various military uses during the 18th century . From 1716 onwards , the Board of Ordnance began to use it as a gunpowder depot ; there were safety restrictions on moving gunpowder in and out of the London docks , so Tilbury was used instead . Two large magazines were built , able to hold 3 @,@ 600 barrels of powder each , and the old blockhouse and other buildings were converted to act as further magazines . Eventually the fort could hold more than 19 @,@ 000 barrels of gunpowder . It was also used as a transit depot for soldiers and , after the Jacobite rising of 1745 , as a prison to hold 268 Highlander prisoners of war . The Jacobite prisoners were kept in the gunpowder magazines and 45 died from typhus before they were sent on to London for trial .
The living conditions at the fort were poor . It was surrounded by marshes , with a poor road network , and the garrison had to survive on collected rainwater . A trader called a sutler built a house inside the southern entrance , growing vegetables within the south @-@ west bastion and enjoying an effective monopoly on selling food to the soldiers . New barracks for the officers and enlisted men were rebuilt in 1772 , but the officers often preferred to live across the river in the more urban setting of Gravesend , near the military headquarters there . A cricket match in 1776 between men from the Kentish and Essex sides of the Thames reportedly ended in bloodshed when guns were seized from the guardroom ; newspapers recounted how an Essex man and a sergeant were shot dead , and a soldier was bayonetted , before both sides fled the scene . It is uncertain how accurate the newspaper account was , although the historians Andrew Saunders and Charles Kightly give it some credence .
During the American Revolutionary War there were fears of a French attack on London . In 1780 , the Army carried out a practice attack on the fort with 5 @,@ 000 soldiers , but there were less than 60 guns left at the fort and many of these were in poor condition . Thomas Hyde Page inspected Tilbury in 1788 and reported that the defences facing the Thames were seriously inadequate . As a consequence , a new battery was built in the south @-@ east corner of the defences , armed with 32 @-@ pounders ( 14 @.@ 5 kg ) pointing down @-@ river , and a new battery , New Tavern Fort , was built along the river to the east . Fears continued during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and smaller batteries were constructed further up the river in 1794 . Tilbury continued to be an essential part of the capital 's defences because of its control of the crossing point on the Thames , and the guns were upgraded with new traversing platforms ; the Gravesend Volunteer Artillery was formed to man the forts on both sides of the river . During the invasion scare of 1803 , the Royal Trinity House Volunteer Artillery manned ten armed hulks placed across the river as a barrier at Tilbury .
The size of the garrison varied during the first half of the century , but in 1830 the fort had space for 15 officers and 150 enlisted men . Despite the construction of a new range of facilities in 1809 , the living conditions of the soldiers remained poor , with four men sharing each of the two @-@ bed rooms in the barracks , and no running water on the site . During the 19th century , a pump was installed to bring water up from a well 178 metres ( 584 ft ) below the surface . Nationwide investigations into the standard of Army barracks during 1857 led to investment in better facilities at Tilbury ; piped water was run into the site in 1877 , and improved amenities and sanitation were installed after 1880 .
By the 1850s , the advent of steam ships meant that enemy vessels could sail up the Thames far more quickly than before , reducing the time available for forts to intercept them . Rifled guns and turret @-@ mounted weapons and new armour @-@ plating meant that enemy warships could fire on forts such as Tilbury from downstream more easily while being protected from their guns . Fears of an potential invasion by Napoleon III of France led to the establishment Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom in 1859 . The Commission reported the following year and recommended that new , more powerful forts be built further downstream , with defences such as Tilbury Fort forming a second @-@ line of defence . Work began on strengthening Tilbury in 1868 , under the direction of the then Captain Charles Gordon , focusing on adding heavier gun positions able to fire upstream to support the new forts . The west , north @-@ east and east bastions and the south @-@ east curtain wall were altered to house thirteen rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns , protected by brick walls , earthworks and iron shields . Initially 7 @-@ ton , 7 @-@ inch ( 7 @,@ 112 kg , 17 cm ) guns were deployed but these were upgraded to 9 @-@ inch ( ( 22 cm ) weapons by 1888 , supported by a heavier 25 @-@ ton , 11 @-@ inch ( 25 @,@ 401 kg , 27 cm ) gun . The old Tudor block @-@ house was destroyed to make way for the new guns .
Naval and defensive technology continued to improve over the next few decades , rendering Tilbury Fort 's bastion design out @-@ moded . The government considered the defences further down the Thames to be sufficient and Tilbury was not therefore not improved ; it was largely redundant as a defensive fortification by the end of the century , although still in use as a strategic depot . From 1889 onwards it formed a mobilisation centre to support a mobile strike force in the event of an invasion , part of the wider London Defence Scheme , and large storage buildings were built across the site to store materiel .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
Fresh concerns grew that the Thames might be vulnerable to attack from torpedo boats and armoured cruisers , and in 1903 four quick @-@ firing 12 @-@ pounder , 12 cwt ( 5 @.@ 4 kg , 50 @.@ 8 kg ) guns were positioned on Tilbury 's south @-@ east curtain wall , supplemented in 1904 by two 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) breech loading guns . In 1905 , however , the government decided that the Royal Navy and the forts downstream gave sufficient protection for the capital and removed the artillery , leaving only machine @-@ guns in place .
Tilbury continued to function as a mobilisation store and , after the outbreak of the First World War , it was used to house up to 30
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The first few meters of this tunnel were roofed and floored with red granite . The tunnel was blocked by two large portcullis of red granite , the first one still having traces of the gypsum plaster used to seal the portcullis .
Behind the granite barrier the corridor branches eastward to a T @-@ shaped magazine chamber which probably contained Userkaf 's funerary equipment . The presence of such a magazine chamber , located under the base of a pyramid , is unique of all the 5th and 6th dynasty pyramids .
At the south end of corridor lies an antechamber , which is located directly under the tip of the pyramid . The antechamber is oriented on the east @-@ west axis and leads west to the king 's burial chamber . The burial chamber has the same height and width as the antechamber , but is longer . At the western end of the burial chamber Perring discovered some fragments of an empty and undercorated black basalt sarcophagus which had been originally placed in a slight depression as well as a canopic chest . The chambers are protected from the pyramid weight by a gabled ceiling made of two large Tura limestone blocks , an architecture common to all pyramids of the 5th and 6th dynasties . The chambers are lined with the same material , while the floor pavement was lost to stone robbers .
= = Pyramid complex of Queen Neferhetepes = =
It was common for Old Kingdom pharaohs to prepare the burials of their family close to theirs and Userkaf followed this tradition . Thus 10 metres ( 33 ft ) to the south of his funerary enclosure , Userkaf had a small separate pyramid complex built for his queen on an east @-@ west axis . The pyramid is completely ruined and only a small mound of rubble can be seen today .
= = = Discovery = = =
The pyramid of the queen was first recognized in 1928 by C. M. Firth following his first excavations to the south of Userkaf 's main pyramid . One year later in 1929 , he proposed that the pyramid be assigned to Queen Neferhetepes , Userkaf 's wife and the mother of Sahure . It was not before 1943 that Bernard Grdseloff discovered the tomb of Persen , a priest at the court of Userkaf and Neferhetepes . His tomb is located in the immediate vicinity of Userkaf 's complex and yielded an inscribed stone giving the name and rank of the queen . This stone is now on display at the Egyptian Museum of Berlin . Further evidence confirming the assignment of the pyramid to Neferhetepes was discovered by Audran Labrousse in 1979 when he excavated the ruins of the temple . Consequently , the small pyramid complex has been attributed to her .
= = = Pyramid = = =
The queen 's pyramid originally stood 16 @.@ 8 metres ( 55 ft ) high with a slope of 52 ° , similar to that of Userkaf 's , with a base 26 @.@ 25 metres ( 86 @.@ 1 ft ) long . The core of the pyramid was built with the same technique as the main pyramid and the cult pyramid , consisting of three horizontal layers of roughly hewn local limestone blocks and gypsum mortar . The core was undoubtedly covered with a fine Tura limestone outer casing , now removed . In fact , the pyramid was so extensively used as a stone quarry in later times that it is now barely distinguishable from the surroundings and its internal chambers are exposed .
The entrance to the substructure is located on the pyramid 's northern side and consists of a descending passage leading to a T @-@ shaped chamber . This chamber was located under the tip of the pyramid and is oriented on an east @-@ west axis like the rest of the queen 's pyramid complex . It has a pented roof made of large limestone blocks , a construction technique common to all pyramid chambers of the 5th dynasty . The substructure is thus a scaled @-@ down version of Userkaf 's without the magazines .
= = = Mortuary Temple = = =
The queen 's pyramid complex had its own separate mortuary temple , which was located on the east of the pyramid in contrast to Userkaf 's complex . This difference may be explained by the small dimensions of the temple which allowed it to be oriented to the east in the usual fashion . Access to the temple was located in the south @-@ east corner of the enclosure wall . The entrance led to an open courtyard that stretched from east to west . The ritual cleaning and preparation of the offerings took place here . Because of the extensive degradation suffered by the temple , reconstruction attempts are somewhat speculative . From the ruins , archaeologists propose that the temple comprised an open colonnade , possibly made of granite , a sacrificial chapel adjoining the pyramid side , three statue niches and a few magazine chambers . No traces of a cult pyramid were found onsite . In the halls of the temple were depictions of animal processions and offerings carriers moving towards the Shrine of the Queen .
= = Later alterations = =
The pyramid of Userkaf was apparently the object of restoration work in antiquity under the impulse of Khaemweset ( 1280 – 1225 BC ) , fourth son of Ramses II . This is attested by inscriptions on stone cladding showing Khaemweset with offering bearers .
During the 26th Dynasty ( c . 685 @-@ 525 BC ) Userkaf 's temple had become a burial ground : a large shaft tomb was dug in its midst thus rendering modern reconstruction of its layout difficult . This indicates that by the time of the Saite period , Userkaf 's temple was already in ruins .
= Kurt Angle =
Kurt Steven Angle ( born December 9 , 1968 ) is an American professional wrestler , actor , former mixed martial artist and retired amateur wrestler . While at Clarion University of Pennsylvania , he won numerous accolades , including being a two @-@ time National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I Heavyweight Wrestling Champion . After graduating college , Angle won a gold medal in freestyle wrestling at the 1995 World Wrestling Championships . He then won a freestyle wrestling gold medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics . Angle is one of only four people to complete an amateur wrestling Grand Slam ( junior nationals , NCAA , World Championships , Olympics ) . In 2006 , he was named by USA Wrestling as the greatest shoot wrestler ever and one of the top 15 college wrestlers of all time . He was inducted into the International Sports Hall of Fame in 2016 for his amateur accomplishments .
Angle made his first appearance at a professional wrestling event in 1996 , with his in @-@ ring debut following in 1998 . In 1999 , he signed a multi @-@ year contract with then World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) and participated in his first televised storyline in March . After months of unaired matches , Angle made his official debut the following November and received his first major push in the company in February 2000 , when he held the European Championship and the Intercontinental Championship simultaneously . Four months later , he won the King of the Ring tournament , and not long after , began pursuing the WWF Championship , which he won in October ; this capped off a rookie year which is considered by many to be the greatest in professional wrestling history . Throughout his tenure in the WWF / E , Angle was a six @-@ time world champion ( four @-@ time WWF / E Champion , one @-@ time World Heavyweight Champion , and one @-@ time WCW Champion ) , a one @-@ time United States Champion , one @-@ time Intercontinental Champion , one @-@ time European Champion and one @-@ time WWE Tag Team Champion . He is the tenth Triple Crown Champion and the fifth Grand Slam Champion in WWE history .
After leaving WWE , Angle joined Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , where he became a record six @-@ time TNA World Heavyweight Champion , a two @-@ time TNA World Tag Team Champion , and a one @-@ time TNA X Division Champion . He is the second Triple Crown winner in TNA history and the only one to hold all the required titles at once . As a part of TNA , Angle also made appearances for New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) and the Inoki Genome Federation ( IGF ) , where he held the IWGP Heavyweight Championship once .
Between WWF / E , TNA , and Japan , Angle has won 13 world championships and 21 total championships . He is the only professional wrestler in history to have won the WWE , World heavyweight , WCW , TNA , and IWGP world championships . Angle is also a two @-@ time King of the Mountain and a one @-@ time King of the Ring , making him the only person to have been both King of the Ring ( WWF ) and King of the Mountain ( TNA ) . In 2010 , Wrestling Observer Newsletter named Angle the Wrestler of the Decade for the 2000s , and in 2013 , he was inducted into the TNA Hall of Fame . He has headlined numerous pay @-@ per @-@ view events for both WWF / E and TNA throughout his career , including the flagship event for both promotions : WrestleMania in WWF / E , and Bound for Glory in TNA .
= = Amateur wrestling career = =
Angle started amateur wrestling at the age of seven . He attended Mt . Lebanon High School , where he won varsity letters in football and wrestling and was an All @-@ State linebacker . He went undefeated on the freshman wrestling team at Mt . Lebanon High and qualified for the state wrestling tournament his sophomore year . Angle also placed third in the state wrestling tournament as a junior and was the 1987 Pennsylvania State Wrestling Champion as a senior .
Upon graduating from high school , Angle attended the Clarion University of Pennsylvania , where he continued to wrestle at an amateur level . He was a two @-@ time National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I champion , national runner @-@ up in 1991 , and a three @-@ time NCAA Division I All @-@ American . In addition , Angle was the 1987 USA Junior Freestyle champion , a two @-@ time USA Senior Freestyle champion , and the 1988 USA International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles Junior World Freestyle champion .
After graduating from college , Angle continued to wrestle . In 1995 , he won a gold medal at the FILA Wrestling World Championships in Atlanta , Georgia . Following this victory , Angle began preparing for the 1996 Summer Olympics under Dave Schultz at the Pennsylvanian Foxcatcher Club , training between eight and ten hours a day . In January 1996 , not long after Angle began training at the club , Schultz was murdered by John Eleuthère du Pont , the sponsor of Schultz 's team of Olympic prospectives . As a result , Angle quit du Pont 's team , searched for new sponsors , and joined the Dave Schultz Wrestling Club in Schultz 's memory .
Angle faced further hardships while taking part in the 1996 Olympic Trials , when he suffered a severe neck injury , fracturing two of his cervical vertebrae , herniating two discs , and pulling four muscles . Nonetheless , Angle won the trials and then spent the subsequent five months resting and rehabilitating . By the Olympics , Angle was able to compete , albeit with several pain @-@ reducing injections in his neck . In the fall of 1996 , Angle stated that he temporarily became addicted to the analgesic Vicodin after injuring his neck . He won his gold medal in the heavyweight ( 90 – 100 kg ; 198 – 220 lb ) weight class despite his injury , defeating the Iranian Abbas Jadidi by officials ' decision after the competitors wrestled to an eight @-@ minute , one @-@ one draw . The bout saw Jadidi earn a point after two minutes and 46 seconds by turning Angle , and Angle earning a point of his own with a takedown after three minutes and eleven seconds . The officials ' decision was protested by Jadidi . Angle dedicated the victory to Schultz 's honor .
Shortly after his victory , Angle turned down a contract with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . In the same year , he became a marketing representative for Protos Foods , the manufacturers of OSTRIM , an ostrich meat based foodstuff .
In April 2011 , Angle revealed that he was planning a comeback to amateur wrestling for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . In April 2012 , he announced he was unable to make the trials for the US team due to a knee injury . A parody of these efforts entitled " Olympic Trials With Kurt Angle " appeared on the website Funny or Die .
In 2016 , Angle was announced as an inductee into the International Sports Hall of Fame for his amateur wrestling accomplishments .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Extreme Championship Wrestling ( 1996 ) = = =
On October 26 , 1996 , Angle was convinced by fellow Pittsburgh native Shane Douglas to attend the taping of an Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) event named High Incident . He gave an in @-@ ring interview and provided guest commentary during a match between Taz and Little Guido , but left the building after Raven " crucified " a bleeding Sandman by attaching him to a cross using barbed wire . Angle , shocked by the controversial imagery and afraid that his career prospects would be damaged if he was associated with the incident , threatened to sue ECW owner Paul Heyman if he was shown on television in the same broadcast as the stunt .
= = = National Wrestling Alliance ( 1998 ) = = =
Angle competed in a battle royal at the NWA 's 50th Anniversary Show , held on October 24 , 1998 at the Hilton Hotel in Cherry Hill , New Jersey .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment = = =
= = = = Eurocontinental Champion ( 1998 – 2000 ) = = = =
In October 1998 , Angle signed an eight @-@ year contract with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . He was assigned to the Power Pro Wrestling developmental territory in Memphis , Tennessee , where he began training . Angle 's first appearance on WWF television was on the March 7 , 1999 episode of Sunday Night Heat , where he took part in an angle with Tiger Ali Singh . This angle involved Singh paying him money to blow his nose on the American flag . Angle instead blew his nose on Singh 's flag and fought him off . His first WWF match was a dark match victory over Brian Christopher on April 11 , 1999 . In the following months , he wrestled in house shows and other dark matches in preparation for his televised debut .
After several weeks of vignettes , Angle made his televised in @-@ ring debut on November 14 , 1999 at the Survivor Series at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit , Michigan , defeating Shawn Stasiak . In his initial push , he remained undefeated for several weeks , eventually losing to the debuting Tazz by passing out at the Royal Rumble . Angle 's television character was an " American hero " gimmick based on his gold medal win at the 1996 Summer Olympics . In his promos , Angle presented himself as a role model and stressed the need to work hard to realize one 's dreams , stressing the 3 Is , " Intensity , Integrity , and Intelligence " . In his promos and ring entrances , Angle would always wear replicas of his gold medals around his neck . While he stood for many principles that are associated with " good guy " wrestlers , Angle 's character put an arrogant spin on them to act as a villain , talking down to the audience and behaving as if he thought he was better than the fans and fellow wrestlers , usually taunting them with the question of , " Where are your gold medals ? " . Angle won both the European Championship and the Intercontinental Championship in February 2000 , billing himself as the " Eurocontinental Champion " . He dropped both of his titles without ever conceding a fall in a two falls Triple Threat match with Chris Benoit and Chris Jericho at WrestleMania 2000 . The match had been agreed to on Angle 's behalf by his mentor , Bob Backlund .
= = = = WWF Champion ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = = =
Throughout mid @-@ 2000 , after aligning himself with Edge & Christian , " Team ECK " ( Edge , Christian , and Kurt ) feuded with Too Cool and Rikishi , with Angle defeating Rikishi in the finals of the King of the Ring tournament . He went on to feud with Triple H after a love triangle between them and Triple H 's wife , Stephanie McMahon , developed . As a change to the intended storyline of Stephanie turning on her husband and going with Angle , he lost to Triple H at Unforgiven . Following his feud with Triple H , Angle received another push and began pursuing the WWF Championship , defeating The Rock at No Mercy , after botched interference on The Rock 's behalf from Rikishi . With his victory over The Rock , Angle became the first wrestler to have won both an Olympic Gold medal and the world championship . Angle retained the WWF Championship for the rest of the year in matches with The Undertaker at Survivor Series and in a six @-@ man Hell in a Cell match at Armageddon .
After beating Triple H at the Royal Rumble , Angle eventually lost the title to The Rock at No Way Out , after holding the WWF Championship for four months . He then feuded with Chris Benoit whom he defeated at WrestleMania X @-@ Seven , but lost to him at Backlash in an Ultimate Submission match ; Benoit defeated Angle four falls to three in sudden @-@ death overtime . Continuing the feud , Angle again defeated Benoit in a two out of three falls match at Judgment Day . Benoit pinned Angle after an Angle Slam in a " Pinfalls Only " fall , and then Angle made Benoit submit with the ankle lock in the " Submissions Only " fall . Angle won the third fall , a ladder match , with the help of Edge and Christian .
= = = = The Invasion and Grand Slam Champion ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = = =
When World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) and ECW were purchased by WWF , the wrestlers from both promotions joined and formed The Alliance and invaded the WWF in mid @-@ 2001 ( dubbed as " The Invasion " ) . As a result , Angle became a fan favorite and began a storyline where he joined forces with WWF Champion Stone Cold Steve Austin to repel them . At Invasion , Angle and Austin captained a team of five WWF superstars against five handpicked members of the Alliance . As part of the angle , Team WWF lost to Team Alliance when Austin turned on his team to join The Alliance . At the close of the match , Austin nailed Angle with a Stone Cold Stunner , causing him to get pinned by the other team . After winning and losing the WCW Championship , WCW United States Championship , and the WWF Hardcore Championship in matches with Alliance members , Angle was booked to defeat Austin in a SummerSlam rematch for his second WWF Championship at Unforgiven . He dropped the title back to Austin on the October 8 , 2001 , episode of Raw when WWF Commissioner William Regal joined The Alliance and cost Angle the match . As part of the storyline , Angle subsequently turned into a villain again and joined The Alliance himself ; during a WrestleMania X @-@ Seven rematch between Vince McMahon and Shane McMahon , he interfered seemingly to aid Vince , but instead struck the members of team WWF with a steel chair . Angle , however , ultimately returned to the WWF side by enabling The Rock to defeat Austin in a " Winner Takes All " match between the WWF and The Alliance at Survivor Series . He remained a villain by claiming sole responsibility for the destruction of The Alliance .
After dropping the WCW United States Championship to Edge , the duo were booked into a lengthy feud . During this feud , Edge helped the fans with the already started " you suck " chants every time Angle entered a WWE ring , usually in tune with Angle 's entrance music . The chants followed Angle throughout the rest of his WWE career . In the course of the feud , the naturally balding Angle lost a " hair versus hair " match to Edge at Judgment Day , and his head was shaved bald . Angle has retained the shaved head since . Following the loss of his hair , Angle 's storyline called for him to wear a wig and insult bald people , leading to a feud with Hollywood Hogan , who stripped Angle of his wig . Angle later scored a submission victory over Hogan at King of the Ring , making him the first wrestler in WWE history to win a submission from Hogan . During 2002 , Angle routinely held open invitation challenges on Smackdown ! . Accepting one of these challenges , John Cena made his WWE televised debut , losing to Angle after a roll @-@ up pin .
In October 2002 , Angle became the fifth WWE Grand Slam Championship winner when he won the WWE Tag Team Championship with Chris Benoit at No Mercy . Their team was successful but problematic , as the two bickered constantly , with Benoit often fed up with Angle 's over @-@ the @-@ top antics . After dropping the title to Edge and Rey Mysterio on an episode of SmackDown ! , Angle won his third WWE Championship at Armageddon , defeating Big Show with the help of Brock Lesnar . While still in his third reign , Angle began a new storyline when he gained the services of manager Paul Heyman and " Team Angle " .
= = = = Championship reigns and pursuits ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = = =
He then began feuding with Brock Lesnar , who had won the 2003 Royal Rumble match , after he claimed to be the new top superstar on SmackDown ! . Angle lost the WWE Championship in the main event of WrestleMania XIX to Lesnar , due to needing time off to recuperate from injuries .
On April 11 , 2003 , Angle underwent neck surgery performed by Dr. Hae @-@ Dong Jho to repair nerve and spinal damage , calcium buildup , bone spurs , and intervertebral disc problems . Rather than have Dr. Jho remove the afflicted discs and fuse his vertebrae together , Angle opted for a less conventional surgery where Jho removed only the spurs and selected portions of the discs . The alternative surgery reduced Angle 's rehabilitation time from one year to three months . He returned as a face character in June . Shortly after returning , Angle defeated Lesnar and Big Show in a Triple Threat match at Vengeance to regain the WWE Championship . During this time , Lesnar seemed to become an ally to Angle . Lesnar , however , secretly worked with Vince McMahon on a plot against Angle , turning on him during a steel cage match between himself and McMahon in which Angle was the special guest referee , and stated that he never tolerated losing the belt to him at Vengeance . After retaining the title in a singles bout at SummerSlam by making Lesnar submit to the ankle lock , he dropped the title to Lesnar in an Iron Man match on an episode of SmackDown ! . Angle then formed a five @-@ man team to rival Lesnar 's team at the Survivor Series , with Angle 's team coming out victorious .
Angle then got involved in a feud with Eddie Guerrero . Initially being a firm friend and ally to Eddie during the latter 's feud with his nephew Chavo , Angle turned on him when it was announced that Guerrero , not Angle , was the number one contender for the WWE Championship , thus becoming a villain once again . At No Way Out , Guerrero defeated Lesnar to win the WWE Championship , and Angle won a match to become the new number one contender . After losing to Guerrero at WrestleMania XX , Angle began to once again suffer from legitimate neck problems . As a response , he was made the on @-@ screen General Manager of SmackDown ! , with his absence from the ring attributed to injuries suffered after Big Show chokeslammed him off a ledge . Angle continued his feud with Guerrero throughout 2004 . He cost Guerrero the WWE Championship against John " Bradshaw " Layfield in a Texas Bull Rope match at The Great American Bash by participating in the worked finish ; Angle came down to the ring and showed a replay where JBL 's shoulder hit the corner pad before Guerrero 's hand . Angle was later fired by Vince McMahon as General Manager in July 2004 , after discovering that he was faking his handicapped status .
In November 2004 , Angle initiated the Kurt Angle Invitational , a worked weekly segment where " hometown heroes " ( plants ) , challenged him to a match , with Angle promising to give his Olympic gold medal to the first person to last more than three minutes in the ring with him . The Invitational was won by Eugene in July 2005 starting a new angle for both men . As a result , Angle faced Eugene at SummerSlam , defeating him by making him submit to the ankle lock .
On the November 4 , 2004 , episode of SmackDown ! , taped in St. Louis , Missouri , during an unscripted segment of Tough Enough , Angle challenged the finalists to a squat thrust competition . Chris Nawrocki won the competition , and the prize Nawrocki won was a match against Angle . Angle quickly took Nawrocki down , breaking his ribs , then made him submit with a neck crank . After Angle defeated Nawrocki , Angle challenged the other finalists . Daniel Puder , an American professional mixed martial artist , accepted Angle 's challenge . Angle and Puder wrestled for position , with Angle taking Puder down , however , in the process , Puder locked Angle in a kimura lock . With Puder on his back and Angle 's arm locked in the kimura , Angle pushed Puder 's shoulders down , pinning him and one of two referees in the ring , Jim Korderas , quickly counted three to end the bout , despite the fact that Puder 's shoulders were not fully down on the mat , bridging up at two . Puder later claimed he would have snapped Angle 's arm on national television if Korderas had not ended the match . Dave Meltzer and Dave Scherer gave these following comments :
" It was real . If you don 't follow fighting , Puder had Angle locked in the Kimura , or keylock as Tazz called it , although Tazz didn 't let on the move was fully executed . Not only was Angle not getting out of the move , but most MMA fighters would have tapped already . Angle couldn 't tap for obvious reasons . The ref counted a three even though Puder 's shoulders weren 't fully down , trying to end the thing , because the reality was Angle would have been in surgery had it gone a few seconds longer or had Puder not given up the hold " . ― Dave Meltzer
" As you would expect , Kurt Angle was less than happy backstage at Smackdown after almost being forced to tap out to Tough Enough contestant Daniel Puder . Downright ticked off would probably be the best way to describe his mood . The unscripted nature of the contest was the main reason that Angle was made to look so bad since Puder just reacted to the situation and could have forced Angle to submit had the referees not thought quickly and counted a pin that wasn ’ t there on Puder " . ― Dave Scherer
= = = = The Wrestling Machine and departure ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
In January 2005 , Angle took part in the Royal Rumble , but was eliminated by Shawn Michaels , who had returned to the ring to eliminate in retaliation . After mocking Michaels by defeating his former tag team partner , Marty Jannetty , and attacking former manager , Sherri Martel , Angle defeated Michaels in an interpromotional match at WrestleMania 21 , which won the Pro Wrestling Illustrated ( PWI ) Match of the Year award . He continued to feud with Michaels upon being drafted from SmackDown ! to Raw in the 2005 WWE draft lottery , losing to Michaels at Vengeance . On the July 25 , 2005 episode of Raw , Eugene took part in the " Kurt Angle Invitational " challenge . Eugene defeated Angle , winning his cherished Olympic gold medal ( per match stipulation ) , and starting a feud between the two . The feud culminated at SummerSlam , where Angle defeated Eugene to regain his medal . Angle later feuded with John Cena for the WWE Championship . He would challenge Cena at Unforgiven , but won by DQ , therefore not winning the title . He would face Shawn Michaels and Cena in a Triple Threat match at Taboo Tuesday but did not win , and would then unsuccessfully challenge Cena at Survivor Series .
In early January 2006 , Angle returned to the SmackDown ! brand as a surprise entrant in a twenty @-@ man battle royal for the vacant World Heavyweight Championship . Angle won by last eliminating Mark Henry , turning face in the process for the first time since 2004 . He retained the title against Henry at the Royal Rumble . Shortly after the match , The Undertaker made his return and challenged Angle for the title . At No Way Out , Angle retained the title against Undertaker after a controversial finish where Angle pinned Taker while locked in a triangle choke . As a result , Undertaker challenged Angle to a rematch on the March 3 episode of SmackDown ! , where Angle won by disqualification after Mark Henry interfered and attacked Undertaker . This ensured that Angle would go to WrestleMania 22 as champion . Angle then began a three way feud with 2006 Royal Rumble winner Rey Mysterio and Randy Orton ( who defeated Mysterio at No Way Out to gain entrance to the SmackDown main event at WrestleMania ) . At WrestleMania , Angle indirectly dropped the title to Mysterio in the Triple Threat match after Mysterio pinned Orton .
On May 29 , 2006 , Angle was drafted to the newly created ECW brand . It was during this time that he acquired the nickname " The Wrestling Machine " , wearing a mouth guard and quickly squashing opponents . Upon coming to ECW , he issued an open challenge for One Night Stand , which was accepted by Randy Orton . Angle defeated Orton at One Night Stand , later losing to him in a rematch at Vengeance . Angle appeared sporadically on WWE television throughout mid @-@ 2006 . On August 25 , 2006 , Angle was granted an early release from his WWE contract because of health reasons . Angle stated in the Kurt Angle : Champion documentary DVD that he asked for his release from WWE because he could not take time off and was working hurt , severely on some occasions . He also states that when he quit , WWE lost their top talent , as he was at the very top of the payroll . Angle wrestled his last match at an ECW taping on August 8 , against Sabu .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling = = =
= = = = Championship reigns ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
Angle then went on to sign a contract with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . The new signing was viewed by some as a promotion not having concern for the health of a wrestler . On September 24 , 2006 , during the closing segment of No Surrender , TNA President Dixie Carter announced that TNA Wrestling had signed Angle to a contract , with Jim Cornette introducing video footage of Angle training in a six @-@ sided TNA ring . On the December 28 , 2006 , episode of TNA Impact ! , this was announced as the " Moment of the Year " for TNA .
Angle made his TNA debut on October 19 , confronting Samoa Joe after Joe refused to relinquish the NWA World Heavyweight Championship belt that , according to the storyline , he had stolen from Jeff Jarrett . The two men ended up fighting while Jarrett took the title back . Angle was then the special enforcer for the Title vs. Career match between Jarrett and Sting at Bound for Glory , but , as part of the worked finish , he took out referee Rudy Charles and assumed the referee 's role for the rest of the match @-@ up . Angle 's first match in TNA took place on the November 16 airing of Impact ! , where he was booked to defeat Abyss with the ankle lock and be attacked after the match by Samoa Joe . At Genesis , Angle defeated Samoa Joe , ending Joe 's undefeated push .
At Final Resolution , Angle was booked to defeat Samoa Joe in a thirty @-@ minute Iron Man match 3 – 2 to earn a shot at the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at Against All Odds , which he lost to Christian Cage after interference from Tomko and Scott Steiner . This led to a feud between Angle and Steiner , with Angle pinning Steiner at Destination X. After Angle defeated Steiner , he was picked to lead a team of four other wrestlers against a team of Christian Cage 's choice in a Lethal Lockdown match at April 's Lockdown . Angle chose Samoa Joe , Rhino , Sting , and Jeff Jarrett for Team Angle , while Cage chose A.J. Styles , Scott Steiner , Tomko , and Abyss . The man who gained the winning pinfall would become the number one contender to Christian Cage 's NWA World Heavyweight Championship . Team Angle was victorious after Jeff Jarrett hit Abyss with a gimmicked guitar full of thumbtacks and allowed Sting to score the pin . Cage was set to defend the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Sting and Angle in a triple threat match at Sacrifice . The day of the PPV , the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) , the owners of the NWA World Heavyweight and the NWA World Tag Team Championships , stripped Cage of the title and Team 3D of the tag team title . NWA Executive Director Robert K. Trobich stated the reason was that Cage refused to defend the NWA Title at NWA live events . At the PPV event , Cage , still holding the physical NWA Championship belt , defended what was billed as the " World Heavyweight Championship " against Angle and Sting . Angle was the victor of said contest by making Sting submit , who had technically just pinned Cage , and was announced as the new " World Heavyweight Champion " . The Impact ! following the event , Angle came to the ring with a new championship belt , and announced he was the new " TNA World Heavyweight Champion " . Afterward , Cage and Sting came to the ring and the three began to argue over who was the new TNA World Heavyweight Champion . Due to the controversial finish to their match at Sacrifice , the title was declared vacant by Cornette . A tournament was held for the title which culminated in a King of the Mountain match at Slammiversary on June 17 , 2007 . At the event , Angle became the TNA World Heavyweight Champion by defeating Cage , Samoa Joe , A.J. Styles , and Chris Harris . He then attacked Joe after denying a request for a handshake , reigniting their feud . This also turned Angle heel in the process .
At Victory Road , newly crowned X Division Champion Samoa Joe teamed with Kurt Angle to face TNA Tag Team Champions Team 3D , with the stipulation that if a wrestler pinned the other opponent , he won his championship . As part of the planned outcome of the match , Joe pinned Brother Ray of Team 3D to win both tag team belts , which he held by himself . On the following episode of Impact ! , Joe – now holding the X Division and Tag Team Championships , challenged Angle – the reigning TNA and ( IGF recognized ) IWGP Heavyweight Champion , to a Winner Take All match at Hard Justice . While illustrating how he would take away everything important in Angle 's life , Joe brought Angle 's wife Karen into the fray , as she demanded a divorce . During the match , however , Karen turned on Joe and aided her husband . As part of his next push , Angle won , gaining all the championships and becoming the second Triple Crown champion in TNA and the first to hold all three titles at the same time . Including the IWGP title , this made Angle a quadruple champion ( and since Joe held the tag team titles by himself , that meant Angle 's victory gave him both tag team championship belts , meaning Angle was now in possession of five championship belts ) . Angle , however , dropped both the X Division and Tag Team Titles to Jay Lethal and Team Pacman , respectively , at No Surrender . At Bound for Glory , Angle lost the TNA World Championship to Sting , but won it back on the October 25 episode of Impact ! .
Angle then joined forces with A.J. Styles and Tomko as The Angle Alliance at Turning Point against Samoa Joe , Kevin Nash , and Scott Hall . Styles had planned for Christian 's Coalition and The Angle Alliance to team up together , but Christian Cage demanded to be the leader of The Angle Alliance after Cage denied Angle 's request of being his " lackey " . At Final Resolution , Angle successfully defended the TNA World Heavyweight Championship against Cage due to interference from Styles and again at Against All Odds with help from Tomko . At Lockdown , Angle lost the TNA World Heavyweight Championship to Samoa Joe after being pinned .
= = = = The Main Event Mafia ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
After suffering a neck injury , Angle was out of action . In the storyline , he returned to Impact ! to ask his estranged wife Karen to reunite with him , but she declined his offer . Later that night , after Styles suffered a beating at the hands of Team 3D , Booker T , and Tomko , Angle added to the mugging by hitting Styles with a steel chair . At Slammiversery , Angle lost to Styles , being pinned after interference from Karen . At Victory Road , Angle and Team 3D won a six @-@ man tag team Full Metal Mayhem match defeating the team of Christian Cage , Rhino , and Styles . At Hard Justice , Angle once again lost to Styles – this time in a Last Man Standing match . The feud continued on the next episode of Impact ! , with Styles winning Angle 's gold medal in a mock amateur wrestling match . The next week Angle challenged Styles to a ladder match for the Olympic Gold Medal . As they both stood on the top of the ladder , the arena went dark and Jeff Jarrett 's music played . When the lights turned on , Styles had a guitar and performed an Acoustic Equalizer on Angle to win the match .
Angle began a feud with Jarrett after No Surrender when Jarrett hit Angle with his guitar , a match that involved him , Christian Cage and Samoa Joe for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . On the October 2 episode of Impact , Mick Foley announced that he would be the special enforcer for Angle 's match with Jarrett at Bound for Glory IV . Angle lost to Jarrett in this match , being pinned after taking the mandible claw from Foley and a guitar shot and Stroke from Jarrett . He started attacking other superstars backstage in order to get a rematch against Jarrett . On the first HD Impact ! , Angle , Booker T , Kevin Nash , and Sting started a new stable of legends called The Main Event Mafia . Scott Steiner joined the group the following week . Angle then defeated Abyss at Turning Point in a Falls Count Anywhere match . After weeks of torturing Jeff Jarrett to give him a rematch , Jarrett said that if Angle could defeat Rhino at the second Final Resolution of 2008 , with Mick Foley as the Special Enforcer , he would grant it . Angle defeated Rhino to earn a rematch with Jarrett at Genesis after Al Snow made a surprise appearance and distracted Foley for Angle to cheat . At Sacrifice , Angle lost his leadership of the Mafia to Sting because of their match 's stipulation . On June 21 at Slammiversary , Angle won the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the fourth time in a King of the Mountain match with help from Samoa Joe . On the following episode of Impact ! , Angle regained leadership of the Main Event Mafia after he and the rest of the Mafia , attacked Sting while introducing Joe as their newest member . At No Surrender Angle lost his championship to A.J. Styles in a five @-@ way match which also included Matt Morgan , Sting , and Hernandez .
= = = = Various feuds ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
After defeating Morgan at Bound for Glory , Angle came out on the following episode of Impact ! and put over the younger talent of the company , thus leaving the Main Event Mafia and turning face once again . Afterward , he was assaulted by the debuting Desmond Wolfe , who defeated him via knockout in a street fight the following week . At Turning Point Angle defeated Wolfe in a rematch . The following month at Final Resolution Angle faced Wolfe in a " Three Degrees of Pain " two out of three falls match . Wolfe managed to gain the first fall by pinning Angle following the Tower of London , but Angle forced him to submit with the ankle lock to win the second fall . In the final fall , which could only be won by escaping the Six Sides of Steel , Angle managed to escape first and won the match . On the January 4 , 2010 , live , three @-@ hour , Monday night edition of Impact ! Angle received a shot at A.J. Styles ' World Heavyweight Championship , but was defeated in the main event of the show . Two weeks later at Genesis Angle received one last shot at the World Heavyweight Title , but was once again defeated by Styles , who turned heel with the help of Ric Flair and nailed him with the title belt . As a result , Angle was barred from challenging for the belt as long as Styles is the title holder . Due to the circumstances surrounding the loss , Hulk Hogan gave Angle another shot at Styles and the TNA World Heavyweight Championship on the January 21 episode of Impact ! , but this time he lost the match after referee Earl Hebner , who was later revealed to have been paid off by Flair , called for the bell in an incident similar to the Montreal Screwjob . Angle responded to the incident by spitting in Hogan 's face , threatening to quit TNA and go back to WWE . Angle apologized to Hogan , after being saved by him from Scott Hall and Syxx @-@ Pac . At Against All Odds Angle took part in the 8 Card Stud Tournament to crown a new number one contender , but was defeated in the first round by Mr. Anderson , after Anderson used Angle 's dog tags to bust him open . On the following episode of Impact ! Angle promised to make Anderson suffer for disrespecting the U.S. soldiers , but was in the end once again laid out by him , effectively starting a feud between the two . At Destination X Angle defeated Anderson in a rematch . Angle and Anderson were booked in a rubber match inside a steel cage at Lockdown . On the April 5 episode of Impact ! Anderson defeated Angle in a ladder match to win possession of the key to the cage door . At Lockdown , Angle defeated Anderson in a steel cage match and afterwards announced that he would take some time off from wrestling .
Angle returned on the May 20 episode of Impact ! as a face and was ranked number two by the Championship Committee in the inaugural top 10 rankings for a World Heavyweight title shot . Angle , however , decided to take his name out of the running for a title shot and vowed to fight his way through the top 10 and earn his spot at the top of the company . At Slammiversary VIII Angle started his climb back to the top by defeating Kazarian , who was ranked number ten . Angle continued his climb , defeating Desmond Wolfe , who was ranked number nine prior to the match , on the June 24 episode of Impact ! , and D 'Angelo Dinero , ranked number eight , at Victory Road . Prior to his match with Dinero , Angle announced that should he lose on his way to the top of the rankings , he would retire from professional wrestling On the July 22 episode of Impact ! Angle defeated number seven ranked Hernandez and followed that up three weeks later by defeating number six ranked A.J. Styles . On the August 19 episode of Impact ! the TNA World Heavyweight Championship was vacated and instead of continuing his climb , Angle was entered into an eight @-@ man tournament for the title , defeating X Division Champion Douglas Williams in his first round match . At No Surrender Angle first wrestled Jeff Hardy to a twenty @-@ minute time limit draw , after which Eric Bischoff ordered a five @-@ minute extra time . After that and a second five @-@ minute extra time also ended in draws , it was ruled that , due to a cut , Angle wouldn 't be allowed to continue the match , ending the match in a no contest . After wrestling a draw on the September 16 episode of Impact ! , it was announced that both Angle and Hardy would advance to the finals at Bound for Glory , to wrestle Mr. Anderson in a three – way match .
= = = = Feud with Jeff Jarrett ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
At Bound for Glory Angle was defeated by Hardy , when he turned heel and pinned Anderson , after an interference from Hulk Hogan and Eric Bischoff , who then went on to form an alliance named Immortal , with Hardy , Abyss and Jeff Jarrett . On the following episode of Impact ! Angle came out to make his retirement speech , after his failed attempt to win the World Heavyweight Championship , but was interrupted by Jarrett , who announced that he had made a deal with Hogan and Bischoff in order to end Angle 's career at Bound for Glory , before attacking him , when he was restrained by TNA 's security officers Gunner and Murphy . The following week Angle returned , trying to get his hands on Bischoff and Ric Flair , before being stopped by TNA 's security officers . Angle returned three weeks later on the November 11 episode of Impact ! , saving Samoa Joe from Jeff Jarrett , Gunner and Murphy . After not appearing again for two weeks , Angle made another return on the December 2 episode of Impact ! , saving Samoa Joe from Jeff Jarrett and Abyss .
On the January 6 , 2011 , episode of Impact ! Angle interrupted Jarrett 's $ 100 @,@ 000 Mixed Martial Arts Challenge and signed a contract to face him at Genesis in an MMA exhibition match , since he had promised not to wrestle again . The match was thrown out in the third round after Jarrett blinded Angle . After the match Jarrett bloodied Angle , before announcing that he was ending his mixed martial arts career and promised that his wife , Karen Jarrett ( formerly Karen Angle ) , would join the retirement party . On the January 13 episode of Impact ! Karen made her return and stopped Angle just as he was about to attack Jeff , telling him that she would not allow him to ruin their personal lives and promised to tell all about their divorce the following week . The following week Karen slapped Kurt , providing a distraction which allowed Jeff to beat him down . At the end of the show Crimson saved Angle from a beating at the hands of Immortal and Fortune . The following week Ric Flair reinstated Angle in order to place him and Crimson in a seven – on – two handicap match against Jarrett , James Storm , Robert Roode , Kazarian , Rob Terry , Gunner and Murphy . The match ended with Jarrett pinning Angle for the win . Afterwards , Angle was saved from another beatdown by the returning Scott Steiner . The following week Fortune turned on Immortal and aligned themselves with Angle , Crimson and Steiner . On February 13 at Against All Odds Jarrett defeated Angle in a singles match and as a result Angle was forced to walk Karen down the aisle , when she and Jarrett renewed their wedding vows on the March 3 episode of Impact ! . After the match Angle hinted at a possible retirement by leaving his wrestling boots in the ring . On March 3 Angle proceeded to destroy the wedding set with an axe and forced wedding guest , New York Jet Bart Scott to submit with the ankle lock . On April 17 at Lockdown , Jarrett defeated Angle in an " Ultra Male Rules " Two out of Three Falls steel cage match , with help from Karen . On the May 12 episode
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, when EC3 attacked him , performing a leglock , which injured his knee . On February 27 , 2014 , Angle officially accepted his induction into the TNA Hall of Fame , but the ceremony was interrupted by EC3 , Angle attacked Ethan Carter III , on the next week , Angle was attacked by Ethan Carter III and severely damaged his knees , thus losing his chance to fight at Lockdown . Angle made his return on April 17 , and vowing revenge . On April 24 , after Kurt defeated Rockstar Spud in a match , EC3 attacked Angle but Willow made the save . At Sacrifice Willow and Kurt Angle defeated Ethan Carter III and Rockstar Spud . In May , Angle underwent ACL repair surgery and was sidelined .
On June 20 , 2014 , Angle was named Executive Director of Wrestling Operations of TNA by TNA 's Board of Directors . He announced a TNA World Heavyweight Championship rematch for the edition of July 3 of Impact Wrestling between Lashley and Eric Young , and reinstate Bobby Roode , who had been indefinitely suspended by MVP . Angle also retired the TNA Television Championship , which had not been seen or defended since Abyss won it at Slammiversary 2013 . On September 18 , 2014 ( aired on October 29 due to tape delay ) , Angle refereed the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between Bobby Roode and Bobby Lashley .
Angle 's contract with TNA was due to expire on September 14 , 2014 . Around this time he reached out to Vince McMahon to offer his services for a return to the WWE . Unbeknownst to him Triple H had taken over McMahon 's former duties . Angle offered to return as a part @-@ time wrestler due to concerns of his age and health . Angle was caught off guard when WWE declined his services . It is speculated that WWE only offered a full @-@ time contract which Angle didn 't accept or WWE declined his return due to past relationship issues with him . After he was denied by WWE , he quickly signed a part @-@ time contract with TNA Wrestling . On September 21 , 2014 , Angle 's contract with TNA expired , ending his eight @-@ year tenure with the company . Angle teased a return to WWE , however , he was offered a full @-@ time contract , so Angle decided to stay with TNA .
= = = = Final storylines ( 2015 – 2016 ) = = = =
Angle returned to in @-@ ring action on TNA 's debut on Destination America on January 7 , 2015 , when he stopped a brawl , but started a street fight against MVP . On January 31 , 2015 ( aired March 20 ) , Angle defeated Lashley to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for a record sixth time . He lost to Eric Young on May 1 , in a stretcher match with the title not on the line . He successfully retained his title against Lashley once and then again against both Lashley and Eric Young . On May 8 , Angle defeated Young to retain his title with Bully Ray as the special referee . At Destination X , Kurt Angle defeated Rockstar Spud , who gave up the X Division Championship in order to challenge for the title . Later that night , Angle again successfully defended his title , this time against Austin Aries , who cashed in his Feast or Fired contract to allow him a title match . On the June 25 , 2015 taping of Impact Wrestling ( aired July 1 ) , Angle lost the championship to Ethan Carter III . On the July 8 episode of Impact Wrestling , Angle faced Carter in a rematch , in a losing effort .
On October 4 , 2015 , at Bound for Glory , Angle defeated Young via ankle lock submission . On November 19 , 2015 , Kurt Angle was announced for TNA 's live debut on Pop . On the November 25 , 2015 , episode of Impact Wrestling , Angle announced that he would remain with TNA until the conclusion of their Maximum Impact Tour of the UK on January 31 , 2016 , after which he would part ways with the company . Angle announced his " Farewell Tour " which took place on TNA 's tour of the UK . Angle 's final match was against Lashley on March 8 , 2016 which ended up in a losing effort .
= = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = =
On February 18 , 2007 , Angle made his debut in New Japan Pro Wrestling , teaming with former IWGP Heavyweight Champion Yuji Nagata to defeat fellow TNA wrestler Travis Tomko and fellow WWE alumnus Giant Bernard .
Angle was booked to face Brock Lesnar in a champion versus champion match for the Inoki Genome Federation on June 29 , 2007 , and defeated him by submission for the IWGP World Heavyweight Championship , and he challenged him to an MMA fight . On December 19 , 2007 , Angle defended the IWGP World Title successfully against Kendo Kashin .
On January 4 , 2008 , Angle made his third successful IWGP World Championship defense when he defeated Yuji Nagata at the New Japan Pro Wrestling supershow Wrestle Kingdom II in Tokyo Dome by forcing Nagata to submit to the ankle lock . On February 17 , 2008 , Angle lost the IWGP title to Shinsuke Nakamura in a unification match . He returned in August during the G1 Climax in two special tag matches A.J. Styles as his opponent with Shinsuke Nakamura and Masahiro Chono as Angle 's partners and Hiroshi Tanahashi and Shinjiro Otani as Styles ' partners . Angle 's team won both matches .
He returned on January 4 , 2009 , at Wrestle Kingdom III in Tokyo Dome in a special eight man tag match , where he , Kevin Nash , Chono , and Riki Choshu faced G.B.H. ( Giant Bernard , Karl Anderson , Takashi Iizuka and Tomohiro Ishii ) , with Angle getting the win for his team . Angle then went on to defeat Bernard in a singles match at New Japan 's ISM tour on February 15 . After Hiroshi Tanahashi retained the IWGP Heavyweight Championship against Nakamura in the main event , Angle challenged him for the title , which Tanahashi accepted . Tanahashi defeated Angle on April 5 at New Japan 's Resolution ' 09 to retain the title .
= = = Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( 2012 ) = = =
Angle made his debut for Mexican promotion Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) on August 5 , 2012 , at Triplemanía XX , where he teamed up with Jeff Jarrett as Team Dorian Roldán in a Hair vs. Hair match , where they faced Team Joaquín Roldán ( Electroshock and L.A. Park ) , with the Roldáns ' hairs on the line . Electroshock won the match for his team by pinning Angle , forcing Dorian to have his head shaved bald . However , after the match , Angle , Jarrett and Dorian overpowered the winners and shaved Joaquín bald .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On March 20 , 2016 , Angle competed for URFight , going against former rival and fellow WWE alumnus Rey Mysterio in a losing effort in a two @-@ falls match during the match Angle played as heel by using dirty tactics . Angle wrestled for Revolution Pro Wrestling on June 12 , where he defeated Zack Sabre Jr . On May 31 it was announced that Angle will face Cody Rhodes in a Northeast Wrestling event , called " Wrestling Under the Stars " , that will be on August 27 at Wappingers Falls , NY . Angle is set to compete for ICW on November 20 at Fear & Loathing IX .
= = Olympic Games Matches = =
= = Acting career = =
Angle has expressed interest on several occasions in pursuing an acting career after retiring from professional wrestling . In 2008 , he made his film debut as a racist prison deputy in the short film Chains . In 2009 , he played serial killer Brad Mayfield in the film End Game . On a third season episode of Pros vs. Joes , he was teamed up with Jimmy Smith and Kendall Gill against the Joes . Angle appeared in the " Car Wreck Vanish " episode of Criss Angel Mindfreak . He played Russian MMA champion Koba ( in a non @-@ speaking role ) in the 2011 film Warrior , and starred as town sheriff Will Logan in the film River of Darkness . On the Right After Wrestling program on Sirius Satellite Radio , Angle revealed he would become a part @-@ time wrestler after his contract expired in 2011 to focus on Angle Foods and his acting career . In the 2013 film Pro Wrestlers vs Zombies , he plays himself as both a human and a zombie . Angle also had a small role in the 2014 cult @-@ film Sharknado 2 : The Second One and in the 2014 romantic @-@ comedy film Not Cool . He appeared in the film The Last Witch Hunter . He also made a cameo appearance in the movie Pain and Gain in which he brawls against Dwayne Johnson 's character in a prison fight . Angle appeared on an episode of Duck Dynasty in February 2016 .
= = = Filmography = = =
= = = = Film = = = =
= = = = Television = = = =
= = Other endeavors = =
In 1997 , Angle worked for a year as a sportscaster on Pittsburgh 's local Fox affiliate WPGH @-@ TV . He also did a commercial for Pittsburgh @-@ based pizza chain Pizza Outlet .
= = = Mixed martial arts = = =
Angle is a longtime fan of MMA , and has occasionally talked about his desire to compete . UFC president Dana White stated that Angle was in talks to appear as a heavyweight contestant on the 10th season of The Ultimate Fighter , but failed the medical requirements . Angle signed with Bellator MMA on October 28 , 2015 . He attended a fan convention on November 6 , the eve of Bellator 145 , then joined the commentary booth the next night , during the Bobby Lashley vs James Thompson match , where he teased possibly fighting for the promotion himself .
= = Personal life = =
Angle was born in Mt . Lebanon , Pennsylvania , the son of Jackie and David Angle . He attended Clarion University of Pennsylvania , graduating with a degree in education in 1993 . Angle is a Christian .
Angle has four older brothers ( one of whom , Eric , is also a wrestler ) and a sister , Le 'Anne , who died in 2003 . His father , a crane operator , was killed in a construction accident when Angle was sixteen , and Angle dedicated both his career and his autobiography It 's True , It 's True to him as a result . Angle stated in an interview that , following the death of his father , he regarded his wrestling coach , David Schultz , as a paternal figure . While training Angle , Schultz was murdered in January 1996 by John Eleuthère du Pont , the sponsor of Schultz 's team of Olympic prospectives . Angle 's mother died in 2015 after a long battle with cancer .
He married Karen Smedley on December 19 , 1998 , In September 2008 , it was reported that Karen had filed for divorce from Kurt . They have two children together , a daughter named Kyra Angle ( born December 2 , 2002 ) and son named Kody Angle ( born October 26 , 2006 ) .
In 2010 , It was reported that Angle was engaged to actress Giovanna Yannotti . On September 30 , 2010 , Yannotti announced that the couple was expecting their first child . On January 22 , 2011 , Yannotti gave birth to a daughter named Giuliana Marie Angle . Angle and Yannotti were married on July 20 , 2012 . They had their second child together and fourth for Angle , a daughter named Sophia Laine Angle on New Year 's Eve , 2012 .
Angle is a fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers .
In 2008 , Angle was selected to be featured on the cover for metal band Emmure 's second album The Respect Issue where he is depicted on the front and back covers for the record as well as in the inlay . Angle also further promoted the album by wearing an Emmure shirt during fights broadcast on TNA Impact ! .
In July 2015 , Angle was expected to make an appearance at London Comic Con in England but his management team tweeted that Angle underwent emergency surgery to remove fluid buildup on his spinal cord after all of his extremities went numb . A week before this emergency , he had surgery to remove a benign tumor from his neck .
Angle is a Republican and supported Marco Rubio for President in 2016 .
= = = Steroid allegations = = =
On March 6 , 2007 , Sports Illustrated reported that Angle 's name was found in the client database of a Florida wellness center suspected of being a front for distributing performance @-@ enhancing drugs . The magazine alleged Angle had received prescriptions for trenbolone ( which is not approved for human use by the FDA ) and nandrolone , both anabolic steroids . Angle responded on his official website : " I did not improperly receive prescriptions . It is well documented that in my career I have broken vertebrae in my neck on five occasions and each time the course of treatment was under the care and supervision of my doctors . Any attempt to link me to the athletes in the current news accounts who may have improperly sought performance @-@ enhancing drugs is without foundation . "
Approximately two weeks later on March 19 , 2007 , Sports Illustrated posted on its website another article in its continuing series investigating a steroid and HGH ring used by a number of professional athletes in several sports . That article mentioned that 10 other professional wrestlers were implicated to have received performance @-@ enhancing drugs from the same drug ring including four WWE wrestlers and Eddie Guerrero . Kurt never failed a drug test for pain pills . He did , however , fail a steroid test under WWE 's Wellness Policy because his prescription for Deca @-@ Durabolin had expired .
= = = Legal issues = = =
Angle was arrested at his home by Moon Township , Pennsylvania police on September 28 , 2007 , on a charge of driving under the influence after being reported by a woman who claimed that he almost hit her while leaving a local restaurant . Officials said Angle failed a field sobriety test but refused a blood test . Angle was charged with driving under the influence and careless driving , but he denied the charges . On September 9 , 2008 , Angle was cleared of all charges pertaining to his DUI arrest .
On August 15 , 2009 , Pittsburgh @-@ based NBC affiliate WPXI reported that Angle had been arrested . His girlfriend stated that she had filed a protection from abuse ( PFA ) order and that he was stalking her in the Robinson Township area . Angle was charged with " driving while operating privilege is suspended , prohibited acts @-@ possession , harassment and prohibited acts " . Hygetropin , a human growth hormone , was found in his car ; Angle maintained that he had a prescription for the drug . On September 15 , a District Court Judge dropped the harassment , suspended license , and drug charges against Angle . On November 9 , 2009 , the PFA charges were dropped after he and former girlfriend Trenesha Biggers reached an agreement to avoid contact with each other .
On March 25 , 2011 , Angle was arrested in Thompson , North Dakota and charged with " being in control of a motor vehicle while intoxicated " after failing a field sobriety test . Angle later pleaded guilty to the charges and was sentenced on April 20 to one year of unsupervised probation , a chemical dependency evaluation , a $ 250 fine , $ 225 in court fees , and a ten @-@ day suspended sentence .
Angle was arrested on September 4 , 2011 , by Virginia State Troopers for allegedly driving under the influence . Angle was placed in Warren County Jail , before posting $ 2 @,@ 000 bail and being released in the early morning . State police revealed that Angle 's initial breath test at the scene , where he was stopped by police showed a blood @-@ alcohol concentration of 0 @.@ 091 percent , which was above the legal limit of 0 @.@ 08 percent . The test was later ruled not admissible and when a second test , taken at the police station , showed a blood @-@ alcohol concentration of 0 @.@ 06 , the DUI charge was dropped . Angle was still charged with reckless driving . On November 8 , 2011 , Angle entered a plea of no contest and was fined $ 1 @,@ 500 .
On August 2 , 2013 , Angle was again charged with driving while intoxicated in Decatur , Texas . Later that same day , Angle announced he was immediately entering a rehabilitation center .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Angle Slam / Olympic slam , sometimes from the top rope
Ankle lock , sometimes while grapevining the opponent 's leg – 2001 – present ; used as a signature move in 2000
Crossface chickenwing – 2000 ; adopted from Bob Backlund
Signature moves
Bodyscissors
Double leg takedown , often transitioned into a pin or a suplex
European uppercut
Frog splash – TNA
Headbutt
Moonsault
Multiple suplex variationsBridging / Release belly @-@ to @-@ back
Bridging / Release / Rolling German
Overhead belly @-@ to @-@ belly , sometimes from the second rope
Rear naked choke
Triangle choke
Managers
Bob Backlund
Eric Bischoff
Paul Heyman
Shane McMahon
Stephanie McMahon @-@ Helmsley
Trish Stratus
Team Angle
Luther Reigns
Mark Jindrak
Daivari
Tomko
Karen Angle
Kevin Nash
Frank Trigg
Nicknames
" The Most Celebrated Real Athlete in WWF History " ( WWF )
" The ( Only ) Olympic Gold Medalist ( in Pro Wrestling History ) " ( WWF / E , TNA )
" The American / Olympic Hero " ( WWF / E )
" The Wrestling Machine " ( WWE / TNA )
" The Godfather of The Main Event Mafia " ( TNA )
" The Cyborg " ( TNA )
Entrance themes
" Medal " by Jim Johnston ( WWF / E / independent circuit ; November 14 , 1999 – January 2 , 2006 ; March 20 , 2016 – present )
" Medal " ( Remix ) by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; January 29 , 2006 – July 11 , 2006 )
" Medal " ( Revisited ) by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; July 11 , 2006 – August 8 , 2006 )
" My Quest " by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; September 24 , 2006 – August 9 , 2007 )
" Gold Medal " performed by Tha Trademarc and composed by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; August 12 , 2007 – January 31 , 2016 )
" Main Event Mafia " by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; used while a part of The Main Event Mafia )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
= = = Amateur wrestling = = =
Canadian Cup Championship
Winner ( 1990 )
Collegiate / High School
Pennsylvania State Wrestling Champion ( 1987 )
Clarion University Freshman of the Year ( 1988 )
International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles
FILA Junior World Freestyle Champion ( 1988 )
FILA World Championships gold medal in freestyle wrestling ( 100 kg ) ( 1995 )
International Sports Hall of Fame
Class of 2016
National Amateur Wrestling
National Amateur Wrestling Hall of Fame ( Class of 2001 )
National Collegiate Athletic Association
NCAA Division I All @-@ American ( 1990 – 1992 )
NCAA Division I Champion ( 1990 , 1992 )
Olympic Games
Summer Olympics gold medal in freestyle wrestling ( heavyweight ) ( 1996 )
USA Wrestling
USA Junior Freestyle Champion ( 1987 )
USA Senior Freestyle Champion ( 1995 , 1996 )
USA Wrestling Hall of Fame ( Class of 2001 )
Greatest Shoot Wrestler of All @-@ Time
= = = Professional wrestling = = =
Cauliflower Alley Club
Future Legend Award ( 2000 )
Inoki Genome Federation
IWGP Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
International Wrestling Institute and Museum
George Tragos / Lou Thesz Hall of Fame ( 2012 )
Special honoree ( 2015 )
Power Pro Wrestling
PPW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Comeback of the Year ( 2003 )
Feud of the Year ( 2000 ) vs. Triple H
Feud of the Year ( 2003 ) vs. Brock Lesnar
Feud of the Year ( 2007 ) vs. Samoa Joe
Match of the Year ( 2003 ) vs. Brock Lesnar in an Iron Man match on SmackDown ! on September 16
Match of the Year ( 2005 ) vs. Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania 21
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2000 )
Most Inspirational Wrestler of the Year ( 2001 )
Most Popular Wrestler of the Year ( 2003 )
Rookie of the Year ( 2000 )
Wrestler of the Year ( 2003 )
Ranked 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2001
SoCal Uncensored
Match of the Year ( 2000 ) vs. Christopher Daniels , September 13 , 2000 , Ultimate Pro Wrestling
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA World Heavyweight Championship ( 6 times )
TNA X Division Championship ( 1 time )
TNA World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Himself / Sting ( 1 ) 1 and A.J. Styles ( 1 )
King of the Mountain ( 2007 , 2009 )
TNA Hall of Fame ( Class of 2013 )
Second TNA Triple Crown Champion
Feud of the Year ( 2006 , 2007 ) with Samoa Joe
Match of the Year ( 2007 ) vs. Sting at Bound for Glory , October 14 , 2007
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment
WWF / E Championship ( 4 times )
World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WCW Championship ( 1 time ) 2
WCW United States Championship ( 1 time ) 2
WWF Intercontinental Championship ( 1 time )
WWF European Championship ( 1 time )
WWF Hardcore Championship ( 1 time )
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Chris Benoit
WWE Tag Team Championship Tournament ( 2002 )
King of the Ring ( 2000 )
Tenth Triple Crown Champion
Fifth Grand Slam Champion
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Gimmick ( 2000 )
Best on Interviews ( 2002 )
Best Technical Wrestler ( 2002 )
Feud of the Year ( 2003 ) vs. Brock Lesnar
Match of the Year with Chris Benoit vs. Edge and Rey Mysterio , No Mercy 2002
Most Improved ( 2000 )
Most Outstanding Wrestler ( 2001 – 2003 )
Readers ' Favorite Wrestler ( 2002 , 2003 )
Wrestler of the Year ( 2002 )
Wrestler of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 2004 )
1 ^ Angle originally won both tag team championship belts from solo championship holder Samoa Joe . Sting won a four way match to win the other share of the title , and joined Angle in his reign mid @-@ way through.2 ^ Won during the Invasion storyline .
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
= Todd Manning =
Thomas Todd Manning is a fictional character from the American daytime drama One Life to Live ( OLTL ) . Created by writer Michael Malone , the role was originated in 1992 by actor Roger Howarth . Todd was a college student and fraternity brother to Kevin Buchanan , Zach Rosen , and Powell Lord , and became part of a storyline in which Marty Saybrooke is gang raped . The storyline was considered groundbreaking by television critics , and its main players — Howarth , Susan Haskell ( Marty ) , and Hillary B. Smith ( Todd 's lawyer Nora Hanen ) — won Emmys in 1994 , as did Malone and his writing team . Howarth left the role in 2003 ; it was recast with Trevor St. John , physically altered by plastic surgery . In 2011 , Howarth returned to OLTL ; it was disclosed Todd had been taken hostage and St. John 's version of the character was really Todd 's identical twin brother , Victor Lord , Jr . , conditioned to assume Todd 's place .
Todd was initially a short @-@ term villain , but his popularity with the audience and critics inspired the writers to forgo killing him or permanently sending him to prison , like most soap operas had done with rapists in the past . While keeping aspects of his personality dark or otherwise violent , they had Todd exhibit a conscience and compassion . They took steps to redeem him and made him an integral part of OLTL 's canvas , despite Howarth 's objections to a redemption storyline . With the use of literary techniques for the redemptive arc , the writers borrowed from nineteenth @-@ century melodrama and Gothic traditions , and literature such as Frankenstein . Todd became the product of an affair between his father , Victor Lord , and his mother , Irene Manning , which provided him a fortune and ties to other major characters , including his sisters , Tina and Victoria Lord . An important aspect of the character became his appearance , most notably the scar on his right cheek , which emerged as synonymous with him and served to remind him of his past misdeeds against Marty . Music and the use of humor were also key to Todd 's development . Although he formed many relationships ( including with his wives , Blair Cramer and Téa Delgado ) , and fathered children , a defining characteristic of his personality was his resistance to close relationships and sexual intimacy .
The drive to redeem Todd eventually drew Howarth , who always saw Todd as a villain , to leave the show for a year ; he was uncomfortable with the redemption storyline and with many fans ' positive reactions to Todd . Recasting Todd years later with St. John was generally considered successful by viewers and critics . St. John , instead of imitating Howarth 's portrayal , brought his own spin to the character . After OLTL 's cancellation in 2012 , Howarth brought Todd to General Hospital ( GH ) , but returned , along with St. John as Victor , Jr . , to the online version of OLTL in 2013 , which was cancelled after one year .
Todd has been the subject of numerous soap opera articles , feminist studies , and inspired the creation of a doll in his likeness . He has remained a popular and controversial figure since his creation , and is considered one of soap opera 's breakout characters .
= = Storylines = =
= = = 1992 – 2003 = = =
In 1992 , Todd , a defensive back for Llanview University 's football team , has a one @-@ night stand with his tutor , Marty Saybrooke ( Susan Haskell ) , and later blames her when he fails a test that causes him to be suspended from the football team . In 1993 , Todd and his fraternity brothers , Zach Rosen and Powell Lord , rape Marty in Kevin 's dorm room . Todd hires attorney Nora Hanen ( Hillary B. Smith ) , who believes in his innocence until a woman named Carol Swift reveals Todd also raped her ; Nora throws the case . Todd continues to torment Marty , including by attempting to rape her for a second time , but she eventually tricks Todd into confessing , sending him , Zach and Powell to prison where he befriends Rebecca Lewis ( Reiko Aylesworth ) . Todd has Rebecca help him escape prison , but is stabbed when he goes after Nora . In hiding , he is discovered by Marty and her boyfriend , Suede Pruitt . After accidentally killing Suede when they fight , he is shot by officer Bo Buchanan ( Robert S. Woods ) ; Todd falls into the Llantano River , and is presumed dead .
Todd survives and hides at Llanfair , where he befriends two children , C. J. and Sarah Roberts . He is arrested when he jealously confronts new couple Rebecca and Powell . His prison van gets into an accident with another vehicle , and he rescues Marty , C. J. and Jessica ( Erin Torpey ) from the car . This results in an early parole for Todd , but he is soon accused of rape by several women . Marty provides him with an alibi for one of the attacks . A deranged Powell is later revealed as the serial rapist . Todd apologizes to Marty for all the pain he caused her , and begins falling in love with Blair Cramer ( Kassie DePaiva ) after a one @-@ night stand . In December 1994 , Peter Manning dies and Todd learns he is adopted . Conman David Vickers ( Tuc Watkins ) discovers Todd 's biological parents , Victor Lord and Irene Manning . With help from Todd 's scheming biological sister , Tina , David claims to be the lost Lord heir , but Todd 's true parentage is ultimately revealed , leaving Todd $ 27 @.@ 8 million richer . He purchases tabloid paper The Intruder from Dorian Lord ( Robin Strasser ) and relaunches it as The Sun , a direct rival to his new @-@ found family 's newspaper The Banner . In 1995 , Blair tricks Todd into marriage by faking a pregnancy . She later learns that she really is pregnant , but , after being mugged , she miscarries . Todd discovers she initially lied about her pregnancy and has the marriage annulled . When Blair becomes pregnant again , they remarry in November 1995 . Todd goes to Ireland to give Marty a flight back to Llanview . Her friend , Patrick Thornhart ( Thorsten Kaye ) , is being hunted by Irish terrorists . Todd poses as Patrick , is shot , and presumed dead . He returns to Llanview in 1996 , to find Blair in bed with Patrick . His sister , Victoria " Viki " Lord ( Erika Slezak ) , introduces him to his daughter , Starr ( Kristen Alderson ) . Todd eventually resumes his life with Blair . They have many difficulties in their marriage , and Starr being diagnosed with aplastic anemia strains the marriage further .
Blair is pregnant with Patrick 's baby , who has been identified as a donor match for Starr . She gives birth to his stillborn son in 1997 . Todd blames Patrick for the miscarriage and frames him for the murder of Guy Armitage . Blair learns that Todd caused the explosion that killed Guy , and divorces him in June . When Blair falls into a coma , Todd pays lawyer Téa Delgado ( Florencia Lozano ) five million dollars to marry him so he can keep custody of Starr . When Blair awakens , he allows her visitation . In 1998 , while Todd and Téa grow closer , Todd is again accused of rape ; Blair and Sam Rappaport ( Kale Browne ) , a lawyer and father @-@ figure to Todd , help prove his innocence . Back in town upon Todd 's request , he also intends to help Todd save his tempestuous marriage to Téa . In the interim , Todd and Blair grow closer , and Blair and Téa vie for Todd 's affections . As Todd and Téa fall in love , Blair moves on with Sam . When Todd is about to be arrested for the murder of Georgie Phillips , he takes the other fourteen suspects hostage at the Buchanan family cabin with fake dynamite strapped to his chest . Rachel Gannon admits to the murder , but Todd is arrested for the hostage incident . He fakes dissociative identity disorder ( split personalities ) to avoid conviction . Téa divorces him as part of his defense strategy , but they remarry in November . During the reception , a tape on which Todd confesses to faking his split personalities is accidentally played at Starr 's request . Téa refuses his offer of another five million to stay married to him . He leaves town in December , and Tea has the marriage annulled in 1999 .
In 2000 , Todd keeps tabs on Téa , who starts dating Rachel 's uncle , R. J. ( Timothy Stickney ) . He tries to kill R. J. , and reveals himself to Téa , convincing her to leave town with him . When Téa dumps him , he returns months later without her . Todd and Blair grow close again . By framing Skye Chandler ( Robin Christopher ) , he helps her cover up her rage @-@ shooting of Max Holden ( James DePaiva ) . They decide to remarry , but the night before the wedding , a vengeful Max drugs Blair and leads Todd to believe they had sex . A furious Todd exposes Blair as Max 's shooter . After burying Max alive to discover the truth , and soon afterward releasing him , he helps Blair stay out of jail by claiming she suffered a psychotic break . She is committed against her will . Months later , she goes to Mexico , knowing that she is pregnant with Todd 's child . Todd follows , where he delivers their son . Believing the child is Max 's , he gives the baby to David Vickers , and leads Blair to believe the baby died . During her grief , she and Todd reconcile , and she finally tells Todd that the " stillborn " child was really his . Todd locates the infant and claims the boy was abandoned . In December 2001 , he convinces Blair to remarry him . They name their son John " Jack " Cramer Manning , and Todd makes it appear they have adopted him .
Jack develops aplastic anemia like Starr , which ultimately leads Sam to deduce that they are biological siblings , and to inform Blair that Jack is her biological son . She angrily confronts Todd . When he admits that he gave Jack away and forced her to grieve for a child that was never dead , she bans him from her life , which results in him being severely emotionally unstable . Blair leaves town with the children soon afterward , but Todd follows her to Hawaii , where his plans to kidnap the children with help from Ross Rayburn ( Shawn Christian ) are foiled by Téa . Todd and Téa make love when they get stranded together on an island with Ross . Todd escapes to return to Blair , and protects her when the Mafia comes after her because of her exposé on them in The Sun . As Todd and Blair are about to remarry , Sam discloses that Todd , in an effort to win Blair 's affections , staged a hit on their nanny , who had been presumed dead as a result of the Mafia 's retaliation . Todd had used the nanny 's " death " as an excuse for Blair to stay with him , later staging a hit on Blair 's life , with him as the rescuer . The wedding is called off , and Blair distances herself from Todd . Soon afterward , Mitch Laurence ( Roscoe Born ) kidnaps Starr . Blair exchanges her own life for her daughter 's . Todd rescues Blair by kidnapping his niece , Natalie ( Melissa Archer ) , and exchanging her life for Blair 's . Mitch , working for the presumed dead Victor Lord , intends to steal a descendant 's heart so he can live . Natalie is rescued , and Todd comes face to face with a frail Victor before he finally dies from heart failure . Mitch kidnaps Todd and locks him in Victor 's crypt in order to frame him for Sam Rappaport 's murder . Todd disappears from the crypt , and Blair eventually has him declared dead .
= = = 2011 – 2013 = = =
Todd 's identical twin brother , Victor Lord , Jr . ( Trevor St. John ) , whom he had never known , is physically altered and brainwashed to believe that he is Todd . From May 2003 to August 2011 , he assumes Todd 's identity . The truth is revealed by a presumed dead Irene Manning , who admits that she switched the brothers and imprisoned Todd . Todd struggles with losing eight years of his life , and blames Victor for stealing his children , including the daughter he had with Téa , Danielle ( Dani ) . He plans to kill Victor and is the top suspect when Victor is gunned down . He claims his innocence and convinces Starr to help him escape jail to keep Irene from killing the family for Victor 's fortune . Although Irene wounds him , Todd kills her . Téa 's brother , Tomás ( Ted King ) , takes credit for allowing a wounded Todd to escape . Todd begins having vivid memories of killing Victor . Before Tomás is sentenced , Todd confesses to Irene 's murder ; Téa gets the charges reduced to self @-@ defense . Todd locates the gun used to kill Victor and uses it to frame Tomás as revenge for initially bringing him to Irene . Todd and a rogue CIA agent force Tomás into a false confession . Todd faces difficulty bonding with Jack , who only accepts Victor as his father , but he continues to bond with Starr and assists her with various issues . He also helps Cole Thornhart fake his death so he can live with Starr and their daughter , Hope , in California . Todd is later arrested for Victor 's murder .
In 2012 , Todd jumps bail and arrives in Port Charles upon learning that Starr has been involved in a car accident that resulted in the deaths of Cole and Hope . Todd thinks local mobster Sonny Corinthos ( Maurice Benard ) is responsible for the deaths and seeks revenge . The charges against him for Victor 's murder are dropped , due to a claim of posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) following his years in captivity , but Starr faces attempted murder charges for trying to kill Sonny . A pregnant Téa , who has been sought out by Blair to represent Starr , gets the charges dropped . In June , Todd is with Téa during an intense rainstorm when she goes into labor and gives birth to an unresponsive baby boy . Sam Morgan ( Kelly Monaco ) is also giving birth to a baby boy in a motel room . After Todd , searching for help , comes upon Heather Webber ( Robin Mattson ) in a shack , and she tells Todd that Téa 's baby has died , he comes across Sam 's son . An elated Téa sees the child and believes he is hers . Todd allows Téa to believe the child is hers , after Heather talks him out of telling Téa the truth . Todd forms a close relationship with Carly Corinthos ( Laura Wright ) , Sonny 's former wife , in the wake of yet another rejection from Blair , who is set to marry Tomás . Todd 's role in the baby switch is eventually revealed . To make amends for almost killing her son , Steven , Heather lies to the judge and prosecutors about Todd 's role in switching the babies . He is then released .
In 2013 , Todd returns to Llanview to check on Dani , who had previously phoned him several times . He witnesses Dani collapse from a drug overdose due to her abuse of oxycodone . While she is recovering at the hospital , an alive Victor arrives . A surprised Téa , Dani , and Jack welcome Victor back , while Todd tries to bond with his children . Todd remains concerned about Jack and Dani , attempting to buy their affections with money and deciding the best way to win them over is to call a truce with Victor . He also tries to win back Blair 's affections . He eventually admits he only pretended to get along with Victor to lure him into a false sense of security . Victor admits that he poisoned Todd 's scotch with arsenic and then tried to strangle him . Jack takes Todd to the hospital , where he recovers but is frustrated when his family continues to defend Victor . Victor realizes he must leave town and says goodbye to his family . Todd shows Blair a threatening note he received with the names of all his loved ones on it . The mysterious Tattoo Organization that held Victor demands that Todd find and kill Victor . Todd , Blair and Téa devise a scheme to fool this organization into believing Victor is dead . Feeling secure that their scheme has worked , they plan for a future . Todd receives another note by the Tattoo Organization , this time telling him that he failed them and that Victor has been recaptured . Todd is told that he must leave Llanview and go to the address given on the note . Todd and Blair are devastated . Todd says goodbye to Viki and his children , but does not tell them the real reason he is leaving is to protect their family . Before Todd leaves , he and Blair make love one last time , and it is revealed that they have married again .
= = Creation and development = =
= = = Background = = =
Todd was originally intended to be a short @-@ lived role , but Howarth 's portrayal of the character inspired notable fan reaction , which prompted the creators to layer Todd 's personality and showcase him regularly within the series . Michael Malone , Todd 's creator , said fleshing out the character reminded him of what he loved about soap operas , adding , " The story @-@ telling is a genuine collaboration , not just among writers but by the actors . " Malone felt he could not take full credit for the development of Todd from Marty Saybrooke 's gang rapist to what he later became , and also noted Howarth 's impact :
In the creation of Todd Manning , no one played a larger role than the remarkably talented Josh Griffith , first associate head writer , then co @-@ head writer , during my stay at One Life . Josh loved , lived and breathed Todd and fought passionately for his position on the show . Second , Todd never would have evolved from " first frat boy " to the major cast member he became without the powerful talent of Roger Howarth . Because of Roger 's ability to convey the complexity of Todd ( the hurt as well as anger , the insecurity as well as bluster , the brains , yearning , manipulativeness , sexiness , tenderness , nastiness ) we were able to explore both the deeply dark side of this character ( the effort to destroy Marty to cover the rape , the attempted revenge on his lawyer Nora , the attack on Luna ) and at the same time slowly uncover his growing struggle ( usually a failed struggle ) towards some kind of redemption . Romantic leads have often begun their careers playing villains ( Valentino , Clark Gable , Humphrey Bogart among them ) . These characters appeal because they make women feel both the thrill of the " bad " and the lure of the hidden " good " : they can lead the man to change through love . " I 'll save him ! " Fans loved Todd from the beginning because he always had that appeal .
Malone originally scripted Todd as a serial rapist . As part of the 1993 rape storyline , it was disclosed that Todd raped a woman named Carol Swift , a year or two before raping Marty , and that there were hints he raped other young women before Carol . Howarth considered Todd 's rationale for raping Marty to be complex . " Todd was in love with Marty , " he said . When Marty rejects Todd 's romantic advances after their one @-@ night stand , it is because he was cold to her that same night after they had sex . Marty 's rejection upsets Todd and it festers . When he fails an exam after she tutors him , he blames her for the failure and begins attributing her as the reason for his problems . Howarth called Todd " privileged and very rich " . Because Todd was used to getting what he wanted , he did not know how to cope with Marty rejecting him .
Although Todd is the product of an affair between Victor Lord and Irene Manning , Malone gave him the last name " Manning " without knowing the name of Victor 's mistress , an oversight that allowed the writers to later reveal him as Tina and Victoria Lord 's brother . He is at first presented as 18 years old , but over the years , his age has been changed based upon the occasional rapid aging of his children . Malone stated that making Todd heir to the Lord fortune gave the writers " huge story " that helped Howarth 's character evolve from a short @-@ term role to a major cast member , which Malone attributed to Howarth 's " powerful talent " . Peter Manning , who Todd thought was his father , had died ; Todd receives letters written by his adoptive mother disclosing that he is the Lord heir , and worth almost $ 30 million . Developing Todd not only as Victoria 's unwanted sibling , whom she was horrified to discover was her blood , but as " her professional rival " who used " a splashy tabloid newspaper to wipe out her venerable " newspaper The Banner appealed to Malone .
Executive producer Susan Bedsow Horgan , when speaking of Todd 's psychological motivations , reported that Peter Manning degraded him verbally and abused his mother , whom Todd loved but who abandoned and disappointed him , leaving Todd with wounds that influenced his later behavior . Author Gerry Waggett stated that Peter Manning had physically abused Todd his entire life .
= = = Signature scar , hair and facial cues = = =
In late 1993 , in order to make Todd look more menacing , he was given a scar to his right cheek by Marty 's friend , Luna Moody , when she hit him in his face with a crowbar while preventing his second attempted rape of Marty . The camera would often close in and emphasize Todd 's scar , which later became synonymous with the character .
To casting director Howard Meltzer , " Todd wears the scar like a badge . It 's a warning to others : Don 't mess with me . " Meltzer felt Howarth underplayed Todd ; Todd did not have to rant to incite fear . Meltzer added : " He gets a lot more from the raising of an eyebrow than raising the volume of his voice . Most of Todd 's performance is reacting to the environment around him , and thanks to Howarth 's expressiveness , viewers can see the wheels turning . " The scar also served to remind Todd of his past villainy against Marty . It was applied by glue , with a little makeup to make it look more authentic , and usually took ten minutes to apply .
Todd 's long hair was also integral to the character . It was described by Soap Opera Magazine as " enigmatic , with an air of innate authority " . The hair was said to demonstrate Todd 's lack of pretense and to convey an " I don 't care " attitude . Todd 's " overhanging brow " seemed threatening , but instead concealed the " intense , vulnerable eyes underneath " , features that contrasted well with the character 's " pouty , sensual mouth " . The features , which conferred " a charming , boyish quality " , could sometimes convey that Todd was less dangerous than he actually was . Photographer Robert Milazzo believed Howarth 's hair softened Todd 's character . " You don 't expect that intensity because of it , " he said , and felt that it made Todd more intriguing . Milazzo also stated that the combination of Todd 's soft hair and intensity made Todd " a very complex character to look at " .
Queried by an interviewer about Todd 's appeal , Howarth said he found it disturbing that people could romantically desire a character that is unhealthy . " I don 't get it , " he said . " I don 't want to insult anybody , but I don 't know why he 's attractive . " When the interviewer concluded Howarth 's good looks may have contributed to the character 's magnetism , Howarth said , " I know what the convention of a good @-@ looking person is , and I know that for some reason skinny white guys are big now . I guess you could blame it on that . "
In November 2008 , during St. John 's portrayal of the character , Todd is given a new scar by John McBain during a physical altercation in which John beats Todd with a gun . The scar symbolized Todd 's " second rape of Marty " , and was considered " a poetic nod " to Todd 's history . The scar was significantly smaller than the original but placed in the same spot ; it was gone by January 2009 . St. John stated , " I know . It 's too bad . I honestly have no idea why they wouldn 't keep that reminder on Todd 's face . It might be an economical thing . You know it costs to apply that kind of makeup each day . "
The most important aspect of Todd 's appearance for St. John was his character 's hair . His preference was that Todd 's hair was a little shorter ; he
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obsessive , crazy , irrational , devilish , heroic , angst @-@ filled , comical , etc . " and that " [ he ] loves , but he feels he 's unworthy of true love because of the things he 's done . He doesn 't love himself and projects a facade of a confident , arrogant playboy , but underneath it all , he 's someone who seeks an unattainable love " . Columnist Jill Berry , who saw Todd as self @-@ centered in the extreme , said that although Todd desperately wants to be loved , he is unable to give or receive it , and when he is loved , he will destroy it . She did acknowledge Todd 's capability of loving his children , which he expressed by doing " crazy and illegal things to prove it " , but felt that much of the difficulty he experiences is brought on by himself and that he is incapable of learning from his mistakes even when they hurt the people he loves . She said Todd is in need of " intensive therapy " , which will never work because he refuses to change . For example , as portrayed by St. John in 2006 , he fights for the custody of his son , Sam , but he is motivated by anger that he has been lied to and revenge more than by a desire to recover his child .
For several years on the series , a defining characteristic of Todd 's personality was his resistance to close relationships and sexual intimacy , which were due to his mistreatment by others , especially his adoptive father , who may have raped him when he was fourteen . It was also due to his horrific past misdeeds , including his rape of Marty and dysfunctional aspects of his relationship with Blair . Surviving a near @-@ death experience and being presumed dead in 1995 and , upon his return in 1996 , finding Blair having sex with Patrick made Todd bitter ; seeing Blair with another man sexually , soon after his presumed death , caused him to shut down emotionally . The writers made Todd 's fear of intimacy into a prominent obstacle for his relationship with his second wife , Téa . When she at one point attempts to seduce Todd by stripping down naked in front of him and pleading with him to make love to her , he rejects her , explaining that he no longer trusts himself to be intimate in that way ; he subsequently throws her out , practically naked , into the middle of a snowstorm .
Bishop stated , " Though viewers were given an explanation for his repulsive actions ( lots and lots of childhood trauma ) , his crime was never excused or glossed over . Todd began to care for people – Rebecca , then Blair and later Téa – something missing in his earlier sociopathic characteristics . " Soap opera commentator Kaydee Barnett stated that Todd 's dark edges had been softened over a period of many years by Blair , Viki , and Starr . Todd 's deep love for his sister , Viki , was partly demonstrated by him supporting her during her battle with cancer , her difficulties with her daughter and his niece , Jessica , and by defending Viki to her enemies . Berry enjoyed the vulnerability Viki brought out of Todd , and felt that his self @-@ hatred demonstrated itself in many ways , including when he refused to name his son , Jack , after himself because his name carried too much baggage . In the 1998 storyline where he fakes dissociative identity disorder ( split personalities ) to avoid a prison sentence for hostage and threat charges , the revelation that he was faking devastates Viki , who had actually suffered from the disorder ; it also brings out remorse in Todd , and causes him to reflect on his mistakes .
For the audience to better understand Todd , the writers made it so that his difficulties are manifested in his nightmares , which give him insomnia and are designed as a look into his soul and personality ; at multiple points within the series , Téa attempts to help him by encouraging him to open up to her about them , which he eventually does . His opinions on his enemies are conveyed clearly ; he remains one step ahead of them , and consistently out @-@ smarts police , family , and others he targets , sometimes using weapons .
= = Casting and portrayals = =
= = = General = = =
Following Howarth 's 1992 casting as Todd Manning , he occasionally vacated the role . His 2003 departure was his longest absence from OLTL ; he did not return to the series until 2011 . Todd was recast in 2003 with St. John , and Howarth joined As the World Turns as Paul Ryan until it was cancelled in 2010 . Malone stated that because of Todd 's appeal , which he credited to Howarth , " The network was therefore happy to have him return to Llanview whenever Roger would come back , and happy to have him move into story in major ways . " In April 2011 , after several months of speculation , OLTL confirmed Howarth 's return , although it was unclear if he would portray Todd Manning . He stated , " I am looking forward to returning to One Life to Live " . Valentini said , " We are thrilled to have Roger return to One Life to Live " . It was eventually revealed that St. John 's version of the character was really Victor Lord , Jr . , Todd 's twin brother , conditioned to believe that he was Todd and assume Todd 's identity , while the real Todd ( Howarth ) was held hostage for eight years .
OLTL was cancelled in early 2012 ; Howarth brought Todd to General Hospital ( GH ) , along with his co @-@ stars Kristen Alderson as Starr and Michael Easton as John McBain . All three actors were forced to briefly leave GH when Prospect Park , the company that bought the rights to OLTL and aired an online version of the show in 2013 , sued ABC for breach of contract . Prospect Park argued that ABC sabotaged its efforts by killing off two characters , Starr 's boyfriend Cole and her young daughter Hope . Both St. John and Howarth appeared on the online version as Victor and Todd , but the suit prevented ABC from continuing to feature Howarth , Alderson , and Easton as their original characters on GH ; ABC 's solution was to create new characters for the actors . The online version of OLTL was cancelled after one season .
= = = Howarth = = =
Malone credited Howarth 's versatility with the reason he was cast as Todd , as well as why he became an important part of the show 's cast , and one of the contributing factors for the character 's subsequent complexity . During a February 1993 interview with Soap Opera Digest ( SOD ) , Howarth stated he was surprised he won the part . " I really don 't know how I made it , " he said . He met a One Life to Live casting director two years previously , while performing in a New York play , but , when the role of Todd opened up , he " auditioned just like everybody else " . He " made it to callbacks , and [ he ] got the part " . Howarth said , " I was hired ... to plant drugs in Jason Webb 's jacket . All I knew was that my first name was Todd . I don 't know what happened next . They called me in again and suddenly I had a last name ' Manning . ' Then I get called to read another day . "
Howarth stated , " I was happy to get the part of Todd , but it was the furthest thing from the fabric of my personality . " In an interview later that year , with Soap Opera Weekly , he grimaced when reminded of what he had said , and commented , " What a totally self @-@ involved , pretentious thing to say . " He clarified his previous statement , saying that although he seemed to be consistently cast as a " bad guy " and as a " Greek frat brother @-@ type " , both his upbringing and experiences in college were different than those of Todd and his other roles . For example , Howarth was not in a fraternity in college , and , unlike Todd and his previous soap opera roles , Kent in Loving and Jory on Guiding Light , status was unimportant to him .
Although Howarth was familiar with campus fraternity life while attending George Washington University , he did not base Todd or his other roles on anyone he knew . When asked about his roles , he was unable to explain why he was consistently cast as a bad guy , but said that he enjoyed it . He stated , " I would never want to come in now and play a nice guy for three months . That would be dreadfully boring . This suits me fine . It 's just as easy to pretend I 'm a bad guy as it is to pretend I 'm a good guy " . For Howarth , playing a rapist was like playing any other role because " I know it 's all make @-@ believe " . Howarth was perplexed by the need for writers to redeem villains . " Todd 's a pretty interesting character just the way he is , " he said in late 1994 . " There 's no need to fix it if it 's not broken . I don 't know where the whole notion of redeeming characters comes from . People used to say to me , ' I hope you get redeemed so you can stay on the show . ' Well , Todd hasn 't been redeemed , and he 's still on the show . " Howarth continued , " I don 't love the character I play . If I met Todd on the street , I wouldn 't say ' Hi ' to him , but I do love playing this character . "
Howarth said of starring on a soap opera , " Every actor at one time passes through daytime . I wouldn 't have said yes to the offer if I didn 't want to stay a while on daytime . " He added , " I don 't crave fame . It 's kind of goofy . I didn 't want to be a public figure . I wanted to be an actor , not a movie star . But I love rock ' n ' roll @-@ there , I 'd rather be a rock star . That would be cool . " He said that " like all soap actors , " he sticks with the script the majority of the time , " but every now and then he goes off the page , " commenting , " You get to direct yourself . You come up with a little bit . It 's improvisational . Maybe you 're doing it just for your castmates , but the audience catches on . "
In 1997 and 1998 , Todd was given comedic partners similar to the set @-@ up in comedy teams , in which the " funny guy " usually has a " straight man " who either sets up the joke or simply does not understand it . Todd 's first partner was Charlie Briggs , portrayed by actor Robert J. Hogan . Hogan was first seen as Briggs in 1995 , working for the rival publication The Banner before Todd " [ steals ] him away " to work at his newspaper . Hogan said , " Briggs had been on the show for 17 years , but they never showed him . " Scenes between Todd and Briggs typically involved Todd issuing " some bizarre order " to Briggs , or Todd asking Briggs a " way @-@ out question " that was often " way out of line " . During these scenes , Briggs would often respond with a stupefied look on his face . Though Briggs appeared lost at some of Todd 's comments , Todd was sometimes unable to realize that the joke was about him . Hogan felt Briggs was " more than a match " for Todd . " You look at a kid yelling at you , " he said , " and you can 't take him seriously . "
Another of Todd 's comedic pairings is his friendship with a parrot he names Moose . Todd is closer to Moose than he is to most humans . He tells the bird his private thoughts and secrets , which causes conflict and antagonism between Moose and his wife at the time , Téa . Florencia Lozano , Téa 's portrayer , stated , " My character ... has a very adversarial relationship with the bird ... It 's sort of jealous of me , I 'm jealous of the bird . We 're both trying to get close to Todd . " The bird was portrayed by two South American blue and gold macaws named Flash and Lucky , and an Animal Planet documentary stated that they had developed an " impressive résumé " by the time they appeared on OLTL . They were trained by Ed Richman , who had worked with the birds for fifteen years in TV shows such as Magnum , P.I. and Jake and the Fatman . Richman stated that Howarth caught on " real quick " regarding his interaction with Flash and Lucky and said that he was the best actor he had worked with in the industry . The parrots were used for different purposes : for intimidating scenes where it looked like Moose " was going to kill somebody " , Richman used Flash , and Lucky was used for the " loving , very caring , physically close " portrayal of Moose . Like other actors , the parrots were able to connect , in character , with their fellow castmembers and achieve comedic timing with them . Voice actor Ron Gallop was hired to deliver Moose 's lines , which were crafted to help demonstrate Todd 's train of thought , signified Todd 's and Moose 's close bond , and consisted of funny or insulting remarks aimed at anyone causing problems for Todd .
= = = St. John = = =
Howarth 's departure from the series motivated OLTL 's writers and producers to do what many considered impossible : recast Todd . During Michael Malone 's second stint as head writer of OLTL , he had to decide if Todd would remain . Malone said that he and the other creators could not allow Todd to permanently leave the show 's canvas , so they chose to recast the role . They offered the role to Easton , who had portrayed the vampire Caleb Morley on the soap opera Port Charles , but he turned it down because he did not want to be affiliated with a role played by another established actor . Malone said that St. John 's audition was " extraordinary " , and that although a committee was involved in the recast , everyone agreed " he was Todd " . Malone felt that they made a risky decision , but St. John made it work and that he had made the character his own . Initially , St. John , in his first role in daytime television , was introduced as Walker Laurence , younger brother of Mitch Laurence .
Author Gerry Waggett stated that Walker was " reinvented as Todd with plastic surgery " after the show 's viewers accepted St. John as a part of the cast . The soap opera press and fans speculated for several months that Todd had been recast with St. John . The soap website Soap Central.com stated that despite executive producer Frank Valentini neither confirming nor denying it , St. John 's character exhibited " Todd @-@ like " behavior . TV Guide confirmed the speculation and reported that St. John , when asked about it , stated , " That would be fascinating , though I don 't see how it would work , " and added , " Todd [ had ] a different voice and height , but this is a soap world and anything can happen . "
St. John 's version of Todd had undergone plastic surgery after being severely beaten during a murder attempt on his life ordered by Mitch Laurence . While recovering in the hospital , Todd conducts research and learns Mitch has a brother named Walker ( also portrayed by St. John ) , who goes by the name Flynn Laurence . Todd pays Flynn for information on Mitch , and has extensive plastic surgery in order to physically resemble Flynn and get revenge on ( as well as protect his family from ) Mitch . The writers revealed Walker 's true identify slowly , allowing Walker to develop as a new character before hinting that he could be Todd .
St. John was unaware that Malone and the producers of OLTL were considering him as Todd , but had no strategy in his performance once he won the role . When speaking of the recast , he stated , " It 's nice , because I had instant concrete relationships . " He liked that he could consult old scripts and his fellow castmembers to gain information about his character , resources he did not have when playing Walker . He was able to use these resources to figure out his relationship to other characters , which helped him analyze how to play a scene . St. John stated that as an actor , he let the audience interpret the character , and believed in exploring and portraying the moment as it was written in the script . He said , " Todd is already written on the page , so it 's my job to bring him to life in that moment . "
St. John was instructed by the show 's directors to watch about fifteen episodes of Howarth 's performances of Todd because they wanted him to portray Todd like Howarth did . St. John reported that he watched two episodes , but never tried to mimic Howarth 's style because he felt that it was limiting , uncreative , and destructive . He said , " I needed to get a sense of who Todd was first , and that has to happen organically . " He did not care if Marlon Brando portrayed the role before him . St. John said that even actors who portray Hamlet do it differently , and added , " I don 't care what the other guy did . That 's his time . " He felt that it was up to him to decide how to perform Todd , saying , " I know that sounds very arrogant and overconfident , but it would be no fun to try to mimic somebody . "
Unlike how most actors are trained , St. John believed that it was not up to the performer to interpret the character , but that a character existed regardless of how an actor played him , which he realized was " an unusual way to approach acting " . He also thought that playing Todd was fun and " never boring to watch " because Todd , although popular with the audience , is an unlikable character . St. John told Branco that when people asked him if Todd was capable of harming his loved ones , like his long @-@ time love Blair or daughter Starr , St. John would say that Todd was capable of anything , even being sexually attracted to Starr or one of her friends , because to state otherwise meant that he was " limiting the character " . He added , " Todd is a marvelous character to play because he could commit genocide , or find a cure for AIDS . He 's full of possibilities — good and bad ... See , as an actor that always gives you conflict to play — and that subtext enriches a performance . "
= = Early writing and literary analysis = =
= = = Archetypes and rape = = =
Howarth said , " I think when it comes to creating a character for a soap opera they have to go with an archetype , one that 's recognizable . " Writer Jennifer Hayward felt the same , stating that like 19th century melodrama and serials , soap operas draw on powerful archetypes . Writer Dianne L. Brooks states that the storyline conforms to many of the same conventions of how rape has been presented in soap operas . According to Hayward , the OLTL writers " had a terrific time camping up Todd as the embodiment of evil " . She said that the writers who created Todd 's first major storyline , the gang rape of Marty Saybrooke and its aftermath , treated rape like most soaps had done in the past , by using archetypes such as the fight between good and evil and the contrast between the weak and strong . Author Gerry Waggett said , " The close @-@ ups of the rapists ' faces during the assault , distorted to capture Marty 's scared and drunken perspective , rank among the show 's most graphic images . " An attempt was made to dramatize the rape and present it differently than the typical voyeuristic perspective , and the scenes were designed to disturb the audience . Waggett added : " Marty 's subsequent quest to bring her rapists to justice dominated the show " throughout the summer of 1993 .
Up to this point , soap operas used rape and its related archetypes to , like their nineteenth @-@ century melodrama counterparts , " critique power relationships , especially the oppression of the poor by the rich and of women by men " . Hayward believes that the storyline was initially flawed because two of the rapists , Todd and Zach , were demonized , which oversimplified rape and " failed to capture the complex power relations underlying ... violence towards women " . The perpetrators were " simply evil or out control " , so they and their mindsets they represented could be rejected . The three characters represented three archetypes of the rapist : " the evil instigator " ( Todd ) ; " the good resister " ( Powell ) , and " the mediator between these polarized figures " ( Zach ) , but also represented a departure from how rape was treated in soaps . Brooks called the rapists " a complicated alternative to the standard soap opera rapist " , because they had a different relationship with their victim than in previous rape narratives and because they were multiple . Todd , whom Brooks called the " evil ' other ' " , was the leader and most villainous of the group and had a previous physical relationship with Marty . Hayward said , " What becomes especially clear is that for these characters the act of rape is not about sex , about women , or even about Marty . It is about what takes place ... between men . "
Like serials throughout history , soap operas use the unstable identity as a literary device , which is evidenced by the genre 's use of mistaken identities , evil twins , and characters that suffer from multiple personality disorder and whom come back from the dead . Identity is used in the rape storyline as well . Before the rape , Todd was crude yet still human , but afterwards , he became a dehumanized embodiment of rage , demonstrated by Todd 's bizarre and dangerous behavior after his conviction . Powell Lord , whose name is full of the same kind of symbolism Dickens used when choosing his characters ' names and who initially urges his friends to let Marty go yet ultimately gives into peer pressure , is a " relative ' good ' " character as compared to Todd 's " ' absolute evil ' identity " . In Hayward 's opinion , " The show also departs from the rape paradigm not only by insisting on the essential ' goodness ' of Powell Lord ... but even more startlingly by redeeming the evil Todd " . Initially , " the increasingly guilt @-@ ridden " Powell is the only rapist who has a conscience . He attempts to convince Todd and Zach to confess their crime , and comes close to confessing to his lawyer . Hayward calls Powell , like Todd , " redeemed " , but unlike Todd , was so guilt @-@ ridden that he attempted suicide , was forgiven by Marty , and received a much lighter jail sentence than Zach or Todd .
= = = Redeeming Todd = = =
Initially , Todd , as described by Hayward , was written as " unequivocally bad : sullen , remorseless , charmless " . As Todd 's popularity grew with the audience , mostly due to Howarth 's abilities to portray Todd as more than a one @-@ dimensional rapist , Malone and executive producer Susan Bedsow Horgan chose the controversial option of redeeming Todd rather than killing him off or permanently sending him to prison , which is what soap operas had usually done with irredeemable rapists in the past . The writers began to redeem Todd , or change him so that he could be incorporated into the show , in the spring of 1994 , a year after the rape . Hayward states that it required " a whole arsenal of symbolic weaponry , " something that had never happened in soap operas before . Malone was intrigued by crafting the story in this way , and saw it as the spiritual journey of a man who wanted forgiveness for his past misdeeds .
Malone stated that Todd believes that he does not deserve forgiveness , which contributes to him embracing his worst qualities , something Malone felt worked better due to Howarth 's acting choices , which prevented Todd from acquiring redemption easily . Malone felt the most important part of Todd 's redemption was to have him re @-@ confront Marty in order to better deal with the fact he initiated her rape . As well as having Todd risk his freedom from prison and save Marty from a car crash , he donates his own blood to Marty to ensure she survives . A year later , Todd risks his life to save Patrick , Marty 's lover , from death ; this act leads to Todd 's presumed death . Despite having the character yearn to be thought of as a decent human being , the writers felt his good deeds should never make him feel any less horrible for having raped Marty . Initially , Howarth disagreed , and did not consider the storylines to be redemptive . " [ Todd 's ] not being redeemed at all , " he said . " Todd , as I see it , is looking for a way to overcome this rage so he can live in society again . From now on , his menace will be on the surface , not exploding . It 's more interesting if his violence is on the surface and that he play against it . That 's where the subtlety is . "
Hayward stated that the writers turned Todd from a realistic soap opera character into " the villain appropriated from nineteenth @-@ century melodrama " and Gothic fiction traditions . After Todd is sent to prison for Marty 's rape , he vows he will escape , and does so by drugging himself and forcing himself to wake up from a coma , which allows him to escape from a speeding ambulance . He returns to Llanview to stalk and terrorize Nora , the lawyer who threw his court case , who had gone temporarily blind . He tries to rape Marty for the third time , later inadvertently kills Marty 's boyfriend Suede during a scuffle , kidnaps the evangelist Rebecca Lewis , and is shot by the police , but survives . The writers also began to deepen his character by emphasizing his tenderness towards Rebecca and showing flashbacks of the abuse he experienced from his adoptive father , which Hayward states does not " historicize the problem but simply removes the cause of violence one step " . Laurie Stone of the Village Voice commented that Howarth 's performance steered Todd away from cartoon villainy , " heightening the character 's wildness as a dodge from sentimentality and high @-@ mindedness " . Instead of killing Todd off as other soap operas had done to other unrepentant rapists , OLTL chose , as Stone put it , " to renovate the genre : maintaining Todd as a rapist , while enlarging his human dimension " .
Stone addressed how the writers kept Todd on the OLTL canvas , stating , " Characters as dangerous as Todd go up in flames on soaps . You can see little coffins on their eyelids , leaving only one question : how will the fiend get whacked ? " Stone said that " Todd was this close to being offed , but Howarth made that choice laughable . Rampaging through fictional Llanview , he injected ambiguity into the bluntest dialogue , his sneers averting cynicism to reveal depression and humor " and " transformed Todd into a soul @-@ wrenched Lucifer , his rage ripped from abuse and bathed in vengeful glee , his sexiness rising off his instinct for survival and his outlaw impulse to disrupt . " She added , " Even the ragged scar he acquired on one cheek only heightened his animal appeal . No soap would jettison such gold and electricity — a figure simultaneously furious , ironic , melancholy , and horny . "
The writers used strong imagery to redeem Todd . Malone , who had been a novelist and was known for his " Dickensian " plots on OLTL , was influenced by nineteenth @-@ century literature . Malone told Stone that he compared Rebecca 's decision to marry Powell instead of Todd to Cathy 's decision to marry Edgar Linton instead of Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights . According to Stone , Todd is a classical character − " a soap character of unprecedented psychological complexity , a being whose feelings are intrinsically mixed and mostly unresolvable " .
In Hayward 's view , Malone and his team of writers used four techniques drawn from the conventions of Victorian sentimental fiction to redeem Todd : his unhappy childhood with an aloof but caring mother and abusive father ; sending Todd to church to confess his past sins and present impulses ; his love for Rebecca , " an innocent and highly religious virgin " ; and his friendship with two children , C.J. and Sarah Roberts . Hayward calls Rebecca , with her " open @-@ mouthed passivity " and " pre @-@ Raphaelite curls " , " almost a caricature of Dicken 's more sentimental and less felicitous heroines " . She believes that many of Todd 's scenes with Rebecca are heavily iconic , with symbolic representations of the Virgin Mary and Freudian images of Todd 's own feminization .
Hayward compares Todd to Mary Shelley 's monster ( Frankenstein 's monster ) , especially his friendship with C.J. and Sarah . Shelley 's monster watches two children playing , and saves a young girl from drowning . Similarly , Todd rescues C.J. and Sarah 's cousin , Jessica , from being manhandled by an older boy ; this leads to him meeting C.J. and Sarah . Like Shelley 's monster , Todd observes the family 's happy moments from afar , and wishes to be part of their lives . He uses his time alone to make toys for the children . Once they accidentally discover him , he manipulates them into keeping his whereabouts a secret by telling them he is " a genie on the run from an evil master " . Hayward said , " The stories he tells them function as clear metaphors for his feelings about his father . " Stone added that Todd 's counseling sessions in prison were the writers ' attempts to redeem Todd , and both she and Hayward include one of the final techniques the writers used : Todd 's rescue of Marty , Jessica and C.J. soon after a car crash . Hayward calls the writers ' attempts to use powerful narrative and visual techniques to redeem Todd " dubious at best " .
Writer Mary D. Dutta believed that OLTL , in order to " assuage the moral qualms associated with a sympathetic rapist " , added " mitigating reasons for Todd 's sexual abuse of Marty " ; namely , that he was raped at the age of fourteen by his adoptive father , Peter Manning , though whether or not he was raped is disputed . Dutta feels that the gang rape storyline invokes many of the rape myths that have appeared in literature since the 18th century , which includes " only bad girls get raped , " " women ask for it , " and " women ' cry rape ' only when they 've been jilted or have something to cover up " . Dutta also includes the myth of the " reformed rake " , or " the rapist redeemed by the woman who loves him , not uncommonly the same woman he raped " , which " deny or reduce perceived injury , or ... blame the victims for their own victimization " . Dutta states , " Todd 's redemption begins with his rescue of Marty and two children from a car wreck and ends with the discovery that he is the rightful heir to a huge fortune . "
= = Reception and impact = =
= = = General popularity = = =
Todd 's impact is varied . The rape storyline inspired feminist studies , and , in 1994 , OLTL was awarded several Daytime Emmys in writing and acting for all the principles involved . Michael Malone and Josh Griffith 's team won an Emmy for writing , Susan Haskell won an Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series , and Hillary B. Smith was awarded the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series . Howarth won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actor in a Drama Series . In 1995 , Howarth was nominated for an Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series and Soap Opera Digest ( SOD ) named him Outstanding Leading Actor . SOD also named him Outstanding Villain in 1998 . While Howarth has been called a " fan favorite , and one of the best actors in soaps " , Todd has been called " one of the greatest characters of all @-@ time " and Howarth 's portrayal of him has been called " iconic " . The Hollywood Reporter stated that even though Todd was a convicted rapist , he was the most popular character and Howarth was the most popular actor on OLTL . According to Waggett , the rape storyline propelled Todd " onto the list of OLTL 's most despicable viilans " . He said that due to the storyline and to Howarth 's talent , Todd " bec [ a ] me the show 's next centerpiece villain and eventually the show 's male lead " . Howarth appeared on several interview shows following his Emmy win in 1994 , including the Phil Donahue Show in May , with six other male soap stars , and later that month , on Live ! with Regis and Kathie Lee . Host Regis Philbin commented on the fact that Howarth was receiving more fan mail than any other American soap opera star , and called him " a terrible villain , who 's become a heartthrob to thousands of wildly adoring fans " .
At the height of the character 's popularity , which was called " Todd @-@ mania " and " the Todd Manning phenomenon " , Howarth was disturbed that so many women were attracted to Todd and that the show 's writers had begun to redeem the character . In a September 1995 interview with The Hollywood Reporter , the publication stated that Howarth was troubled that " his villainous character became such a fan favorite " . In October 1995 , Howarth told SOD , " People have come up to me and said , ' My 7 @-@ year @-@ old loves you . ' What do I say to that ? I 'm not going to tell them , ' Don 't let your 7 @-@ year @-@ old watch TV . ' But I have to say , it 's disturbing . " He gave credit to the show 's writers for Todd 's popularity , saying that the rapists ' trial was well constructed and added , " I think , right now , we 're just riding the wave of something that started last summer . Beyond that , I don 't really know why people like Todd " .
Todd 's rampant popularity intruded on Howarth 's life . " It 's really starting to frustrate me because I can 't just go to work anymore , " he said . He stopped doing press interviews after fans screamed " Rape me , Todd " at fan events . Howarth 's coming @-@ and @-@ goings from time to time throughout the years , including his return in 2010 , even though the role of Todd had been re @-@ cast with St. John , were greeted with anticipation , excitement , and speculation from the fans . At one point in 2000 , Howarth returned for a week , accompanied by significant fanfare , in order to assist with the departure of Florencia Lozano ( Teá ) . During the ten years he was on the show , rumors of his departures were reported sometimes weekly by the soap opera press .
Soap Opera Magazine attributed the success of Todd to Howarth 's face and skill as an actor . In February 1998 , the magazine stated , " Although the scar that traverses his face while he plays Llanview 's dark prince isn 't real , the menacing intensity Roger Howarth can so effortlessly convey with his eyes and furrowed brow are frighteningly authentic . " Soap Opera Weekly called his presence " hypnotic " and stated that his eyes relayed his focus . The magazine added that Howarth " has given Todd such a deliciously frightening edge we hope he wreaks more havoc in Llanview " . Marla Hart of the Chicago Tribune stated , " ... it has been an unexpected pleasure to watch actor Roger Howarth as a lost soul in search of spiritual redemption " . Hart speculated that the darkness Howarth brought to the role made him interesting to watch and was responsible for his Emmy win in 1995 .
St. John and the writers received praise for the recast , and for successfully re @-@ integrating Todd into the show 's canvas . Soap Opera Weekly stated , " They said it couldn 't be done . One Life to Live 's Todd ( previously played by Roger Howarth ) could not be recast . But with an appealing actor and the right pacing , One Life to Live may just have done it " . The magazine stated that the writers revealed Todd 's identity slowly , letting Walker develop as a character before dropping hints that he might be Todd . By the time he disclosed who he really was to his daughter Starr , the audience had already suspected the truth . Soap Opera Weekly called the reveal scene between St. John and Alderson , who played Starr , " one of those great ( and , these days , rare ) must @-@ see moments " . Soap Opera Digest said that despite the recast , a difficult situation in and of itself , " St. John aptly distinguished between Walker , who 's really Todd , as well as Flynn , who pretended to be Walker " . The magazine stated that St. John revealed glimmers of Todd to the audience : " We could see Todd when Walker lowered his eyes while holding back from telling his sister , Viki ; with fiancee Blair , Walker 's gaze was always shifting , making sure nothing could clue her in to his secret " . The article also credited St. John with maintaining " the [ uniquely scheming ] relationship of Todd and Starr " and for keeping their scenes touching and delightful .
On May 29 , 2006 , in what the soap opera section of SheKnows described as " one of the most memorable moments " for OLTL , and " breathtaking , nerve @-@ racking , heart wrenching " , St. John portrayed Todd being executed for a crime he did not commit . At the last moment , after the lethal injection has been administered , John McBain rushes in declaring Todd 's innocence , with proof : the woman Todd is accused of killing ( Margaret Cochran ) is at his side , clearly still alive , and Todd is revived . During the execution episode , a montage a little over four minutes in length was shown while a song played in the background . The song was called " Forsaken " ( or " Todd 's Song " ) and written by Michal Towber especially for the show . The montage included reaction shots of those witnessing the execution , shots of Starr crying in the presence of a lynch mob outside the prison , and flashbacks of Todd 's children and of Blair during both St. John and Howarth 's tenures as Todd , with Howarth 's face unseen . The scenes were called " unbearable " by viewers , and their responses were varied . Much of the audience was infuriated by Blair 's unwillingness to believe that Todd was innocent . Many viewers thought that Todd 's death was permanent ; Soap Opera Digest speculated that this was due to limited Internet access or to a lack of interest in spoilers .
Although fans and St. John 's co @-@ workers felt that he deserved an Emmy nomination for his death row performances , he did not receive one , but OLTL received a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series by submitting the episode . One soap opera website criticized St. John 's Emmy snub , stating that it was incongruous that the show 's Best Show nomination was due in large part to St. John 's performance . Soap opera commentators Nelson Branco and Michael Fairman called St. John 's execution performances the best on any daytime drama in the early 2000s . Towber and other composers for the show were nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Music Direction and Composition for a Drama Series .
= = = Controversy and fan debate = = =
= = = = Rape and redemption = = = =
Although the gang rape storyline was well @-@ received , it was also criticized . Jennifer Hayward , in her literary analysis of the rape and its similarity to nineteenth century melodrama , stated that this storyline not only polarized " the gap between rapists and the raped but also the figure of the rapist himself " , and that insisting on " the ' essential ' goodness " of Powell Lord implied that peer pressure " could be an adequate ( or even physiologically possible ) excuse for rape " . Scholar Mary Buhl Dutta , arguing that the storyline perpetuated rape myths , commented on how the series especially used Marty , who fulfilled the stereotype of " the bad girl " who was the rape victim . Dutta stated that " Marty had once ' cried rape ' " when the Rev. Andrew Carpenter " rebuffed her romantic overtures , falsely accusing him of sexually abusing a boy he was counseling " . After she was actually raped , she falsely yet unintentionally accuses Kevin Buchanan , who was innocent . Marty , according to Dutta , " is a ' bad girl ' because she had a one @-@ night stand with Todd before the rape , bolstering his later claim she ' asked for it ' in their second sexual encounter " .
Critics have wondered why Todd is popular . Soap opera journalist Marlena De Lacroix , who acknowledged that she neither liked or understood Todd , expressed her inability to understand his popularity among so many fans , even during his several hiatuses from the show . She asked , " Why has the show devoted years of storyline time to him and all but made a hero out of a criminal ? " Hayward , who said that her own response to Todd 's redemption was ambivalent , called the writers ' attempt to redeem Todd controversial and stated that the role of Rebecca , the woman the writers paired Todd with during the redemption process , " seems to encourage both female and male fantasies about the power of a ' good woman ' to save a man from his own violent impulses " . In his book Behold the Man , Edisol Dotson suggested that viewers accepted Todd 's redemption because he was physically attractive . Dotson stated , " Were Todd an ugly man , he would have never been forgiven , and female fans would not crowd the studio 's backdoor shouting his name . "
Soap opera commentator Jenn Bishop said she found it difficult to explain Todd 's popularity , and that if she is perplexed about her feelings regarding him , it is understandable that others would be as well . " If I were to give a surface level assessment of Todd , I 'd say he 's an abhorrent character with little to no redeeming qualities , " she said . " His actions , which span from the immoral to criminal , can be downright heinous . I wouldn 't want to know Todd , let alone be around him in real life . Nor would I want any woman to have any sort of relationship with him . " Instead of seeing Todd as an antihero , she saw him as more of " an anti @-@ anti @-@ hero " and stated that what added to his appeal was that his rape storyline was authentic . " While Todd is not the first ( or the last ) soap character to have committed this crime , the realness of this particular storyline didn 't leave a lot of room for rewrites , " Bishop commented . " For example , Luke 's rape of Laura on General Hospital was rewritten and for years was referred to as a ' seduction . ' There was no ' grey area ' . This [ Todd 's rape of Marty ] could not be dismissed as simply the behavior of a romantic rogue . " To Bishop , the end result of this aspect , and that the writers had Todd generally pay for his crimes , " was the development of a dynamic , unpredictable , multi @-@ faceted character with many traits that conflict with one another " and " [ a ] ll this makes for one messed up guy , intriguing to the viewers and one I can 't help but like " .
Hayward categorized the writing team involved in Todd 's redemption as " an usually high number of male writers " , and as an unusual situation because , historically , most soap opera writers have been women . In a June 1994 interview with TV Guide , in an article about the trend during the early 1990s of redeemed rapists on soap operas , head writer Malone commented that " [ t ] he bond between the woman and the violator is a great historical tradition in fiction and films , " and said that Rudolph Valentino , Humphrey Bogart , Kirk Douglas , and Clark Gable " all began as totally irredeemable villains . " Although he did not think that most women want to be raped or are drawn to violence , he said that viewers " are responding to the intensity of passion and an actor who lets you inside the torment . Some [ women ] believe they can be swept up in that passion and still turn it good . They think , ' With me , he 'd be different ' " . The author of the article , Michael Logan , supported Malone 's statements , and commented , " Let 's call a spade a spade . There is a large contingent of American female soap viewers who find something very attractive about rapists " . Hayward reported that many female viewers were furious that Logan had described them this way , and stated that their attraction to Todd was due to the skill of the actor portraying him .
Howarth said he had no desire to portray a redeemed Todd , and that the show would be better off finding " a Todd who won 't object to the material . " He subsequently left the series for a year . In the October 24 , 1995 Soap Opera Digest issue , he stated :
In the beginning , the character of Todd was successful . I 'll always be proud of this story , because it was the result of a real team effort . It was one of those spectacular times when the writer , producer , director , grips , engineers and actors were all on the same wavelength . Everybody was working toward a common goal . My task , at the time , was to show the humanity of someone who was basically inhuman . Todd wasn 't one @-@ dimensional , but he was definitely a serious psychopath . Todd was a serial rapist . He raped Carol Swift . Then , he raped Marty Saybrooke , and that rape was brutal , intense , violent and realistic . There were innuendos he had raped other women before . He stalked Nora , he stalked and tried to rape Luna . [ Then @-@ Executive Producer ] Linda Gottlieb told me with reasonable certainty that [ One Life to Live ] would not try to redeem Todd . So , I didn 't think the character would change . Then about a year ago , it became clear to me they were taking the character on a different path — they were redeeming him . In my mind , I 'd been hired to play Todd Manning , a very realistic , serious psychopath . But now , the powers @-@ that @-@ be wanted me to play Todd Lord . And the story of Todd Lord is not realistic — it 's a fairy tale . I thought , " It would be best for the show if I were to leave . " That 's when I tendered my resignation .
Howarth also stated that Todd and Marty suddenly bonding , even if reluctantly , did not make sense and that he could not , in good conscience , support Todd 's redemption by continuing to play him as Todd Lord , who had become a likable character . Since the rape was , as he called it , " so in @-@ depth and so brutal " , he viewed Todd and Marty doing something like having drinks with each other bizarre . Entertainment Weekly reported that One Life to Live agreed to let Howarth go on the condition he would not appear on another soap opera for twelve months . Indy Week said , " Todd was partially redeemed into a self @-@ destructive antihero who remained popular until the show 's end , but his portrayer and many critics were wary of having him becoming a romantic lead . "
= = = = Merchandising = = = =
In 2002 , as part of ABC 's push to sell merchandise from its soap operas , the network began selling a doll in Todd 's likeness on its website , but were thwarted by a backlash . Modeled after cartoon versions of the Manning family that Starr would sometimes imagine , the doll sold for $ 19 @.@ 95 . According to the description on the site , it was " an all @-@ cloth doll with brown felt hair and blue eyes . He is 20 inches standing . He wears a blue shirt and black pants " . The doll 's face also included Todd 's scar . Even though several years had passed since the gang rape and Todd had " since settled down " , and had become a more sympathetic character , rape advocate groups thought that selling the doll glorified sexual assault ; so ABC removed the doll from its online store . Pictures of the doll were pulled from the Internet and the doll was blocked from being available at eBay or any other online store .
The controversy began when the industry newsletter " The Jack Myers Report " harshly criticized ABC for selling the doll , and other news outlets reported the snafu . Bob Tedeschi of The New York Times stated , " In the charge toward e @-@ commerce revenues , ABC learned a useful lesson last week : Don 't try to sell cuddly rag dolls depicting homicidal rapists " . Angela Shapiro , president of ABC , said , " I was insensitive and take total responsibility for it . I should have been sensitive to the history of the character and I wasn 't " . Another ABC executive stated , " We didn 't exercise proper sensitivity to the history of the character of Todd . We have re @-@ evaluated and decided not to sell the doll " . A doll of Todd 's daughter , Starr , remained in ABC stores . Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times commented , " I suppose ABC didn 't have much of a choice but to pull the product--but I have to wonder about the people who voiced those protests . " He added , " It was a stupid SOCK DOLL based on a SOAP OPERA CHARACTER . If you 're offended by that , how do you get through the day without succumbing to fits of hysterical outrage every five minutes ? "
= = = = Recast = = = =
When Todd was recast with St. John after Howarth 's departure , many fans felt that like the roles of Luke Spencer ( Anthony Geary ) on General Hospital and Erica Kane ( Susan Lucci ) on All My Children , Todd should be portrayed only by the actor who had originated the role . As Soap Opera Digest put it , " Few recasts caused more uproar " . Soap Opera Digest also stated that while there were fans who " will only consider Howarth to be their beloved Todd " , St. John won over many fans by putting a lighter spin on the character . Soap Opera Weekly stated that they were " on board with St. John " . Soap Opera Digest agreed , commenting that St. John made the transition believable while adding new facets to the character . The magazine also stated that Todd 's new appearance aided in his continuing redemption . Soap opera columnist Jill Berry expressed her approval for the recast , stating , " Trevor 's Todd continues to impress me . He has given some sweetness to Todd that I find totally appealing " .
In late 2006 , St. John and Howarth simultaneously began contract negotiations with their respective shows , which caused rumors that St. John was departing from OLTL , leaving room for Howarth , who was with the soap opera As the World Turns at the time , to return as Todd . TV Guide sought to clear up the matter and questioned executive producer Frank Valentini , who stated that although he was not able to comment on contracts , the producers were " doing our best to make sure that we do right by the audience " . In 2007 , TV Guide received official confirmation Howarth would not be returning to the series . The magazine conducted a poll on its website , TV Guide.com , and found that 82 percent of the show 's viewers wanted to see Howarth return . Daniel R. Coleridge of TV Guide.com disagreed with the results , stating , " Perhaps I 'm in the minority , but I absolutely adore Trevor St. John " , whose portrayal of Todd he found " very cocky , arrogant and humorous in a sexy way " .
In 2009 , following the announcement that As the World Turns would be cancelled in 2010 , rumors that Howarth would return to OLTL regained momentum . The rumors were further fueled by an August 2010 episode of OLTL , in which Howarth 's picture was shown and a delirious Téa stated that the current Todd ( St. John ) was not Todd Manning . This resulted in what Dan Kroll of the website Soap Opera Central.com described as fans " rac [ ing ] to their computers to figure out the meaning of the scene " . Kroll speculated that the scene was " crafted merely to get fans talking , or was it a hint to viewers something big was coming down the pike ? " Soap Opera Network , citing unnamed sources and pointing to the 2010 episode , reported on their website that they had " learned exclusively Howarth [ would ] indeed be returning " to the series in the near future . Soap Opera Digest columnist Carolyn Hinsey dismissed the report , stating on her Facebook page , " Seriously , stop with the Howarth misinformation here please . He is not coming back to OLTL . Case closed . " Some fans were convinced that St. John 's character was an impostor , while others were not ; although Howarth eventually returned as Todd in 2011 , his return was initially accompanied with fan debate regarding what role he would play , Todd Manning or a new character .
= = = = Violence towards teenagers = = = =
According to Nelson Branco of TV Guide , OLTL aired " some of the most explosive and ugliest scenes ever broadcast on daytime " television in March 2008 when Todd beat up teenager Cole Thornhart ( his daughter 's boyfriend and Marty 's son ) , and slapped Starr and Cole 's friends Markko Rivera and Langston Wilde . Todd barges in on Starr and Cole in bed together for the first time , jumping to the conclusion that Cole had raped her , " and [ beats ] the son of his rape victim relentlessly " . At least one soap opera blogger was outraged , and wanted Todd to be punished .
In Branco 's opinion , head writer Ron Carlivati wanted to use the storyline to return Todd to his dark roots by showing him as a monster again , stating , " Carlivati chose to do something unique , bold and risky with one of his marquee characters " , demonstrating Todd 's damaged personality and calling into question his mental stability . Carlivati said that Todd was convinced that Starr 's alleged rape was karmic payback , even when Starr insisted that she had not been raped . Branco postulated that Todd 's conclusion and strong reaction to seeing the two in bed together was Todd 's inability to separate sex from violence , stating , " Todd , in that instance , became unhinged , paranoid , and out @-@ of @-@ control " . Todd was in denial , and even almost hit Starr twice when she challenged his beliefs . The scenes were praised as " riveting " . Soap columnist Marlena De Lacroix , a self @-@ described " Todd hater " who felt that the character was psychotic , expressed hope that they were " the beginning of a storyline that will delve into Todd 's mind and enlighten viewers as to the complexities of a character who is mentally ill " . De Lacroix worried that although the storyline had the potential to be memorable , it could be another way to build sympathy for Todd .
= = = = Revictimizing Marty = = = =
Deciding to revisit the rape storyline in 2007 , Carlivati wrote a story in which Marty is thrown from a van during a car crash later that year . The van explodes , and she is presumed dead . In June 2008 , Todd discovers her alive , and finds that she is afflicted with amnesia and has been crippled since the crash . He starts to nurse her back to health , lying to her about her identity and her importance to the people she loves . ABC promoted the storyline by airing ads that called it , " The story you thought you 'd never see " . Carlivati defended the storyline by assuring the audience , who was concerned about and resisted the storyline , that it would not have been written if Marty had not lost her memories . He stated that he was aware of how serious it was pairing the characters romantically , but did not feel like they were damaging Marty 's character . Carlivati was committed to having the storyline progress slowly , and to using the actors ' and characters ' chemistry . Eventually , Todd and Marty have sex ; Todd insists that he has always been in love with Marty and plots to steal his daughter 's baby ( who is also Marty 's grandchild ) , run off with Marty and the baby , and raise the baby with her .
According to Branco , the show 's past writing teams had proposed creating a Marty and Todd love story , but it never happened , mostly because Haskell and Howarth had refused to participate . In Branco 's opinion , the push toward the storyline was the reason Howarth eventually left OLTL for As the World Turns . By contrast , at a fan gathering in 2008 , St. John joked about Todd and Marty bonding during the Carlivati storyline , stating , " I 'm all for gang rape . " He later issued an apology for the comment : " I should know better than to ever try and make a joke about such a serious subject . I intended no disre [ s ] pect and apologize to anyone I offended . "
De Lacroix found Carlivati 's storyline " disgusting " , stating that it was exploitative , misogynistic , insulting to the audience , and " the most phony , stupidly contrived story I have ever seen " . She also felt that it was a severe misjustice to the original storyline . Fans who were opposed to the controversial storyline called it " the re @-@ rape " , and ABC aired public service announcements ( PSAs ) during the Todd and Marty sex scene for their viewers . Berry supported ABC 's use of the PSAs , but felt that they were used to justify the storyline and stated that it would have been better to not have presented it in the first place . Lynn Parrish , a spokesperson for Rape , Abuse & Incest National Network ( RAINN ) , which was not consulted by the show 's writers , spoke out against the " re @-@ rape " storyline . She told Branco , " There is nothing romantic about rape " , and that " whoever writes a romance between a rapist and its victim under any circumstances clearly doesn 't understand rape nor violence — and probably shouldn 't be writing about it " .
Branco called the original rape storyline " the gold standard of rape stories , " and stated that Carlivati had changed it into a soap opera cliché . Carlivati 's addition to the characters ' histories left him feeling betrayed , hurt , depressed , angry , insulted , and disgusted , and he said that he had wasted almost 20 years investing in and believing in the original rape storyline . At the " re @-@ rape " storyline 's conclusion , Branco stated that the payoff was worth the tense moments . " However obscene or depraved the riskiest storyline in recent memory was , " he said , " the fallout has been shockingly riveting — thanks to the fact that head writer Ron Carlivati is playing all the psychological beats of Todd 's self @-@ serving and criminal actions . " Branco also gave credit to St. John . " Nominated for a 2009 Soap Opera Spirit Award as outstanding lead actor , St. John inarguably faced the most challenging assignment of any actor in 2008 — in any genre , " said Branco . " And yet , somehow , St. John made it work . In a lesser actor 's hands , the storyline most certainly would have resulted in career suicide for all involved . "
= Typhoon Judy ( 1989 ) =
Typhoon Judy of July 1989 was a strong tropical cyclone that caused extensive damage and loss of life in Japan , South Korea and the eastern Soviet Union . Originating from a monsoon trough on July 21 , Judy began as a tropical depression west of the Northern Mariana Islands . Tracking west @-@ northwest , the system gradually intensified into a tropical storm and was given the name Judy on July 23 . By this time , the storm had turned due north . Two days later , Judy attained typhoon status as it began a gradual turn to the west @-@ northwest . Late on July 25 , the storm peaked with winds of 165 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Striking Kyushu on July 27 , interaction with the island 's mountainous terrain caused Judy to quickly weaken as it neared South Korea . The weakened storm struck the country west of Pusan the following day before losing its identity near the border with North Korea . The remnants of Judy were last noted over the Sea of Japan .
In Japan , damaging winds from the typhoon left approximately 4 million people without power . Significant flooding in the country resulted in 11 deaths and $ 28 @.@ 9 million in damage . In South Korea , heavy rains from the storm exacerbated ongoing floods , leading to at least 20 fatalities . Flooding from the remnants of Judy affected the Soviet Far East , temporarily severing the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway and killing 15 people .
= = Meteorological history = =
In mid @-@ July , a monsoon trough located west of the Northern Mariana Islands produced two tropical disturbances . The first of these tracked due west and later became Tropical Storm Irving . The second of these disturbances remained poorly organized and development into a tropical cyclone was expected to be slow . By July 21 , an area of low pressure formed within the system and convection associated with it increased . Situated underneath an anticyclone , upper @-@ level outflow also improved . Following further organization of the system , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued their first advisory on Tropical Depression 11W on July 21 ; at this time , the depression was located about 555 km ( 345 mi ) west of Guam . Further aided by a tropical upper tropospheric trough to the northwest , the depression intensified into a tropical storm on July 23 and was assigned the name Judy by the JTWC .
On July 23 , a subtropical ridge to the northeast of Judy caused the system to turn northward . This turn was not well anticipated by tropical cyclone forecast models . By July 25 , satellite imagery indicated that Judy had intensified into a typhoon . Within hours of reaching this strength , the a weather buoy near the storm recorded a barometric pressure of 974 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 76 inHg ) and winds of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Strengthening continued throughout the day and Judy soon attained its peak intensity as a Category 2 equivalent typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , with maximum sustained winds estimated at 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Around this time , the Japan Meteorological Agency assessed the typhoon to have attained ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) and a pressure of 940 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) .
On July 26 , the typhoon turned towards the northwest and weakened somewhat . Late the next day , Judy struck the southern coast of Kyushu before moving over the Korea Strait . Interaction with the mountainous terrain of the island caused the storm to degenerate . Less than a day after moving over Kyushu , the system weakened to a tropical storm and soon made landfall in South Korea , roughly 205 km ( 125 mi ) west of Pusan . Once onshore , rapid weakening took place with Judy being downgraded to a tropical depression within 12 hours . The remnants of Judy were last noted on July 29 over the Sea of Japan .
= = Impact = =
On July 26 , the Japan Meteorological Agency began warning residents of the typhoon 's imminent arrival , stating that Judy would approach western parts of the country in two days . The following day , heavy rain and strong wind warnings were issued for much of Kyushu . Heavy rains from the storm affected much of southern Japan . Across Kyushu , rainfall rates exceeded 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) per hour at times and many areas measured total rainfall over 500 mm ( 20 in ) . Significant flooding and landslides from the storm destroyed 25 homes and damaged many more . In Nichinan , Miyazaki , roughly 1 @,@ 800 people evacuated as a river rose and threatened to flood parts of the city . Damaging winds from the storm , measured up to 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) in Kagoshima , left roughly 4 million households without power . Train service throughout Kyushu was significantly disrupted , with 110 @,@ 000 passengers stranded . Damage throughout the island was placed at $ 3 @.@ 8 million . Agricultural losses from the storm reached 3 @.@ 5 billion yen ( $ 25 @.@ 1 million ) . In all , Typhoon Judy killed 11 people in Japan , destroyed 76 homes and damaged 10 @,@ 664 others .
On July 28 , typhoon and heavy rain warnings were issued for all of South Korea . Numerous people in low @-@ lying areas were evacuated . Thousands of vessels were also called to port to ride out the storm . Winds up to 125 km / h ( 78 mph ) battered coastal areas of South Korea , uprooting many trees and leaving thousands without power . In Yeosu , hundreds of windows were blown out by the winds . Heavy rains , amounting to at least 335 mm ( 13 @.@ 2 in ) along the Yeongsan River , from the storm exacerbated ongoing floods in the country . In Pusan , 15 people were killed by the storm , 9 by landslides and 6 by structural collapse or flooding . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed in the city . In some areas , flood waters were " knee @-@ deep . " Throughout the country , 20 people were confirmed to have been killed by the storm ; however , media reports indicated that 24 people perished . According to Korean officials , roughly 47 @,@ 000 people were left homeless and losses reached 1 @.@ 2 billion won ( $ 1 @.@ 8 million USD ) . In the wake of Typhoon Judy , the South Korean Red Cross set up soup kitchens .
The remnants of Judy produced heavy rains in the Soviet Far East in early August , resulting in significant flooding . In Primorsky Krai , at least 15 people were killed by the floods which virtually cut off part of the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway and washed out 267 bridges . A total of 109 settlements were also inundated . Approximately 120 @,@ 000 hectares ( 300 @,@ 000 acres ) of land was underwater at the height of the floods . In addition to the loss of human life , 75 @,@ 000 cattle drowned .
= Vizianagaram fort =
Vizianagaram fort is an early 18th century fort in the city of Vizianagaram in northeastern Andhra Pradesh , South India . It was built by Vijaya Rama Raju , the Raja of Vizianagaram in 1713 . The formal ceremony , while laying the foundation for the fort , was very auspicious as it represented five signs of victory . The square @-@ shaped fort has two main gates , of which the main entry gate ( the " Nagar khana " ) has elaborate architectural features . There are many temples and palaces within the fort and a victory tower .
= = Location = =
The fort is situated in Vizianagaram ( Telugu language meaning : " the city of victory " ) about 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) away from the Bay of Bengal . It is 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) to the northwest of Visakhapatnam .
= = History = =
The Vizianagaram fort was built in 1713 at a location where five vijayas ( Telugu language meaning : " signs of victory " ) were supposed to be present . It is named after its founder Vijaya Rama Raju , also known as Ananda Raju I ( 1671 – 1717 ) , the Raja of Vizianagaram.The site for the fort was suggested to
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plants , although some Azotobacter species are associated with plants . Nitrogen fixation is inhibited in the presence of available nitrogen sources , such as ammonium ions and nitrates .
Azotobacter species have a full range of enzymes needed to perform the nitrogen fixation : ferredoxin , hydrogenase , and an important enzyme nitrogenase . The process of nitrogen fixation requires an influx of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate . Nitrogen fixation is highly sensitive to the presence of oxygen , so Azotobacter developed a special defensive mechanism against oxygen , namely a significant intensification of metabolism that reduces the concentration of oxygen in the cells . Also , a special nitrogenase @-@ protective protein protects nitrogenase and is involved in protecting the cells from oxygen . Mutants not producing this protein are killed by oxygen during nitrogen fixation in the absence of a nitrogen source in the medium . Homocitrate ions play a certain role in the processes of nitrogen fixation by Azotobacter .
= = = Nitrogenase = = =
Nitrogenase is the most important enzyme involved in nitrogen fixation . Azotobacter species have several types of nitrogenase . The basic one is molybdenum @-@ iron nitrogenase . An alternative type contains vanadium ; it is independent of molybdenum ions and is more active than the Mo @-@ Fe nitrogenase at low temperatures . So it can fix nitrogen at temperatures as low as 5 ° C , and its low @-@ temperature activity is 10 times higher than that of Mo @-@ Fe nitrogenase . An important role in maturation of Mo @-@ Fe nitrogenase plays the so @-@ called P @-@ cluster . Synthesis of nitrogenase is controlled by the nif genes . Nitrogen fixation is regulated by the enhancer protein NifA and the " sensor " flavoprotein NifL which modulates the activation of gene transcription of nitrogen fixation by redox @-@ dependent switching . This regulatory mechanism , relying on two proteins forming complexes with each other , is uncommon for other systems .
= = Importance = =
Nitrogen fixation plays an important role in the nitrogen cycle . Azotobacter also synthesizes some biologically active substances , including some phytohormones such as auxins , thereby stimulating plant growth . They also facilitate the mobility of heavy metals in the soil , thus enhancing bioremediation of soil from heavy metals , such as cadmium , mercury and lead . Some kinds of Azotobacter can also biodegrade chlorine @-@ containing aromatic compounds , such as 2 @,@ 4 @,@ 6 @-@ trichlorophenol . The latter was previously used as an insecticide , fungicide , and herbicide , but later was found to have mutagenic and carcinogenic effects .
= = Applications = =
Owing to their ability to fix molecular nitrogen and therefore increase the soil fertility and stimulate plant growth , Azotobacter species are widely used in agriculture , particularly in nitrogen biofertilizers such as azotobacterin . They are also used in production of alginic acid , which is applied in medicine as an antacid , in the food industry as an additive to ice cream , puddings , and creams , and in the biosorption of metals .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Azotobacter genus was discovered in 1901 by Dutch microbiologist and botanist Martinus Beijerinck , who was one of the founders of environmental microbiology . He selected and described the species Azotobacter chroococcum – the first aerobic , free @-@ living nitrogen fixer .
In 1909 , Lipman described Azotobacter vinelandii , and a year later Azotobacter beijerinckii Lipman , 1904 , which he named in honor of Beijerinck . In 1949 , Russian microbiologist Nikolai Krasilnikov identified the species of Azotobacter nigricans Krasil 'nikov , 1949 which was divided in 1981 by Thompson Skerman into two subspecies - Azotobacter nigricans subsp. nigricans and Azotobacter nigricans subsp. achromogenes ; in the same year , Thompson and Skerman described Azotobacter armeniacus Thompson and Skerman , 1981 . In 1991 , Page and Shivprasad reported a microaerophilic and air @-@ tolerant type Azotobacter salinestris Page and Shivprasad 1991 which was dependent on sodium ions .
Earlier , representatives of the genus were assigned to the family Azotobacteraceae Pribram , 1933 , but then were transferred to the family Pseudomonadaceae based on the studies of nucleotide sequences 16S rRNA . In 2004 , a phylogenetic study revealed that A. vinelandii belongs to the same clade as the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa , and in 2007 it was suggested that the genera Azotobacter , Azomonas and Pseudomonas are related and might be synonyms .
= Battle of Akroinon =
The Battle of Akroinon was fought at Akroinon or Akroinos ( near modern Afyon ) in Phrygia , on the western edge of the Anatolian plateau , in 740 between an Umayyad Arab army and the Byzantine forces . The Arabs had been conducting regular raids into Anatolia for the past century , and the 740 expedition was the largest in recent decades , consisting of three separate divisions . One division , 20 @,@ 000 strong under Abdallah al @-@ Battal and al @-@ Malik ibn Shu 'aib , was confronted at Akroinon by the Byzantines under the command of Emperor Leo III the Isaurian ( r . 717 – 741 ) and his son , the future Constantine V ( r . 741 – 775 ) . The battle resulted in a decisive Byzantine victory . Coupled with the Umayyad Caliphate 's troubles on other fronts and the internal instability before and after the Abbasid Revolt , this put an end to major Arab incursions into Anatolia for three decades .
= = Background = =
Since the beginning of the Muslim conquests , the Byzantine Empire , as the largest , richest and militarily strongest state bordering the expanding Caliphate , had been the Muslims ' primary enemy . Following the disastrous Battle of Sebastopolis , the Byzantines had largely confined themselves to a strategy of passive defence , while the Muslim armies regularly launched raids into Byzantine @-@ held Anatolia . Following their failure to capture the Byzantine capital , Constantinople , in 717 – 718 , the Umayyads for a time diverted their attention elsewhere . From 720 / 721 , however , they resumed these expeditions in a regular pattern : each summer one or two campaigns ( pl. ṣawā 'if , sing. ṣā 'ifa ) would be launched , sometimes accompanied by a naval attack and sometimes followed by winter expeditions ( shawātī ) . These were no longer aimed at permanent conquest but rather large @-@ scale raids , plundering and devastating the countryside and only occasionally attacking forts or major settlements . The raids of this period were also largely confined to the central Anatolian plateau ( chiefly its eastern half , Cappadocia ) , and only rarely reached the peripheral coastlands .
Under the more aggressive Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik ( r . 723 – 743 ) , the Arab raids became more large @-@ scale affairs and were led by some of the Caliphate 's most capable generals , including princes of the Umayyad dynasty , such as Maslama ibn Abd al @-@ Malik or Hisham 's own sons Mu 'awiyah , Maslama and Sulayman . Gradually , however , the Muslim successes became fewer , especially as their resources were drawn into the mounting conflict with the Khazars in the Caucasus . The raids continued , but the Arab and Byzantine chroniclers mention fewer successful captures of forts or towns . Nevertheless , in 737 a major victory over the Khazars allowed the Arabs to shift their focus and intensify their campaigns against Byzantium . Thus in 738 and 739 Maslamah ibn Hisham led successful raids , including the capture of the town of Ancyra . For the year 740 , Hisham assembled the largest expedition of his reign , placing it under his son Sulayman .
= = Battle = =
According to the chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor , the invading Umayyad force totalled 90 @,@ 000 men . 10 @,@ 000 lightly armed men under al @-@ Ghamr ibn Yazid were sent to raid the western coastlands , followed by 20 @,@ 000 under Abdallah al @-@ Battal and al @-@ Malik ibn Su 'aib who marched towards Akroinon , while the main force of some 60 @,@ 000 ( this last number is certainly much inflated ) , under Sulayman ibn Hisham , raided Cappadocia .
The Emperor Leo confronted the second force at Akroinon . Details of the battle are not known , but the Emperor secured a crushing victory : both Arab commanders fell , as well as the larger part of their army , some 13 @,@ 200 men . The rest of the Arab troops managed to conduct an orderly retreat to Synnada , where they joined Sulayman . The other two Arab forces devastated the countryside unopposed , but failed to take any towns or forts . The Arab invasion army also suffered from severe hunger and lack of supplies before returning to Syria , while the 10th @-@ century Arab Christian historian Agapius records that the Byzantines took 20 @,@ 000 prisoners from the invading forces .
= = Effect and aftermath = =
Akroinon was a major success for the Byzantines , as it was the first large @-@ scale victory they had scored in a pitched battle against the Arabs . Seeing it as evidence of God 's renewed favour , the victory also served to strengthen Leo 's belief in the policy of iconoclasm that he had adopted some years before . In the immediate aftermath , this success opened up the way for a more aggressive stance by the Byzantines , who in 741 attacked the major Arab base of Melitene . In 742 and 743 , the Umayyads were able to exploit a civil war between Constantine V and Artabasdos and raid into Anatolia with relative impunity , but the Arab sources do not report any major achievements .
The Arab defeat at Akroinon has traditionally been seen as a " decisive " battle and a " turning point " of the Arab – Byzantine wars , causing the slackening of Arab pressure on Byzantium . Other historians however , from the early 20th @-@ century Syriac scholar E.W. Brooks to more recent ones such as Walter Kaegi and Ralph @-@ Johannes Lilie , have challenged this view , attributing the reduced Arab threat after Akroinon to the fact that it coincided with other heavy reversals on the most remote provinces of the Caliphate , which exhausted its overextended military resources , as well as with internal turmoil due to civil wars and the Abbasid Revolution . As a result , the Arab attacks against the Byzantine Empire in the 740s were rather ineffectual and soon ceased completely . Indeed , Constantine V was able to take advantage of the Umayyad Caliphate 's collapse to launch a series of expeditions into Syria and secure a Byzantine ascendancy on the eastern frontier which lasted until the 770s .
In the Muslim world , the memory of the defeated Arab commander , Abdallah al @-@ Battal , was preserved , and he became one of the greatest heroes of Arab and later Turkish epic poetry as Sayyid Battal Ghazi .
= Jihad ( song ) =
" Jihad " is a song by the American thrash metal band Slayer which appears on their 2006 album Christ Illusion . The song portrays the imagined viewpoint of a terrorist who has participated in the September 11 , 2001 attacks , concluding with spoken lyrics taken from words left behind by Mohamed Atta ; Atta was named by the FBI as the " head suicide terrorist " of the first plane to crash into the World Trade Center . " Jihad " was primarily written by guitarist Jeff Hanneman ; the lyrics were co @-@ authored with vocalist Tom Araya .
" Jihad " received a mixed reception in the music press , and reviews generally focused on the lyrics ' controversial subject matter . The song drew comparisons to Slayer 's 1986 track " Angel of Death " — also penned by Hanneman — which similarly caused outrage at the time of its release .
Joseph Dias of the Mumbai Christian group " Catholic Secular Forum " expressed concern over " Jihad " ' s lyrics , and contributed to Christ Illusion 's recall by EMI India , who to date have no plans for a reissue in that country . ABC @-@ TV 's Broadcast Standards and Practices Department censored the song during Slayer 's first US network television appearance on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! Only the opening minute was broadcast over the show 's credits , thus omitting 40 % of the lyrics .
= = Origins = =
Primarily written by guitarist Jeff Hanneman , " Jihad " features lyrical contributions by vocalist Tom Araya . Both Hanneman and Araya had previously written about controversial lyrical matter in past Slayer tracks ; while Hanneman had written songs like " Angel of Death " and " SS @-@ 3 " which explored the atrocities committed by Nazi figures such as Auschwitz concentration camp physician Josef Mengele and Third Reich henchman Reinhard Heydrich , Araya had delved into the lives of serial killers such as Jeffrey Dahmer and Ed Gein in the tracks " 213 " and " Dead Skin Mask " respectively . " Jihad " is written from the perspective of a 9 / 11 terrorist , and imagines the thoughts that " the enemy " might have . The climax of the song features spoken text taken from a motivational letter left behind by Mohamed Atta , who was named by the FBI as the head suicide terrorist of American Airlines Flight 11 , the first plane to crash into the World Trade Center in the September 11 , 2001 attacks .
Guitarist Kerry King has been outspoken in his defense of " Jihad " , and has claimed that the song has the " coolest angle " on Christ Illusion . " These new songs aren 't political at all , " King states , " ' Jihad ' , ' Eyes of the Insane ' — it 's what 's spewing out at us from the TV . " He further clarified that the band was not attempting to promote the terrorists ' perspective of the war , nor their ideological beliefs , although he expected others to assume that Slayer was doing so . They did not wish to dwell on the topic " because every band on the planet already has " and " came from a certain perspective " , so felt they had to present an alternative viewpoint . " We 're Slayer , we have to be different " was King 's assertion .
American singer / songwriter Steve Earle attempted a similar concept in penning " John Walker 's Blues " ( from the 2002 album Jerusalem ) , written from the perspective of the Washington @-@ born John Walker Lindh , a Taliban member captured during the 2001 US @-@ led invasion of Afghanistan . Earle was criticised for this track ; King anticipated a comparable reaction to " Jihad " : " People make an assumption before they ( read ) the lyrics . It 's definitely not only human nature , it 's very American @-@ natured . "
= = Musical structure = =
" Jihad " is 3 minutes 31 seconds long . A skittering vamp leads into the track , during which Lombardo shimmers his hi @-@ hat . Smoothly mixing up tempos , the band build the song with a fast , " wonky , catchy and angular " guitar riff reminiscent of the breakdown in 1986 's " Angel of Death " . This guitar riff decelerates before bursting forward again in two @-@ bar stretches underpinned by Lombardo 's pounding , fifth @-@ gear drumming .
IGN reviewer Andy Patrizio was dismissive of the song 's musical structure in comparison to other tracks on Christ Illusion : " ' Jihad , ' ' Flesh Storm , ' ' Skeleton Christ , ' ' Supremist , ' and felt there was too much similarity in the riffs , tuning , tempos , and arrangements . " MusicOMH.com 's Ian Robinson was also negative , remarking that the song " concludes with the ' now getting slightly old hat ' Slayer trick ( but still atmospheric ) of over sampling voices over the solo . "
= = Reception and criticism = =
" Jihad " — alongside fellow Christ Illusion album tracks " Eyes of the Insane " and " Cult " — was made available for streaming on June 26 , 2006 , via the Spanish website Rafabasa.com. The album was Slayer 's ninth studio recording , and was released on August 8 , 2006 . During reviews " Jihad " received a mixed reception .
Blabbermouth 's Don Kaye gave the opinion that " a handful of songs " on Christ Illusion " are either too generic or the arrangements are too clumsy to work well " , and specifically singled out the track : " I 'm looking at you , ' Jihad ' and ' Skeleton Christ ' . " Ben Ratliff of New York Times remarked that the song is " predictably tough stuff , but let 's put it on a scale . It is tougher , and less reasoned , than Martin Amis 's recent short story ' The Last Days of Muhammad Atta . ' It is no tougher than a taped message from Al Qaeda . " Peter Atkinson of KNAC.com was equally unimpressed , describing the group 's choice of song climax as :
Not all reviews were so negative . Thom Jurek of Allmusic observed that " the band begins to enter and twist and turn looking for a place to create a new rhythmic thrash that 's the most insane deconstruction of four / four time on tape . " The Austin Chronicle 's Marc Savlov asked readers to " listen to the eerie , stop @-@ start cadence of lunacy in ' Jihad , ' with Araya playing the role of a suicide bomber almost too convincingly . "
King would have appointed " Jihad " as the group 's nomination in the " Best Metal Performance " award category at the 49th Grammy Awards , deeming the chosen track " Eyes of the Insane " " the poorest representations " of the group on ninth studio album Christ Illusion . Despite King 's statement , " Eyes of the Insane " won Slayer their first Grammy award . The Slayer guitarist has also stated ; " I like playing ' Jihad ' because I 'm back changing my guitars , and Jeff starts it and he starts it quietly so you can hear the fans go crazy about it and you can 't always hear that at the beginning of a song . "
= = = Controversy = = =
" Jihad " ' s lyrical matter provoked controversy from several quarters . Peter Atkinson of KNAC.com remarked that the song , " no doubt will be Christ Illusion ’ s most controversial track . " In May 2006 , World Entertainment News Network announced that revelations of the song 's lyrical content had angered the families of 9 / 11 victims .
Joseph Dias of the Mumbai Christian group " Catholic Secular Forum " ( CSF ) issued a memorandum to his police commissioner , in which he expressed concern that " Jihad " would offend " the sensibilities of the Muslims ... and secular Indians who have respect for all faiths . " EMI India met with the CSF , apologising for the album 's release , and recalled all copies , with no plans for a reissue . On October 11 , 2006 , it was announced all stocks had been destroyed . The track , alongside the album 's controversial Larry Carroll painted cover art and provocative lyrics , were the specific reasons for EMI India 's decision . Araya had expected " Jihad " ' s treatment of the events of 9 / 11 to create a backlash in America , however it failed to materialise . This was in part , he believes , because of peoples ' view that the song was merely " Slayer being Slayer " . Hanneman expected that the Muslim community would either " embrace " or hate Slayer for penning the track , or that the victims of 9 / 11 would criticize the band over the song 's subject matter .
" Jihad " was one of six songs performed by Slayer during their first US network television appearance on ABC @-@ TV 's Jimmy Kimmel Live ! ( January 19 , 2007 ) , although only the opening minute of the track was broadcast . ABC @-@ TV 's Broadcast Standards and Practices department censored " Jihad " , and approached Slayer the day prior to broadcast with roughly 40 % of the song lyrics deleted . King has since confirmed that the group were ten minutes from withdrawing from the show , but eventually decided to " just go do it . "
= = = Comparisons to " Angel of Death " = = =
On a number of occasions the song has been compared to " Angel of Death " , a Hanneman @-@ penned Slayer track from 1986 's Reign in Blood , which was lyrically inspired by Nazi physician Josef Mengele . " Angel of Death " focused on human experiments conducted by Mengele at the Auschwitz concentration camp in World War II . KNAC.com 's Peter Atkinson commented upon the similarities , to which King responded that the whole affair " was blown out of proportion " .
Making the connection , King remembers thinking " Great , now we 're gonna be answering for this one ! " after listening to a playback of the song . " But as with ' Angel [ of Death ] , ' we 're not endorsing anything . It 's just not an ' anti ' song , either . " Hanneman emphasised , " Like ' Angel of Death , ' it 's just a documentary . "
= = Personnel = =
Jeff Hanneman - guitar
Kerry King - guitar
Tom Araya - bass , vocals
Dave Lombardo - drums
= Mary of Teck =
Mary of Teck ( Victoria Mary Augusta Louise Olga Pauline Claudine Agnes ; 26 May 1867 – 24 March 1953 ) was Queen consort of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions , and Empress consort of India , as the wife of King @-@ Emperor George V.
Although technically a princess of Teck , in the Kingdom of Württemberg , she was born and raised in England . Her parents were Francis , Duke of Teck , who was of German extraction , and Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge , a granddaughter of King George III . She was informally known as " May " , after her birth month . At the age of 24 she was betrothed to Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale , the eldest son of the Prince of Wales , but six weeks after the announcement of the engagement he died unexpectedly of pneumonia . The following year she became engaged to Albert Victor 's next surviving brother , George , who subsequently became King . Before her husband 's accession she was successively Duchess of York , Duchess of Cornwall and York and Princess of Wales .
As queen consort from 1910 , she supported her husband through the First World War , his ill health and major political changes arising from the aftermath of the war and the rise of socialism and nationalism . After George 's death in 1936 , she became queen mother when her eldest son , Edward , ascended the throne , but to her dismay he abdicated later the same year in order to marry twice @-@ divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson . She supported her second son , Albert , who succeeded to the throne as George VI , until his death in 1952 . She died the following year , during the reign of her granddaughter Queen Elizabeth II , who had not yet been crowned .
= = Early life = =
Princess Victoria Mary ( " May " ) of Teck was born on 26 May 1867 at Kensington Palace , London . Her father was Prince Francis , Duke of Teck , the son of Duke Alexander of Württemberg by his morganatic wife , Countess Claudine Rhédey von Kis @-@ Rhéde . Her mother was Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge , the third child and younger daughter of Prince Adolphus , Duke of Cambridge , and Princess Augusta of Hesse @-@ Kassel . She was baptised in the Chapel Royal of Kensington Palace on 27 July 1867 by Charles Thomas Longley , Archbishop of Canterbury , and her three godparents were Queen Victoria , the Prince of Wales ( later King Edward VII and May 's future father @-@ in @-@ law ) , and Princess Augusta , the Duchess of Cambridge . Before she became Queen , she was known to her family , friends and the public by the diminutive name of " May " , after her birth month .
May 's upbringing was " merry but fairly strict " . She was the eldest of four children , the only girl , and " learned to exercise her native discretion , firmness and tact " by resolving her three younger brothers ' petty boyhood squabbles . They played with their cousins , the children of the Prince of Wales , who were similar in age . May was educated at home by her mother and governess ( as were her brothers until they were sent to boarding schools ) . The Duchess of Teck spent an unusually long time with her children for a lady of her time and class , and enlisted May in various charitable endeavours , which included visiting the tenements of the poor .
Although her mother was a grandchild of King George III , May was only a minor member of the British Royal Family . Her father , the Duke of Teck , had no inheritance or wealth , and carried the lower royal style of Serene Highness because his parents ' marriage was morganatic . However , the Duchess of Teck was granted a parliamentary annuity of £ 5 @,@ 000 , and received about £ 4 @,@ 000 a year from her mother , the Duchess of Cambridge . Despite this , the family was deeply in debt and lived abroad from 1883 , in order to economise . The Tecks travelled throughout Europe , visiting their various relations . They stayed in Florence , Italy , for a time , where May enjoyed visiting the art galleries , churches , and museums .
In 1885 , the Tecks returned to London , and took up residence at White Lodge , in Richmond Park . May was close to her mother , and acted as an unofficial secretary , helping to organise parties and social events . She was also close to her aunt , the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz , and wrote to her every week . During the First World War , the Crown Princess of Sweden helped pass letters from May to her aunt , who lived in enemy territory in Germany until her death in 1916 .
= = Engagements = =
In December 1891 , May was engaged to her second cousin once removed , Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale , the eldest son of the Prince of Wales . The choice of May as bride for the Duke owed much to Queen Victoria 's fondness for her , as well as to her strong character and sense of duty . However , Albert Victor died six weeks later , in the worldwide influenza pandemic that swept through Britain in the winter of 1891 – 92 .
Albert Victor 's brother , Prince George , Duke of York , now second in line to the throne , evidently became close to May during their shared period of mourning , and Queen Victoria still favoured May as a suitable candidate to marry a future king . In May 1893 , George proposed , and May accepted . They were soon deeply in love , and their marriage was a success . George wrote to May every day they were apart and , unlike his father , never took a mistress .
= = Duchess of York = =
May married Prince George , Duke of York , in London on 6 July 1893 at the Chapel Royal , St James 's Palace . The new Duke and Duchess of York lived in York Cottage on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk , and in apartments in St James 's Palace . York Cottage was a modest house for royalty , but it was a favourite of George , who liked a relatively simple life . They had six children : Edward , Albert , Mary , Henry , George , and John .
The Duchess loved her children , but she put them in the care of a nanny , as was usual in upper @-@ class families at the time . The first nanny was dismissed for insolence and the second for abusing the children . This second woman , anxious to suggest that the children preferred her to anyone else , would pinch Edward and Albert whenever they were about to be presented to their parents , so that they would start crying and be speedily returned to her . On discovery , she was replaced by her effective and much @-@ loved assistant , Charlotte Bill .
Sometimes , Mary appears to have been a distant mother . At first , she failed to notice the nanny 's abuse of the young Princes Edward and Albert , and her youngest son , Prince John , was housed in a private farm on the Sandringham Estate , in the care of Mrs. Bill , perhaps to hide his epilepsy from the public . However , despite her austere public image and her strait @-@ laced private life , Mary was a caring mother in many respects , revealing a fun @-@ loving and frivolous side to her children and teaching them history and music . Edward wrote fondly of his mother in his memoirs : " Her soft voice , her cultivated mind , the cosy room overflowing with personal treasures were all inseparable ingredients of the happiness associated with this last hour of a child 's day ... Such was my mother 's pride in her children that everything that happened to each one was of the utmost importance to her . With the birth of each new child , Mama started an album in which she painstakingly recorded each progressive stage of our childhood " . He expressed a less charitable view , however , in private letters to his wife after his mother 's death : " My sadness was mixed with incredulity that any mother could have been so hard and cruel towards her eldest son for so many years and yet so demanding at the end without relenting a scrap . I 'm afraid the fluids in her veins have always been as icy cold as they are now in death . "
As Duke and Duchess of York , George and May carried out a variety of public duties . In 1897 , she became the Patron of the London Needlework Guild in succession to her mother . The Guild , initially established as The London Guild in 1882 , was renamed several times , and was named after May between 1914 and 2010 . Samples of her own embroidery range from chair seats to tea cosies .
On 22 January 1901 , Queen Victoria died , and May 's father @-@ in @-@ law ascended the throne as King Edward VII . For most of the rest of that year , George and May were styled Their Royal Highnesses The Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York . For eight months they toured the British Empire , visiting Gibraltar , Malta , Egypt , Ceylon , Singapore , Australia , New Zealand , Mauritius , South Africa and Canada . No royal had undertaken such an ambitious tour before . She broke down in tears at the thought of leaving her children , who were to be left in the care of their grandparents , for such a long time .
= = Princess of Wales = =
On 9 November 1901 , nine days after arriving back in Britain and on the King 's sixtieth birthday , George was created Prince of Wales . The family moved their London residence from St James 's Palace to Marlborough House . As Princess of Wales , May accompanied her husband on trips to Austria @-@ Hungary and Württemberg in 1904 . The following year , she gave birth to her last child , John . It was a difficult labour , and although May recovered quickly , her newborn son suffered respiratory problems .
From October 1905 the Prince and Princess of Wales undertook another eight @-@ month tour , this time of India , and the children were once again left in the care of their grandparents . They passed through Egypt both ways and on the way back stopped in Greece . The tour was almost immediately followed by a trip to Spain for the wedding of King Alfonso XIII to Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg , at which the bride and groom narrowly avoided assassination . Only a week after returning to Britain , May and George went to Norway for the coronation of George 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and sister , King Haakon VII and Queen Maud .
= = Queen consort = =
On 6 May 1910 , Edward VII died . Mary 's husband ascended the throne as King George V , and she became queen consort . When her husband asked her to drop one of her two official names , Victoria Mary , she chose to be called Mary , preferring not to take the name of her husband 's grandmother , Queen Victoria . Queen Mary was crowned with the King on 22 June 1911 at Westminster Abbey . Later in the year , the new King and Queen travelled to India for the Delhi Durbar held on 12 December 1911 , and toured the sub @-@ continent as Emperor and Empress of India , returning to Britain in February . The beginning of Mary 's period as consort brought her into conflict with her mother @-@ in @-@ law , Queen Alexandra . Although the two were on friendly terms , Alexandra could be stubborn ; she demanded precedence over Mary at the funeral of Edward VII , was slow in leaving Buckingham Palace , and kept some of the royal jewels that should have been passed to the new Queen .
During the First World War , Queen Mary instituted an austerity drive at the palace , where she rationed food , and visited wounded and dying servicemen in hospital , which caused her great emotional strain . After three years of war against Germany , and with anti @-@ German feeling in Britain running high , the Russian Imperial Family , which had been deposed by a revolutionary government , was refused asylum , possibly in part because the Tsar 's wife was German @-@ born . News of the Tsar 's abdication provided a boost to those in Britain who wished to replace their own monarchy with a republic . After republicans used the couple 's German heritage as an argument for reform , George abandoned his German titles and renamed the royal house from the German " Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha " to the British " Windsor " . Other royals anglicised their names ; the Battenbergs became the Mountbattens , for example . The Queen 's relatives also abandoned their German titles , and adopted the British surname of Cambridge ( derived from the Dukedom held by Queen Mary 's British grandfather ) . The war ended in 1918 with the defeat of Germany and the abdication and exile of the Kaiser .
Two months after the end of the war , Queen Mary 's youngest son , John , died at the age of thirteen . She described her shock and sorrow in her diary and letters , extracts of which were published after her death : " our poor darling little Johnnie had passed away suddenly ... The first break in the family circle is hard to bear but people have been so kind & sympathetic & this has helped us [ the King and me ] much . " Her staunch support of her husband continued during the latter half of his reign . She advised him on speeches , and used her extensive knowledge of history and royalty to advise him on matters affecting his position . He appreciated her discretion , intelligence and judgement . She maintained an air of self @-@ assured calm throughout all her public engagements in the years after the war , a period marked by civil unrest over social conditions , Irish independence and Indian nationalism .
In the late 1920s , George V became increasingly ill with lung problems , exacerbated by his heavy smoking . Queen Mary paid particular attention to his care . During his illness in 1928 , one of his doctors , Sir Farquhar Buzzard , was asked who had saved the King 's life . He replied , " The Queen " . In 1935 , King George V and Queen Mary celebrated their silver jubilee , with celebrations taking place throughout the British Empire . In his jubilee speech , George paid public tribute to his wife , having told his speechwriter , " Put that paragraph at the very end . I cannot trust myself to speak of the Queen when I think of all I owe her . "
= = Queen mother = =
George V died on 20 January 1936 , after his physician , Lord Dawson of Penn , gave him an injection of morphine and cocaine that may have hastened his death . Queen Mary 's eldest son , Edward , Prince of Wales , ascended the throne as Edward VIII . She was now a queen mother , though she did not use that style , and was instead known as Her Majesty Queen Mary .
Within the year , Edward caused a constitutional crisis by announcing his desire to marry his twice @-@ divorced American mistress , Wallis Simpson . Mary disapproved of divorce , which was against the teaching of the Anglican church , and thought Simpson wholly unsuitable to be the wife of a king . After receiving advice from the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Stanley Baldwin , as well as the Dominion governments , that he could not remain King and marry Simpson , Edward abdicated . Though loyal and supportive of her son , Mary could not comprehend why Edward would neglect his royal duties in favour of his personal feelings . Simpson had been presented formally to both King George V and Queen Mary at court , but Mary later refused to meet her either in public or privately . She saw it as her duty to provide moral support for her second son , the reserved and stammering Prince Albert , Duke of York , who ascended the throne on Edward 's abdication , taking the name George VI . When Mary attended the coronation , she became the first British dowager queen to do so . Edward 's abdication did not lessen her love for him , but she never wavered in her disapproval of his actions .
Mary took an interest in the upbringing of her granddaughters , Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret , and took them on various excursions in London , to art galleries and museums . ( The Princesses ' own parents thought it unnecessary for them to be taxed with any demanding educational regime . )
During the Second World War , George VI wished his mother to be evacuated from London . Although she was reluctant , she decided to live at Badminton House , Gloucestershire , with her niece , Mary Somerset , Duchess of Beaufort , the daughter of her brother Lord Cambridge . Her personal belongings were transported from London in seventy pieces of luggage . Her household , which comprised fifty @-@ five
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001 re @-@ release of Let 's Get It On .
The album 's first recording , " Let 's Get It On " , was composed by Gaye with friend and former Motown label mate Ed Townsend . It was originally written by Gaye as a religious ode to life , but Motown singer @-@ songwriter Kenneth Stover re @-@ wrote it as a more political first draft . Upon hearing Gaye 's preliminary mix of Stover 's draft , Townsend protested and claimed that the song would be better suited with sexual and romantic overtones , particularly " about making sweet love . " Gaye and Townsend rewrote the song 's lyrics together with the original arrangements and musical accompaniment of the demo intact . The lyrics were inspired by Janis Hunter , whom Gaye had become infatuated with after meeting each other through Ed Townsend during the initial sessions . Townsend has cited Hunter 's presence during the album 's recording as an inspiration for Gaye . Gaye 's intimate relationship with Hunter subsequently became the basis for his 1976 album I Want You . While recording the title track , he was inspired to revive unfinished recordings from his 1970 sessions at the Hitsville U.S.A. Studio .
Townsend assisted Gaye with producing the rest of the album , whose recording took place at several sessions throughout 1970 to 1973 . They worked on four songs together , including the ballad " If I Should Die Tonight " , while Gaye composed most of the other songs , including those from past sessions . " Just to Keep You Satisfied " was originally recorded by several Motown groups , including The Originals and The Monitors , as a song dedicated to long @-@ standing love . With re @-@ recording the song , he had re @-@ written the arrangement and lyrics to address the demise of his volatile marriage to Anna Gordy Gaye , who happened to be the original song 's co @-@ writer . The background vocals for the album were sung by Gaye , with the exception of " Just to Keep You Satisfied " , which were done by The Originals . Most of the instrumentation for the album was done by members of The Funk Brothers , including bassist James Jamerson , guitarists Robert White and Eddie Willis , and percussionist Eddie " Bongo " Brown . Gaye also contributed on piano during the sessions .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Let 's Get It On " features soulful , passionate lead vocals and multi @-@ tracked background singing , both by Gaye . It has a 1950s @-@ styled melody and begins with three wah @-@ wah guitar notes and centers on simple chord changes , while its arrangements are centered on an eccentric rhythm pattern . Its signature guitar line is played by session musician Don Peake . Music journalist Jon Landau dubs the song " a classic Motown single , endlessly repeatable and always enjoyable " . The song is reprised on the fourth track , " Keep Gettin ' It On " . It expands on the title track 's sensual theme with political overtones : " won 't you rather make love , children / as opposed to war , like you know you should . "
" Distant Lover " has Gaye crooning over serene instrumentation , leading to soulful screams near the end ; from a heartbroken croon to an impassioned wail . The song 's lyrics chronicled the yearning its narrator feels for a lover who is " so many miles away " , as he pleads for her return and laments the emptiness he feels without her . Music writer Donarld A. Guarisco later wrote of the song 's sound , in that " Marvin Gaye 's studio recording enhances the dreamy style of the song with stately horn and strings , tumbling drum fills that gently nudge the song along , and mellow , doo wop @-@ styled background vocals that echo " love her , you love her " under his romantic pleas . The song later became a concert favorite for Gaye and a live concert version , featuring female fans screaming in the background , was released as a single from his Marvin Gaye Live ! album in 1974 .
" You Sure Love to Ball " is one of Gaye 's most sexually overt and controversial singles , with its intro and outro featuring moaning sounds made by a man and woman engaged in sex . The sexual @-@ explicit and risqué nature of the album 's content were , at the time , controversial , and the recording of such an album was deemed as a commercial risk by Motown A & R 's ( Artists and Repertoire ) and label executives .
= = Release and reception = =
Released on August 28 , 1973 , Let 's Get It On surpassed Gaye 's previous studio effort , What 's Going On , as the best @-@ selling record of his tenure with Motown . The album peaked at number two on the US Billboard Top LPs chart , succeeded by The Rolling Stones 's Goats Head Soup ( 1973 ) , while it also managed to reach number one in Cash Box for one week , as well as two weeks at the top of Record World 's music charts . Let 's Get It On charted for 61 weeks on the Billboard charts , and remained at the top of the Billboard Soul Albums for 11 weeks , becoming the best @-@ selling soul album of 1973 . The album 's lead single , " Let 's Get It On " , became one of Gaye 's most successful singles , as it reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on September 8 , 1973 . It remained at number one for two weeks , while also remaining at the top of the Billboard Soul Singles chart for eight weeks . On June 25 , 2007 , the Mastertone version of " Let 's Get It On , " which was released in 2004 , was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for one million downloads in the United States .
Two of the album 's singles reached the top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 , including " Let 's Get It On " , which became Gaye 's second number @-@ one US single , and the top @-@ 30 hit " Come Get to This " , which peaked at number 23 on the chart . The album 's third single , " You Sure Love to Ball " , charted at number 50 on the Hot 100 and at number 13 on the Soul Singles chart . Along with the album 's music and sexual content , Let 's Get It On 's commercial success and promotion helped establish Marvin Gaye as a sex icon , while helping further expand his artistic control during his tenure at Motown . This commercial success also lead to a much publicized tour for Gaye to promote Let 's Get It On and expand on his repertoire as a live performer . Successful concert performances of the album 's material helped Gaye gain an increasing popularity and fan base in the pop market , while earning him a reputation as one of the top live performers of the time . His performance at the Oakland Coliseum during the 1973 @-@ 1974 tour was released on the 1974 LP Live ! , which would serve as Gaye 's only release during his sabbatical period in the mid @-@ 1970s .
Let 's Get It On received positive reviews from music critics . Billboard called it " fine in terms of vocal attack and material [ ... ] touches on the excellent in terms of instrumental support " , while citing the title track and " Distant Lover " as the album 's best recordings . Jon Landau of Rolling Stone found Gaye 's performance on @-@ par with that of What 's Going On and wrote that " he continues to transmit that same degree of intensity , sending out near cosmic overtones while eloquently phrasing the sometimes simplistic lyrics " . Although he viewed that it " lacks that album 's series of highpoints " , Landau commented that " it ebbs and flows , occasionally threatening to spend itself on an insufficiency of ideas , but always retrieved , just in time , by Gaye 's performance . From first note to last , he keeps pushing and shoving , and if he sometimes takes one step back for every two ahead , he gets there just the same — and with style and spirit to spare " . In Creem magazine , Robert Christgau called the album " post @-@ Al Green What 's Going On , which means it 's about fucking rather than the human condition , thank the wholly holey " . He found its title track to be " as much a masterpiece as ' Inner City Blues ' " and quipped , " this album prolongs its seductive groove to an appropriate thirty minutes plus " .
Since its initial reception , Let 's Get It On has been viewed by writers as a milestone in soul music . In The Best Rock ' n ' Roll Records of All Time , Jimmy Guterman writes that the album was " a bit more conventional musically ( soul crossing into mild funk ) and much more focused lyrically than its predecessor , What 's Going On " . Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot commended Gaye for using " the multi @-@ tracked vocals perfected on ' What 's Going On ' , this time to convey his most intimate desires " , commenting that " while the album is replete with erotic imagery , both implied and explicit , it is also as much preoccupied with distance and unfulfilled need " . Jason Ankeny of Allmusic called it " a record unparalleled in its sheer sensuality and carnal energy " , writing that " Gaye 's passions reach their boiling point [ ... ] With each performance laced with innuendo , each lyric a come @-@ on , and each rhythm throbbing with lust , perhaps no other record has ever achieved the kind of sheer erotic force of Let 's Get It On " . Ankeny also dubbed it " one of the most sexually charged albums ever recorded . " Allmusic 's Lindsey Planer cites it as a " hedonistic R & B masterpiece . " BBC Music 's Daryl Easlea found Gaye " in supreme command of his material " , and viewed it as " much more than an album about simple lust " , but an " iconic , rapturous work " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Much like What 's Going On , Let 's Get It On has been included in a significant amount of " best album " lists by critics and publications . It was ranked number 58 on The Times 's 1993 publication of the 100 Best Albums of All Time . Blender magazine ranked the album number 15 on its list of the 100 Greatest American Albums of All Time . In 2003 , it was ranked number 165 on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time publication , his second highest entry on the list , as well as one of three Marvin Gaye albums to be included ; What 's Going On ( number 6 ) and Here , My Dear ( number 462 ) . In 2004 , Let 's Get It On was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame and cited by The Recording Academy as a recording of " historical significance " .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Because of the album and its singles ' initial sales and response , Let 's Get It On marked a change and transition in sound and production for Motown , which had previously enjoyed success with its trademark " Motown Sound " . The label 's well @-@ known sound , however , was beginning to fade in popularity among the majority of R & B and soul listeners , while experiencing commercial pressure from contemporary styles that incorporated more diverse elements , such as Philly soul and funk . The Motown sound was typified by characteristics such as the use of tambourines to accent the back beat , prominent and often melodic electric bass guitar lines , distinctive melodic and chord structures , and a call and response singing style that originated in gospel music . In addition , pop production techniques were simpler than that of Gaye 's 1970s concept albums . Complex arrangements and elaborate , melismatic vocal riffs were avoided by Motown musicians . Following his breakthrough with What 's Going On , an " experiment in collating a pseudo @-@ classical suite of free @-@ flowing songs " , Gaye used his artistic control to modify the sound and incorporate funky instrumentation , melismatic vocalization , and heavy vocal multi @-@ tracking , in much contrast to the established production style at the label . In contrast to Motown 's previously successful process of emphasizing an artist 's single releases rather than their album , Gaye and fellow producer Ed Townsend followed a similar formula previously used on What 's Going On , in which the album 's songs flow together in a suite @-@ form arrangement , opposing label CEO Berry Gordy 's strong emphasis on hit single success .
The album also affirmed Gaye 's influence over later R & B styles and artists . Gaye 's change of musical style and production soon became contemporary and popular , prior to the disco era of the late 1970s . Several successful Motown artists , including Lionel Richie and Rick James , were influenced by many of the elements of Gaye 's recording style for their work in the late 1970s and early 1980s . The slow jam sound and contemporary R & B production in general were greatly influenced by the album 's use of vocal multi @-@ tracking and instrumentation . Allmusic calls the album " the blueprint for all of the slow jams to follow decades later — much copied , but never imitated . " Renown engineer Russell Elevado 's work in the neo soul genre , including his production for D 'Angelo 's Voodoo ( 2000 ) and Erykah Badu 's Mama 's Gun ( 2000 ) , has been influenced by Gaye 's and Townsend 's production techniques and sound .
The music atmosphere of the 1970s was heavily influenced by its success and sexual content , as its sexual @-@ explicitness bent creative barriers in the music industry and led to an increased popularity of sexual themes in music at the time . Music writer Rob Bowman later cited Let 's Get It On as " one of the most erotic recordings known to mankind . " The album 's success helped spark a series of similarly styled releases by such smooth soul artists as Barry White ( Can 't Get Enough ) , Smokey Robinson ( A Quiet Storm ) and Earth , Wind & Fire ( That 's the Way of the World ) . The commercial success of such recording artists led to a change of trend from socially conscious aesthetics to more mainstream , sensually themed music . Gaye himself experienced subsequent success with his follow @-@ up release I Want You ( 1976 ) , featuring more sexually explicit lyrics and expanded use of vocal multi @-@ tracking , and with Here , My Dear ( 1978 ) , which he based entirely on his tumultuous marriage to Anna Gordy . In an interview with music author Michael Eric Dyson , hip hop artist Q @-@ Tip discussed the album 's influence and significance to its time period , stating :
Although there was a ' conscious ' revolution , there was also a great sexual revolution ... I think Let 's Get It On was Marvin wanting to make commentary on what was happening . I think there was a big ' love @-@ in ' that was going on . And with him quoting T.S. Elliot [ in his liner notes , that life amounts to " Birth , copulation and death " ] , and the young lady moaning [ on the album ] , we hadn 't heard that before . That was another first , as well as him capturing erotica like that , and weaving it into the music the way he did ; it was mind blowing . I think it was a natural progression , because we were having a revolution with our minds , and then with our bodies at that time .
Following the success of funk records such as Sly and the Family Stone 's There 's a Riot Goin ' On ( 1971 ) and James Brown 's late 1960s and early 1970s singles , Gaye 's Let 's Get It On helped further the funk genre 's reach and influence in the music industry , as well as increase its mainstream appeal . Several contemporary R & B musicians , such as Prince , D 'Angelo , and R. Kelly , were greatly influenced by its vintage sound and seductive themes , incorporating much of Gaye 's musical style into their music .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Original LP = = =
= = = Deluxe edition = = =
On September 18 , 2001 , Let 's Get It On was reissued by Motown as a two @-@ disc deluxe edition release , featuring 24 @-@ bit digital remastering of the original album 's recordings , previously unissued material and a 24 @-@ page booklet which contains the original LP liner notes by Marvin Gaye , as well as essays from Gaye biographers David Ritz and Ben Edmonds .
= = = 2002 remaster bonus tracks = = =
= = Personnel = =
Arrangement , Conduction ( Orchestra ) : David Van De Pitte ( tracks : 5 to 6 , 8 ) , Gene Page ( track : 5 ) , René Hall ( tracks : 1 to 4 ) , David Blumberg ( track : 7 )
Bass : James Jamerson , Wilton Felder
Bongos : Bobbye Hall Porter
Bongos , Drums : Eddie " Bongo " Brown
Drums : Paul Humphrey , Uriel Jones
Engineer : William McKeekin , Art Stewart , Steve Smith , Lawrence Miles , Cal Harris
Guitar : David T. Walker , Eddie Willis , Lewis Shelton , Melvin Ragin , Robert White , Don Peake
Percussion ( Mallettes ) : Emil Richards
Percussion ( Special Treatment ) : Bobbye Hall Porter , Ernie Watts , Plas Johnson
Piano : Joe Sample , Marvin Gaye , Marvin Jerkins
Photography : Jim Britt , Motown Archives
Production , lead vocals , background vocals : Marvin Gaye , except where noted :
Background vocals : The Originals ( " Just to Keep You Satisfied " )
Co @-@ production : Ed Townsend ( tracks : 1 to 4 )
Vibraphone : Emil Richards , Victor Feldman
= = Charts = =
= SS Arctic disaster =
The paddle steamer SS Arctic , owned by the Collins Line of New York , sank on September 27 , 1854 , after a collision with SS Vesta , a much smaller vessel , 50 miles ( 80 km ) off the coast of Newfoundland . Passenger and crew lists indicate that there were probably more than 400 on board ; of these , only 88 survived , most of whom were members of the crew . All the women and children on board perished .
Arctic was the largest and most celebrated of the four Collins steamers that had operated a regular transatlantic passenger and mail carrying service since 1850 . After the collision Arctic 's captain , James Luce , first attempted to assist the stricken Vesta , which he believed was in imminent danger of sinking . When he discovered that his own ship had been seriously holed below the waterline , he decided to run her towards the nearest land , in the hopes of reaching safety . His plan failed ; the engines stopped when the ship was still far from land . Arctic 's lifeboat capacity was sufficient for less than half of those on board ; when Luce ordered these launched , a breakdown in order and discipline meant that most places in the boats were taken by members of the crew or the more able @-@ bodied male passengers . The rest struggled to build makeshift rafts , but most were unable to leave the ship , and went down with her when she sank , four hours after the collision . Vesta , which initially appeared to have sustained mortal damage , was kept afloat by her watertight bulkheads , and managed to limp into harbor at St. John 's , Newfoundland .
Two of the six lifeboats that left Arctic reached the Newfoundland shore safely , and another was picked up by a passing steamer , which also rescued a few survivors from improvised rafts . Among those saved was Captain Luce , who had regained the surface after initially going down with the ship . The other three lifeboats disappeared without a trace . The limited telegraph facilities of the time meant that news of Arctic 's loss did not reach New York until two weeks after the sinking . Initial public sorrow at the ship 's loss quickly turned to anger at the perceived cowardice of the crew . Despite press calls for a full investigation into the disaster , none took place , and nobody was held legally responsible . Demands for the introduction of further safety measures on passenger @-@ carrying vessels were likewise sidestepped . Luce , who was generally exonerated from blame by the public , retired from the sea ; some of the surviving crew chose not to return to the US . The Collins Line continued its transatlantic service , until further maritime losses and insolvency led to its closure in 1858 .
= = Background = =
= = = Transatlantic shipping = = =
In the first decades of the 19th century the transatlantic shipping trade was revolutionized by the development of long @-@ range steamships . The transition from sail was gradual ; shipowners were initially influenced by popular theories that ships could not carry sufficient coal to traverse the ocean . This notion was disproved in 1838 , by the almost simultaneous crossings of Isambard Kingdom Brunel 's giant paddle steamer SS Great Western and the American SS Sirius . Great Western completed the crossing , from Bristol to New York , in 14 days and 12 hours ; under sail , westbound passages against the prevailing winds and current often took five weeks or more .
The first shipping line to begin regular transatlantic steamer services was the British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company , better known as the Cunard Line in recognition of its founder , the Canadian Samuel Cunard . It began its operations on July 4 , 1840 , when RMS Britannia left Liverpool for Boston , via Halifax , Nova Scotia . As the principal transatlantic mail carrier , the Cunard Line received subsidies from the British government and from the United States Post Office Department , the latter a point that rankled with some Americans , who felt that a home @-@ owned line should be the beneficiary . Senator James A. Bayard of Delaware was among those urging Congress to subsidize a US steamship line : " America will soon become tired of being informed of British maritime supremacy ... I suggest that Congress grant a carefully selected American shipping expert a completely free hand to proceed with the absolute conquest of this man Cunard " . In 1845 the postmaster general invited tenders for a transatlantic mail contract . The successful bidder , announced on March 3 , 1847 , was New York shipowner Edward Knight Collins .
= = = Collins Line = = =
With government subsidies promised , initially at $ 385 @,@ 000 a year , and with the backing of the leading investment bank Brown Brothers , Collins founded the New York and Liverpool United States ' Mail Steamship Company , familiarly known as the Collins Line . He immediately embarked on an ambitious steamship construction program . The first of the four Collins Line ships , SS Atlantic , was launched in 1849 and began service in April 1850 . Her three sister ships , Pacific , Arctic and Baltic , were all in service before the end of 1850 . The four , all constructed of wood , were broadly similar in size and performance ; Arctic was marginally the largest , at 284 feet ( 87 m ) in length and 2 @,@ 856 tons by American custom house measurement . The new Collins Line steamers were about 25 percent larger than the biggest of the Cunard ships , and were soon outperforming them ; crossings in ten days became routine . Arctic entered service on October 26 , 1850 . The luxurious standards of its passenger accommodation contrasted with those experienced by Charles Dickens , who crossed the Atlantic in Cunard 's Britannia in 1840 . Dickens found his Britannia cabin dark and cramped , " a thoroughly hopeless , and profoundly preposterous box " , while the bleak saloon was " a long narrow apartment , not unlike a gigantic hearse " . In Arctic , according to a seasoned transatlantic passenger , her cabins " in comfort and elegance surpassed that of any merchant vessel Great Britain then possessed " , while the main saloon had " an air of almost Oriental magnificence " .
Under her captain , James Luce , a 49 @-@ year @-@ old veteran of thirty years at sea , Arctic became the most celebrated of the Collins ships . Her record eastbound crossing , from New York to Liverpool in nine days , seventeen hours in the winter of 1851 – 52 , earned her the title of the " Clipper of the Seas " . Luce was admired by passengers as much for his social qualities as for his seamanship ; a reporter for Harper 's New Monthly Magazine wrote approvingly : " If you ever wish to cross the Atlantic , you will find in the Arctic one of the noblest of ships , and in Captain Luce one of the best of commanders " .
= = Last voyage = =
= = = Liverpool to the Grand Banks = = =
At about midday on September 20 , 1854 , Arctic left Liverpool for New York , carrying between 250 and 300 passengers ( including at least 100 women and young children ) , and about 150 crew . Among the passengers was Mrs. Edward Collins , wife of the line 's founder , who was traveling with her 19 @-@ year @-@ old daughter and 15 @-@ year @-@ old son , together with her brother and his wife . Another party was formed by members of the Brown banking family : William Benedict Brown , son of the bank 's president , was accompanied by his wife Clara , their two infant children , and two of William 's sisters . A further passenger was Luce 's partially disabled 11 @-@ year @-@ old son , William Robert , whose health the captain thought might benefit from the round trip .
Arctic passed Cape Clear , at the southernmost point of Ireland , early on the morning of September 21 , and entered the open Atlantic approaching her maximum speed of 13 knots ( 15 mph ) . In settled weather she progressed uneventfully , and early on September 27 had reached the location of the Grand Banks , off the coast of Newfoundland . This area is formed by a series of relatively shallow submarine plateaus forming part of the Canadian continental shelf . Here , the sub @-@ Arctic waters of the Labrador Current meet the warm northbound waters of the Gulf Stream , to create weather systems typified by intermittent mists and fog . It was the practice for steamers to maintain maximum speeds in these conditions , although before electronic aids to navigation the risk of collision was considerable . Keeping schedules was considered paramount , particularly in the Collins Line where , Alexander Brown states in his 1962 account , " there was no room for overcautious shipmasters " . On the morning of September 27 , Luce observed typical Grand Banks conditions : " at intervals of a few minutes a very dense fog , followed by being sufficiently clear to see one or two miles . "
= = = Collision = = =
At noon on September 27 , Luce calculated the ship 's position at roughly 50 miles ( 80 km ) south @-@ east of Cape Race , in Newfoundland . Shortly afterwards , as Arctic slipped into a bank of fog , the lookout saw the shape of a steamer bearing down at a rate of around 10 knots . He gave the warning ; the officer of the watch commanded " Hard @-@ a @-@ starboard " , and ordered the engine room to stop and reverse . In the chartroom , the captain heard these orders and returned to the deck , just as Arctic was struck by the advancing steamer on the starboard side , between the bow and the paddle wheel . Luce 's first impression was that his ship was " relatively uninjured " , and to most of those on board , the bump seemed slight . Many of the passengers were gathered in the cabin prior to lunch , and some of them were engaged in drawing the numbers of the daily lottery , based on the number of miles run in the preceding twenty @-@ four hours .
In the saloon , passenger William Gihon " perceived a slight shock , although it was scarcely more than a tremor or a quiver " . He continued his conversation with a fellow @-@ passenger : " Neither of us entertained any idea at that time that the Arctic had sustained injury " .
The steamer which had collided with Arctic was SS Vesta , an iron @-@ hulled propeller @-@ driven French ship used by a major fishing operator to ferry its employees to and from their center of operations at Saint Pierre Island , Newfoundland . To those on Arctic 's deck , Vesta appeared to be fatally damaged ; Luce thought her bows " seemed to be literally cut or crushed off for full ten feet " . His first reaction , believing his own ship almost untouched , was to assist Vesta , on which scenes of panic and chaos among the 200 @-@ odd sailors and fishermen aboard her were evident . He ordered his chief officer , Robert Gourlay , to lower one of Arctic 's six lifeboats with a crew of six , and to ascertain what help could be offered ; meanwhile , Arctic slowly circled the stricken vessel . Gourlay 's boat was quickly away , and another was prepared for launching , under second officer William Baalham , but before this could be done Luce rescinded the order . He had noticed a change in the movement of Arctic 's paddle wheels through the water and saw also that the ship was listing , signs of potentially serious damage . Baalham was ordered to make a closer inspection of the point of impact ; he found that debris from Vesta 's iron stem and anchor were impaled in the woodwork of Arctic 's hull , creating substantial holes about eighteen inches above the water @-@ line . Two breaches were below the waterline , admitting large quantities of water . Unlike Vesta , Arctic was not equipped with watertight compartments ; the hull was open from stem to stern .
= = = Confusion and panic = = =
= = = = Dash for land = = = =
As Baalham made his inspection , others observed the extent of the damage , and a mood of concern and anxiety began to develop as news spread . With the ship 's four pumps working at full capacity , Luce attempted to stanch the leak by passing a large canvas sail over the ship 's bow . This , he hoped , could be fastened over the holes in the hull to lessen the inflow of water , but the jagged iron debris protruding from the hull quickly tore the sail apart . The ship 's carpenter tried to stuff the breaches with mattresses and other materials , but the holes were by then too far below the waterline to be reached . Realizing that his ship was in serious danger of sinking , Luce decided to run for the nearest land , in the hopes of reaching safety while Arctic was still afloat ; Cape Race was about four hours distant , if the ship could be kept moving . This decision meant abandoning Vesta , but Luce rationalized that the French vessel was likely to sink at any moment , and that remaining with her might well condemn his own passengers and crew to the same fate . After vainly attempting to signal his intention to Gourlay and his crew , who were being left to fend for themselves , Luce ordered full speed ahead . A few minutes later , Arctic ploughed into a lifeboat that had been launched from Vesta . All but one of its dozen occupants were killed , mostly crushed under Arctic 's paddle wheels . The single survivor was a fisherman , François Jassonet , who jumped clear and was hauled aboard Arctic by a rope .
= = = = Boats launched = = = =
As the water in Arctic 's hull continued to rise , outstripping the pumps , the boiler fires were gradually extinguished . By one o 'clock the ship was scarcely moving . Still far from land , and with no help nearby , Luce ordered that the ship 's lifeboats be prepared for launching , In accordance with the governing maritime regulations , Arctic carried six steel @-@ constructed boats , one of which had departed with Gourlay . The five remaining boats could safely hold 150 persons , well under half of those on board but with more than enough places to hold all the women and children . Under the charge of the ship 's quartermaster , women and children were placed in the port guard boat , but as this orderly process proceeded , a group of male passengers and crew members rushed forward to claim the remaining places , and the boat was filled . Although ordered by the captain to remain alongside , it was rowed rapidly away .
On board Arctic , disquiet turned increasingly into panic as it became clear that lifeboat capacity was inadequate . Shortly after the port guard boat 's departure , the port quarter boat , with around twelve women and five crew aboard , was being readied for lowering into the water when it , too , was rushed by members of the crew . In the general melee the boat was upended , sending all but three of its occupants into the water , where they drowned . On the other side of the ship , Luce ordered Second Officer Baalham to launch the starboard guard boat and proceed with it to the stern , where women and children passengers would be passed down . No sooner was it launched when it was overwhelmed by men , who leapt into the water and clambered into the boat ; all but one of these were crew members . With his boat now full , Baalham disregarded Luce 's instructions to pick up women and children , and drifted away . Meanwhile , the upended port quarter boat had been righted , but despite Luce 's efforts to give women passengers priority , it was again rushed by crew and male passengers , who thrust aside the waiting women and cut the boat adrift from the ship while it was only partially filled .
While the captain 's attention was fully occupied in vain attempts to impose order , a group of the ship 's engineers , led by Chief Engineer J. W. Rogers , quietly appropriated one of the two remaining lifeboats . They maintained they required the boat for a final attempt at plugging the leaks ; anyone who questioned their intentions , or attempted to board the boat , was threatened with firearms . With ample food and water , this boat left the ship half full , occupied entirely by engine room staff . Of the ship 's officers only Luce and Fourth Officer Francis Dorian now remained ; virtually all the engineers and seamen had left . Around 300 people were still on board , with a single lifeboat . As a final measure to give at least some of these a chance of survival , Luce ordered the building of a raft . The fore and main yardarms , with various beams , spars and other wooden artifacts , were collected and lowered into the sea where Dorian , in the remaining boat , attempted to supervise the raft 's construction . Despite Dorian 's entreaties , his boat was rapidly overwhelmed ; to save it he cut loose , leaving a final terrified scramble for whatever security the half @-@ finished raft could provide . Among those who found safety in Dorian 's boat was a fireman , Patrick Tobin . According to his later account : " It was every man for himself . No more attention was paid to the captain than to any other man on board . Life was as sweet to us as to others " .
= = = Sinking = = =
With Arctic dead in the water , Luce instructed a young trainee engineer , Stewart Holland of Washington , to station himself at the bow and to fire the ship 's signal cannon at one @-@ minute intervals , in the hope of attracting the attention of a passing vessel . Throughout the chaos of the ship 's final moments Holland held his position and continued to fire until the moment the ship sank . His bravery and devotion to duty were noted in several later accounts : the Baltimore Sun called him " a conqueror of death . That noble ship had many noble spirits on board — but none nobler than he " .
Luce refused to take any action to save himself — he had told Baalham , before the second officer 's departure , that " the fate of the ship shall be mine " . When he could no longer render assistance to those still on board , he climbed with his young son to his command post atop the starboard paddle box , and waited for the end . By this time , many on board had become resigned to their fate ; they huddled together for comfort while some sang hymns or recited scripture . A few still frantically sought for means of survival ; those who could not find a place on the raft lashed together anything that might float — chairs , stools , caskets , sofas and doors , while Holland continued to fire the cannon . Peter McCabe , a waiter on his first transatlantic voyage , later described the scene : " Several persons were floating about on doors and beds ... I seized hold of a door which had been taken down to save passengers , and went into the sea , where I left the door and got upon the raft ... A great many persons were trying to get on the raft ... Among the number who were on it I saw four ladies " . Many were lost from the raft when it fouled the sinking hull — a section broke off , spilling its occupants into the sea . After this , McCabe counted seventy @-@ two men and four women either on or clinging to the structure , as it moved slowly away from the ship .
At around 4 : 45 pm , four and a half hours after the collision , Holland fired the cannon for the final time , as Arctic sank stern @-@ first . There were still perhaps 250 persons on board . As the ship went down , Paul Grann from New York , in Dorian 's boat , heard " one fearful shriek , and saw the passengers swept forward against the smokestack , and then all was over " . Luce , holding tightly to his child , was dragged deep down by the suction of the sinking vessel . When he rose to the surface , " a most awful and heart @-@ rending scene presented itself to my view — over two hundred men , women and children struggling together amidst pieces of wreck of every kind , calling on each other for help , and imploring God to assist them . Such an appalling scene may God preserve me from ever witnessing again . " As he struggled , a section of one of Arctic 's paddle @-@ boxes rose to the surface , delivering him a glancing blow but striking and killing his son outright . Despite the shock , Luce was able to clamber on to the paddle @-@ box , which provided a temporary raft for him and eleven others .
= = Survival and rescue = =
= = = Newfoundland = = =
A short distance from the foundering ship , Baalham 's boat encountered the partly filled port quarter boat . The loads were equalized , and the two vessels , with 45 persons in all , agreed to proceed under Baalham 's overall command . After briefly considering — and rejecting — a suggestion that they should look for other survivors , the two unprovisioned boats began rowing in the direction of the Newfoundland coast . Without an adequate compass , Baalham navigated by the run of the sea and occasional glimpses of the stars . Many of these survivors were freezing through extensive immersion in the bitterly cold water , about 45 ° Fahrenheit ; nevertheless , they rowed through the night and the next day . Twice they sighted ships in the distance , but were not seen . Early on the morning of September 29 they were close to the shoreline of Newfoundland 's Avalon Peninsula , and shortly afterwards the two boats landed at Broad Cove , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) south of St John 's .
After a brief respite , the party moved on to Renews , a fishing village four miles ( six km ) to the north . There , Arctic 's purser , John Geib , wrote a short message for dispatch by courier to the American consul in St John 's , informing him of the collision . Baalham hired two schooners ; in one , he returned with two others to the location of the sinking , to search for other survivors . In the other , the rest of the group sailed for St John 's . When they arrived , during the afternoon of October 2 , they were surprised to find Vesta , safely moored in the harbor . Despite the serious damage to its bow , Vesta 's watertight bulkheads had held firm , enabling the ship to proceed slowly to St John 's with almost her complete complement on board . Her arrival , on September 30 , had provided the basis of the first , inaccurate report of the disaster , in the local Patriot and Terra Nova Herald newspaper , in which it was assumed that Arctic had survived . The Arctic survivors ' reception in St John 's was cool , as following Vesta 's arrival the perception had been that Arctic had displayed what William Flayhart , in his account of the disaster , terms a " hit and run " attitude .
Baalham arrived on October 3 , following a fruitless three @-@ day search for survivors . The text of Geib 's brief letter to the American consul appeared in that day 's edition of the St John 's Newfoundlander , while its rival newspaper The Public Ledger printed a more detailed account of the disaster provided by Baalham . Because St John 's lacked a telegraph service , these reports had to be taken by the steamer Merlin to Halifax , Nova Scotia , where they could be wired to New York . Most of the Arctic party traveled on the same steamer ; Geib remained in St John 's , on the chance that further survivors might arrive . Merlin detoured to cover the area of the sinking , but discovered nothing ; she then proceeded to Sydney , Nova Scotia and reached Halifax on October 11 .
Numerous efforts were launched from St John 's in the hope of finding more survivors . An English schooner , John Clements , spent a week searching , before returning with Arctic 's flagstaff but no personnel . The New York , Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company , owners of the steamer Victoria , offered their vessel to the US consul for a fee of $ 500 a day , an action which led to considerable local press criticism . By contrast , the Bishop of Newfoundland , the Right Revd Edward Feild , provided his private yacht Hawk free of charge . Eventually Victoria agreed to assist without payment , although an unnamed correspondent of the Public Ledger doubted whether the ship made more than a perfunctory search . None of the ships other than John Clements found any definite traces of Arctic . Some reported that they had sighted debris , but were not able to identify or recover it .
= = = Huron , Lebanon , and Cambria = = =
Dorian 's lifeboat was the smallest of
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the ship 's boats and , with 26 crew and 5 passengers on board , had only a few inches of freeboard . In worsening weather , Dorian improvised a rough sea anchor , which enabled the boat to ride the waves through the night and following day without being swamped . In the late afternoon of September 28 they sighted a distant sail , which proved to be the Canadian bark Huron , bound for Quebec . As they rowed towards their rescuer , they passed Peter McCabe , still clinging to the makeshift raft , the only one of its 72 occupants to have survived the night ; he , too was taken on board Huron . McCabe later recalled that he thought he was within ten minutes of death when he was rescued .
On the following day Huron encountered another sailing ship , the Lebanon , heading for New York . Dorian , the five passengers and twelve of the crew chose to transfer to Lebanon . The other crewmen , possibly anticipating a hostile reception in their home port , chose to remain with Huron and proceed to Quebec , where she arrived on October 13 .
The ordeal of Captain Luce , and others who survived on assorted wreckage , lasted for two days . Around noon on September 29 , the sailing ship Cambria , out of Glasgow and heading for Quebec , spotted François Jassonet , the Vesta fisherman who had been rescued by the Arctic after the collision . In the following few hours , Cambria picked up nine more survivors ; these included Luce and two companions , the only survivors of the eleven who had found refuge on the remains of the paddlebox . The last to be picked up by Cambria was James Smith , a businessman from Scotland , who had survived on a raft constructed from planking and a tin @-@ lined wicker basket . He had seen at least one ship pass in the distance during his ordeal , and had almost given up hope when Cambria arrived . Once satisfied there were no further survivors in the area , Cambria continued its journey to Quebec . Luce spent much of the voyage preparing a report of the disaster , ready to wire to Edward Collins in New York as soon as he reached land . Cambria arrived in Quebec on October 13 , a few hours after Huron .
The fates of three of Arctic 's lifeboats are unknown : the starboard quarter boat in which Gourlay left to assist Vesta just after the collision ; the port guard boat , launched under the control of the quartermaster ; and the forward deck boat , appropriated by Rogers and his associates . No trace of the occupants of these boats was ever found . In mid @-@ November 1854 , Gourlay 's empty boat was picked up by the schooner Lily Dale , in good condition and with its oars still inside . In mid @-@ December the port guard boat was washed ashore at Placentia Bay , Newfoundland , again with no indication of the fate of its occupants .
= = New York = =
New York first heard of the disaster on October 11 , with the arrival of the survivors rescued by the Lebanon . Later that day , Baalham 's report , telegraphed from Halifax , was received at the Collins offices . The men from the Lebanon were seized upon by the press ; their stories , and the details from Baalham 's wired account , formed the basis of the early newspaper accounts . At that stage , information was incomplete ; Luce was missing and presumed lost , and there were various speculations about the numbers of casualties . The New York Herald 's headline announced : " Between Three and Four Hundred Souls Perished " , and : " Only Thirty @-@ two Lives Known to be Saved " . On the basis of the sketchy telegraphs from Halifax , the Baltimore Sun printed the false story that Vesta had saved 31 from Arctic 's complement and brought them into St John 's . This confusion temporarily raised hopes that the number saved might be higher than was immediately apparent , but this hope was dashed when , on the following day , some of Baalham 's party from St John 's arrived in New York , via Halifax and Boston , with their more detailed accounts .
On October 13 , Luce 's telegraphed report from Quebec was received at the Collins New York office . The news of his survival was the cause of celebration and thanksgiving . In its first paragraph Luce informed Edward Collins that the lost passengers likely " included your wife , daughter and son , with whom I took a last leave the moment the ship was going down " . That day , the Baltimore Sun reported the loss of the entire Brown party . Luce 's account of the rushing of lifeboats , and the early departures of officers and crew , caused considerable consternation in New York , which quickly turned to anger and condemnation as it became apparent that no women or children had been saved , and that most of the survivors were from the crew . The New York Times reported " an entire lack of disciplined control over the whole of the ship " , and that " the officers and crew did not do their best towards saving the vessel , which they left too early " . Paul Grann , from Dorian 's boat , reported that " all order and discipline ceased on board " , and that Rogers had threatened passengers with firearms . Later press accounts condemned the crew in increasingly harsh terms ; The New York Times referred to " a ghastly desertion of duty " , and condemned the " cowardly and dastardly conduct of the crew " . Scientific American adjudged that the behavior of the crew in saving themselves before their passengers had " blackened the character of our marine in the eyes of the whole world " . Captain Luce , however , was largely exculpated ; he had not sought to save himself , had gone down with his ship , and had survived largely by chance . When he arrived in New York by train from Quebec , on October 14 , he was greeted as a hero .
The probable number of survivors from SS Arctic is 88 , of whom 24 ( including the French fisherman François Jassonet ) were passengers . This figure comprises 45 in Baalham 's Newfoundland party , 32 rescued by Huron , 10 picked up by Cambria , and a passenger , Thomas Fleury , whose survival was not known until 1860 . Alexander Brown names 85 survivors , but includes only 42 from Baalham 's party . David Shaw , writing in 2002 , gives the total who survived as 87 , but does not count Fleury . In the absence of accurate passenger and crew lists , it has not been possible to establish the precise number of casualties ; on the basis of published partial lists , Flayhart estimates the death toll as not less than 285 , and conceivably as high as 372 . Some accounts give inflated casualty figures ; for example , W. H. Rideing in 1896 asserts that " five hundred and sixty @-@ two persons perished " .
= = Aftermath = =
After a week of reports chiefly concerned with survival accounts and tributes , on October 18 The New York Times turned to " Lessons Concerning Means of Security on Ocean Steamers " . Among several recommendations were : the compulsory use of steam whistles or trumpets as fog signals ; the construction of permanent watertight bulkheads in all passenger @-@ carrying ships ; organized lifeboat drills for passengers ; better discipline and more training among seamen . Few of these suggested reforms were adopted immediately ; calls for steamships sailing under the US flag to carry sufficient lifeboats for everyone on board were resisted until after the loss of RMS Titanic 58 years later . In December 1854 The New York Times called for an official enquiry into the disaster : " Whatever may be the extent of their legal responsibility , the owners , the officers and the crew of the Arctic are responsible to the public judgment ... They have no right to resist any attempt that may be made to define the extent of that responsibility , nor to deprecate any degree of scrutiny into their conduct " . No such investigation was ever instituted , and no one was taken to court for their actions . Some of the crewmen who landed in Quebec avoided questions by not returning to the United States ; according to Shaw they " disappeared on the waterfronts along the St Lawrence River and found the obscurity they wanted " .
Luce never went to sea again . The sympathy that greeted him on his return to New York did not prevent later criticism , that he had not acted forcefully enough and had , according to the crewman Tobin , " seemed like a man whose judgment was paralyzed " . The captain accepted that his abandonment of Gourlay had been a grave error ; the first officer might well have supervised a more disciplined organization of the lifeboats . Luce took a post as an inspector of ships with the Great Western Marine Insurance Company , where he worked until his death in 1879 , in his 75th year . His obituarist recorded that " his latter years were embittered by the recollection of the terrible disaster " . The Collins Line continued its fortnightly transatlantic mail steamship service with its three remaining ships , but suffered a further blow when , in January 1856 , SS Pacific sank with her entire complement of 186 passengers and crew . Nevertheless Collins went ahead with the construction of an even larger ship , the SS Adriatic , which , after a single round trip in November – December 1857 , was laid up . Confidence in the line had been damaged ; " people concluded that getting there was more important than luxuriating amid ornate trim " , and public opinion was increasingly averse to the payment of government subsidies to finance the Collins Line 's luxurious voyages . Early in 1858 , when these subsidies were heavily cut back , the line ceased business , and the Cunard ships resumed their position of transatlantic supremacy . Vesta , fully repaired , remained in the service of various owners until 1875 when , renamed Amberes , she is recorded as sinking in Santander harbor .
Among memorials to those lost from Arctic , a stone pillar was erected next to Luce 's grave , in the Center cemetery at Wareham , Massachusetts , to honor 11 @-@ year @-@ old Willie Luce , who had died at his father 's side as the ship sank . James Brown of Brown Brothers bank built an elaborate monument in Green @-@ Wood Cemetery , Brooklyn , to commemorate the six members of his family who had drowned . It incorporates a sculpture of Arctic at the moment of her sinking . An anonymous poetic tribute was printed in the New York Herald of October 22 , 1854 . It includes the words :
It ends with the warning : " Vengeance , saith the Lord , is mine " .
= St Chad 's Church , Poulton @-@ le @-@ Fylde =
St Chad 's Church is an Anglican church in Poulton @-@ le @-@ Fylde , a town on the Fylde coastal plain in Lancashire , England . It is an active parish church in the Diocese of Blackburn and the archdeaconry of Lancaster . It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II * listed building . A church on the site was built no later than the 11th century and may have existed prior to the Norman conquest of England . The tower dates from the 17th century , and much of the remainder of the building from a major renovation in the 18th century , although some of the fabric of the original structure remains . Further renovation and additions took place in the 19th , 20th and 21st centuries .
Soon after the Norman conquest , Poulton was granted to Lancaster Priory . In the 15th century , the church was given by Henry V to Syon Monastery in Middlesex . It returned to the Crown following the Dissolution of the Monasteries and from the 16th to the 20th century , the advowson ( the right to appoint a parish priest ) A belonged to the Hesketh / Fleetwood family .
The red sandstone building is faced with grey ashlar and consists of a nave , chancel , square tower and a Norman @-@ style apse . Its furnishings include a Georgian staircase , a Jacobean pulpit , box pews and hatchments . There are eight bells in the tower . Outside the church are the remains of a stone preaching cross .
= = History = =
There has probably been a church on the site of the present St Chad 's since before the Norman conquest of England in 1066 , and there is written evidence of one from 1094 . The Domesday Book of 1086 mentioned three churches in the hundred of Amounderness , although they were not named . Later documentary evidence suggests that they were probably the churches at Poulton , Kirkham and St Michael 's on Wyre . The dedication of Poulton 's church to 7th century Anglo @-@ Saxon saint Chad of Mercia lends weight to its pre @-@ conquest foundation , although it is possible that it was built between 1086 and 1094 .
The first documentary evidence of Poulton 's church dates from 1094 . After the conquest Amounderness , which included Poulton , was among the lands given by William the Conqueror to an Anglo @-@ Norman knight named Roger the Poitevin . In 1094 , Roger founded the Benedictine priory of St. Mary at Lancaster , as an offshoot of the Abbey of St. Martin in Sées , Normandy . He endowed the priory with the church and land at Poulton , approximately 20 miles ( 32 km ) away . Roger was eventually banished from the country and his possessions reverted to the Crown . In 1194 the hundred of Amounderness was given by King Richard I to Theobald Walter , 1st Baron Butler who became the High Sheriff of Lancashire . Though the advowson of Poulton ( the right to select a parish priest ) had been granted by Roger to the monks of Lancaster , Theobald initially thought that it should be included in his entitlements.A In 1196 he relinquished his right to Poulton ( along with that of Bispham ) , although he kept the advowsons of Preston and Kirkham .
In 1275 the Lancaster monks installed a vicar at the church . In 1291 , taxation assessments made on behalf of Pope Nicholas IV valued St Chad 's at £ 68 13s 4d — the third richest church in Lancashire . In 1345 , repairs to the chancel were ordered in a letter from Simon de Bekyngham of Richmond to Sir William , the dean of Amounderness .
In 1415 , King Henry V dissolved the alien priories ( those under control of religious houses abroad ) and the church at Poulton reverted to the Crown . It was given by Henry to Syon Monastery in Middlesex . At the time of the English Reformation in the 16th century , St Chad 's became the Anglican parish church . Originally , the parish included Poulton , Carleton , Thornton , Hardhorn @-@ with @-@ Newton and Marton . The Syon Monastery was suppressed in 1539 during Henry VIII 's Dissolution of the Monasteries and St Chad 's again returned to the Crown 's possession . In the reign of Elizabeth I ( after a brief restoration of Syon by Mary I ) , the advowson was granted to John Fleetwood of Penwortham . The Fleetwood family remained the patrons of St Chad 's until the early 20th century .
Some time in the 17th century , the present tower was built , possibly during Charles I 's reign . In 1751 the church was extensively renovated . It was previously thought that the old church ( except the tower ) was completely demolished but recent evidence indicates that the " new " building still contains the outer walls of the previous structure . These original walls , of red sandstone , were faced with grey ashlar . The nave was rebuilt in 1753 with money from Richard Hesketh of Meols and his wife Margaret ( the daughter of Richard Fleetwood ) .
By the 19th century , the graveyard was full and had become a public health concern . It was overrun with rats , and dogs chasing the rats , both of which were damaging the churchyard . Finding sufficient ground for new burials was increasingly difficult and bones were often removed to a nearby charnel house . In 1849 , an extra charge was put on burials of people from outside the parish . In 1884 , the churchyard was closed to all burials and a cemetery was opened in the town.B
A round Norman @-@ style apse was added to the church in 1868 , the architects being the Lancaster partnership of Paley and Austin . The incumbent , the Rev. Thomas Clarke , paid for this addition , but died before its construction was complete . Architect J. S. Crowther oversaw further alterations in 1881 – 83 ; a baptistery was built , the organ was moved and choir stalls were built in the chancel . Some work was done to the interior of the tower in 1908 . Renovations in 1955 included the addition of a central aisle and the removal of some of the church furnishings . The Victorian pulpit was replaced . A small extension was added north of the tower in 2005 .
The advowson to Poulton , which had been in the possession of the Fleetwood / Hesketh family for approximately 400 years , was sold in 1934 by Major Charles Fleetwood @-@ Hesketh to the Diocese of Blackburn .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The outer walls of the church are constructed of red sandstone with grey ashlar dressings ; the roofs are slate . The church plan consists of a nave , with a square tower to the west and a chancel and apsidal sanctuary to the east . There is a clergy vestry at the south @-@ east corner of the building .
The tower at the west end of the church dates from the early 17th century . It sits next to the south @-@ west corner of the nave , aligned with the south wall , because the former church plan included a north aisle ; the north wall of the tower meets the nave at its roof ridge . It is castellated and constructed of coursed roughly @-@ dressed stone . It has two diagonal buttresses , two angled buttresses and four corner pinnacles . There are slate belfry louvres on each side of the tower and clock faces on the north and south sides .
A small stone porch towards the east end of the south wall leads to the Fleetwood family burial vault . The doorway is inscribed with " Insignia Rici Fleetwood an hujus eccliae patronis , Anno Dni 1699 " .C There are two more doorways on the south side of the nave , both have been restored and have Tuscan columns , triglyphs and pediments . Above the doorways are oval windows , added in the 19th century which , according to Clare Hartwell , " add a touch of sophistication " . There are large round @-@ headed pairs of arched windows with Y @-@ tracery , ( possibly added later ) and plain architraves . There are three such windows on the north side and four on the south side with more round @-@ headed windows in the apse .
= = = Interior and fittings = = =
Internally , the nave measures 93 feet 6 inches ( 28 @.@ 50 m ) by 36 feet ( 11 m ) , the chancel ( including apse ) measures 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 33 m ) and the tower measures 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) by 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . The ceiling of the church has shallow ribbed vaulting . There are galleries to the north , west and south , accessed by a Georgian staircase in the north @-@ west that has turned balusters . The north and south galleries are supported by plain Tuscan columns and both contain box pews that date from 1752 . Stained glass dates from the late 19th century to the mid @-@ 20th century and includes work by Lancaster designers Shrigley and Hunt . The pulpit was constructed in 1955 in the Jacobean style from the four sides of a 17th @-@ century pulpit . It has arabesques and a portion of an inscription from the Book of Isaiah .
In the south @-@ west corner of the nave is a choir vestry , which was originally built as a baptistery . Its screen is made of carved oak , formed in 1883 from one part of the Fleetwood family box pew that was originally situated in the chancel where the choir stalls now sit . In 1883 , this pew had been described as " looking like a cross between a railway carriage and the centre piece of a gondola " . The wood is carved with emblems of the family including a double @-@ headed eagle , wheat sheaves and a griffin . The screen door comes from the box pew of another prominent local family — the Rigbys of Layton . It has a carving of a goat 's head and is inscribed with " AR 1636 " .
Six hatchments hang in St Chad 's in memory of 18th century members of the Hesketh @-@ Fleetwood family . These hatchments are diamond @-@ shaped representations of individual coats of arms , painted for their funeral processions and then hung in the parish church .
There is a ring of eight bells hung in an iron frame in the tower ; they are rung from the ground floor of the tower . Five of the bells were cast in 1741 by Abel Rudhall of Gloucester . They were rehung in 1908 . The sixth bell was recast in 1865 by Mears and Co. of London . In 1919 , the church bells were still customarily rung to signal the town curfew between September and March . Two more bells were added in 1937 , cast by Mears and Stainbank .
= = Churchyard = =
To the south of the church there are the remnants of a stone preaching cross . The cross was originally situated on Poulton 's boundary and marked a resting place for mourners travelling long distances to bury corpses at St Chad 's . Only the two circular steps into which the original structure was set remain ; the cross shaft has been replaced by an octagonal pillar . The pillar was used as a sundial until the early 20th century when the gnomon was stolen . The steps function as a memorial for present @-@ day mourners at St Chad 's , in a small garden of remembrance . The churchyard is noted locally for its display of crocuses and other flowering bulbs in early springtime .
Although the churchyard has been closed to burials since 1884 , the ashes of cremated bodies have been interred in a small area to the west of the church since the 1950s . The paths in the churchyard incorporate gravestones that were set horizontally in 1973 . There are few gravestones still standing , but there are several table tombs . To the south @-@ east of the church there is a gravestone marking the grave of Edward Sherdley ( d . 1741 ) ; the stone features carvings of a skull and crossbones and an hourglass , and is known locally as the " pirate 's grave " .
= = Present day and assessment = =
St Chad 's was designated a Grade II * listed building on 23 September 1950 . An active church in the Church of England , St Chad 's is part of the diocese of Blackburn , which is in the Province of York . It is in the archdeaconry of Lancaster and the Deanery of Poulton ; the benefice includes Poulton , Carleton and Singleton . The Rev. Martin Keighley was appointed vicar of St Chad 's in 2000 . The ecclesiastical parish of Poulton @-@ le @-@ Fylde St Chad includes the Church of St Hilda of Whitby in Carleton .
= Missing You ( The Saturdays song ) =
" Missing You " is a song performed by British @-@ Irish girl group The Saturdays , taken from their first EP , Headlines ! . Written by Alexander Kronlund and Lukas Hilbert with production from Hilbert and James Reynolds , the song was released as the collection 's lead single on 8 August 2010 as a digital download and on 9 August as a CD single . The lyrics centre on being in a relationship where the passion has died , but still being addicted to the love that used to exist . It features an electropop production , incorporating elements of synthpop . The group described the song as " an updated version of their sound " and was fun to record and experiment with . " Missing You is more out @-@ there than that rest of [ Headlines ! ] . "
The single received mostly negative reception from critics , who criticised the decision to release " Missing You " as a single , for using auto @-@ tuned vocals and the song 's production , which lacked energy . An accompanying music video features scenes of the group dancing on a beach in Málaga , Spain . It charted in Ireland at number six but in the UK it fared better , reaching number three , beaten by Flo Rida 's " Club Can 't Handle Me " featuring David Guetta and Eminem 's " Love The Way You Lie " featuring Rihanna . It was the second time that the group have lost out to Flo Rida in chart battle although it is their fourth top @-@ ten hit in Ireland and seventh in the UK . The official remix features British grime artist , rapper and songwriter Professor Green .
= = Composition = =
" Missing You " is an electropop song incorporating elements of trance and synthpop . It was written by Lukas Hilbert and Alexander Kronlund . According to the group " it 's about being in a relationship where the passion has gone – so you 're missing that spark . It 's quite deep , actually , for a pop song . " The critics also agreed , calling the lyrics " surprisingly dark " . It has also been described as " experimental " and an " updated version " of their previous sound . The production was described as " pretty " but " limp " as the " melody is traded for a random ' miss , missing you ' refrain " . Some of the group also make use of Auto @-@ Tune on their vocals , mainly Frankie Sandford , whilst Mollie King uses the natural croak in her voice and Vanessa White 's vocals had a nasal tone . White sings lead vocals on the first chorus , Healy sings lead vocals on the second chorus and Wiseman sings lead vocals on the third and final chorus .
= = Critical reception = =
" Missing You " received generally negative comments from the critics , who criticised the use of Auto @-@ Tuned vocals and said that " the production was lacking , making the choice to release it is a single confusing. with ] some terrible autotone ... and a trance @-@ y backdrop that never quite reaches the places it promises . " Tony Falls of Virgin Media was also highly critical of the song awarding it zero out of ten . " Never have a group got by with so little a contribution to music , but so big a contribution to rolling back feminist progress . ' Missing You ' sounds like an album track . Not something you ’ d hear as a comeback track that would uplift your lost consciousness about the girls ’ disappearance . The idea of shooting the video in Spain for this type of song is a nice choice , but Frankie is overly tanned . Please kill me . A vacuous set of reviews for a vacuous group of girls . "
However Fraser McAlpine gave the song a mixed review , awarding it three out of five stars . He pointed out that fans of the group would be divided on the song . " Something hidden deep in the song 's DNA is engagingly bad , or worryingly good , and it 's got everyone 's quality alarms jangling like a wind @-@ chime in a hurricane ... [ There is a moment of ] appreciation for the bit where they sing " begging to get back together " ... It 's slow , moody , ponderous , a little bit boring at times , but when it gets to that bit , it 's ... the good bit . " He also called the song a " grower " Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song a positive review saying , " ' Missing You ' is a post @-@ break @-@ up song with a modishly rave @-@ tinged production ... and after a few spins the chorus wiggles into your brain like a tapeworm that missed the turning marked ' digestive tract ' ... The charts ? Sorted . Your hearts ? Well , that 's a matter of personal preference of course , but , the odd rocky patch excepted , they 've had ours since ' Up ' . "
= = Chart performance = =
Upon digital release the single debuted in Ireland at number forty @-@ two . Then upon CD release , " Missing You " became the group 's fourth top @-@ ten hit by peaking at number six . It is the group 's joint @-@ best charting single in Ireland and the second single to chart at number six , after " Just Can 't Get Enough " reached the same position back in March 2009 . On 14 August 2010 , the single debuted in Scotland at number two . Then a day later , " Missing You " debuted at number three on the UK Singles Chart , despite being tipped to take the number one spot according to mid week figures . It was beaten by Flo Rida 's " Club Can 't Handle Me " and " Love the Way You Lie " by Eminem and Rihanna , which respectively took the number one and number two positions . It also entered the UK Download Chart at number three . It is the second single by the group to be beaten by Flo Rida in a battle for the number one chart position although , it is their seventh top @-@ ten UK hit .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video was shot at the end of May 2010 , in Málaga , Spain and later premiered 26 June on the group 's official website . Of the video shoot , the group said " Every time we 'd turned round , our dresses would get stuck to our legs ! That was a nightmare . It was either that or slipping over . " The video was shot by director Chris Cottam .
The video begins with footage of Frankie Sandford sitting in a tree ; Mollie King is show riding a bike along a dustry road ; while Vanessa White is leaning against the walls of a crumbling building ; the camera flies past Rochelle Wiseman , who stands on the beach by the water 's edge and Una Healy drives a convertible car along a dusty road . As the chorus plays for the first time , the cameras follow the girls as they respectively walk around their surroundings , bar Sandford who remains in the tree and White who does not move from her spot . In the verse following , King is sitting by the road side with her bike and Wiseman is seen sitting on the rocks near the water 's edge . Then as the chorus breaks for the second time the girls are seen dancing a choreographed routine on a sandy beach . Each is wearing a flowing maxi dress ( see image alongside ) . The interspliced scenes of Sandford walking through trees gained a mention in The Daily Mail . " Sandford is seen wearing a cropped white top and white shorts , Frankie walks casually through a field in the video , seemingly unaware of the attention her astonishing six pack is receiving . " The song 's bridge mainly focusses on footage of the girls at a beach party dancing to the DJ , while the final run of the chorus sees the camera rotate around the girls as they dance on the beach . There is a brief view of the seaside villas in the background . It ends by showing the footage from the scenes at the start of the video , showing each of the girls in turn .
= = = Reception = = =
A reviewer from ' Osoblog.tv ' was less critical of the video , instead calling it an advert for the Summer . " The band walked around on a beach and danced in a rock pool ( with artful splashing ) while dressed in a variety of beachwear . It makes us want to go on a holiday . " The reviewer from OK ! magazine agreed saying " quite frankly the whole thing has us aching for a summer holiday " and then compared it a holiday the group might go on . " All in all it 's a pretty standard summer for the girls who show off super toned physiques , plenty of midriff and a collection of maxi @-@ dresses we can 't help , but covet . "
= = Live performances = =
The Saturdays have performed the single at T4 on the Beach 2010 , where member of the band , Mollie King was absent from the performance , after a horsefly bite left her on crutches and thus unable to perform . King was absent from a number of other performances The Saturdays performed to promote the single Festivals us that this was not Mollie , Una sang their parts .. On 1 August 2010 , all of the members of The Saturdays performed on Alan Carr : Chatty Man and they were interviewed on GMTV three days later . On 10 August 2010 the group appeared at the Habbo Hotel in London , for a ' Meet and Greet ' session in promotion of " Missing You " .
= = Formats And Track listings = =
CD single
" Missing You " – 3 : 41
" Ready To Rise " – 3 : 35
Digital Download Acoustic Remix
" Missing You " ( Acoustic Version ) – 3 : 20
Digital EP
" Missing You " – 3 : 41
" Missing You " ( Cahill Club Mix ) – 6 : 04
" Missing You " ( Steve Smart Club Mix ) – 6 : 15
" Missing You " ( Cahill Radio Edit ) – 3 : 31 [ Exclusive to iTunes Store ]
= = Credits = =
A @-@ side " Missing You "
B @-@ side – " Ready to Rise "
Songwriters – Colin Campsie , Robin Lynch , Niklas Olovson , Una Healy , Mollie King , Frankie Sandford , Vanessa White , Rochelle Wiseman
= Illawarra Steam Navigation Company =
The Illawarra Steam Navigation Company was a shipping company that serviced the south coast of New South Wales , Australia from 1858 to the early 1950s . It was formed through the amalgamation of the General Steam Navigation Company , the Kiama Steam Navigation Company and the Shoalhaven Steam Navigation Company , each of whom serviced parts of the south coast with their respective vessels . After merging , the new company held a near monopoly in regard to shipping on the south coast , and their fleet visited every significant port between Sydney and the border of Victoria . The company transported both passengers and a range of produce , including livestock , and hence it became known as the ' Pig and Whistle Line ' : it was said that ships would wait an hour for a pig but not a minute for a passenger .
Over the years more than twenty steamships were a part of the fleet , including the 1112 ton Merimbula and the 693 ton Eden . Many of these vessels were purpose @-@ built for the company 's needs , and were constructed at shipyards both within Australia and abroad . The company 's eventual demise came as a result of a number of factors , including increased competition from road and rail , the cost of replacing ships after World War II , waterfront disputes and rising costs . As a consequence , after almost 100 years in operation , the company was placed into voluntary receivership and was delisted from the stock exchange in 1955 .
= = History = =
Prior to the formation of the Illawarra Steam Navigation Company in 1858 , a number of companies and individuals ran steamships along the south coast of New South Wales . The first of these was the Sophia Jane , which had traveled to Australia under her own power from the United Kingdom ( and was the first steamship to do so ) , arriving in Sydney in 1831 . But while the Sophia Jane ran a service to Wollongong , a more regular service was provided from 1839 with the establishment of the Illawarra Steam Packet Company . The Illawarra Steam Packet Company was not known by that name for long , as just three months after being established , the company merged with the Brisbane Water Steam Passenger Co. to become the General Steam Navigation Company . The newly formed company initially employed two steam vessels , the Maitland and the William IV , both of which were built in New South Wales on the Williams River , and the company serviced the Hunter River along with the south coast .
The General Steam Navigation Company continued to expand , services to Jervis Bay and Kiama were trialled ( and later abandoned ) , and the company launched the Illawarra to handle the run to Wollongong . Nevertheless , competition soon emerged . This included the screw @-@ driven steamship Keera , which began operations in 1852 between Sydney and Wollongong , although she failed to achieve commercial success and was sold to " Victorian interests " . Other competition emerged as a direct result of the lack of service provided to ports further south of Wollongong . Residents at two of those towns – Kiama and Shoalhaven – were led to form two new steamship companies in 1854 . These new companies , the Kiama Steam Navigation Company and the Shoalhaven Steam Navigation Company respectively ran the steamships Kiama and Nora Creina .
At this point three steamship companies were handling the south coast , and this proved to be too much competition for their respective interests . Thus in 1855 an agreement was reached , leaving the south coast to just the Illawarra , Kiama and Nora Creina . However , an enquiry had been undertaken into the transport facilities in the Bega district in 1851 , in October 1858 the Illawarra Steam Navigation Company through an act of the New South Wales Parliament became an amalgam of the three companies . The new amalgamated company possessed a fleet of at least three vessels : the Illawarra , Kiama and Nora Creina that had been servicing the region . To this list the Nowra was added , while a sixth – the Mimosa – was soon included on the register .
The number of ships continued to grow , and by 1866 the Illawarra Steam Navigation Company was running weekly services from south coast ports to Sydney , carrying wool , cedar , coal and a variety of raw materials . As the company expanded it became known as the " Pig & Whistle " run , due to the main cargo and the " whistle " that was made by the ships prior to departing from the port . The company was to play a leading role in the development of coastal New South Wales , and her ships were to stop at every port between Sydney and the Victorian border . As such , by 1905 , the company was able to link Eden by regular steam communication with Sydney , Launceston , Tasmania , Hobart and New Zealand . The company enjoyed a near – monopoly on the south coast trade for many years , negotiating with or taking over many potential competitors , although competition from rail and road transport were to play a significant role in the eventual demise of the company .
Along with cargo the company also took passengers , and an article by Henry Lawson , published in The Bulletin in 1910 and titled ' Bermagui - In a Strange Sunset ' , describes a steamer journey from Bermagui to Sydney – in all likelihood Lawson was traveling with the company . Unfortunately , in 1928 one of the company 's vessels , the Merimbula , ran ashore on Beecroft Head while heading south . After this wreck , passenger shipping to the south coast finished , and the company focused entirely upon cargo .
In 1904 the company was incorporated as the Illawarra and South Coast Steam Navigation Company ( ISCSNC ) , and the company continued to operate successfully until the Second World War . However , significant problems had emerged for the company , even though it remained in good financial standing . In particular , road transport was able to offer a door @-@ to @-@ door service , ( although the company did attempt to provide something similar at Narooma ) , and the railways provided increased competition , entering into exclusive contracts with some hotels and taking some goods contracts away from the shipping line . When combined with waterfront disputes , rising costs , and the post @-@ war costs of ship replacement , the company was in trouble , and in 1948 , for the first time , no dividend was paid to investors . In 1950 the company entered into voluntary liquidation , and this led to delisting from the Australian Stock Exchange in 1955 .
= = Ports = =
In the early 1850s , when the General Steam Navigation Company , Kiama Steam Navigation Company and the Shoalhaven Steam Navigation Company were independent operations , the major ports of call along the south coast of New South Wales included Sydney , Wollongong , Shoalhaven , Merimbula , Kiama and Twofold Bay . After the amalgamation of the three companies , this list included stops at Gerringong , Batemans Bay , and Nelligen . Later , minor gold rushes at both Moruya and the Wagonga district resulted in their inclusion , and other ports were to include Bermagui , Eden , Narooma and Tathra .
The extent of the Illawarra Steam Navigation Company 's operations along the coast can be seen by their 1870 schedule , in which they were making the journey to Kiama , Shoalhaven and Gerringong every three days , and to Ulladulla , Clyde , Shoalhaven and Wollongong at about the same rate . Mourya was visited every two weeks , while an additional journey was made to Merimbula and Ulladulla once a week . 1873 saw a simplification of these services , and a weekly run to Merimbula , Eden and Tathra was amongst the changes .
Maintaining the services of the Illawarra Steam Navigation Company did , at times , take some effort on the part of the residents . For example , in Ulladulla a wooden jetty was built in 1859 in order to retain the services of the company ; they had informed the farmers that their ships would not call again at Ulladulla unless better mooring facilities were provided . ( After seven years the jetty was replaced by a stone pier built by the government on the natural reef ) . Similarly the town of Tathra was created through the erection of a small jetty , built so that the local farmers could gain access to coastal shipping which previously had stopped 25 km away at Merimbula .
= = Ships = =
Piecing together the Illawarra Steamship Navigation Company 's fleet is difficult , as , unlike most steamship companies of the day , neither the company 's advertising nor their arrival and departure notices carried the names of the vessels . Instead they simply listed the ships as " I.S.N. Steamers " , if the vessels were mentioned at all . Nevertheless , it is known that when the company was amalgamated they had at least three vessels to handle the south coast trade : the Kiama from the Kiama Steamship Company , the Nora Creina from the Shoalhaven Steam Navigation Company , and the General Steamship Company 's Illawarra .
Of these three , the Kiama was a 104 @-@ ton paddle steamer that entered service with the company in 1855 . Purpose @-@ built in Glasgow in 1854 , she took 144 days to arrive in Australia , and she served the South Coast until 1876 when she was sold and converted into a hulk . Prior to sale she had been lengthened from her original 123 feet to 154 feet , and her tonnage increased to 111 tons . The Nora Creina , on the other hand , was lighter at 93 tons , and was locally built in Sydney . She was sold by the company in 1861 . The third of the original three vessels , Illawarra , had been constructed at Waterford in 1849 with a net weight of 166 tons , but , like the Nora Creina , she was only to remain with the new company until 1861 when she was sold .
By 1864 the company was operating a fleet of at least four ships - the Kiama was still in service , and she had been joined by Hunter , Mynora and Kembla . Both Kembla , a 204 @-@ ton iron steamship , and Hunter , a paddle steamer with a net weight of 105 tons , were built in Glasgow , Scotland . The Mynora was built in Australia at Prymont in Sydney . A 117 @-@ ton wooden paddle steamer , her time with the company ended in 1864 after she ran into St Georges Head in Wreck Bay . In an attempt to save the lives of passengers and crew , the captain fought to keep the ship afloat until she finally ran aground on a sandy beach approximately three miles from the headland . While the boat was lost , all of the passengers and crew on Mynora were saved .
The next significant change to the company 's fleet came in 1878 with the purchase of the Illawarra ( II ) . At 533 tons and 190 feet in length , she handled both passengers and cargo for the company , and proved to be " most popular " until being laid up in 1908 and eventually scrapped . Illawarra ( II ) was soon joined by Allowrie , a 504 @-@ ton vessel built in 1880 for carrying passengers and cargo , including livestock and dairy produce . ( Allowrie remained in service with the Illawarra Steam Navigation Company until 1909 , when , like Illawarra ( II ) , she was laid up ) . The third major vessel during this period was Kameruka . A 515 @-@ ton steamer , she was built in 1880 , but was then lost when wrecked on Pedro Reef off Moruya in October , 1897 .
When the company was reconstituted as the Illawarra and South Coast Steam Navigation Company in 1904 , their vessels included Allowrie and two new steamers : Eden and Bega . Eden was a 693 @-@ ton screw steamer that had arrived in 1900 , a purpose @-@ built vessel constructed for the company in Glasgow to handle the Sydney – Merimbula – Eden – Tathra route . Eden remained with the company until being converted to a hulk , and she was finally scuttled in 1933 . Bega , at 567 tons , transported both passengers and cargo between 1883 when she was launched and 1907 when she capsized with the loss of one of the passengers .
At least two more ships joined the fleet in the early 1900s : Peterborough , which was acquired from the Shellharbour Steam Navigation Company , and Merimbula . At the time Merimbula was the company 's finest vessel . She was a 1122 @-@ ton screw steamer which provided accommodation for 106 passengers ( 96 saloon and 10 second class ) as well as possessing refrigerated cargo space , and she was capable of between 13 and 14 knots . Unfortunately she ran aground off Beecroft Head in 1928 .
Just prior to the onset of the first World War , four new ships were purchased : Bermagui , Bonandera , Bodalla and Bergalia . Bodalla was requisitioned for the war effort and repurposed as a minesweeper , and she was lost in 1924 . After the war the company purchased another three vessels : Nergalia , Cobargo and Kianga . Two of these three boats , Nergalia and Kianga , were requisitioned during World War II , but while both survived the hostilities , Kianga was not returned to the company after being decommissioned .
= Bacon ice cream =
Bacon ice cream ( or bacon @-@ and @-@ egg ice cream ) is a modern invention , generally created by adding bacon to egg custard and freezing the mixture . The concept of bacon ice cream originated in a 1973 sketch on the British comedy series The Two Ronnies as a joke ; however , it was eventually created for April Fools ' Day . Heston Blumenthal experimented with the creation of ice cream , making a custard similar to scrambled eggs then adding bacon to create one of his signature dishes . It now appears on dessert menus in other restaurants .
= = Origins = =
Ice cream is generally expected to be a sweet food , eaten at dessert , even though there is evidence of savoury ice creams being created in Victorian times . Bacon ice cream originated as a joke , a flavour that no one would willingly eat , in the 1973 " Ice Cream Parlour Sketch " by The Two Ronnies , where a customer requests cheese and onion flavoured ice cream followed by smokey bacon .
Bacon and egg ice cream was eventually created as an April Fools ' Day experiment at Aldrich 's Beef and Ice Cream Parlor in Fredonia , New York . In 1982 , co @-@ owner Scott Aldrich was challenged by a gravy salesman to make gravy ice cream , which he did for April Fools ' Day that year . Although it was reportedly " their most disgusting " creation , Aldrich 's went on to release other shocking flavours on April Fools ' Day , such as " chocolate spaghetti ice cream " ( Julia Aldrich 's first of many contributions ) , " ketchup and mustard swirl " , " Pork and beans " or " sauerkraut and vanilla " in 1991 . In 1992 , they made 15 US gallons ( 57 l ; 12 imp gal ) of bacon and egg ice cream which he gave away free to anyone who would try it . Despite their names , the ice creams generally received positive reviews .
In 2003 an ice cream parlour , " Udder Delight " , opened in Rehoboth Beach , Delaware , specialising in " outlandish " ice cream flavours . Amongst other flavours , such as their award @-@ winning peanut butter and jelly ice cream , they have created a bacon ice cream which tastes like butter pecan – implying that the ice cream was a butter pecan with candied bacon . The owner , Chip Hearn , had included the flavour along with 17 others in an invitation @-@ only focus group , where the tasters were allowed to suggest changes and give opinions on the flavour .
= = Recipes = =
As bacon ice cream was first created in 1992 and only came to the forefront in the 2000s , there is no traditional recipe . Recipes generally involve adding bacon to a standard sweet ice cream recipe , often vanilla but other suggestions include coffee , rum or pecan . The saltiness of the bacon will then highlight the sweet flavour of the rest of the ice cream . According to one Wired.com article , the bacon should be candied prior to addition , a process which involves baking the bacon in a sugar syrup . This has the benefit of sweetening the bacon , in a similar manner to pancakes in some parts of the United States .
= = = Heston Blumenthal variation = = =
Heston Blumenthal 's recipe uses ice cream without flavouring , but that tastes of egg . In his book The Big Fat Duck Cookbook , his recipe is broken down into five constituent parts including the ice cream , caramelised French toast , a tomato compote , a thin slice of pancetta hardened with maple syrup and a tea jelly . Considerable time is taken for the creation of the ice cream : the bacon is lightly roasted with the fat on , then infused in milk for 10 hours . This infused mix is precisely heated with egg and sugar to over @-@ cook the eggs – increasing the eggy flavour . The resulting mixture is sieved , put through a food processor , churned and frozen . Blumenthal has since updated his recipe , to include an additional ten @-@ hour period of soaking the bacon in a vacuum @-@ packed bag prior to baking . He has also changed the presentation so that the unfrozen ice cream is injected into empty egg shells , and then dramatically scrambled at the customer 's table in liquid nitrogen , giving the impression of cooking .
= = Heston Blumenthal = =
Heston Blumenthal , a chef who owns The Fat Duck in Bray , Berkshire and is famous for creating unusual dishes by following the principles of molecular gastronomy . Using these principles the restaurant has won three Michelin stars among other achievements . As early as 2001 , he was using the principle of " flavour encapsulation " to create savoury ice cream flavours such as mustard grain and crab . Blumenthal , in an article explaining the concept of " flavour encapsulation " , explained that flavour is much more intense in encapsulated bursts , rather than being dispersed in a solution , stating that the more that the eggs are cooked , the more that the proteins stick together . This creates pockets of egg flavour in the ice cream , which release as it melts in customers ' mouths .
" [ Blumenthal 's ] bacon and egg ice cream came about through his interest in ' flavour encapsulation ' : the principle of which means a single coffee bean crushed in your teeth while drinking hot water
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release as singles in the United States , but " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " was replaced with " Sweet Dreams " , which became the sixth single from the I Am .. Sasha Fierce . " Ego " and " Sweet Dreams " are both on the Sasha Fierce disc , while the other joint @-@ releases from I Am .. Sasha Fierce included one song from each disc to demonstrate the concept of Beyoncé 's conflicting personalities — the album 's central theme . " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " was subsequently released as the seventh overall single from I Am .. Sasha Fierce and the fifth outside the US . The ballad was made available in a two @-@ track digital download in Australia and New Zealand on August 28 , 2009 . A CD single , featuring the album version of " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " and an extended remix of " Video Phone " , was released in Germany on October 20 , 2009 .
French electronic musician Alan Braxe produced a different version of " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " that was released in Europe . It is a bubblegum dance and disco remix with guitars , horns , synthesizers , whips , and snare drums . Braxe reworked the ballad 's bridge and made changes to Beyoncé 's vocals , such as increasing the speed of her singing . On October 30 , 2009 , a maxi single was released in Europe that features a radio edit and four remixes . Another maxi single was made available on November 2 in the United Kingdom by RCA Records . Digital extended plays later came out on November 20 , 2009 , in Australia , New Zealand , and Europe .
= = Critical reception = =
" Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " received a mixed response from critics . Nana Ekua Brew @-@ Hammond of Village Voice described the song as " romantic @-@ comedy soundtrack fare " , and Colin McGuire of PopMatters commented that the balladry is more similar to the work of Canadian pop singer Celine Dion than American soul singer Aretha Franklin . A writer for the Eastern Daily Press noted that it is a ballad in the vein of Beyoncé 's 2008 single " If I Were a Boy " and that Dion would be proud of its " insipid [ and ] sentimental " balladry . David Riva of The Michigan Daily saw " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " as " a powerful and emotionally stirring ballad with universal resonance " and one that shows Beyoncé 's growth as a songwriter . Jay Lustig of New Jersey On @-@ Line felt that the only standout on the I Am ... disc was " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " , which he noted to have a " stately , classic @-@ soul vibe " in contrast to the other ballads on the disc .
Critics had polarized opinions on the production of " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " . Spence D. of IGN Music wrote that " strings create a mournfully thoughtful tone " on the ballad . Mayer Nissim of Digital Spy commended " the pleasant mix of cascading piano and tender strings " , but criticized the drum sounds for their hollowness . He nevertheless added that the drums do not prevent the song from being " a classy , well @-@ constructed pop ballad " . Nissim concluded that although " the emotion @-@ filled vocals offer yet more proof that [ Beyoncé ] is one of the finest pop singers of her generation " , " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " is not as catchy as her best work . Darryl Sterdan of Jam ! called it a " grand @-@ piano ballad " that may stand out from pop songs on a regular studio album , but seems monotonous on I Am ... Sasha Fierce as it is on a disc that contains ballads only . Negative reviews came from The A.V. Club 's Michaelangelo Matos , who felt that " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " sounded " unfinished " , and Paste magazine 's Jessica Suarez , who said Beyoncé 's " commanding voice sounds unusually thin " on the ballad . She was unconvinced by the lyrics , noting that the line , " I don 't want to play the broken @-@ hearted girl " , " rings false " . Ben Westhoff of Las Vegas Weekly wrote that it was difficult to guess what inspired the development of the breakup ballad as Beyoncé married Jay @-@ Z a few months before the album 's release .
= = Chart performance = =
On November 14 , 2009 , " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " reached number twenty @-@ seven on the UK Singles Chart . Starting on November 21 , 2009 , the single descended the chart for twelve weeks , last appearing on November 19 , 2009 . It has been certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , for shipment of 200 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom . " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " entered the Irish Singles Chart at number thirty @-@ nine on October 8 , 2009 , and reached number twenty on November 5 , 2009 . The single spent nine consecutive weeks on the chart , on which it last appeared on December 3 , 2009 . It attained top twenty positions on the Czech Republic Airplay Chart and the German Singles Chart , respectively peaking at number fifteen and fourteen . " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " debuted and peaked at number thirty @-@ eight on Austrian Singles Chart . On the Swiss Singles Chart , it peaked at number sixty @-@ two , and charted for three non @-@ consecutive weeks . The ballad made its way to the top ten of the Belgian Tip Charts .
On Australia 's ARIA Singles Chart , " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " debuted at number twenty @-@ eight on September 21 , 2009 , and ascended to number fifteen the following week . On October 5 , 2009 , it rose to number fourteen , and was there for an additional week ; it lasted for nine consecutive weeks on the chart . " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " peaked at number four on the ARIA Urban Singles Chart , and emerged as the thirty @-@ seventh best @-@ selling urban single of 2009 in Australia . It reached number ten on the Brazilian Hot 100 Airplay chart in the October 2010 issue .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " was directed by Sophie Muller . It was released on the remix and video album Above and Beyoncé – Video Collection & Dance Mixes on June 16 , 2009 , and through iTunes Stores on November 20 , 2009 . Most of it had been filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white on a beach in Malibu , California , in late February 2009 . The protagonist ( Beyoncé ) reminisces on an isolated beach about a relationship that went wrong .
The video begins as the protagonist parks her car and cries following an argument she has had with her lover . She then leaves the car , walks towards the sea , and lets down her hair . Flashbacks of the woman and her lover on the beach are shown . With teary eyes , she heads into the sea as waves break the shore . Back in the car , she imagines her lover holding her hands . The video transitions into color , as Beyoncé 's character appears on the beach in a green dress and holds a rose without its petals , which she later restores . The video then flashes back to black @-@ and @-@ white memories of the woman resting her head on her lover 's shoulder . She eventually realizes that she must set her relationship back on the right track . In the end , she drives off with a smile .
A critic for The Daily Telegraph found the video " sultry " . Alison Maloney of The Sun commented that Beyoncé " is tapped in to her well @-@ honed acting skills " , and " looks amazing in [ the video ] as she sings the ballad with the waves crashing behind her " . He noted that she suffers from " panda eyes after a good cry " . Peter Gigas of E ! News wrote that Beyoncé " [ looks ] exceptionally stunning " even while crying over a poor relationship . He noted that the clip is " simple and straightforward " , and connects effectively with viewers who like the ballad . A writer of Daily Mail noted that the scenes of Beyoncé and her love interest on the beach in the video were inspired from the film From Here to Eternity ( 1953 ) . The writer further praised Beyoncé 's " enviable " figure and the outfit worn by her .
= = Live performances = =
" Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " was in Beyoncé 's set list of the worldwide I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) , which was in support of I Am ... Sasha Fierce . The performances of her uptempo songs were followed by a rapid costume change . Wearing a white dress , she sang three ballads from the album in a row ; she performed " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " after singing " Smash into You " , on the top of a staircase , and " Ave Maria " , for which she changed into a wedding dress . A recorded version of the performance was previewed on the music video website Vevo . It was released on her live album I Am ... World Tour on November 29 , 2010 .
Jay Lustig of New Jersey On @-@ Line commented that the song 's performance at the Madison Square Garden on June 21 , 2009 , had " plenty of blues grit " . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News noted that Beyoncé displayed her softer side while performing the ballad , while Jim Farber of the Daily News said she showed " something more internal and deep " . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times criticized the performance , writing that it was " the evening 's most comical moment , in a concert involving a bustier made with motorcycle lights " . Speaking of her London O2 Arena performance on November 15 , 2009 , Tamara Hardingham @-@ Gill of the Daily Mail wrote , " Her incredible vocal abilities were showcased during ballads such as ' Broken Hearted Girl ' ... where she was note perfect throughout . " Michael Cragg of musicOMH highlighted that Beyoncé 's performance of " Broken @-@ Heated Girl " was better than those of the previous two ballads " because it is allowed to exist on its own terms ; a simple song , sung beautifully " . The Observer 's Barbara Ellen commented that Beyoncé , singing in Zurich in May 2009 , was " clawing pathos " on " Broken @-@ Hearted Girl " and " can shape @-@ change at will " .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from the I Am ... Sasha Fierce liner notes .
Jim Caruana – recording engineer ( vocals )
Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds – songwriter
Mikkel Storleer Eriksen – instruments , music recorded by , songwriter
Matt Green – assistant mixing engineer
Tor Erik Hermansen – instruments , songwriter
Beyoncé – vocals , producer , songwriter
Stargate – producer
Mark " Spike " Stent – mixing engineer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Major thirds tuning =
Among alternative tunings for guitar , a major @-@ thirds tuning is a regular tuning in which each interval between successive open strings is a major third ( " M3 " in musical abbreviation ) . Other names for major @-@ thirds tuning include major @-@ third tuning , M3 tuning , all @-@ thirds tuning , and augmented tuning . By definition , a major @-@ third interval separates two notes that differ by exactly four semitones ( one @-@ third of the twelve @-@ note octave ) .
The Spanish guitar 's tuning mixes four perfect fourths ( five semitones ) and one major @-@ third , the latter occurring between the G and B strings :
E @-@ A @-@ D @-@ G @-@ B @-@ E.
This tuning , which is used for acoustic and electric guitars , is called " standard " in English , a convention that is followed in this article . While standard tuning is irregular , mixing four fourths and one major third , M3 tunings are regular : Only major @-@ third intervals occur between the successive strings of the M3 tunings , for example , the open augmented C tuning
G ♯ -C @-@ E @-@ G ♯ -C @-@ E.
For each M3 tuning , the open strings form an augmented triad in two octaves .
For guitars with six strings , every major @-@ third tuning repeats its three open @-@ notes in two octaves , so providing many options for fingering chords . By repeating open @-@ string notes and by having uniform intervals between strings , major @-@ thirds tuning simplifies learning by beginners . These features also facilitate advanced guitarists ' improvisation , precisely the aim of jazz guitarist Ralph Patt when he began popularizing major @-@ thirds tuning between 1963 and 1964 .
= = Avoiding standard tuning 's irregular intervals = =
In standard tuning , the successive open @-@ strings mix two types of intervals , four perfect @-@ fourths and the major third between the G and B strings :
E @-@ A @-@ D @-@ G @-@ B @-@ E.
Only major thirds occur as open @-@ string intervals for major @-@ thirds tuning , which is also called " major @-@ third tuning " , " all @-@ thirds tuning " , and " M3 tuning " . A popular M3 tuning has the open strings
G ♯ -C @-@ E @-@ G ♯ -C @-@ E ,
in which the low G ♯ is a major third above the low E of standard tuning . Consequently , a seventh string for the low E is often added to restore the standard E @-@ E range . While M3 tuning can use standard sets of guitar strings , specialized string gauges have been recommended . Besides this M3 tuning , which has the open notes { G ♯ , C , E } , there are exactly three other M3 tunings , which have distinct sets of open @-@ note pitch classes . The other major @-@ thirds tunings respectively have the open notes { A , C ♯ , F } , { A ♯ , D , F ♯ } , and { B , D ♯ , G } . For six @-@ string guitars , the M3 tuning
F ♯ -A ♯ -D @-@ F ♯ -A ♯ -D
loses the two lowest semitones on the low @-@ E string and the two highest semitones from the high @-@ E string in standard tuning ; it can use string sets for standard tuning .
= = Properties = =
Major @-@ thirds tunings require less hand @-@ stretching than other tunings , because each M3 tuning packs the octave 's twelve notes into four consecutive frets . The major @-@ third intervals allow major chords and minor chords to be played with two – three consecutive fingers on two consecutive frets . Every major @-@ thirds tuning is regular and repetitive , two properties that facilitate learning by beginners and improvisation by advanced guitarists .
= = = Four frets for the four fingers = = =
In major @-@ thirds tuning , the chromatic scale is arranged on three consecutive strings in four consecutive frets . This four @-@ fret arrangement facilitates the left @-@ hand technique for classical ( Spanish ) guitar : For each hand position of four frets , the hand is stationary and the fingers move , each finger being responsible for one fret . Consequently , three hand @-@ positions ( covering frets 1 – 4 , 5 – 8 , and 9 – 12 ) partition the fingerboard of classical guitar , which has exactly 12 frets .
Only two or three frets are needed for the guitar chords — major , minor , and dominant sevenths — which are emphasized in introductions to guitar @-@ playing and to the fundamentals of music . Each major and minor chord can be played on two successive frets on three successive strings , and therefore each needs only two fingers . Other chords — seconds , fourths , sevenths , and ninths — are played on only three successive frets . For fundamental @-@ chord fingerings , major @-@ thirds tuning 's simplicity and consistency are not shared by standard tuning , whose seventh @-@ chord fingering is discussed at the end of this section .
= = = Repetition = = =
Each major @-@ thirds tuning repeats its open @-@ notes after every two strings , which results in two copies of the three open @-@ strings ' notes , each in a different octave . This repetition again simplifies the learning of chords and improvisation . This advantage is not shared by two popular regular @-@ tunings , all @-@ fourths and all @-@ fifths tuning .
Chord inversion is especially simple in major @-@ thirds tuning . Chords are inverted simply by raising one or two notes three strings . The raised notes are played with the same finger as the original notes . Thus , major and minor chords are played on two frets in M3 tuning even when they are inverted . In contrast , inversions of chords in standard tuning require three fingers on a span of four frets , in standard tuning , the shape of inversions depends on the involvement of the irregular major @-@ third .
= = = Regular musical @-@ intervals = = =
In each regular tuning , the musical intervals are the same for each pair of consecutive strings . Other regular tunings include all @-@ fourths , augmented @-@ fourths , and all @-@ fifths tunings . For each regular tuning , chord patterns may be moved around the fretboard , a property that simplifies beginners ' learning of chords and advanced players ' improvisation .
In contrast , chords cannot be shifted around the fretboard in standard tuning , which requires four chord @-@ shapes for the major chords : There are separate fingerings for chords having root notes on one of the four strings three – six .
= = = = Shifting chords : Vertical and diagonal = = = =
The repetition of the major @-@ thirds tuning enables notes and chords to be raised one octave by being vertically shifted by three strings . Notes and chords may be shifted diagonally in major @-@ thirds tuning , by combining a vertical shift of one string with a horizontal shift of four frets : " Like all regular tunings , chords in the major third tuning can be moved across the fretboard ( ascending or descending a major third for each string ) .... "
In standard tuning , playing scales of one octave requires three patterns , which depend on the string of the root note . Chords cannot be shifted diagonally without changing finger @-@ patterns . Standard tuning has four finger @-@ patterns for musical intervals , four forms for basic major @-@ chords , and three forms for the inversion of the basic major @-@ chords .
= = = Open chords and beginning players = = =
Major @-@ thirds tunings are unconventional open tunings , in which the open strings form an augmented triad . In M3 tunings , the augmented fifth replaces the perfect fifth of the major triad , which is used in conventional open @-@ tunings . For example , the C @-@ augmented triad ( C , E , G ♯ ) has a G ♯ in place of the C @-@ major triad 's G. ( The note G ♯ is enharmonically equivalent to A ♭ , as noted above . ) Consequently , M3 tunings are also called ( open ) augmented @-@ fifth tunings ( in French " La guitare # 5 , majeure quinte augmentée " ) .
Instructional literature uses standard tuning . Traditionally a course begins with the hand in first position , that is , with the left @-@ hand covering frets 1 – 4 . Beginning players first learn open chords belonging to the major keys C , G , and D. Guitarists who play mainly open chords in these three major @-@ keys and their relative minor @-@ keys ( Am , Em , Bm ) may prefer standard tuning over an M3 tuning . In particular , hobbyists playing folk music around a campfire are well served by standard tuning . Such hobbyists may also play major @-@ thirds tuning , which also has many open chords with notes on five or six strings ; chords with five @-@ six strings have greater volume than chords with three @-@ four strings and so are useful for acoustic guitars ( for example , acoustic @-@ electric guitars without amplification ) .
Intermediate guitarists do not limit themselves to one hand @-@ position , and consequently open chords are only part of their chordal repertoire . In contemporary music , master guitarists " think diagonally and move up and down the strings " ; fluency on the entire fretboard is needed particularly by guitarists playing jazz . According to its inventor , Ralph Patt , major @-@ thirds tuning
" makes the hard things easy and the easy things hard . [ ... ] This is never going to take the place of folk guitar , and it 's not meant to . For difficult music , and for where we are going in free jazz and even the old be @-@ bop jazz , this is a much easier way to play . "
= = = Left @-@ handed chords = = =
Major @-@ thirds tuning is closely related to minor @-@ sixths tuning , which is the regular tuning that is based on the minor sixth , the interval of eight semitones . Either ascending by a major third or by descending by a minor sixth , one arrives at the same pitch class , the same note representing pitches in different octaves . Intervals paired like the pair of major @-@ third and minor @-@ sixth intervals are termed " inverse intervals " in the theory of music . Consequently , chord charts for minor @-@ sixths tunings may be used for left @-@ handed major @-@ thirds tunings ; conversely , chord charts for major @-@ thirds tunings may be used for left @-@ handed minor @-@ sixths tunings .
= = = Fingering of seventh chords = = =
Major @-@ thirds tuning facilitates playing chords with closed voicings . In contrast , standard tuning would require more hand @-@ stretching to play closed @-@ voice seventh chords , and so standard tuning uses open voicings for many four @-@ note chords , for example of dominant seventh chords . By definition , a dominant seventh is a four @-@ note chord combining a major chord and a minor seventh . For example , the C7 seventh chord combines the C @-@ major chord { C , E , G } with B ♭ . In standard tuning , extending the root @-@ bass C @-@ major chord ( C , E , G ) to a C7 chord ( C , E , G , B ♭ ) would span six frets ( 3 – 8 ) ; such seventh chords " contain some pretty serious stretches in the left hand " . An illustration shows this C7 voicing ( C , E , G , B ♭ ) , which would be extremely difficult to play in standard tuning , besides the openly voiced C7 @-@ chord that is conventional in standard tuning : This open @-@ position C7 chord is termed a second @-@ inversion C7 drop 2 chord ( C , G , B ♭ , E ) , because the second @-@ highest note ( C ) in the second @-@ inversion C7 chord ( G , B ♭ , C , E ) is lowered by an octave .
= = History = =
Major @-@ thirds tuning was introduced in 1964 by jazz @-@ guitarist Ralph Patt . He was studying with Gunther Schuller , whose twelve @-@ tone technique was invented for atonal composition by his teacher , Arnold Schoenberg . Patt was also inspired by the free jazz of Ornette Coleman and John Coltrane . Seeking a guitar @-@ tuning that would facilitate improvisation using twelve @-@ tones , he introduced major @-@ thirds tuning by 1964 , perhaps in 1963 . To achieve the E @-@ E open @-@ string range of standard ( Spanish ) tuning , Patt started using seven @-@ string guitars in 1963 , before settling on eight @-@ string guitars with high G ♯ ( equivalently A ♭ ) as their highest open @-@ notes . Patt used major @-@ thirds tuning during all of his work as a session musician after 1965 in New York . Patt developed a webpage with extensive information about major @-@ thirds tuning .
= Hurricane Danny ( 2015 ) =
Hurricane Danny in August 2015 was the first major hurricane to develop between the Lesser Antilles and Western Africa since Hurricane Julia in 2010 . The hurricane originated from a well @-@ defined tropical wave that emerged over the Atlantic Ocean on August 14 . Traveling west , the system gradually coalesced into a tropical depression by August 18 . After becoming a tropical storm later that day , dry air slowed further development . On August 20 – 21 , dry air became removed from the system , and Danny rapidly intensified into a Category 3 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Its peak was short @-@ lived as wind shear soon increased and prompted significant weakening . Degrading to a tropical storm by August 23 , Danny approached the Lesser Antilles . It degenerated into a tropical wave as it traversed the archipelago on August 24 and was last noted over Hispaniola the following day .
The hurricane prompted the issuance of several tropical storm warnings for the Lesser Antilles . Leeward Islands Air Transport cancelled 40 flights and sandbags were distributed in the United States Virgin Islands . Danny ultimately only brought light rain to the region , with its effects considered beneficial due to a severe drought .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 14 , 2015 , a well @-@ defined tropical wave , accompanied by significant surface pressure falls , traversed Western Africa and emerged over the Atlantic Ocean that evening . A broad surface low developed along the wave on August 15 . Embedded within monsoon flow , various environmental factors enabled gradual development of the disturbance , including low wind shear , above @-@ average sea surface temperatures , moderate moisture content , and favorable diffluence . A subtropical ridge to the north steered the system generally west @-@ northwest throughout its entire existence . On August 17 , the surface low became increasingly defined and convection more persistent . It subsequently acquired enough organization to be classified a tropical depression — the fourth of the 2015 season — at 06 : 00 UTC on August 18 . At this time , it was situated about 825 mi ( 1 @,@ 325 km ) west @-@ southwest of Praia , Cape Verde .
The depression traversed a region generally favoring further development ; however , occasional intrusions of dry air from the Saharan Air Layer initially inhibited rapid growth . The system reached tropical storm @-@ status by 12 : 00 UTC on August 18 — based on satellite intensity estimates using the Dvorak Technique — and it was assigned the name Danny accordingly . Banding features developed around the circulation early on August 19 . A temporary intrusion of dry air caused convection to collapse later that day , but cloud cover redeveloped within hours . Improving upper @-@ level outflow supported the formation of a central dense overcast and a 12 mi ( 19 km ) wide @-@ eye soon developed . Danny reached hurricane @-@ strength by 12 : 00 UTC on August 20 , by which time it was located 1 @,@ 095 mi ( 1 @,@ 760 km ) east of the Windward Islands . A trough over the mid @-@ Atlantic weakened the subtropical ridge and caused the hurricane to move at a relatively slow pace of 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) .
An unusually small hurricane , with gale @-@ force winds extending only 60 mi ( 95 km ) from its center , Danny was prone to significant fluctuations in intensity , making forecasts particularly difficult . Indeed , the storm soon underwent an unpredicted period of rapid intensification aided by nearly non @-@ existent upper @-@ level wind shear . Low @-@ level moisture wrapped around the circulation during this phase , mitigating the influence of the Saharan Air Layer . Danny achieved its peak intensity around 12 : 00 UTC on August 21 as a Category 3 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ; maximum sustained winds were estimated at 125 mph 205 km / h ) alongside a barometric pressure of 960 mbar ( hPa ) ; 28 @.@ 35 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , increasing shear and dry air initiated a rapid weakening phase . The storm 's eye became obscured by clouds and disappeared from satellite image late on August 21 .
Throughout August 22 , Danny 's structure deteriorated with its surface and mid @-@ level circulations becoming tilted with height due to the shear . The surface low soon became exposed with convection displaced to the northeast , and Danny weakened to a tropical storm by 00 : 00 UTC on August 23 . The storm briefly leveled off in intensity somewhat later that day , with its circulation back under convection ; intense lightning was observed near the cyclone 's center . Late on August 23 , Danny 's structure began degrading once more with its circulation becoming significantly displaced from the remaining ragged convection . Early on August 24 , Hurricane Hunters struggled to find a circulation center as Danny neared the Lesser Antilles , and the system weakened to a tropical depression by 12 : 00 UTC as it passed between Guadeloupe and Dominica . Hours later it degenerated into a tropical wave , marking its dissipating as a tropical cyclone . The remnants of Danny continued to the west @-@ northwest for another day and was last noted over Hispaniola .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On August 22 , governments across the Lesser Antilles issued tropical storm watches . The islands of Antigua , Anguilla , Barbuda , Montserrat , Nevis , Saba , St. Eustatius , and St. Kitts were placed under a tropical storm warning the following day . These advisories were discontinued following Danny 's degradation to a tropical depression on August 24 . Leeward Islands Air Transport cancelled 40 flights across the eastern Caribbean due to the hurricane and cruise ships altered their courses . Although members of the Haiti Office of Civil Protection issued an official statement to residents saying Danny was not a threat to the country , they convened to discuss potential preparations and the status of emergency supplies . Officials in the United States Virgin Islands distributed sandbags and opened shelters . Météo @-@ France issued an " orange " alert for Guadeloupe Saint Barthélemy , and Saint Martin , advising residents about heavy rain and strong winds . Officials in Guadeloupe shut down several roads a precautionary measure . The expected rainfall was welcomed across the entire affected region , which was suffering from a severe drought .
About 2 in ( 51 mm ) of rain fell in Dominica , leading to minor rockslides , and 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) was observed in Antigua . Some disruption to electrical and water supplies occurred on Guadeloupe . Rainfall was less than expected across Puerto Rico , with most areas receiving less than 1 in ( 25 mm ) ; a peak value of 2 @.@ 01 in ( 51 mm ) was observed in Naguabo . The Carraízo Dam , then at a critically low 110 @.@ 7 ft ( 33 @.@ 74 m ) , received 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) . Though relatively light , the accumulations increased the water level by 12 in ( 30 cm ) . Similarly , water levels at the Fajardo Dam rose by 9 @.@ 8 in ( 25 cm ) .
Just a few days after Danny , Tropical Storm Erika brought devastating floods to Dominica , killing 30 people and wrecking tremendous damage . Other Caribbean islands received additional rainfall from the storm .
= Jack F. Matlock , Jr . =
Jack Foust Matlock , Jr . ( born October 1 , 1929 ) is an American former ambassador , career Foreign Service Officer , a teacher , a historian , and a linguist . He was a specialist in Soviet affairs during some of the most tumultuous years of the Cold War , and served as U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1987 to 1991 .
Matlock became interested in Russia as a Duke University undergraduate , and after studies at Columbia University and a stint as a Russian @-@ language instructor at Dartmouth College , entered the Foreign Service in 1956 . His 35 @-@ year career encompassed much of the Cold War period between the Soviet Union and the United States . His first assignment to Moscow was in 1961 , and it was from the embassy there that he experienced the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis , helping to translate diplomatic messages between the leaders . The next year he was posted to West Africa , and he later served in East Africa , during the post @-@ colonial period of superpower rivalry .
At the beginning of détente , he was Director of Soviet Affairs in the State Department , and began to participate in the summit meetings between the leaders , eventually attending all but one of the U.S. – Soviet summits held in the 20 @-@ year period 1972 – 91 . Matlock was back in Moscow in 1974 , serving in the number two position in the embassy for four years . The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in early 1980 ended the period of reduced tensions . Matlock was assigned to Moscow again in 1981 as acting ambassador during the first part of Ronald Reagan 's presidency . Reagan appointed him as ambassador to Czechoslovakia and later asked him to return to Washington in 1983 to work at the National Security Council , with the assignment to develop a negotiating strategy to end the arms race . When Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union in 1985 , arms negotiations and summit meetings resumed . Matlock was appointed ambassador to the Soviet Union in 1987 and saw the last years of the Soviet Union before he retired from the Foreign Service in 1991 .
After leaving the Foreign Service , he wrote an account of the end of the Soviet Union titled Autopsy on an Empire , followed by an account of the end of the Cold War titled Reagan and Gorbachev : How the Cold War Ended , establishing his reputation as a historian . He joined the faculty of the Institute for Advanced Study and he went on to teach diplomacy at several New England colleges . He and his wife Rebecca live in Princeton , New Jersey .
= = Biography = =
Born in 1929 in Greensboro , North Carolina , Jack Matlock graduated from Greensboro Senior High School ( see Grimsley High School ) in 1946 , married Rebecca Burrum in 1949 , graduated summa cum laude from Duke University in 1950 , and later earned an M.A. from Columbia University in 1952 . He taught Russian language and literature at Dartmouth College from 1953 to 1956 .
He joined the Foreign Service in 1956 , and served in Vienna , Garmisch @-@ Partenkirchen , Moscow , Accra , Zanzibar , and Dar es Salaam . He was Director of Soviet Affairs in the State Department ( 1971 – 74 ) , Diplomat in Residence at Vanderbilt University ( 1978 – 79 ) , and Deputy Director of the Foreign Service Institute ( 1979 – 80 ) . He served as U.S. Ambassador to Czechoslovakia ( 1981 – 83 ) and as Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs and Senior Director for European and Soviet Affairs on the National Security Council Staff ( 1983 – 86 ) . His languages are Czech , French , German , Russian , and Swahili .
Matlock was US President Ronald Reagan 's choice for the position of ambassador to the Soviet Union , serving from 1987 to 1991 . His previous tours in Moscow were as Vice Consul and Third Secretary ( 1961 – 1963 ) , Minister Counsellor and Deputy Chief of Mission ( 1974 – 1978 ) , and Chargé d ’ Affaires ad interim ( 1981 ) .
After he retired from the Foreign Service in 1991 , Matlock reentered the academic world , becoming the Kathryn and Shelby Cullom Davis Professor of the Practice of International Diplomacy at Columbia . After five years in that position he moved to the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey , where he was George F. Kennan Professor from 1996 to 2001 . Matlock has held visiting appointments at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University , at Hamilton College , at the Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs and at Mount Holyoke College . He has been awarded honorary doctorates by Greensboro College , Albright College and Connecticut College . Matlock completed his dissertation and received his Ph.D. from the Columbia University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at their commencement ceremony on May 22 , 2013 .
Jack and Rebecca Matlock now divide their time between a home in Princeton and Rebecca 's family farm in Booneville , Tennessee . They have five children and three grandchildren .
= = Captivated by Russia = =
By his own account , Matlock became captivated by Russia having read Dostoyevsky as an undergraduate at Duke University . He went on to study Russian language and area studies at the Russian Institute at Columbia University , and became convinced that the principal challenge of American diplomacy in the post World War II period would be dealing with the Soviet Union . After his 1953 appointment to a position as Russian Instructor at Dartmouth College , he supplemented his income by preparing an index to Joseph Stalin ’ s collected works on contract with the State Department . Because in 1956 the Soviet Union was a closed society , he decided his best chance to get to know Russia was to join the Foreign Service and become a diplomat . His ultimate career goal was clear from the beginning :
… when I entered the Foreign Service I shocked a lot of people by what seemed to be overweening ambition when I was asked " What do you want out of the Foreign Service ? " I stated frankly , " I want to be the American ambassador to the Soviet Union . "
= = Moscow : as Third Secretary = =
After a tour in Vienna , Austria and Russian language training at the U.S. Army Russian Institute in Oberammergau , Matlock arrived in Moscow for the first time in 1961 . Initially a Vice Consul , Matlock met with individuals seeking to visit or emigrate to the United States . His most famous case was Lee Harvey Oswald , who applied for a repatriation loan to return to the United States after having previously moved to the Soviet Union .
After a year , Matlock was promoted to Third Secretary in the Political Section . American foreign policy with regard to the Soviet Union , known as containment , had been articulated in 1947 by George F. Kennan , who was later to become a good friend of Matlock ’ s . The American policy was basically to contain the spread of Communism , in the expectation that it would eventually collapse of internal contradictions . This did not prevent discussions between the Superpowers . In June 1961 , President John F. Kennedy and First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev met in Vienna , and in December the United Nations General Assembly approved a draft joint resolution on principles for negotiating disarmament . This period also saw the beginnings of U.S. - U.S.S.R. cultural exchanges , notably the visit of poet Robert Frost to Moscow .
The containment policy was tested during the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis . Matlock , along with Richard Davies and Herbert Okun , translated communications between President John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev .
= = Ghana and Tanzania = =
In late 1963 , the Matlocks left Moscow for West Africa , arriving in Accra , Ghana . Kwame Nkrumah had become the first president of newly independent Ghana and post @-@ colonial Africa was to be a venue for competition between the U.S. and Soviet Union for influence .
In 1967 , Matlock was sent to East Africa to serve on Zanzibar as consul . It was his first opportunity to be head of a Foreign Service post . His predecessor as consul , Frank Carlucci , was later to become Secretary of Defense , and his successor , Thomas R. Pickering , was later to become Ambassador to the U.N ..
Matlock 's next assignment was as Deputy Chief of Mission in the capital of Tanzania , Dar es Salaam . Even in Africa , knowledge of Soviet Affairs proved useful . With Leonid Brezhnev in power , Soviet foreign policy as of 1968 was dictated by the Brezhnev Doctrine , which held that , once a country became Communist , it was never to leave the Soviet sphere of influence .
= = Washington : as Director of Soviet Affairs = =
In 1971 Matlock became Director of Soviet Affairs in the State Department . During Richard Nixon 's presidency , a period known as détente , there was a reduction of Cold War tension . Matlock participated in the negotiation of arms control treaties and other bilateral agreements . In fact , he attended every one of the U.S.-Soviet summits for the 20 @-@ year period 1972 – 1991 , with the exception of the 1979 Carter - Brezhnev summit .
= = Moscow : as Deputy Chief of Mission = =
After four years in Washington , he spent four years as Deputy Chief of Mission ( DCM ) , the number two position , at Embassy Moscow . These years cemented his reputation within the State Department as a Soviet expert . In early 1976 , the State Department made public the fact that the Soviet Union had been beaming microwaves at the Moscow Embassy from a nearby building for many years . This caused concern about possible health effects of the low @-@ level microwave radiation . Ironically , it was Soviet research that documented the psychological symptoms of sensitivity to microwave exposure . In the United States , the standards for safe exposure to microwaves were much more lenient than in the Soviet Union .
The August 26 , 1977 ABC Evening News covered the story of a major fire at the embassy . Despite the severity of the fire , all personnel were evacuated safely , and the efforts of the embassy staff elicited a commendation from President Jimmy Carter . Former KGB agent Victor Sheymov testified before Congress in 1998 that the fire was deliberately induced by the Soviets in an effort to gain access to sensitive areas by agents posing as firemen .
= = Stateside = =
Matlock returned to the United States and taught for a year at Vanderbilt University under the ' Diplomats in Residence ' program . The following year , he came to Washington DC to take the number two position at the Foreign Service Institute , the State Department ’ s language training school .
In January 1980 , in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , President Carter postponed consideration of the SALT @-@ 2 Treaty and imposed a trade embargo . Also in 1980 , the new embassy under construction in Moscow was found to be so riddled with listening devices that it would be unusable for secure work .
= = Moscow : as Chargé d 'Affaires = =
Matlock returned to Moscow in 1981 as acting Ambassador , or Chargé d ’ Affaires . By April 24 , President Reagan had cancelled the export embargo , and trade resumed . Matlock signalled the American desire for constructive engagement with the Soviets :
We are seeking an active dialogue on all levels . But a dialogue is useful only if it is candid , and we must learn not to take offense at candor but to use it to help us understand each other . - Jack F. Matlock , Jr . ( New York Times Quote of the Day for July 5 , 1981 )
On August 6 , 1981 President Reagan ordered the development of a neutron bomb . While contentious , this had the desired effect of bringing the Soviets to the bargaining table , and negotiations on limiting nuclear weapons in Europe started on November 30 .
= = Czechoslovakia : as Ambassador = =
In late 1980 Matlock had been appointed Ambassador to Czechoslovakia by President Jimmy Carter . However , the appointment was not ratified by the Senate before Carter ’ s election loss , and so it was with Ronald Reagan ’ s re @-@ appointment in 1981 that he became Ambassador to Czechoslovakia . During his tenure , he was able to help resolve a major impediment to good relations : the return of 18 @.@ 4 tons of gold that had been looted by the Nazis in World War II and kept , ever since its recovery by Allied forces , in American and British banks .
On March 23 , 1983 , President Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative , a ground and space @-@ based weapons system designed to protect from nuclear attack . Matlock continued to advise the President on policy toward the Soviet Union and on September 1 , 1983 , when the Soviets shot down commercial flight KAL 007 , Matlock returned to Washington to work with White House officials .
= = Washington : National Security Council = =
Reagan appointed Matlock to the position of Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director of European and Soviet Affairs in the National Security Council ( NSC ) in order to develop a negotiating strategy to end the arms race . Earlier in the year , the long @-@ standing containment strategy toward the U.S.S.R. had been modified by Matlock 's predecessor Richard Pipes to include bringing internal pressure on the Soviets while conducting negotiations in the mutual interest . In following years , discussions with the Soviets were conducted under Matlock 's " Four @-@ Part Agenda " including Human Rights , Regional Issues , Arms Control , and Bilateral Issues .
On November 25 , 1983 , Soviet leader Yuri Andropov announced the resumption of nuclear missile deployment in the western U.S.S.R. , a sign of the increased tension in the relationship . The thaw in relations can be taken to begin with Ronald Reagan 's January 16 , 1984 speech declaring that the U.S. and U.S.S.R. had " common interests and the foremost among them is to avoid war and reduce the level of arms " in which he added that " I support a zero option for all nuclear arms . " While the speech was commonly seen as propaganda , Lawrence S. Wittner , professor of History at the State University of New York - Albany says of it that " a number of officials--including its writer , Jack Matlock Jr.--have contended that it was meant to be taken seriously by Soviet leaders . " On June 30 , 1984 , the Soviets offered to start negotiations on nuclear and space @-@ based weapons .
= = Gorbachev period = =
Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union on March 11 , 1985 , and the next day negotiations on nuclear and space @-@ based weapons began in Geneva . A few weeks later , he proposed a moratorium on the development of nuclear and space weapons during the period of negotiations , and in July , he proposed to ban nuclear testing . Reagan rejected the proposals .
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the phenotypic plasticity of this species . This small snail can live in up to 60 m depth in coastal waters . Brackish water populations can live in salinities of up to 15 % in the Baltic Sea or up to 18 % in the Baltic Sea and in Black Sea . Populations from brackish water can tolerate higher salinity than populations from freshwater . Brackish water populations have much higher accumulation of ninhydrin @-@ positive substances in the foot .
This species lives on hard benthic substrates , typically rocks . It lives on pebbles , sometimes on boulders , and rarely on dead wood . It tolerates mild organic pollution , low oxygen content ( down to below 2 mg / liter ) but it does not tolerate long periods of droughts , or ice . It lives in mesotrophic waters , and sometimes in oligotrophic waters .
Theodoxus fluviatilis serves an indicator species for river monitoring ( in Germany ) ; however the spreading populations also have a high tolerance for degraded habitats . Theodoxus fluviatilis has a large phenotypic plasticity : it was found living on stones and on dead wood in freshwater environments ; whereas it lives on stones and on Fucus vesiculosus , Potamogeton spp. and Zostera marina in brackish water in the Baltic Sea . The species can also be found on aggregates of Mytilus .
This species , together with the isopod Saduria entomon , have been found to be a dominant part of the fauna biomass in the central and northern Baltic Sea . Brackish water populations can reach densities up to 200 – 1000 snails per m ² . Theodoxus fluviatilis dalmaticus in Lake Ohrid can reach population densities up to 6412 snails per m ² . The species was found in population densities of up to 9000 snails per m ² in a spring of the Anços river in Central Portugal , where there is a stable temperature of 15 @.@ 3 – 16 @.@ 6 ° C , which allows continuous reproduction in Theodoxus fluviatilis . At Gabčíkovo port , in September 2003 , a density of 34 @,@ 932 juvenile snails per m ² was recorded .
= = = Feeding habits = = =
Theodoxus fluviatilis feeds mainly on diatoms living on stones , scraping biofilms and also consuming detritus . It can also consume Cyanobacteria and green algae as a poor @-@ quality food supply . Cyanobacteria contain toxins and indigestible mucopolysaccharides , and green algae have cellulose in their cell walls ( Theodoxus species have no cellulase enzymes to digest cellulose ) . They also graze on zygotes and germlings of brown alga Fucus vesiculosus , when the alga is small up to 1 mm . Peters and Traunspurger ( 2012 ) studied the effect of the grazing of Theodoxus fluviatilis on epilithic meiofauna and algae .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Theodoxus fluviatilis is gonochoristic , which means that each individual animal is distinctly male or female , and cross @-@ fertilization can occur . The sex ratio is 1 : 1 . The structure of the flagellum of the spermatozoon is unique : the flagellum is divided into two parts .
T. fluviatilis eggs are usually laid in from mid @-@ April to October , in temperatures above 10 ° C. Eggs are laid in egg capsules deposited on stones and sometimes on shells of conspecific individuals . Females usually lay a cluster containing 4 – 5 capsules . A single female will usually lay about 40 capsules during summer , and about 20 capsules during autumn . Fresh capsules are white , but older capsules become yellow or brown and may bear an epiphytic outer layer . The capsules are around 1 mm in diameter ( 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 1 mm ) , but in brackish water they are usually smaller ( about 0 @.@ 8 mm ) . Empty ( sterile ) small capsules ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 8 mm in diameter ) can also be laid . The number of eggs per egg capsule changes depending on the environment . There are 100 – 200 eggs in each capsule in freshwater , as opposed to 55 – 80 eggs in each capsule in brackish water . Usually , only one egg develops , with the remaining eggs serving as nutrition for the embryo , which results in a single juvenile snail hatching from each capsule .
Juveniles with a shell length of 0 @.@ 5 – 1 mm hatch after 30 days ( in 25 ° C ) , or after 65 days ( in 20 ° C ) . The ash @-@ free dry weight of newly hatched snails is 0 @.@ 012 mg . The protoconch has one whorl . Capsules laid in spring hatch after 2 – 3 months , in August – September . Capsules from late summer overwinter because embryonic development ceases in temperatures below 10 ° C , thus these capsules hatch in spring after 7 – 8 months . The shell grows mainly from May to August ; there is no shell growth in winter . The snails reach sexual maturity in less than 1 year , when the shell length is 5 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 7 mm .
The life span of T. fluviatilis is 2 – 3 years . The age of a few snails was estimated to be 3 @.@ 5 years . The mortality rate is low in summer . However , it is higher in winter because ice and storms can dislocate the substrate , which can result in mechanical damage to the snails .
= = = Parasites and predators = = =
Parasites of Theodoxus fluviatilis include several species of trematodes . The snail serves as first intermediate host to Plagioporus skrjabini and as second intermediate host to Cotylurus cornutus . Asymphylodora demeli is also found in this small snail , as is Notocotylus zduni . This small snail is also parasitized by several species of ciliates . It is the main host for the ciliate Trichodina baltica ; the snails are usually 100 % infected in the mantle cavity Another ciliate found in the mantle cavity is a species of Scyphidia . Two other parasitic ciliate species found in this snail are Protospira mazurica , and Hypocomella quatuor . Predators of Theodoxus fluviatilis include the common roach ( a freshwater fish ) , Rutilus rutilus . Theodoxus fluviatilis is also the prey of some birds .
= One Night Stand ( 2007 ) =
One Night Stand ( 2007 ) was the third annual One Night Stand professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by Gilette . It took place on June 3 , 2007 , at the Jacksonville Veterans Memorial Arena in Jacksonville , Florida and featured talent from the Raw , SmackDown ! , and ECW brands . The event was the final to announce each individual brand as co @-@ promoters of the event during the introductory graphics .
The main match on the Raw brand was John Cena versus The Great Khali in a Pinfalls Count Anywhere match for the WWE Championship . Cena won the match and retained the WWE Championship after pinning Khali following an FU off a crane onto the arena floor . The featured match on the SmackDown ! brand was Edge versus Batista in a Steel Cage match for the World Heavyweight Championship , which Edge won after escaping the cage .
The primary match on the ECW brand was Vince McMahon versus Bobby Lashley in a Street Fight for the ECW Championship , which Lashley won by pinfall after performing a spear . The featured matches on the undercard included Rob Van Dam versus Randy Orton in a Stretcher match and a Ladder match for the World Tag Team Championship between The Hardys ( Matt and Jeff ) and The World 's Greatest Tag Team ( Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas ) .
= = Background = =
The main feud heading into One Night Stand on the Raw brand was between John Cena and The Great Khali , with the two battling over the WWE Championship . This was a rematch of their encounter at Judgment Day , the pay @-@ per @-@ view two weeks before One Night Stand . At the event , Cena defeated Khali by forcing him to submit to the STFU . When Khali submitted to the STFU , however , his feet were underneath the bottom rope , meaning Cena should have broken the submission hold . Referee Mike Chioda was focusing on Khali 's arm and did not see Khali 's feet underneath the bottom rope . The following night on Raw , believing he should not have lost the match , Khali challenged Cena to a Pinfalls Count Anywhere match . Following Cena 's acceptance , Khali performed a Chokebomb on Cena . Heading into One Night Stand , Khali used the Chokebomb again to win a non @-@ title match against Cena on the June 2 edition of Saturday Night 's Main Event .
The predominant feud on the SmackDown ! brand heading into the pay @-@ per @-@ view was between Edge and Batista , with the two battling over the World Heavyweight Championship . The two fought each other at Judgment Day for the title , and Edge won the bout with a school boy pin . On the May 25 episode of SmackDown ! , General Manager Theodore Long announced that Edge would defend the World Heavyweight Championship in a Steel Cage match at One Night Stand . Batista won a Fatal Four @-@ Way match against Finlay , Kane , and Mark Henry to earn the spot of the challenger at the pay @-@ per @-@ view . Batista was a guest on Edge 's talk show The Cutting Edge on the June 1 episode of SmackDown ! . Towards the end of the segment , Batista punched Edge and sent him to the floor . The following night , on Saturday Night 's Main Event , Batista and Chris Benoit defeated Edge and Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) in a tag team match . During the match , Edge walked out , leaving MVP on his own against Batista and Benoit . Benoit gained the pinfall after performing a flying headbutt on MVP .
The other primary feud featured on the One Night Stand card consisted of both Raw and ECW superstars . ECW 's Bobby Lashley battled Raw 's Vince McMahon for the ECW World Championship . Lashley faced Team McMahon ( ECW World Champion Vince McMahon , Shane , and Umaga ) in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 1 tag team Handicap match at Judgment Day , with the ECW World Championship on the line . Lashley won the match , pinning Shane after a Dominator powerslam . After the match , however , Vince declared that Lashley had not won the title and that he was still the ECW World Champion , as he had not been pinned . In the match , Lashley could have won the title , but not a member of Team McMahon . The following night , on the May 21 edition of Raw , Lashley was put into a Gauntlet match by Vince McMahon , with the stipulation that if he won all four of the matches in the gauntlet , he would face Vince at One Night Stand . Lashley won all four matches , defeating Chris Masters , Viscera , Umaga and Shane McMahon in succession . As a result , Lashley gained a title shot at One Night Stand in a Street Fight . On the May 28 edition of Raw , Lashley teamed with WWE Champion John Cena to take on Umaga , Shane McMahon and The Great Khali in a Handicap match . Shane won the match , pinning Lashley after an elbow drop . Vince was scheduled to face Lashley in an arm wrestling contest on the June 2 edition of Saturday Night 's Main Event . Moments before the contest began , however , Vince booked Mark Henry as Lashley 's opponent instead . During the contest , Vince attacked Lashley , hitting him with a steel chair .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Santino Marella defeated Chris Masters in a dark match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired was a Stretcher match between Randy Orton and Rob Van Dam , in which the object is to place your opponent on a stretcher and wheel the stretcher across a finish line . The match went back and forth before Van Dam attempted to perform a Somersault Plancha onto Orton , but Orton moved out of the way . Orton put Van Dam on the stretcher and tried to wheel him across the finishing line . Van Dam , however , managed to kick Orton in the head and put him onto the stretcher . Van Dam wheeled the stretcher over the line for the win . After the match , Orton attacked Van Dam , executing an Elevated DDT off the barricade onto the arena floor . Van Dam was then carried out of the arena on the stretcher .
Next was a Tables match , as CM Punk and The ECW Originals ( Tommy Dreamer and The Sandman ) faced The New Breed ( Elijah Burke , Matt Striker and Marcus Cor Von ) . In order to win the match , one team must put a member of the other team through a table . Towards the end of the contest , Cor Von attempted to put Punk through the table with an Alpha Bomb , but Sandman hit Cor Von with a Singapore cane . With Burke on the table , Punk performed a suplex on Striker off the top rope and through the table and Burke , thus winning the contest .
The third match was a Ladder match for the World Tag Team Championship , as The Hardys ( Matt and Jeff ) faced The World 's Greatest Tag Team ( Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas ) . The object of the match is to climb a ladder and retrieve the title belts suspended above the ring . The Hardys had the advantage for most of the contest , but as Jeff was climbing the ladder to try and grab the belts , Benjamin botched a springboard attempt . Benjamin managed to kick the ladder from underneath Jeff , however , to gain control . The Hardys managed to regain the advantage by pushing the ladder as The World 's Greatest Tag Team were climbing it , which in turn caused Benjamin to fall to the arena floor . Jeff performed a Swanton bomb on Haas as Matt climbed up the ladder to get the belts and win the match .
Next on the card was Mark Henry versus Kane in a Lumberjack match with twelve lumberjacks at ringside ; Chris Benoit , Val Venis , Santino Marella , Balls Mahoney , Stevie Richards , The Miz , Kevin Thorn , Chris Masters , Johnny Nitro , Chavo Guerrero , Kenny Dykstra and Carlito . Kane chokeslamed Henry towards the end of the contest and attempted to pin Henry . Chavo Guerrero and Kenny Dykstra interfered , however , and attacked Kane . Kane fought back and chokeslammed Dykstra , but Henry locked Kane in a bear hug . The referee stopped the contest after Kane kayfabe passed out .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The ECW World Championship match was next , as ECW Champion Vince McMahon ( accompanied by Shane McMahon and Umaga ) faced Bobby Lashley in a Street Fight . Shane and Umaga interfered in the match , helping Vince gain the advantage . Shane performed a flying elbow drop , sending Lashley through the announce table at ringside . Back inside the ring , as Umaga was holding a trash can in front of Lashley 's face in the corner , Shane attempted to execute the Coast @-@ to @-@ Coast dropkick ; however , Lashley moved out of the way , and Shane dropkicked the trash can into Umaga 's face . Team McMahon kept the upper hand , as Umaga performed a Samoan Drop onto Lashley , which was followed by a spear from Vince . Lashley , however , gained the upper hand by hitting Vince several times with a steel chair . Lashley performed a spear on Shane and followed with a spear to Vince before pinning Vince to gain the victory and become the new ECW World Champion .
A Pudding match was next , as Candice Michelle faced WWE Women 's Champion Melina . Candice forced Melina to submit by holding her head under the pudding .
This was followed by Edge versus Batista in a Steel Cage match for the World Heavyweight Championship , which could be won by either pinfall , submission , or escaping the cage . During the first few minutes of the contest , Edge attempted to escape the cage several times but was stopped by Batista . Batista gained the advantage after a suplex to Edge off the top rope . Edge gained the upper hand late in the contest , performing a spear to Batista , but failed to get the pinfall . Batista regained the advantage and attempted to perform the Batista Bomb , but Edge reversed the move . Edge climbed over the top of the cage while Batista crawled towards the door . Edge 's feet hit the arena floor first , and he was declared the winner and retained his title .
The final match was a Pinfalls Count Anywhere match for the WWE Championship , as John Cena defended against The Great Khali . Khali had control for most of the contest , performing a spin kick and a leg drop onto Cena . The contest went into the crowd , as Khali hit Cena with a television monitor . Cena gained the advantage , swinging the boom camera by the crew set into Khali . Cena attempted to perform the FU , but Khali blocked it with his elbow . Khali regained the upper hand , scoop slamming Cena onto a crane . Cena fought back while on the crane and performed an FU to Khali off the crane onto the arena floor . Cena got the pinfall and the victory .
= = Aftermath = =
A storyline involving Vince McMahon 's " death " began the following night on Raw . He appeared traumatized from losing the ECW World Championship , acting strangely as a result . This behavior continued in McMahon 's appearances on all brands and culminated in a segment on the June 11 edition of Raw with McMahon entering a limousine moments before it exploded . On the June 25 edition of Raw , Vince McMahon revealed that his death was part of a storyline , and that Chris Benoit and his family were legitimately dead . The show , originally scheduled to be a three @-@ hour special dedicated to McMahon 's " death , " was dedicated to Benoit and highlighted matches throughout his career .
The WWE Draft also took place on Raw and resulted in The Great Khali being drafted to SmackDown ! , thus ending his feud with John Cena . Bobby Lashley was drafted to Raw and was forced to relinquish his ECW World Championship . Lashley , along with King Booker , Randy Orton and Mick Foley entered a feud with John Cena . On the June 18 episode of Raw , all men began cutting promos on how they deserved to be the number one contender to the WWE Championship .
On the June 8 episode of SmackDown ! , Vince McMahon announced that Edge would be defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Batista in a " Last Chance " match at Vengeance . On an episode of SmackDown ! , Batista and Ric Flair defeated Edge and Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) . Midway through the match , Flair and MVP brawled outside the ring , leaving Edge on his own against Batista . Batista gained the pinfall after hitting Edge with a Batista Bomb .
As part of the WWE Draft , Chris Benoit was drafted from SmackDown ! to ECW . In his debut on the ECW brand , Benoit teamed up with CM Punk in a tag team match against Elijah Burke and Marcus Cor Von , in which Benoit and Punk won . On the June 19 episode of ECW , an ECW qualifying match was held in which it would determine the opponents for Vengeance for the vacant ECW title . The first qualifying match saw Benoit defeat Elijah Burke by submission and thus for advancing to the Vengeance finals . That same night , CM Punk went on to defeat Marcus Cor Von to advanced to the finals . At Vengeance , Benoit was replaced by Johnny Nitro , after he withdrew from the match for " personal reasons " . At the event , Nitro defeated Punk to win the vacant ECW title .
= = Results = =
= Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix ( film ) =
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is a 2007 British @-@ American fantasy film directed by David Yates and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures . It is based on the novel of the same name by J. K. Rowling . The film , which is the fifth instalment in the Harry Potter film series , was written by Michael Goldenberg ( making this the only film in the series not to be scripted by Steve Kloves ) and produced by David Heyman and David Barron . The story follows Harry Potter 's fifth year at Hogwarts as the Ministry of Magic is in denial of Lord Voldemort 's return .
The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter , alongside Rupert Grint and Emma Watson as Harry 's best friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger . It is the sequel to Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire and is followed by Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince .
Live @-@ action filming took place in England and Scotland for exterior locations and Leavesden Film Studios in Watford for interior locations from February to November 2006 , with a one @-@ month break in June . Post @-@ production on the film continued for several months afterwards to add in visual effects . The film 's budget was reportedly between £ 75 and 100 million ( $ 150 – 200 million ) . Warner Bros. released the film in the United Kingdom on 12 July 2007 and in North America on 11 July , both in conventional and IMAX theatres ; it is the first Potter film to be released in IMAX 3D .
Order of the Phoenix is the unadjusted 32nd highest @-@ grossing film of all time , and a critical and commercial success , acclaimed as " the best one yet " by Rowling , who has consistently offered praise for the film adaptations of her work . The film opened to a worldwide 5 @-@ day opening of $ 333 million , fourteenth all @-@ time , and grossed nearly $ 940 million total , second to Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End for the greatest total of 2007 . The film was nominated for two BAFTA Film Awards in 2008 .
= = Plot = =
The Order of the Phoenix , a secret organisation founded by Albus Dumbledore , informs Harry Potter that the Ministry of Magic is in denial of Lord Voldemort 's return . While at the Order 's headquarters , Harry 's godfather , Sirius Black , mentions that Voldemort is after an object he did not have during his previous attack .
Upon arrival at Hogwarts , Harry learns that Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge has appointed a new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor : Dolores Umbridge . She and Harry immediately clash , and she punishes Harry for his " lies " by forcing him to write a message with a magic quill , scarring his hand . When Ron and Hermione notice Harry 's scars , they are outraged but he refuses to go to Dumbledore , who has distanced himself from Harry since the summer . As Umbridge 's control over the school increases , Ron and Hermione aid Harry in forming a secret group to train students in defensive spells , calling themselves " Dumbledore 's Army " . The Slytherin students are recruited by Umbridge to expose the group . Meanwhile , Harry and Cho Chang develop romantic feelings for each other .
Harry has a vision involving an attack upon Arthur Weasley , from the point of view of Arthur 's attacker . Concerned that Voldemort will exploit this connection to Harry , Dumbledore instructs Severus Snape to give Harry Occlumency lessons to defend his mind from Voldemort 's influence . The connection between Harry and Voldemort leads Harry to further isolate himself from his friends . Meanwhile , Bellatrix Lestrange , Sirius ' deranged cousin , escapes from Azkaban along with nine other Death Eaters . At Hogwarts , Umbridge and her Inquisitorial Squad expose Dumbledore 's Army . Dumbledore escapes as Fudge orders his arrest . Umbridge becomes the new Headmistress . Harry 's relationship with Cho falls apart , as he believes she betrayed Dumbledore 's Army to Umbridge . Harry discovers through Snape 's memories why Snape hated Harry 's father James , who often ridiculed him .
Harry has another vision , this one of Sirius being tortured by Voldemort . Harry , Ron and Hermione rush to Umbridge 's fireplace to alert the Order via the Floo Network , since hers is the only fireplace not being monitored , but Umbridge stops them before they can do so . As Umbridge tortures Harry , Hermione tricks Umbridge into entering the Forbidden Forest in search of Dumbledore 's " secret weapon " . She and Harry lead her to the hiding place of Hagrid 's giant half @-@ brother , Grawp , only to be confronted by centaurs who kidnap Umbridge after she attacks and insults them . Harry , Hermione , Ron , Luna , Neville and Ginny fly to the Ministry of Magic on Thestrals in an attempt to save Sirius .
The six enter the Department of Mysteries where they uncover a bottled prophecy , the object Voldemort was after . However , they are ambushed by Death Eaters including Lucius Malfoy and Bellatrix Lestrange . Lucius reveals that Harry only saw a dream of Sirius being tortured ; it was simply a ruse to lure Harry into the Death Eaters ' grasp . Harry refuses to give Lucius the prophecy , and a fight between Dumbledore 's Army and the Death Eaters ensues . The Death Eaters take everyone except Harry as hostages , threatening to kill them unless he surrenders the prophecy .
Harry obliges just as Sirius and Remus Lupin arrive with Order members Nymphadora Tonks , Kingsley Shacklebolt and Mad @-@ Eye Moody . As they attack the Death Eaters , Lucius drops the prophecy , destroying it . Just as Sirius overpowers Lucius , Bellatrix kills Sirius . Voldemort appears , but Dumbledore arrives through the Floo Network moments before Voldemort can kill Harry .
A duel between Voldemort and Dumbledore ensues , destroying much of the Atrium , while Bellatrix escapes . After the two prove evenly matched , Voldemort possesses Harry to try to get Dumbledore to sacrifice Harry , but the love Harry feels for his friends and Sirius makes it impossible for Voldemort to remain in his body . Ministry officials arrive before Voldemort disapparates ; Fudge is forced to admit that Voldemort has returned and resigns as Minister in disgrace . Umbridge is removed from Hogwarts and Dumbledore returns as headmaster . Dumbledore explains he distanced himself from Harry throughout the year hoping it would lessen the risk of Voldemort using their connection . Harry comes to terms with the prophecy ; " Neither can live while the other survives . "
As the school year finally comes towards the end , everyone begins to head to the train station to head back home . Ron and Hermione meet up with Harry as they board the train , while others walk swiftly towards the train . Harry realizes one more idea that Voldemort can not survive on . Not only must one survive while the other dies but that Voldemort can never achieve what Ron , Hermione and Harry have been searching for ; true friendship .
= = Cast = =
Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old British wizard famous for surviving his parents ' murder at the hands of Voldemort as an infant , who now enters his fifth year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry .
Rupert Grint as Ron Weasley , Harry 's best friend at Hogwarts .
Emma Watson as Hermione Granger , Harry 's Muggle @-@ born best friend and the brains of the trio .
Helena Bonham Carter as Bellatrix Lestrange , one of Voldemort 's most loyal Death Eaters and the cousin of Sirius Black .
Robbie Coltrane as Rubeus Hagrid , the half @-@ giant Gamekeeper and Care of Magical Creatures teacher at Hogwarts and a member of the Order of the Phoenix .
Ralph Fiennes as Lord Voldemort , leader of the Death Eaters , a dark wizard intent on conquering the Wizarding World .
Michael Gambon as Albus Dumbledore , the legendary Hogwarts headmaster and leader of the Order of the Phoenix .
Brendan Gleeson as Mad @-@ Eye Moody , Harry 's ex @-@ Defense Against the Dark Arts teacher and a member of the Order of the Phoenix .
Richard Griffiths as Vernon Dursley , Harry 's Muggle uncle .
Jason Isaacs as Lucius Malfoy , a falsely pardoned senior Death Eater .
Gary Oldman as Sirius Black , Harry 's godfather and a member of the Order of the Phoenix .
Alan Rickman as Severus Snape , the Potions teacher at Hogwarts and the Head of Slytherin , serving as a spy among the Death Eaters for the Order of the Phoenix .
Fiona Shaw as Petunia Dursley , Harry 's Muggle aunt .
Maggie Smith as Minerva McGonagall , the Transfiguration teacher at Hogwarts and a member of the Order of the Phoenix .
Imelda Staunton as Dolores Umbridge , the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher and a plant from the corrupt Ministry of Magic .
David Thewlis as Remus Lupin , Harry 's ex @-@ Defense Against the Dark Arts teacher and a member of the Order of the Phoenix .
Emma Thompson as Sybill Trelawney , the Divination teacher at Hogwarts .
David Bradley as Argus Filch , the ill @-@ tempered Squib caretaker of Hogwarts .
Warwick Davis as Filius Flitwick , the Charms teacher at Hogwarts and the Head of Ravenclaw .
Tom Felton as Draco Malfoy , Lucius Malfoy 's son and Harry 's rival at Hogwarts .
Robert Hardy as Cornelius Fudge , the paranoid and foolish Minister of Magic .
George Harris as Kingsley Shacklebolt , an Auror and member of the Order of the Phoenix .
Natalia Tena as Nymphadora Tonks , a young Auror trained under Moody and member of the Order of the Phoenix .
Julie Walters as Molly Weasley , the Weasley matriarch and a mother figure to Harry , also a member of the Order of the Phoenix .
= = = Casting = = =
Casting began as early as May 2005 , when Radcliffe announced he would reprise his role as Harry . Across the media frenzy that took place during the release of Goblet of Fire , most of the main returning actors announced their return to the series , including Grint , Watson , Lewis , Wright , Leung , and Fiennes .
The announcements of the casting of the rest of the new characters to the series was spanned across 2006 . Evanna Lynch won the role of Luna Lovegood over 15 @,@ 000 other girls who attended the open casting call , waiting in a line of hopefuls that stretched a mile long . Saoirse Ronan was considered for the role .
Persistent rumours linked Elizabeth Hurley to the role of Bellatrix Lestrange , although Warner Bros. asserted there was " no truth whatsoever " to reports that she had been cast . As early as August 2005 , rumours began linking Helen McCrory to the role . On 2 February 2006 it was announced that McCrory had indeed been cast as Bellatrix . However , in April 2006 she revealed that she was three months pregnant and withdrew from the film because she would not have been able to perform the intense battle sequences in the Ministry of Magic in September and October 2006 . The announcement that Bonham Carter had been recast in the role was made on 25 May 2006 . McCrory was subsequently cast as Narcissa Malfoy from Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince onwards .
The inclusion or cutting of some characters sparked speculation from fans as to the importance of the characters in the final book of the series , which was released just ten days after the film . In April 2006 , representatives of Jim McManus said he would be playing Aberforth Dumbledore , Albus ' brother and the barman of the Hog 's Head , in which Harry and his friends found Dumbledore 's Army . A week later WB announced that the role was " very minor " , allaying some of the speculation to the significance of the role , which , before the final book , was not even a speaking part . MTV reported in October 2006 that Dobby the house elf , who appeared in the second film , Chamber of Secrets , and in the fifth book , would be cut , opening up " plot questions " as to how the role of the elf would be filled . MTV also reported about a month before the release of the final book that Kreacher , the Black family 's house @-@ elf , was cut from the film in one draft of the script . However , after Rowling prodded the filmmakers to include him , saying , " You know , I wouldn 't [ cut him ] if I were you . Or you can , but if you get to make a seventh film , you 'll be tied in knots " , he was added back into the script .
Other minor roles were cut with subsequent drafts of the script . At the US premiere of Goblet of Fire , series producer David Heyman said that former Hogwarts professor Gilderoy Lockhart , played by Kenneth Branagh in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , was in the first draft of the script for Phoenix . However , neither Branagh nor the character of Lockhart appears in the final version . Tiana Benjamin was scheduled to return for the film in the role of Angelina Johnson , the captain of the Gryffindor Quidditch team , but she had to withdraw due to a commitment to playing Chelsea Fox in EastEnders . The character , as well as the entire Quidditch subplot , was ultimately cut from the film . She did , however , record sound clips for the Order of the Phoenix video game .
The family of footballer Theo Walcott made a cameo appearance in the film . They were signed on by director David Yates , who is the partner of Yvonne Walcott , Theo 's aunt . Theo himself was due to appear alongside his family , though his commitments to Arsenal Football Club forced him to pull out .
= = Production = =
British television director David Yates was chosen to direct the film after Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire director Mike Newell , as well as Jean @-@ Pierre Jeunet , Guillermo del Toro , Matthew Vaughn and Mira Nair , turned down offers . Yates believed he was approached because the studio saw him fit to handle an " edgy and emotional " film with a " political backstory " , which some of his previous television projects including State of Play , Sex Traffic and The Girl in the Café demonstrated . Producer David Heyman supported Yates ' comments about the film 's political theme , stating that " [ Order of the Phoenix ] is a political film , not with a capital P , but it 's about teen rebellion and the abuse of power . David has made films in the UK about politics without being heavy handed . " On the film 's political and social aspects , Emma Watson stated that " somehow it talks about life after 7 July , the way people behave when they ’ re scared , the way truth is often denied and all the things our society has to face . Facing the fact that the authority is corrupted means having a non @-@ conformist approach to reality and power . "
Steve Kloves , the screenwriter of the first four Potter films , had other commitments . Michael Goldenberg , who was considered to pen the first film in the series , filled in and wrote the script .
Rehearsals for Order of the Phoenix began on 27 January 2006 , filming began on 7 February 2006 and finished at the start of December 2006 . Filming was put on a two @-@ month hiatus starting in May 2006 so Radcliffe could sit his A / S Levels and Watson could sit her GCSE exams . The film 's budget was reportedly between GB £ 75 and 100 million ( US $ 150 – 200 million ) . The largest budget of the other films in the series has been the £ 75 million it cost to make Goblet of Fire .
Mark Day was the film editor , Sławomir Idziak was the cinematographer , and Jany Temime was the costume designer . Choreographer Paul Harris , who has previously worked with David Yates several times , created a physical language for wand combat to choreograph the wand fighting scenes .
= = = Set design = = =
Stuart Craig returned as set designer , having designed the first four films ' sets . There were a number of notable new sets in this film . The atrium in the Ministry of Magic is over 200 feet in length , making it the largest and most expensive set built for the Potter film series to date . Craig 's design was inspired by early London Underground stations , where , he said , architects " tried to imitate classical architecture but they used ceramic tile " , as well as a Burger King on Tottenham Court Road in London , where " there 's a fantastic Victorian façade which just embodies the age " . The set of Number Twelve , Grimmauld Place contains the Black family tapestry spread across three walls ; when the producers told Rowling they wanted to visualise the details of each name and birth year , she faxed them a complete copy of the entire tree . The set of the Hall of Prophecies was entirely digitally built . During a fight scene which occurs there , prophecies crash to the ground and break ; had it been an actual physical set , the reset time would have been weeks .
The set used for Igor Karkaroff 's trial scene in Goblet of Fire was doubled in size for Harry 's trial in this film , while still protecting its symmetry . New professor Dolores Umbridge , though she teaches in a classroom that has appeared in films two through four , inhabits an office vastly different from those of her predecessors . The set was redressed with " fluffy , pink filigree " and a number of plates upon which moving kittens were animated in post @-@ production . A 24 @-@ hour photo shoot was held to photograph and film the kittens for use on these plates . The quill which Umbridge gives Harry to write lines is designed by the set designers .
= = = Filming = = =
Though the producers explored options to film outside of the UK , Leavesden Film Studios in Watford was again the location on which many of the interior scenes , including the Great Hall , Privet Drive and Number Twelve , Grimmauld Place were shot .
Locations in England included the River Thames , for the flight of the Order of the Phoenix to Number Twelve , Grimmauld Place , and the flight of Dumbledore 's Army to the Ministry of Magic . This sequence also includes such landmarks as the London Eye , Canary Wharf , Big Ben , Buckingham Palace , and the HMS Belfast . Filming at Platform 9 ¾ took place at King 's Cross Station , as it has in the past . A telephone booth near Scotland Yard was used as Harry and Arthur Weasley enter the Ministry , while the crew closed the Westminster tube station on 22 October 2006 to allow for filming of Arthur Weasley accompanying Harry to his trial at the Ministry of Magic . Other scenes were filmed in and around Oxford , specifically at nearby Blenheim Palace in Woodstock .
In Glenfinnan , the Hogwarts Express crosses a viaduct , as it has in the past films . Aerial scenes were shot in Glen Coe , in Clachaig Gully , and Glen Etive , which , at the time of filming , was one of the few places in Scotland without snow , making it ideal for a backdrop .
Director David Yates stated in an interview that he had originally shot a three @-@ hour film of Order of the Phoenix . However , some material had to be cut out in the final edit , as the movie was 45 minutes too long . Therefore , several locations which were used for various scenes do not appear in the final cut of the film . In Virginia Water , scenes were shot where Professor McGonagall recovers from Stunning Spells , and Burnham Beeches was used for filming the scene where Hagrid introduces his fifth @-@ year Care of Magical Creatures class to Thestrals . Harry skips stones in front of the Glenfinnan Monument in Glenfinnan in another cut scene .
= = = Visual effects = = =
The film required over 1 @,@ 400 visual effects shots , and the London @-@ based company Double Negative created more than 950 of them . Working for six months on previsualisation starting in September 2005 , Double Negative was largely responsible for sequences in the Room of Requirement , the Forbidden Forest , the Hall of Prophecies , and the Death Chamber .
A new character in the film , Grawp , Hagrid 's giant half @-@ brother , came to life by a new technology called Soul Capturing , developed by Image Metrics . Instead of building the character from scratch , the movements and facial expressions of actor Tony Maudsley were used to model Grawp 's actions .
= = = Music = = =
Nicholas Hooper was the composer for the soundtrack of the film , following John Williams , who scored the first three films , and Patrick Doyle , who did the fourth . In the new score , Hooper incorporated variations on " Hedwig 's Theme " , the series ' theme originally written by Williams for the first film and heard in all subsequent ones . In March and April 2007 , Hooper and the London Chamber Orchestra recorded nearly two hours of music at Abbey Road Studios in London . The score , like the film and book , is darker than previous instalments in the series . To emphasise this , the two new main themes reflect the sinister new character Dolores Umbridge , and Lord Voldemort 's invasion of Harry 's mind . A Japanese Taiko drum was used for a deeper sound in the percussion . The soundtrack was released on 10 July 2007 , the eve of the film 's release . For his work on the film , Hooper was nominated for a World Soundtrack Discovery Award . The trailer prominently features the cues " Divine Crusade " by X @-@ Ray Dog and
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the full movie in 2D and the final 20 minutes of the film in 3D . According to estimates in March 2007 , by Warner Bros. , the film would debut on over 10 @,@ 000 theatre screens during the summer .
The film was released in most countries in a two @-@ week period starting 11 July 2007 . WB has tried to stick with day @-@ and @-@ date releases for most countries , except the Middle East and a few minor markets which were to be in holidays at that point . The set of summer releases , even though the films are typically released in the winter , " really maximises our opportunity " , said a representative for WB .
Previews of the film began in March 2007 in the Chicago area . Under tight security to prevent piracy , WB had security guards patrol the aisles , looking for cell phone cameras or small recording devices , at a preview in Japan . The world premiere took place in Tokyo , Japan on 28 June 2007 . MySpace users could bring copies of their online profiles to gain free admission to sneak previews in eight different cities across the country on 28 June 2007 . The UK premiere took place on 3 July 2007 in London 's Odeon Leicester Square , during which author J. K. Rowling made a public appearance . The US premiere took place on 8 July in Los Angeles . After the premiere , the three young stars of the film series , Radcliffe , Grint , and Watson , were honoured with a ceremony where their handprints , footprints , and " wandprints " were placed in the cement in front of Grauman 's Chinese Theatre .
Originally , Warner Bros. set the Australian release date as 6 September 2007 , nearly two months after the majority of other release dates . However , after complaints from the Australian community , including a petition garnering 2 @,@ 000 signatures the date was pulled back to 11 July 2007 . The release dates of the film in the UK and US were also moved back , both from 13 July , to 12 and 11 July , respectively .
Even though the book is the longest in the series ( over 700 pages ) , the film is 138 minutes long ( 2 hours and 18 minutes ) , the second shortest in the entire film series .
= = = Home media = = =
The DVDs included additional scenes , a feature showing a day in the life of Natalia Tena , who played Nymphadora Tonks , an A & E documentary about the films and books , and a featurette on film editing in Phoenix . The DVD @-@ ROM features a timeline and a sneak peek of the next film , Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince ( 2009 ) . The HD DVD and Blu @-@ ray contain additional features , such as the " in @-@ movie experience " , a video commentary in which members of Dumbledore 's Army share their favourite moments from the production of the film , and " focus points " featurettes on how certain scenes of the film were made . The HD DVD also includes an exclusive feature called " community screening " , which enables owners of the HD DVD to watch the film together over the Internet . Order of the Phoenix was the seventh best @-@ selling DVD of 2007 , with 10 @.@ 14 million units . The high @-@ definition DVDs had combined sales of 179 @,@ 500 copies , with more units coming from the Blu @-@ ray version .
There was also a third DVD with extras featuring a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look at the sets of the movie . This can only be found in those purchased at Target stores ( Future Shop in Canada ) since it is a Target exclusive . The package included a one @-@ time @-@ only code that activated a digital copy of the film , which may be played on a computer with Windows Media Player . The digital copy , however , is not playable on Macintosh or Apple Inc. iPod devices . This issue was partially addressed , with the film being made available on the iTunes Store in the UK but not the US .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film opened to a worldwide 5 @-@ day opening of $ 333 million , the fourteenth @-@ biggest opening of all time , behind Star Wars : The Force Awakens , Jurassic World , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 , Furious 7 , Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , Marvel 's The Avengers , Avengers : Age of Ultron , Transformers : Dark of the Moon , Spider @-@ Man 3 , Iron Man 3 , Pirates of the Caribbean : On Stranger Tides , Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End , and The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn – Part 2 . In the United States , tickets for hundreds of midnight showings of the film , bought from online ticket @-@ seller Fandango , were sold out , making up approximately 90 % of the site 's weekly ticket sales . In the US and Canada , midnight screenings ( very early morning on 11 July ) brought in $ 12 million from 2 @,@ 311 midnight exhibitions making the showings " the most successful batch of midnight exhibitions ever " . In one @-@ night earnings , Phoenix is behind only At World 's End , which had debuted four hours earlier on its date .
In the North America , Phoenix earned an additional $ 32 @.@ 2 million on Wednesday , post @-@ midnight showings , making it the biggest single @-@ day Wednesday gross in box office history , with a total of $ 44 @.@ 2 million from 4 @,@ 285 theatres . That amount topped Sony Pictures ' Spider @-@ Man 2 , which had held the record since 2004 with its $ 40 @.@ 4 million take on a Wednesday , until this record was broken in 2009 by Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen with $ 62 @.@ 0 million . It was also the fifth @-@ biggest opening day for a movie in history , at the time , surpassing At World 's End 's $ 42 @.@ 9 million . It earned $ 1 @.@ 9 million from a record @-@ breaking 91 IMAX screens , the highest opening day ever for any IMAX day of the week , beating Spider @-@ Man 3 's $ 1 @.@ 8 million . In the UK the result was similar . The film made £ 16 @.@ 5 million during its opening 4 @-@ day run , breaking the UK box office record for the biggest 4 @-@ day opening weekend ever .
Phoenix 's gross is at $ 292 @.@ 0 million in the US and Canada , making it the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of 2007 in these regions , and at £ 49 @.@ 2 million , or $ 101 @.@ 4 million in the UK Overseas , it has grossed $ 647 @.@ 8 million , the seventh highest @-@ grosser ever overseas , for a worldwide total of $ 939 @.@ 8 million making it the second highest @-@ grossing film of the year closely behind Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End 's $ 963 million gross . It became the sixth highest grossing film in history at the time , the second @-@ highest grossing Potter film worldwide , and the second Potter film to break the $ 900 million mark . As of December 2015 , it is the 32nd highest grossing film of all time as well as the fourth highest @-@ grossing Potter film in the franchise behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 2 's $ 1 @.@ 341 billion , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone 's $ 974 million , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 1 's $ 960 million and the highest grossing 2007 film in Australia and the UK . IMAX Corporation and Warner Bros. Pictures announced that the film has made over $ 35 million on IMAX screens , worldwide , with an impressive per @-@ screen average of $ 243 @,@ 000 making it the highest grossing live @-@ action IMAX release in history . In South Africa the film opened at number 1 with a total of $ 944 @,@ 082 @.@ 00 , being screened at 87 theatres .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received mostly positive reviews . The film holds a 79 % " Certified Fresh " approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes , making it the second lowest @-@ rated film in the series on the site . The site 's general consensus states that " It 's not easy to take the longest Harry Potter book and streamline it into the shortest HP movie , but director David Yates does a bang up job of it , creating an Order of the Phoenix that 's entertaining and action @-@ packed " . It also has a score of 71 out of 100 on Metacritic , the fifth highest rated after Deathly Hallows – Part 2 , Prisoner of Azkaban , Goblet of Fire and Half @-@ Blood Prince . Charles Frederick of The Telegraph headlined their review " Potter film is the best and darkest yet " . Colin Bertram of the New York Daily News gave the film four out of four stars , calling it the best Potter film yet and wrote that " die @-@ hard Potter addicts will rejoice that Yates has distilled J. K. Rowling 's broad universe with care and reverence " . Mark Adams of The Sunday Mirror , while giving the film four out of five stars , called it " a dark and delicious delight [ and ] a must @-@ see movie " . Rene Rodriguez of The Miami Herald gave the film three stars out of four and wrote that the film " is the first instalment in the soon @-@ to @-@ be series @-@ of @-@ seven that doesn 't seem like just another spinoff capitalising on the money @-@ minting Harry Potter brand name . Instead , Phoenix feels like a real ' movie ' " .
Imelda Staunton 's performance as Dolores Umbridge and Helena Bonham Carter 's as Bellatrix Lestrange were widely acclaimed ; Staunton was described as the " perfect choice for the part " and " one of the film 's greatest pleasures " , " coming close to stealing the show " . The Daily Mail described Staunton 's portrayal of Umbridge as a " refreshing addition " , with the character herself described as " a cross between Margaret Thatcher and Hyacinth Bucket " . Bonham Carter was said to be a " shining but underused talent " . Variety praised Alan Rickman 's portrayal of Severus Snape , writing that he " may have outdone himself ; seldom has an actor done more with less than he does here " . Newcomer Evanna Lynch , playing Luna Lovegood , also received good word from a number of reviewers including the New York Times who declared her " spellbinding " .
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone also lauded the three principal actors ' achievements , especially Radcliffe : " One of the joys of this film is watching Daniel Radcliffe grow so impressively into the role of Harry . He digs deep into the character and into Harry 's nightmares . It 's a sensational performance , touching all the bases from tender to fearful " . Rolling Stone 's review also classified the film as better than the previous four instalments in the series , by losing the " candy @-@ ass aspect " of the first two and " raising the bar " from the " heat and resonance " of the third and fourth . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the film " the best of the series so far , [ with ] the laughs , the jitters and the juice to make even nonbelievers wild about Harry " .
Leo Lewis of The Times ( London ) expressed disappointment that the three main actors were not able to fully advance the emotional sides of their respective characters , weakening the film . The San Francisco Chronicle complained about a " lousy " storyline , alleging that the first twenty minutes of the film , when Harry is put on trial for performing magic outside of school and threatened with expulsion , but is cleared of all charges , did not advance the plot . Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Phoenix is " quite possibly the least enjoyable of the [ series ] so far " , and that despite " several eye @-@ catching moments " , " the magic – movie magic , that is – is mostly missing " . The review also criticised the under use of the " cream of British acting " , noting the brief appearances of Helena Bonham Carter , Maggie Smith , Emma Thompson , David Thewlis , Richard Griffiths , and Julie Walters .
= = = Accolades = = =
Before it was released , Order of the Phoenix was nominated in a new category at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards , Best Summer Movie You Haven 't Seen Yet . On 26 August 2007 , the film won the award for Choice Summer Movie – Drama / Action Adventure at the Teen Choice Awards .
The film was also nominated for several awards at the 2007 Scream Awards presented by Spike TV , in the categories of The Ultimate Scream , Best Fantasy Movie , and Best Sequel . Daniel Radcliffe was nominated in the Fantasy Hero categories , respectively . The film won for Best Sequel and Ralph Fiennes won for " Most Vile Villain " . The film picked up three awards at the inaugural ITV National Movie Awards , taking Best Family Film , Best Actor for Radcliffe and Best Actress for Emma Watson . The film was one of ten nominees for a 2007 Hollywood Movie of the Year . It was also nominated for Best Live Action Family Film at the Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards and won the 2007 People 's Choice Award for " Favorite Movie Drama " . Having been nominated for six awards at the 13th Empire Awards , organised by Empire , including Best Film , David Yates won Best Director . Yates later received the BAFTA Britannia Award for Artistic Excellence in Directing for his four Harry Potter films , which includes Order of the Phoenix .
Nicholas Hooper received a nomination for a World Soundtrack Discovery Award for his score to the film . Imelda Staunton was nominated in the " British Actress in a Supporting Role " category at the London Film Critics Circle Awards . At the 2008 BAFTA Awards , the film was nominated for " Best Production Design " and " Best Special Visual Effects " . Order of the Phoenix was also nominated for the awards from the Art Directors Guild and Costume Designers Guild , and was awarded for " Outstanding Special Effects in a Motion Picture " by the Visual Effects Society out of six nominations . The British Academy Children 's Awards ( BAFTA ) nominated Order of the Phoenix for Best Feature Film in 2007 and the Hugo Awards nominated the film for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Long Form ) in 2008 .
= = = Hollywood accounting = = =
A WB 2009 receipt was leaked online , showing that the movie ended up with a $ 167 million loss on paper .
= Charles T. Hinde =
Charles T. Hinde ( July 12 , 1832 – March 10 , 1915 ) was an American industrialist , tycoon , riverboat captain , businessman , and entrepreneur . He managed many businesses and invested in numerous business ventures over the course of his life . Hinde served in executive leadership positions in the river navigation , shipping , railroad , and hotel businesses . By his late forties , Hinde had already amassed a great fortune from his work in the steamboat and railroad industries .
In the late 1880s Hinde was invited to San Diego by his close friend E. S. Babcock to invest in and run several businesses , including the Hotel del Coronado and the Spreckels Brothers Commercial Company with John D. Spreckels . Hinde vastly increased his personal fortune during his time in southern California , and he helped spur the economy of the region . Towards the end of his life he donated much of his wealth to further various projects in the Californian city of Coronado and its surrounding area , some dedicated to the memory of his daughter Camilla , who died in Evansville , Indiana , at the age of 13 .
= = Early years = =
Hinde was born in Urbana , Ohio , on July 12 , 1832 . He was one of six children born to Thomas S. Hinde ( 1785 – 1846 ) and Sara Cavileer Hinde ( 1791 – 1847 ) . His grandfather was Dr. Thomas Hinde ( 1737 – 1828 ) who had distinguished himself during the American Revolutionary War and during his service to General James Wolfe . During the early years of Hinde 's life the family was constantly on the move , because his father was a circuit preacher of the Methodist faith and was speculating in military real estate in the territories purchased from the Native Americans by Willam Henry Harrison . Eventually , Hinde 's father purchased a large tract of land in southern Illinois where he founded a town and settled with his family .
Hinde attended elementary and middle school in Mount Carmel , Illinois , a town his father founded in 1815 . The Hinde family were large landowners in Mount Carmel and Wabash County , Illinois . A portion of the family land was located on the Wabash River and included Hanging Rock and the Grand Rapids Dam . Hinde attended Indiana Asbury University ( now DePauw University ) in Greencastle for a year and a half before dropping out following the deaths of his father and mother . Hinde , his brother Edmund C. Hinde , and his sister Belinda Hinde were forced to live with other relatives or fend for themselves . For a short time in the 1850s , Hinde and his younger sister Belinda lived with their older sister , Martha , and her husband , Judge Charles H. Constable , in Mount Carmel and in Marshall , Illinois . As a college dropout , Hinde was initially only able to find work as a grocery clerk in Vincennes and later as a clerk in Mount Carmel . Even though these were low @-@ paying jobs , Hinde was able to support himself because he had inherited large land holdings from his father .
= = Employment in river navigation = =
Hinde 's first employment in river transportation was as a clerk on a boat that operated between St. Louis , Missouri , and St. Paul , Minnesota . After about a year , he joined the Galena , Dubuque and St. Paul Packet Company , which became one of the largest transportation companies in that part of the country . At one point during his employment there , he contracted cholera and almost died . Hinde made rapid advancement and was promoted to the position of captain in his mid @-@ twenties , an unusually young age . In 1862 , he went to Louisville , Kentucky , to take command of a steamer running from there to Memphis , Tennessee He returned to St. Louis in 1864 to serve as captain of the steamer Davenport , which ran from St. Louis to St. Paul , before resigning that position to organize a branch of the Halliday Brothers Corporation in Cairo , Illinois , which was engaged in the river transportation and shipping businesses . He subsequently established his own business and became the shipping agent at the Cairo wharf for all the steamboat lines passing through Cairo , on both the Ohio River and Mississippi River and their tributaries . Hinde sold his interests in the business shortly after its creation and moved his family to Evansville , Indiana , where he became acquainted with E. S. Babcock and the Reid Brothers .
= = Railroad business = =
Steamboats began to see strong competition from the railroads after the post @-@ Civil War replacement of the rail lines , and after a brief episode of poor health in 1870 , Hinde sold his interests in the river navigation business and turned his attention to railroads . He went to Louisville , Kentucky , to rest , and by chance became a shipping agent for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company through his close relationship with several company executives . Hinde secured various contracts for hauling grain , a business he may have gained some insight into from his brother Edmund C. Hinde ( 1830 – 1909 ) , who was then active in the grain business in their hometown of Mount Carmel . But the endeavor was unsuccessful , and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad went into receivership ; Hinde arranged to have all his shipments transferred to the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad Company . Shortly before he received an invitation from E. S. Babcock to move to Coronado , California , Hinde 's only child , Camilla , died in Evansville at the age of 13 . Babcock had founded the Hotel del Coronado and several large companies , and invited Hinde to invest and help manage his business interests . Hinde had been engaged in the railroad business for a little under a decade when he left for southern California to invest with John Diedrich Spreckels and E.S. Babcock in the real estate and hotel businesses . In the following years , Hinde and Spreckels launched numerous successful business ventures together and became good friends .
= = Southern California = =
In Evansville , Hinde had become acquainted with the Reid Brothers , who designed many notable structures there , including the Willard Library . When Hinde and Babcock left Evansville and relocated to Coronado , they took the Reid Brothers with them , and hired them to design many structures including the Hotel del Coronado . Hinde also used the Reid brothers for personal projects , such as his home in Coronado and the church and rectory he built in the town . All three structures still stand today . Hinde may have used his friendship with the Reid Brothers to get them to design the Grand Rapids Hotel , which was owned by his nephew , Frederick Hinde Zimmerman . The building burned down in 1929 .
In California , Hinde again became involved in various businesses and investments . Initially , he was the commercial agent and manager for the Santa Fe Wharf , working with Spreckels and Babcock . Later , he was one of the founders of the Spreckels Brothers Commercial Company , owning a one @-@ third interest . The company imported coal , cement , and general merchandise . Hinde 's most important and lasting investment was the Hotel del Coronado on Rancho San Diego Island , which was owned by the Coronado Beach Company , originally capitalized with US $ 3 million . At the time of capitalization the company directors were Babcock , Spreckels , Hinde , H.W. Mallett , and Giles Kellogg . They formed the company on April 7 , 1886 , and started construction on the hotel . The company also undertook numerous other investments in the Coronado area , but their plans were interrupted by the Panic of 1893 , a severe recession and bank run caused by a bubble in the railroad business . The economy did not begin to recover until 1897 , and after a multiple year slump the property market in southern California began to recover . As with his original switch from the navigation to railroad business , Hinde 's move from railroads to hotels dramatically increased his personal fortune . From its founding until his death in 1915 , Hinde remained vice president and treasurer of the Coronado Beach Company and the Spreckels Brothers Commercial Company .
= = Later life and legacy = =
At the age of 72 , Hinde began to invest in property and mines in New Mexico as a hobby . Primarily , Hinde used his nephews , Harry Hinde and Frederick Hinde Zimmerman , to alert him to new business opportunities . The local newspapers reported on his investments , but he only experienced modest profits .
Hinde bought the most expensive car on offer at the 1910 California Auto Show , a mammoth 72 @-@ horse power Thomas Flyer manufactured by the Thomas Motor Company . He tendered a check for $ 6 @,@ 200 and drove the car back to one of his residences in San Diego , California .
Hinde was well connected among the elite businessmen and politicians of the time , owing to his extensive business interests . One of his closest friends was James J. Hill of the Pacific Railroad , with whom he became acquainted while working in the railroad business . Hinde was politically neutral , but towards the end of his life he began to support Republican political candidates , at the urging of his nephew , Harry Hinde , a Republican politician . During the 1912 Presidential Election , Hinde entertained President William Howard Taft , a Republican , at his home in Coronado ; Taft was at the time campaigning for re @-@ election for the Presidency of the United States against Teddy Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson . Taft and his host went hunting and horse riding , and Hinde introduced Taft to many of his friends and business acquaintances . President Taft lost the election .
Towards the end of his life , Hinde gave to many charities in southern California , and he was particularly generous to Coronado and San Diego .. He funded the construction of Christ Episcopal Church in Coronado , together with its parish center and rectory , all dedicated to his deceased daughter , Camilla . Even though Hinde was generous in his gifts , he remained modest and low @-@ key throughout his life . He did not like receiving credit for his philanthropy , perhaps the reason his contributions were overlooked in the years following his death . Hinde bequeathed a large part of his estate to his sister Belinda 's son , Frederick Hinde Zimmerman , who used the money to build the Grand Rapids Hotel on the Hinde family farm in Mount Carmel . Hinde left an even larger portion of his estate and his house in Coronado to his nephew , Harry Hinde .
Hinde died in Coronado on March 10 , 1915 , aged 82 . In accordance with his wishes , the funeral service held in the Episcopal Church that he built for the residents of Coronado was modest . Hinde is buried in Mount Hope Cemetery , San Diego , California . His estate papers show that in addition to his other businesses , Hinde was a part @-@ owner of the Los Angeles @-@ based Global Grain & Milling Company , founded in 1898 and run by Will E. Keller .
= Hurricane Ione =
Hurricane Ione / aɪˈəʊn / was a strong , Category 4 hurricane that affected North Carolina in September 1955 , bringing high winds and significant rainfall . It came on the heels of Hurricanes Connie and Diane , and compounded problems already caused by the two earlier hurricanes . Spawned by a tropical wave which left the African coast on September 6 , the system became a tropical depression in the tropical North Atlantic , before turning northwest and developing into a hurricane . After turning back to the west east of the Bahamas , Ione turned northwest and northward , moving across eastern North Carolina before moving east @-@ northeastward out to sea . Ione caused $ 600 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage , much of it to crops across North Carolina . As a result of Ione 's impacts seven people lost their lives .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved through Cape Verde on September 6 and on September 11 Ione developed into a tropical depression . Ione remained weak for the next few days , and then began to steadily intensify as it moved north of the Lesser Antilles , reaching hurricane strength on September 15 . Conditions were favorable for additional development , and Ione peaked with winds of 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) on September 18 while north of the Bahamas .
Drier and cooler air gradually became entrained in Ione 's circulation , and the storm weakened into a Category 2 hurricane at the time of its Wilmington , North Carolina , landfall on September 19 , which made Ione the third hurricane to hit the state in six weeks and fourth in 11 months . Ione was the first tropical cyclone to be observed on the Cape Hatteras radar during landfall and was one of the first observed to make small @-@ scale oscillations within its track . The storm weakened to a tropical storm over land but restrengthened to a Category 2 hurricane over the northwestern Atlantic . Ione continued northeastward and became an extratropical cyclone on September 21 . The extratropical storm crossed over Newfoundland and was last seen on September 24 moving across the North Atlantic .
= = Preparations = =
Hurricane warnings were in effect from the Virginia Capes to Morehead , North Carolina and a Hurricane alert was issued northward to Atlantic City , New Jersey . Dump trucks loaded with dirt were ready to make earthen dikes around the Riegel paper mill , due to the severe damage caused to it by hurricanes earlier that year which caused the 1955 Delaware River flood . Recent flooding , from Hurricane Diane , along the Delaware River kept residents along its banks alert should the storm strike , business owners were also ready to move their merchandise if the need arose . New York City officials prepared for the worst , with police officers filling gas tanks of their patrol cars and extra patrol men being called to duty in advance of the hurricane . Flights were canceled in New York , firemen stood at the ready in Staten Island , and the Coast Guard warned shipping companies of the impending storm . A boxing match between Rocky Marciano and Archie Moore was delayed , which allowed the promoters to sell an additional $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 1955 ) in tickets , which is $ 1 @.@ 33 million in present @-@ day figures .
= = Impact = =
September 18 was a gloomy day in Swan Quarter , North Carolina and winds did not significantly increase until between 2 and 3 p.m. By 9 : 30 p.m. , strong winds buffeted the area from the east @-@ northeast and the electricity went out at around 10 : 50 p.m. Area homes flooded for the first time since Barbara of the 1953 Atlantic hurricane season and the tides increased until 8 : 45 a.m. on September 19 before rapidly rising between 2 : 00 and 2 : 30 p.m. The Lake Causeway was partially washed out towards New Holland . The Diamond Shoals lightship was reported to have broken loose during the hurricane . Tides did not fully recede at Swan Quarter until 3 a.m. on September 20 , with winds finally dying down after 7 a.m. the same day . Cherry Point recorded a maximum sustained wind of 75 miles per hour ( 121 km / h ) , with gusts to 107 miles per hour ( 172 km / h ) . Prolonged easterly winds forced the tide to increase to levels 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above normal , which resulted in one of the largest inundations in North Carolina history . The storm surge from Ione was recorded at 3 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) at Morehead City , North Carolina , while a storm tide of 5 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) was measured at Wrightsville Beach , North Carolina . It was reported that the storm lasted for nearly two days in North Carolina . HMTS Monarch , which had departed from Newfoundland , was laying telephone cable across the Atlantic ocean when Ione crossed its path . The ship weathered the storm , and managed to reach Scotland to complete its mission by September 26 .
Ione caused $ 600 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage , much of it to crops across North Carolina . The rest came from flooding in an area already devastated by Hurricanes Connie and Diane six weeks earlier . Along the Trent River near Trent and the New River near Gum Branch , North Carolina , the river stage reached heights not seen again until Hurricane Floyd of the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season . Ione caused seven deaths in North Carolina , a low number attributed to well @-@ executed warnings and effectiveness of relief groups such as the Red Cross .
Ione made landfall in Newfoundland , Canada during the evening of September 21 as a tropical storm and as a result cause wind and rain damage . That day the storm became extratropical , yet still had negative effects on Canada . In Carbonear a boy broke his leg after being blown into a car and thousands of dollars in damage , as well as broken polls , uprooted trees , interrupted telephone service , damaged chimneys and power outages were reported in St. John 's , Canada . There were also reports of roof damage and a trailer being torn for its foundation . Three flights were cancelled , schools were closed and the ferry service between Bell Island and Portugal Cove was disrupted . On September 23 there were reports of boats that had been lost and in Harbour Grace and Harbour Main . There was also a report of a garage being flipped with a car still in it . There were also reports of a street and two mines being flooded in Corner Brook and it was reported that there was $ 2 million damage to the province . There was extensive damage to waterfront property on the southern coast of Newfoundland . On September 24 there were reports of fishermen losing gear , a house being blown off its foundation in Foxtrap , damage to the phone company , a washed out road in Swift Current and damage to the power company . On September 27 it was reported that buoys were destroyed in Harbour Grace , Fortune and Stag Harbour . There was also damage done to a freighter in Conception Bay .
= = Legacy = =
Due to the damage , the name Ione was retired and will never be used for an Atlantic hurricane again . This was before the formal lists were created , as a result it was not replaced with any particular name . As a result of this , this is the only time the name Ione was used for the Atlantic Basin since hurricane naming began in 1950 . When one of the first tropical cyclone forecast models was developed , Ione was chosen as one of the candidates to test out its reliability . The errors associated with Ione were significant , as the model did not forecast Ione to make landfall in North Carolina , forcing the storm eastward to the south of the state .
= Short @-@ beaked echidna =
The short @-@ beaked echidna ( Tachyglossus aculeatus ) is one of four living species of echidna and the only member of the genus Tachyglossus . It is covered in fur and spines and has a distinctive snout and a specialized tongue , which it uses to catch its insect prey at a great speed . Like the other extant monotremes , the short @-@ beaked echidna lays eggs ; the monotremes are the only group of mammals to do so .
The short @-@ beaked echidna has extremely strong front limbs and claws , which allow it to burrow quickly with great power . As it needs to be able to survive underground , it has a significant tolerance to high levels of carbon dioxide and low levels of oxygen . It has no weapons or fighting ability but repels predators by curling into a ball and deterring them with its spines . It lacks the ability to sweat and cannot deal with heat well , so it tends to avoid daytime activity in hot weather . It can swim if needed . The snout has mechanoreceptors and electroreceptors that help the echidna to detect its surroundings .
During the Australian winter , it goes into deep torpor and hibernation , reducing its metabolism to save energy . As the temperature increases , it emerges to mate . Female echidnas lay one egg a year and the mating period is the only time the otherwise solitary animals meet one another ; the male has no further contact with the female or his offspring after mating . A young echidna is the size of a grape but grows rapidly on its mother 's milk , which is very rich in nutrients . Baby echidnas eventually grow too large and spiky to stay in the pouch and , at around six months of age , they leave the burrow and have no more contact with their mothers .
The species is found throughout Australia , where it is the most widespread native mammal , and in coastal and highland regions of southwestern New Guinea , where it is known as the mungwe in the Daribi and Chimbu languages . It is not threatened with extinction , but human activities , such as hunting , habitat destruction , and the introduction of foreign predatory species and parasites , have reduced its distribution in Australia .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The short @-@ beaked echidna was first described by George Shaw in 1792 . He named the species Myrmecophaga aculeata , thinking that it might be related to the giant anteater . Since Shaw first described the species , its name has undergone four revisions : from M. aculeata to Ornithorhynchus hystrix , Echidna hystrix , Echidna aculeata and finally , Tachyglossus aculeatus . The name Tachyglossus means " quick tongue " , in reference to the speed with which the echidna uses its tongue to catch ants and termites , and aculeatus means " spiny " or " equipped with spines " .
The short @-@ beaked echidna is the only member of its genus , sharing the family Tachyglossidae with the extant species of the genus Zaglossus that occur in New Guinea . Zaglossus species , which include the western long @-@ beaked , Sir David 's long @-@ beaked and eastern long @-@ beaked echidnas , are all significantly larger than T. aculeatus , and their diets consist mostly of worms and grubs rather than ants and termites . Species of the Tachyglossidae are egg @-@ laying mammals ; together with the related family Ornithorhynchidae , they are the only extant monotremes in the world .
The five subspecies of the short @-@ beaked echidna are each found in different geographical locations . The subspecies also differ from one another in their hairiness , spine length and width , and the size of the grooming claws on their hind feet .
T. a. acanthion is found in Northern Territory and Western Australia .
T. a. aculeatus is found in Queensland , New South Wales , South Australia and Victoria .
T. a. lawesii is found in coastal regions and the highlands of New Guinea , and possibly in the rainforests of Northeast Queensland .
T. a. multiaculeatus is found on Kangaroo Island .
T. a. setosus is found on Tasmania and some islands in Bass Strait .
The earliest fossils of the short @-@ beaked echidna date back around 15 million years ago to the Pleistocene era , and the oldest specimens were found in caves in South Australia , often with fossils of the long @-@ beaked echidna from the same period . The ancient short @-@ beaked echidnas are considered to be identical to their contemporary descendants except the ancestors are around 10 % smaller . This " post @-@ Pleistocene dwarfing " affects many Australian mammals . Part of the last radiation of monotreme mammals , echidnas are believed to have evolutionally diverged from the platypus around 66 million years ago , between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods . However , the echidna 's pre @-@ Pleistocene heritage has not been traced yet , and the lack of teeth on the fossils found thus far have made it impossible to use dental evidence .
The short @-@ beaked echidna was commonly called the spiny anteater in older books , though this term has fallen out of fashion since the echidna bears no relation to the true anteaters . It has a variety of names in the indigenous languages of the regions where it is found . The Noongar people from southwestern Western Australia call it the nyingarn . In Central Australia southwest of Alice Springs , the Pitjantjatjara term is tjilkamata or tjirili , from the word tjiri for spike of porcupine grass ( Triodia irritans ) . The word can also mean slowpoke . In central Cape York Peninsula , it is called ( minha ) kekoywa in Pakanh , where minha is a qualifier meaning ' meat ' or ' animal ' , ( inh- ) ekorak in Uw Oykangand and ( inh- ) egorag in Uw Olkola , where inh- is a qualifier meaning ' meat ' or ' animal ' . In the highland regions of southwestern New Guinea , it is known as the mungwe in the Daribi and Chimbu languages .
= = Description = =
Short @-@ beaked echidnas are typically 30 to 45 cm ( 12 to 18 in ) in length , with 75 mm ( 3 in ) of snout , and weigh between 2 and 7 kg ( 4 @.@ 4 and 15 @.@ 4 lb ) . However , the Tas
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manian subspecies , T. a. setosus , is smaller than its Australian mainland counterparts . Because the neck is not externally visible , the head and body appear to merge . The earholes are on either side of the head , with no external pinnae . The eyes are small , about 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter and at the base of the wedge @-@ shaped snout . The nostrils and the mouth are at the distal end of the snout ; the mouth cannot open wider than 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) . The body of the short @-@ beaked echidna is , with the exception of the underside , face and legs , covered with cream @-@ coloured spines . The spines , which may be up to 50 mm ( 2 in ) long , are modified hairs , mostly made of keratin . Insulation is provided by fur between the spines , which ranges in colour from honey to a dark reddish @-@ brown and even black ; the underside and short tail are also covered in fur . Colouration of the fur and spines varies with geographic location . The echidna 's fur may be infested with what is said to be the world 's largest flea , Bradiopsylla echidnae , which is about 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) long .
The limbs of the short @-@ beaked echidna are adapted for rapid digging ; they are short and have strong claws . Their strong and stout limbs allow it to tear apart large logs and move paving stones , and one has been recorded moving a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ kg ( 30 @-@ lb ) stone ; a scientist also reported that a captive echidna moved a refrigerator around the room in his home . The power of the limbs is based on strong musculature , particularly around the shoulder and torso areas . The mechanical advantage of its arm is greater than that of humans , as its biceps connects the shoulder to the forearm at a point further down than for humans , and the chunky humerus allows more muscle to form .
The claws on the hind feet are elongated and curved backward to enable cleaning and grooming between the spines . Like the platypus , the echidna has a low body temperature — between 30 and 32 ° C ( 86 and 90 ° F ) — but , unlike the platypus , which shows no evidence of torpor or hibernation , the body temperature of the echidna may fall as low as 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . The echidna does not pant or sweat and normally seeks shelter in hot conditions . Despite their inability to sweat , echidnas still lose water as they exhale . The snout is believed to be crucial in restricting this loss to sustainable levels , through a bony labyrinth that has a refrigerator effect and helps to condense water vapour in the breath . The echidna does not have highly concentrated urine , and around half of the estimated daily water loss of 120 g ( 4 @.@ 2 oz ) occurs in this manner , while most of the rest is through the skin and respiratory system . Most of this is replenished by its substantial eating of termites — one laboratory study reported ingestion of around 147 g ( 5 @.@ 2 oz ) a day , most of which was water . This can be supplemented by drinking water , if available , or licking morning dew from flora .
In the Australian autumn and winter , the echidna enters periods of torpor or deep hibernation . Because of its low body temperature , it becomes sluggish in very hot and very cold weather .
Like all monotremes , it has one orifice , the cloaca , for the passage of faeces , urine and reproductive products . The male has internal testes , no external scrotum and a highly unusual penis with four knobs on the tip , which is nearly a quarter of his body length when erect . The gestating female develops a pouch on her underside , where she raises her young .
The musculature of the short @-@ beaked echidna has a number of unusual aspects . The panniculus carnosus , an enormous muscle just beneath the skin , covers the entire body . By contraction of various parts of the panniculus carnosus , the short @-@ beaked echidna can change shape , the most characteristic shape change being achieved by rolling itself into a ball when threatened , so protecting its belly and presenting a defensive array of sharp spines . It has one of the shortest spinal cords of any mammal , extending only as far as the thorax . Whereas the human spinal cord ends at the first or second lumbar vertebra , for the echidna it occurs at the seventh thoracic vertebra . The shorter spinal cord is thought to allow flexibility to enable wrapping into a ball .
The musculature of the face , jaw and tongue is specialised for feeding . The tongue is the animal 's sole means of catching prey , and can protrude up to 180 mm ( 7 in ) outside the snout . The snout 's shape , resembling a double wedge , gives it a significant mechanical advantage in generating a large moment , so makes it efficient for digging to reach prey or to build a shelter . The tongue is sticky because of the presence of glycoprotein @-@ rich mucus , which both lubricates movement in and out of the snout and helps to catch ants and termites , which adhere to it . The tongue is protruded by contracting circular muscles that change the shape of the tongue and force it forwards and contracting two genioglossal muscles attached to the caudal end of the tongue and to the mandible . The protruded tongue is stiffened by a rapid flow of blood , which allows it to penetrate wood and soil . Retraction requires the contraction of two internal longitudinal muscles , known as the sternoglossi . When the tongue is retracted , the prey is caught on backward @-@ facing keratinous " teeth " , located along the roof of the buccal cavity , allowing the animal both to capture and grind food . The tongue moves with great speed , and has been measured to move in and out of the snout 100 times a minute . This is partly achieved through the elasticity of the tongue and the conversion of elastic potential energy into kinetic energy . The tongue is very flexible , particularly at the end , allowing it to bend in U @-@ turns and catch insects attempting to flee in their twisty nests or mounds . The tongue also has an ability to avoid picking up splinters while foraging in logs ; the reason for this ability is unknown . It can eat quickly ; a specimen of around 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) can ingest 200 g ( 7 @.@ 1 oz ) of termites in 10 minutes .
The echidna 's stomach is quite different from other mammals . It is devoid of secretory glands and has a cornified stratified epithelium , which resembles horny skin . Unlike other mammals , which typically have highly acidic stomachs , the echidna has low levels of acidity , almost neutral , with pH in the 6 @.@ 2 – 7 @.@ 4 range . The stomach is elastic , and gastric peristalsis grinds soil particulates and shredded insects together . Digestion occurs in the small intestine , which is around 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) in length . The insect exoskeletons and soil are not digested , being ejected in the waste .
Numerous physiological adaptations aid the lifestyle of the short @-@ beaked echidna . Because the animal burrows , it must tolerate very high levels of carbon dioxide in inspired air , and will voluntarily remain in situations where carbon dioxide concentrations are high . It can dig up to a metre into the ground to retrieve ants or evade predators , and can survive with low oxygen when the area is engulfed by bushfires . The echidna can also dive underwater , which can help it to survive sudden floods . During these situations , the heart rate drops to around 12 beats per minute , around one @-@ fifth of the rate at rest . This process is believed to save oxygen for the heart and brain , which are the most sensitive organs to such a shortage ; laboratory testing has revealed the echidna 's cardiovascular system is similar to that of the seal .
The echidna 's optical system is an uncommon hybrid of both mammalian and reptilian characteristics . The cartilaginous layer beneath the sclera of the eyeball is similar to that of reptiles and avians . The small corneal surface is keratinised and hardened , possibly to protect it from chemicals secreted by prey insects or self @-@ impalement when it rolls itself up , which has been observed . The echidna has the flattest lens of any animal , giving it the longest focal length . This similarity to primates and humans allows it to see distant objects clearly . Unlike placental mammals , including humans , the echidna does not have a ciliary muscle to distort the geometry of the lens and thereby change the focal length and allow objects at different distances to be viewed clearly ; the whole eye is believed to distort , so the distance between the lens and retina instead changes to allow focusing . The visual ability of an echidna is not great , and it is not known whether it can perceive colour ; however , it can distinguish between black and white , and horizontal and vertical stripes . Eyesight is not a crucial factor in the animal 's ability to survive , as blind echidnas are able to live healthily . Its ears are sensitive to low @-@ frequency sound , which may be ideal for detecting sounds emitted by termites and ants underground . The pinnae are obscured and covered by hair , so predators can not grab them in an attack , and prey or foreign material cannot enter , although ticks are known to reside there . The macula of the ear is very large compared to other animals , and is used as a gravity sensor to orient the echidna . The large size may be important for burrowing downwards .
The leathery snout is keratinised and covered in mechano- and thermoreceptors , which provide information about the surrounding environment . These nerves protrude through microscopic holes at the end of the snout , which also has mucus glands on the end that act as electroreceptors . Echidnas can detect electric fields of 1 @.@ 8 mV / cm — 1000 times more sensitive than humans — and dig up buried batteries . A series of push rods protrude from the snout . These are columns of flattened , spinous cells , with roughly an average diameter of 50 micrometres and a length of 300 micrometres . The number of push rods per square millimetre of skin is estimated to be 30 to 40 . Longitudinal waves are believed to be picked up and transmitted through the rods , acting as mechanical sensors , to allow prey detection .
A well @-@ developed olfactory system may be used to detect mates and prey . A highly sensitive optic nerve has been shown to have visual discrimination and spatial memory comparable to those of a rat . The brain and central nervous system have been extensively studied for evolutionary comparison with placental mammals , particularly with its fellow monotreme , the platypus . The average brain volume is 25 ml , similar to a cat of approximately the same size ; while the platypus has a largely smooth brain , the echidna has a heavily folded and fissured , gyrencephalic brain similar to humans , which is seen as a sign of a highly neurologically advanced animal . The cerebral cortex is thinner , and the brain cells are larger and more densely packed and organised in the echidna than the platypus , suggesting evolutionary divergence must have occurred long ago . Almost half of the sensory area in the brain is devoted to the snout and tongue , and the part devoted to smell is relatively large compared to other animals .
The short @-@ beaked echidna has the largest prefrontal cortex relative to body size of any mammal , taking up 50 % of the volume in comparison to 29 % for humans . This part of the brain in humans is thought to be used for planning and analytical behaviour , leading to debate as to whether the echidna has reasoning and strategising ability . Experiments in a simple maze and with a test on opening a trap door to access food , and the echidna 's ability to remember what it has learnt for over a month , has led scientists to conclude its learning ability is similar to that of a cat or a rat .
The echidna shows rapid eye movement during sleep , usually around its thermoneutral temperature of 25 ° C , and this effect is suppressed at other temperatures . Its brain has been shown to contain a claustrum similar to that of placental mammals , so linking this structure to their common ancestor .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
No systematic study of the ecology of the short @-@ beaked echidna has been published , but studies of several aspects of their ecological behaviour have been conducted . They live alone , and , apart from the burrow created for rearing young , they have no fixed shelter or nest site . They do not have a home territory they defend against other echidnas , but range over a wide area . The range area has been observed to be between 21 and 93 ha , although one study in Kangaroo Island found the animals there covered an area between 9 and 192 ha . Overall , the mean range areas across the various regions of Australia were 40 – 60 ha . There was no correlation between gender and range area , but a weak one with size . Echidnas can share home ranges without incident , and sometimes share shelter sites if not enough are available for each animal to have one individually .
Short @-@ beaked echidnas are typically active in the daytime , though they are ill @-@ equipped to deal with heat because they have no sweat glands and do not pant . Therefore , in warm weather , they change their patterns of activity , becoming crepuscular or nocturnal . Body temperatures above 34 ° C ( 93 ° F ) are believed to be fatal , and in addition to avoiding heat , the animal adjusts its circulation to maintain a sustainable temperature by moving blood to and from the skin to increase or lower heat loss . In areas where water is present , they can also swim to keep their body temperatures low . The " thermoneutral zone " for the environment is around 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) , at which point the metabolism needed to maintain body temperature is minimized . The echidna is endothermic , and can maintain body temperatures of around 32 ° C. It can also reduce its metabolism and heart rate and body temperature . In addition to brief and light bouts of torpor throughout the year , the echidna enters periods during the Australian winter when it hibernates , both in cold regions and in regions with more temperate climates . During hibernation , the body temperature drops to as low as 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) . The heart rate falls to four to seven beats per minute — down from 50 – 68 at rest — and the echidna can breathe as infrequently as once every three minutes , 80 to 90 % slower than when it is active . Metabolism can drop to one @-@ eighth of the normal rate . Echidnas begin to prepare for hibernation between February and April , when they reduce their consumption and enter brief periods of torpor . Males begin hibernating first , while females that have reproduced start later . During periods of hibernation , the animals average 13 separate bouts of torpor , which are broken up by periods of arousal lasting 1 @.@ 2 days on average . These interruptions tend to coincide with warmer periods . Males end their hibernation period in mid @-@ June , while reproductive females return to full activity in July and August ; nonreproductive females and immature echidnas may not end hibernation until two months later . During euthermia , the body temperature can vary by 4 ° C per day . The metabolic rate is around 30 % of that of placental mammals , making it the lowest energy @-@ consuming mammal . This figure is similar to that of other animals that eat ants and termites ; burrowing animals also tend to have low metabolism generally .
Echidnas hibernate even though it is seemingly unnecessary for survival ; they begin their hibernation period while the weather is still warm , and food is generally always plentiful . One explanation is that echidnas maximize their foraging productivity by exercising caution with their energy reserves . Another hypothesis is that they are descended from ectothermic ancestors , but have taken to periodic endothermy for reproductive reasons , so that the young can develop more quickly . Supporters of this theory argue that males hibernate earlier than females because they finish their contribution to reproduction first , and they awake earlier to undergo spermatogenesis in preparation for mating , while females and young lag in their annual cycle . During the hibernation period , the animals stay in entirely covered shelter .
Short @-@ beaked echidnas can live anywhere with a good supply of food , and regularly feast on ants and termites . They are believed to locate food by smell , using sensors in the tips of their snouts , by shuffling around seemingly arbitrarily , and using their snout in a probing manner . A study of echidnas in New England ( New South Wales ) has shown that they tend to dig up scarab beetle larvae in spring when the prey are active , but eschew this prey when it is inactive , leading to the conjecture that echidnas detect prey using hearing . Vision is not believed to be significant in hunting , as blind animals have been observed to survive in the wild .
Echidnas use their strong claws to pull apart nests and rotting logs to gain access to their prey . They avoid ants and termites that secrete repulsive liquids , and have a preference for the eggs , pupae and winged phases of the insects . Echidnas hunt most vigorously towards the end of the southern winter and early in spring , when their fat reserves have been depleted after hibernation and nursing . At this time , ants have high body fat , and the echidna targets their mounds . The animal also hunts beetles and earthworms , providing they are small enough to fit in a 5 @-@ mm gap . The proportion of ants and termites in their diets depends on the availability of prey , and termites make up a larger part in drier areas where they are more plentiful . However , termites are preferred , if available , as their bodies contain a smaller proportion of indigestible exoskeleton . Termites from the Rhinotermitidae family are avoided due to their chemical defences . Scarab beetle larvae are also a large part of the diet when and where available . In the New England study , 37 % of the food intake consisted of beetle larvae , although the echidna had to squash the prey in its snout as it ingested it , due to size .
Echidnas are powerful diggers , using their clawed front paws to dig out prey and create burrows for shelter . They may rapidly dig themselves into the ground if they cannot find cover when in danger . They bend their belly together to shield the soft , unprotected part , and can also urinate , giving off a pungent liquid , in an attempt to deter attackers . Males also have single small spurs on each rear leg , believed to be a defensive weapon that has since been lost through evolution . Echidnas typically try to avoid confrontation with predators . Instead , they use the colour of their spines , which is similar to the vegetation of the dry Australian environment , to avoid detection . They have good hearing and tend to become stationary if sound is detected .
In Australia , they are most common in forested areas with abundant , termite @-@ filled , fallen logs . In agricultural areas , they are most likely to be found in uncleared scrub ; they may be found in grassland , arid areas , and in the outer suburbs of the capital cities . Little is known about their distribution in New Guinea . They have been found in southern New Guinea between Merauke in the west and the Kelp Welsh River , east of Port Moresby , in the east , where they may be found in open woodland .
Echidnas have the ability to swim , and have been seen cooling off near dams during high temperatures . They have also been seen crossing streams and swimming for brief periods in seas off Kangaroo Island . They swim with only the snout above water , using it as a snorkel .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The solitary short @-@ beaked echidna looks for a mate between May and September ; the precise timing of the mating season varies with geographic location . In the months before the mating season , the size of the male 's testes increases by a factor of three or more before spermatogenesis occurs . Both males and females give off a strong , musky odour during the mating season , by turning their cloacas inside out and wiping them on the ground , secreting a glossly liquid believed to be an aphrodisiac . During courtship — observed for the first time in 1989 — males locate and pursue females . Trains of up to 10 males , often with the youngest and smallest male at the end of the queue , may follow a single female in a courtship ritual that may last for up to four weeks ; the duration of the courtship period varies with location . During this time , they forage for food together , and the train often changes composition , as some males leave and other join the pursuit . In cooler parts of their range , such as Tasmania , females may mate within a few hours of arousal from hibernation .
Before mating , the male smells the female , paying particular attention to the cloaca . This process can take a few hours , and the female can reject the suitor by rolling herself into a ball . After prodding and sniffing her back , the male is often observed to roll the female onto her side and then assume a similar position himself so the two animals are abdomen to abdomen , having dug a small crater in which to lie . They can lie with heads facing one another , or head to rear . If more than one male is in the vicinity , fighting over the female may occur . Each side of the bilaterally symmetrical , rosette @-@ like , four @-@ headed penis ( similar to that of reptiles and 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) in length ) is used alternately , with the other half being shut down between ejaculations . Sperm bundles of around 100 each appear to confer increased sperm motility , which may provide the potential for sperm competition between males . This process takes between a half and three hours . Each mating results in the production of a single egg , and females are known to mate only once during the breeding season ; each mating is successful .
Fertilisation occurs in the oviduct . Gestation takes between 21 and 28 days after copulation , during which time the female constructs a nursery burrow . Following the gestation period , a single , rubbery @-@ skinned egg between 13 and 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 5 and 0 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter and 1 @.@ 5 and 2 @.@ 0 g ( 0 @.@ 053 and 0 @.@ 071 oz ) in weight is laid from her cloaca directly into a small , backward @-@ facing pouch that has developed on her abdomen . The egg is ovoid , leathery , soft , and cream @-@ coloured . Between laying and hatching , some females continue to forage for food , while others dig burrows and rest there until hatching . Ten days after it is laid , the egg hatches within the pouch . The embryo develops an " egg tooth " during incubation , which it uses to tear open the egg ; the tooth disappears soon after hatching .
Hatchlings are about 1 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) long and weigh between 0 @.@ 3 and 0 @.@ 4 grams ( 0 @.@ 011 and 0 @.@ 014 oz ) . After hatching , young echidnas are known as " puggles " . Although newborns are still semitranslucent and still surrounded by the remains of the egg yolk , and the eyes are still barely developed , they already have well @-@ defined front limbs and digits that allow them to climb on their mothers ' bodies . Hatchlings attach themselves to their mothers ' milk areolae , specialised patches on the skin that secrete milk — monotremes lack nipples — through about 100 – 150 pores . The puggles were thought to have imbibed the milk by licking the mother 's skin , but they are now thought to feed by sucking the areolae .
They have been observed ingesting large amounts during each feeding period , and mothers may leave them unattended in the burrow for between five and ten days to find food . Studies of captives have shown they can ingest milk once every two or three days and then increase their mass by 20 % in one milk @-@ drinking session lasting between one and two hours . Around 40 % of the milk weight is converted into body mass , and as such , a high proportion of milk is converted into growth ; a correlation with the growth of the puggle and its mother 's size has been observed . By the time the puggle is around 200 g ( 7 @.@ 1 oz ) , it is left in the burrow while the mother forages for food , and it reaches around 400 g ( 14 oz ) after around two months . Juveniles are eventually ejected from the pouch at around two to three months of age , because of the continuing growth in the length of their spines . During this period , the young are left in covered burrows while the mothers forage , and the young are often preyed upon . Suckling gradually decreases until juveniles are weaned at about six months of age . The duration of lactation is about 200 days , and the young leave the burrow after 180 to 205 days , usually in January or February , at which time they weigh around 800 and 1 @,@ 300 g ( 28 and 46 oz ) . There is no contact between the mother and young after this point .
The composition of the milk secreted by the mother changes over time . At the moment of birth , the solution is dilute and contains 1 @.@ 25 % fat , 7 @.@ 85 % protein , and 2 @.@ 85 % carbohydrates and minerals . Mature milk has much more concentrated nutrients , with 31 @.@ 0 , 12 @.@ 4 and 2 @.@ 8 % of the aforementioned nutrients , respectively . Near weaning , the protein level continues to increase ; this may be due to the need for keratin synthesis for hair and spines , to provide defences against the cold weather and predators .
The principal carbohydrate components of the milk are fucosyllactose and saialyllactose ; it has a high iron content , which gives it a pink colour . The high iron content and low levels of free lactose differ from eutherian mammals . Lactose production is believed to proceed along the same lines as in the platypus .
The age of sexual maturity is uncertain , but may be four to five years . A 12 @-@ year field study found the short @-@ beaked echidna reaches sexual maturity between five and 12 years of age , and the frequency of reproduction varies from once every two years to once every six years . In the wild , the short @-@ beaked echidna has an average lifespan of 10 years , though they can live as long as 40 . The longest @-@ lived specimen reached 49 years of age in a zoo in Philadelphia . In contrast to other mammals , echidna rates of reproduction and metabolism are lower , and they live longer , as though in slow motion , something caused , at least in part , by their low body temperature , which rarely exceeds 33 ° C , even when they are not hibernating .
Like its fellow monotreme the platypus , the short @-@ beaked echidna has a system of multiple sex chromosomes , in which males have four Y chromosomes and five X chromosomes . Males appear to be X1Y1X2Y2X3Y3X4Y4X5 ( figure ) , while females are X1X1X2X2X3X3X4X4X5X5 . Weak identity between chromosomes results in meiotic pairing that yields only two possible genotypes of sperm , X1X2X3X4X5 or Y1Y2Y3Y4 , thus preserving this complex system .
= = Conservation status = =
The short @-@ beaked echidna is common throughout most of temperate Australia and lowland New Guinea , and is not listed as endangered . In Australia , it remains widespread across a wide range of conditions , including urban outskirts , coastal forests and dry inland areas , and is especially widespread in Tasmania and on Kangaroo Island .
The most common threats to the animal in Australia are motor vehicles and habitat destruction , which have led to localized extinctions . In Australia , the number of short @-@ beaked echidnas has been less affected by land clearance than have some other species , since they do not require a specialized habitat beyond a good supply of ants and termites . As a result , they can survive in cleared land if the cut @-@ down wood is left in the area , as the logs can be used as shelters and sources of insects . However , areas where the land has been completely cleared for single crops that can be mechanically harvested , such as wheat fields , have seen extinctions . Over a decade @-@ long period , around one @-@ third of echidna deaths reported to wildlife authorities in Victoria were due to motor vehicles , and the majority of wounded animals handed in were traffic accident victims . Studies have shown they often choose to traverse drainage culverts under roads , so this is seen as a viable means of reducing deaths on busy roads in rural areas or national parks where the animals are more common .
Despite their spines , they are preyed on by birds of prey , the Tasmanian devil , dingoes , snakes , lizards , goannas , cats , and foxes , although almost all victims are young . Goannas are known for their digging abilities and strong sense of smell , and are believed to have been the main predators of the echidna before the introduction of eutherian mammals . Dingoes are known to kill echidnas by rolling them over onto their backs and attacking their underbellies . A tracking study of a small number of echidnas on Kangaroo Island concluded that goannas and cats were the main predators , although foxes — absent in Kangaroo Island — would be expected to be a major threat .
They were eaten by indigenous Australians and the early European settlers of Australia . Hunting and eating of the echidna in New Guinea has increased over time and caused a decline in the population and distribution areas ; it is now believed to have disappeared from highland areas . The killing of echidnas was a taboo in traditional culture , but since the tribespeople have become increasingly Westernised , hunting has increased , and the animals have been more easily tracked down due to the use of dogs .
Infection with the introduced parasitic tapeworm Spirometra erinaceieuropaei is considered fatal for the echidna . This waterborne infection is contracted through sharing drinking areas with infected dogs , foxes , cats , and dingos , which do not die from the parasite . The infection is seen as being more dangerous in drier areas , where more animals are sharing fewer bodies of water , increasing the chance of transmission . The Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland runs an Australia @-@ wide survey , called Echidna Watch , to monitor the species . Echidnas are also known to be affected by other tapeworms , protozoans and herpes @-@ like viral infections , but little is known of how the infections affect the health of the animals or the populations .
Although it is considered easy to keep echidnas healthy in captivity , breeding is difficult , partly due to the relatively infrequent cycle . In 2009 , Perth Zoo managed to breed some captive short @-@ beaked echidnas . Until 2006 , only five zoos have managed to breed short @-@ beaked echidnas , but no captive @-@ bred young have survived to maturity . Of these five institutions , only one in Australia — Sydney 's Taronga Zoo — managed to breed echidnas , in 1977 . The other four cases occurred in the Northern Hemisphere , two in the United States and the others in western Europe . In these cases , breeding occurred six months out of phase compared to Australia , after the animals had adapted to Northern Hemisphere seasons . The failure of captive breeding programs has conservation implications for the endangered species of echidna from the genus Zaglossus , and to a lesser extent for the short @-@ beaked echidna .
= = Cultural references = =
Short @-@ beaked echidnas feature in the animistic culture of indigenous Australians , including their visual arts and stories . The species was a totem for some groups , including the Noongar people from Western Australia . Many groups have myths about the animal ; one myth explains it was created when a group of hungry young men went hunting at night and stumbled across a wombat . They threw spears at the wombat , but lost sight of it in the darkness . The wombat adapted the spears for its own defence and turned into an echidna .
The short @-@ beaked echidna is an iconic animal in contemporary Australia , notably appearing on the Australian five @-@ cent coin ( the smallest denomination ) , and on a A $ 200 commemorative coin released in 1992 . The anthropomorphic echidna Millie was a mascot for the 2000 Summer Olympics .
= = Cited references = =
= Unification of Germany =
The unification of Germany into a politically and administratively integrated nation state officially occurred on 18 January 1871 at the Versailles Palace in the Hall of Mirrors in France . Princes of the German states gathered there to proclaim Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor after the French capitulation in the Franco @-@ Prussian War . Unofficially , the de facto transition of most of the German @-@ speaking populations into a federated organization of states had been developing for some time through alliances formal and informal between princely rulers — but in fits and starts , as self @-@ interests of parties hampered the process over nearly a century of aristocratic experimentation from the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire ( 1806 ) and the subsequent rise of nationalism over the span of the Napoleonic Wars era .
Unification exposed tensions due to religious , linguistic , social , and cultural differences among the inhabitants of the new nation , suggesting that 1871 only represented one moment in a continuum of the larger unification processes . The Holy Roman Emperor had been often called " Emperor of all the Germanies " ; contemporary news accounts frequently referred to " The Germanies " , and in the empire , its members of higher nobility were referred to as " Princes of Germany " or " Princes of the Germanies " — for the lands once called East Francia had been organized and governed as pocket kingdoms since times before the rise of Charlemagne ( 800 AD ) . Given the mountainous terrains of much of the territory , it is obvious that isolated peoples would develop cultural , educational , linguistic , and religious differences over such a lengthy time period . Germany , or the Germanies , of the nineteenth century enjoyed transportation and communications improvements tying the peoples into a greater , tighter culture , as has the entire world under the influence of better communications and transportation infrastructures .
The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation , which had included more than 500 independent states , was effectively dissolved when Emperor Francis II abdicated ( 6 August 1806 ) during the War of the Third Coalition . Despite the legal , administrative , and political disruption associated with the end of the Empire , the people of the German @-@ speaking areas of the old Empire had a common linguistic , cultural , and legal tradition further enhanced by their shared experience in the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars . European liberalism offered an intellectual basis for unification by challenging dynastic and absolutist models of social and political organization ; its German manifestation emphasized the importance of tradition , education , and linguistic unity of peoples in a geographic region . Economically , the creation of the Prussian Zollverein ( customs union ) in 1818 , and its subsequent expansion to include other states of the German Confederation , reduced competition between and within states . Emerging modes of transportation facilitated business and recreational travel , leading to contact and sometimes conflict among German speakers from throughout Central Europe .
The model of diplomatic spheres of influence resulting from the Congress of Vienna in 1814 – 15 after the Napoleonic Wars endorsed Austrian dominance in Central Europe . However , the negotiators at Vienna took no account of Prussia 's growing strength within and among the German states and so failed to foresee that Prussia would rise up to challenge Austria for leadership . This German dualism presented two solutions to the problem of unification : Kleindeutsche Lösung , the small Germany solution ( Germany without Austria ) , or Großdeutsche Lösung , the greater Germany solution ( Germany with Austria ) .
Historians debate whether Otto von Bismarck — Minister President of Prussia — had a master plan to expand the North German Confederation of 1866 to include the remaining independent German states into a single entity or simply to expand the power of the Kingdom of Prussia . They conclude that factors in addition to the strength of Bismarck 's Realpolitik led a collection of early modern polities to reorganize political , economic , military , and diplomatic relationships in the 19th century . Reaction to Danish and French nationalism provided foci for expressions of German unity . Military successes — especially those of Prussia — in three regional wars generated enthusiasm and pride that politicians could harness to promote unification . This experience echoed the memory of mutual accomplishment in the Napoleonic Wars , particularly in the War of Liberation of 1813 – 14 . By establishing a Germany without Austria , the political and administrative unification in 1871 at least temporarily solved the problem of dualism .
= = Brief summary of timeline = =
1797 : The French First Republic annexed the Left Bank of the Rhine as a result of the War of the First Coalition .
1802 : Previous annexations by France confirmed following its victory in the War of the Second Coalition .
1804 : Francis I of Austria declared the new Austrian Empire as a reaction to Napoleon Bonaparte 's proclamation of the First French Empire in 1804 .
1806 : As a result of the War of the Third Coalition , Napoleon I annexed some territories East of the Rhine , replaced the Holy Roman Empire by the Confederation of the Rhine as a French client @-@ state .
1807 : Prussia lost one half of its territory following the War of the Fourth Coalition .
1815 : After the defeat of Napoleon , the Congress of Vienna reinstated the Germanic states into the German Confederation under the leadership of the Austrian Empire .
1819 : The Carlsbad Decrees suppressed any form of pan @-@ Germanic activities to avoid the creation of a ' German state ' ; the Kingdom of Prussia , however , initiated a customs union with other Confederation states .
1834 : The Prussian @-@ led custom union evolved into the Zollverein that included almost all Confederation states except the Austrian Empire .
1848 : Revolts across the German Confederation , such as in Berlin , Dresden and Frankfurt , forced King Frederick William IV of Prussia to grant a constitution to the Confederation . In the meantime , the Frankfurt Parliament was set up in 1848 and attempted to proclaim a united Germany , but this was refused by William IV . The question of a united Germany under the Kleindeutsch solution ( to exclude Austria ) or the so @-@ called Großdeutsch ( to include Austria ) began to surface .
1861 @-@ 62 : King Wilhelm I became King of Prussia and he appointed Otto von Bismarck on 23 September 1862 , Minister President and Foreign Minister , who favoured a ' blood @-@ and @-@ iron ' policy to create a united Germany under the leadership of Prussia .
1864 : The Danish @-@ Prussian War started as Prussia protested against Danish incorporation of Schleswig into the Kingdom of Denmark . The Austrian Empire was deliberately drawn into this war by Otto von Bismarck , Chancellor of Prussia . The Austro @-@ Prussian victory led to Schleswig , the northern part , being governed by Prussia and Holstein , the southern part , being governed by Austria , as per the Treaty of Vienna ( 1864 ) .
1866 : Bismarck accused the Austrian Empire of stirring up troubles in Prussian @-@ held Schleswig . Prussian troops drove into Austrian @-@ held Holstein and took control of the entire state of Schleswig @-@ Holstein . Austria declared war on Prussia and , after fighting the Austro @-@ Prussian War ( Seven Weeks ' War ) , was swiftly defeated . The Treaty of Prague ( 1866 ) formally dissolved the German Confederation and Prussia created the North German Confederation to include all Germanic states except the pro @-@ French , southern kingdoms of Bavaria , Baden and Württemberg .
1870 : When the French emperor , Napoleon III , demanded territories of the Rhineland in return for his neutrality amid the Austro @-@ Prussian War , Bismarck used the Spanish Succession Question ( 1868 ) and Ems Telegram ( 1870 ) as an opportunity to incorporate the southern kingdoms . Napoleon III declared war against Prussia .
1871 : The Franco @-@ Prussian War ended with Prussian troops capturing Paris , the capital of the Second French Empire . Bavaria , Baden , and Württemberg were incorporated into the North German Confederation in the Treaty of Frankfurt ( 1871 ) . Bismarck then proclaimed King Wilhelm I , now Kaiser Wilhelm I , as leader of the new , united Germany ( German Reich ) . With the German troops remaining in Paris , Napoleon III dissolved the French Empire and a new republic , the Third French Republic , was created under Adolphe Thiers .
= = German @-@ speaking Central Europe in the early nineteenth century = =
Prior to 1806 , German @-@ speaking Central Europe included more than 300 political entities , most of which were part of the Holy Roman Empire or the extensive Habsburg hereditary dominions . They ranged in size from the small and complex territories of the princely Hohenlohe family branches to sizable , well @-@ defined territories such as the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Prussia . Their governance varied : they included free imperial cities , also of different sizes , such as the powerful Augsburg and the minuscule Weil der Stadt ; ecclesiastical territories , also of varying sizes and influence , such as the wealthy Abbey of Reichenau and the powerful Archbishopric of Cologne ; and dynastic states such as Württemberg . These lands ( or parts of them — both the Habsburg domains and Hohenzollern Prussia also included territories outside the Empire structures ) made up the territory of the Holy Roman Empire , which at times included more than 1 @,@ 000 entities . Since the 15th century , with few exceptions , the Empire 's Prince @-@ electors had chosen successive heads of the House of Habsburg to hold the title of Holy Roman Emperor . Among the German @-@ speaking states , the Holy Roman Empire administrative and legal mechanisms provided a venue to resolve disputes between peasants and landlords , between jurisdictions , and within jurisdictions . Through the organization of imperial circles ( Reichskreise ) , groups of states consolidated resources and promoted regional and organizational interests , including economic cooperation and military protection .
The War of the Second Coalition ( 1799 – 1802 ) resulted in the defeat of the imperial and allied forces by Napoleon Bonaparte . The treaties of Lunéville ( 1801 ) and Amiens ( 1802 ) and the Mediatization of 1803 transferred large portions of the Holy Roman Empire to the dynastic states and secularized ecclesiastical territories . Most of the imperial cities disappeared from the political and legal landscape , and the populations living in these territories acquired new allegiances to dukes and kings . This transfer particularly enhanced the territories of Württemberg and Baden . In 1806 , after a successful invasion of Prussia and the defeat of Prussia and Russia at the joint battles of Jena @-@ Auerstedt , Napoleon dictated the Treaty of Pressburg , in which the Emperor dissolved the Holy Roman Empire .
= = = Rise of German nationalism under the Napoleonic System = = =
Under the hegemony of the French Empire ( 1804 – 1814 ) , popular German nationalism thrived in the reorganized German states . Due in part to the shared experience , albeit under French dominance , various justifications emerged to identify " Germany " as a single state . For the German philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte ,
The first , original , and truly natural boundaries of states are beyond doubt their internal boundaries . Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself , long before any human art begins ; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly ; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole .
A common language may have been seen to serve as the basis of a nation , but as contemporary historians of 19th @-@ century Germany noted , it took more than linguistic similarity to unify these several hundred polities . The experience of German @-@ speaking Central Europe during the years of French hegemony contributed to a sense of common cause to remove the French invaders and reassert control over their own lands . The exigencies of Napoleon 's campaigns in Poland ( 1806 – 07 ) , the Iberian Peninsula , western Germany , and his disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 disillusioned many Germans , princes and peasants alike . Napoleon 's Continental System nearly ruined the Central European economy . The invasion of Russia included nearly 125 @,@ 000 troops from German lands , and the loss of that army encouraged many Germans , both high- and low @-@ born , to envision a Central Europe free of Napoleon 's influence . The creation of such student militias as the Lützow Free Corps exemplified this tendency .
The debacle in Russia loosened the French grip on the German princes . In 1813 , Napoleon mounted a campaign in the German states to bring them back into the French orbit ; the subsequent War of Liberation culminated in the great Battle of Leipzig , also known as the Battle of Nations . In October 1813 , more than 500 @,@ 000 combatants engaged in ferocious fighting over three days , making it the largest European land battle of the 19th century . The engagement resulted in a decisive victory for the Coalition of Austria , Prussia , Russia , Saxony , and Sweden , and it ended French power east of the Rhine . Success encouraged the Coalition forces to pursue Napoleon across the Rhine ; his army and his government collapsed , and the victorious Coalition incarcerated Napoleon on Elba . During the brief Napoleonic restoration known as the 100 Days of 1815 , forces of the Seventh Coalition , including an Anglo @-@ Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington and a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard von Blücher , were victorious at Waterloo ( 18 June 1815 ) . The critical role played by Blücher 's troops , especially after having to retreat from the field at Ligny the day before , helped to turn the tide of combat against the French . The Prussian cavalry pursued the defeated French in the evening of 18 June , sealing the allied victory . From the German perspective , the actions of Blücher 's troops at Waterloo , and the combined efforts at Leipzig , offered a rallying point of pride and enthusiasm . This interpretation became a key building block of the Borussian myth expounded by the pro @-@ Prussian nationalist historians later in the 19th century .
= = = Reorganization of Central Europe and the rise of German dualism = = =
After Napoleon 's defeat , the Congress of Vienna established a new European political @-@ diplomatic system based on the balance of power . This system reorganized Europe into spheres of influence , which , in some cases , suppressed the aspirations of the various nationalities , including the Germans and Italians . Generally , an enlarged Prussia and the 38 other states consolidated from the mediatized territories of 1803 were confederated within the Austrian Empire 's sphere of influence . The Congress established a loose German Confederation ( 1815 – 1866 ) , headed by Austria , with a " Federal Diet " ( called the Bundestag or Bundesversammlung , an assembly of appointed leaders ) that met in the city of Frankfurt am Main . In recognition of the imperial position traditionally held by the Habsburgs , the emperors of Austria became the titular presidents of this parliament . Problematically , the built @-@ in Austrian dominance failed to take into account Prussia 's 18th century emergence in Imperial politics . Ever since the Prince @-@ Elector of Brandenburg had made himself King in Prussia at the beginning of that century , their domains had steadily increased through war and inheritance . Prussia 's consolidated strength had become especially apparent during the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years ' War under Frederick the Great . As Maria Theresa and Joseph tried to restore Habsburg hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire , Frederick countered with the creation of the Fürstenbund ( Union of Princes ) in 1785 . Austrian @-@ Prussian dualism lay firmly rooted in old Imperial politics . Those balance of power manoeuvers were epitomized by the War of the Bavarian Succession , or " Potato War " among common folk . Even after the end of the Holy Roman Empire , this competition influenced the growth and development of nationalist movements in the 19th century .
= = = Problems of reorganization = = =
Despite the nomenclature of Diet ( Assembly or Parliament ) , this institution should in no way be construed as a broadly , or popularly , elected group of representatives . Many of the states did not have constitutions , and those that did , such as the Duchy of Baden , based suffrage on strict property requirements which effectively limited suffrage to a small portion of the male population . Furthermore , this impractical solution did not reflect the new status of Prussia in the overall scheme . Although the Prussian army had been dramatically defeated in the 1806 Battle of Jena @-@ Auerstedt , it had made a spectacular come @-@ back at Waterloo . Consequently , Prussian leaders expected to play a pivotal role in German politics .
The surge of German nationalism , stimulated by the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic period and initially allied with liberalism , shifted political , social , and cultural relationships within the German states . In this context , one can detect its roots in the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic period . The Burschenschaft student organizations and popular demonstrations , such as those held at Wartburg Castle in October 1817 , contributed to a growing sense of unity among German speakers of Central Europe . Furthermore , implicit and sometimes explicit promises made during the War of Liberation engendered an expectation of popular sovereignty and widespread participation in the political process ,
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in May 1832 was attended by a crowd of more than 30 @,@ 000 . Promoted as a county fair , its participants celebrated fraternity , liberty , and national unity . Celebrants gathered in the town below and marched to the ruins of Hambach Castle on the heights above the small town of Hambach , in the Palatinate province of Bavaria . Carrying flags , beating drums , and singing , the participants took the better part of the morning and mid @-@ day to arrive at the castle grounds , where they listened to speeches by nationalist orators from across the conservative to radical political spectrum . The overall content of the speeches suggested a fundamental difference between the German nationalism of the 1830s and the French nationalism of the July Revolution : the focus of German nationalism lay in the education of the people ; once the populace was educated as to what was needed , they would accomplish it . The Hambach rhetoric emphasized the overall peaceable nature of German nationalism : the point was not to build barricades , a very " French " form of nationalism , but to build emotional bridges between groups .
As he had done in 1819 , after the Kotzebue assassination , Metternich used the popular demonstration at Hambach to push conservative social policy . The " Six Articles " of 28 June 1832 primarily reaffirmed the principle of monarchical authority . On 5 July , the Frankfurt Diet voted for an additional 10 articles , which reiterated existing rules on censorship , restricted political organizations , and limited other public activity . Furthermore , the member states agreed to send military assistance to any government threatened by unrest . Prince Wrede led half of the Bavarian army to the Palatinate to " subdue " the province . Several hapless Hambach speakers were arrested , tried and imprisoned ; one , Karl Heinrich Brüggemann ( 1810 – 1887 ) , a law student and representative of the secretive Burschenschaft , was sent to Prussia , where he was first condemned to death , but later pardoned .
= = = Liberalism and the response to economic problems = = =
Several other factors complicated the rise of nationalism in the German states . The man @-@ made factors included political rivalries between members of the German confederation , particularly between the Austrians and the Prussians , and socio @-@ economic competition among the commercial and merchant interests and the old land @-@ owning and aristocratic interests . Natural factors included widespread drought in the early 1830s , and again in the 1840s , and a food crisis in the 1840s . Further complications emerged as a result of a shift in industrialization and manufacturing ; as people sought jobs , they left their villages and small towns to work during the week in the cities , returning for a day and a half on weekends .
The economic , social and cultural dislocation of ordinary people , the economic hardship of an economy in transition , and the pressures of meteorological disasters all contributed to growing problems in Central Europe . The failure of most of the governments to deal with the food crisis of the mid @-@ 1840s , caused by the potato blight ( related to the Great Irish Famine ) and several seasons of bad weather , encouraged many to think that the rich and powerful had no interest in their problems . Those in authority were concerned about the growing unrest , political and social agitation among the working classes , and the disaffection of the intelligentsia . No amount of censorship , fines , imprisonment , or banishment , it seemed , could stem the criticism . Furthermore , it was becoming increasingly clear that both Austria and Prussia wanted to be the leaders in any resulting unification ; each would inhibit the drive of the other to achieve unification .
= = First efforts at unification = =
Crucially , both the Wartburg rally in 1817 and the Hambach Festival in 1832 had lacked any clear @-@ cut program of unification . At Hambach , the positions of the many speakers illustrated their disparate agendas . Held together only by the idea of unification , their notions of how to achieve this did not include specific plans but instead rested on the nebulous idea that the Volk ( the people ) , if properly educated , would bring about unification on their own . Grand speeches , flags , exuberant students , and picnic lunches did not translate into a new political , bureaucratic , or administrative apparatus . While many spoke about the need for a constitution , no such document appeared from the discussions . In 1848 , nationalists sought to remedy that problem .
= = = German revolutions of 1848 and the Frankfurt Parliament = = =
The widespread – mainly German – revolutions of 1848 – 49 sought unification of Germany under a single constitution . The revolutionaries pressured various state governments , particularly those in the Rhineland , for a parliamentary assembly that would have the responsibility to draft a constitution . Ultimately , many of the left @-@ wing revolutionaries hoped this constitution would establish universal male suffrage , a permanent national parliament , and a unified Germany , possibly under the leadership of the Prussian king . This seemed to be the most logical course since Prussia was the strongest of the German states , as well as the largest in geographic size . Generally , center @-@ right revolutionaries sought some kind of expanded suffrage within their states and potentially , a form of loose unification . Their pressure resulted in a variety of elections , based on different voting qualifications , such as the Prussian three @-@ class franchise , which granted to some electoral groups — chiefly the wealthier , landed ones — greater representative power .
On 27 March 1849 , the Frankfurt Parliament passed the Paulskirchenverfassung ( Constitution of St. Paul 's Church ) and offered the title of Kaiser ( Emperor ) to the Prussian king Frederick William IV the next month . He refused for a variety of reasons . Publicly , he replied that he could not accept a crown without the consent of the actual states , by which he meant the princes . Privately , he feared opposition from the other German princes and military intervention from Austria or Russia . He also held a fundamental distaste for the idea of accepting a crown from a popularly elected parliament : he would not accept a crown of " clay " . Despite franchise requirements that often perpetuated many of the problems of sovereignty and political participation liberals sought to overcome , the Frankfurt Parliament did manage to draft a constitution and reach an agreement on the kleindeutsch solution . While the liberals failed to achieve the unification they sought , they did manage to gain a partial victory by working with the German princes on many constitutional issues and collaborating with them on reforms .
= = = 1848 and the Frankfurt Parliament in retrospective analysis = = =
Scholars of German history have engaged in decades of debate over how the successes and failures of the Frankfurt Parliament contribute to the historiographical explanations of German nation building . One school of thought , which emerged after The Great War and gained momentum in the aftermath of World War II , maintains that the failure of German liberals in the Frankfurt Parliament led to bourgeoisie compromise with conservatives ( especially the conservative Junker landholders ) , which subsequently led to the so @-@ called Sonderweg ( distinctive path ) of 20th @-@ century German history . Failure to achieve unification in 1848 , this argument holds , resulted in the late formation of the nation @-@ state in 1871 , which in turn delayed the development of positive national values . Hitler often called on the German public to sacrifice all for the cause of their great nation , but his regime did not create German nationalism : it merely capitalized on an intrinsic cultural value of German society that still remains prevalent even to this day . Furthermore , this argument maintains , the " failure " of 1848 reaffirmed latent aristocratic longings among the German middle class ; consequently , this group never developed a self @-@ conscious program of modernization .
More recent scholarship has rejected this idea , claiming that Germany did not have an actual " distinctive path " any more than any other nation , a historiographic idea known as exceptionalism . Instead , modern historians claim 1848 saw specific achievements by the liberal politicians . Many of their ideas and programs were later incorporated into Bismarck 's social programs ( e.g. , social insurance , education programs , and wider definitions of suffrage ) . In addition , the notion of a distinctive path relies upon the underlying assumption that some other nation 's path ( in this case , the United Kingdom 's ) is the accepted norm . This new argument further challenges the norms of the British @-@ centric model of development : studies of national development in Britain and other " normal " states ( e.g. , France or the United States ) have suggested that even in these cases , the modern nation @-@ state did not develop evenly . Nor did it develop particularly early , being rather a largely mid @-@ to @-@ late @-@ 19th @-@ century phenomenon . Since the end of the 1990s , this view has become widely accepted , although some historians still find the Sonderweg analysis helpful in understanding the period of National Socialism .
= = = Problem of spheres of influence : The Erfurt Union and the Punctation of Olmütz = = =
After the Frankfurt Parliament disbanded , Frederick William IV , under the influence of General Joseph Maria von Radowitz , supported the establishment of the Erfurt Union — a federation of German states , excluding Austria — by the free agreement of the German princes . This limited union under Prussia would have almost entirely eliminated Austrian influence on the other German states . Combined diplomatic pressure from Austria and Russia ( a guarantor of the 1815 agreements that established European spheres of influence ) forced Prussia to relinquish the idea of the Erfurt Union at a meeting in the small town of Olmütz in Moravia . In November 1850 , the Prussians — specifically Radowitz and Frederick William — agreed to the restoration of the German Confederation under Austrian leadership . This became known as the Punctation of Olmütz , but among Prussians it was known as the " Humiliation of Olmütz . "
Although seemingly minor events , the Erfurt Union proposal and the Punctation of Olmütz brought the problems of influence in the German states into sharp focus . The question became not a matter of if but rather when unification would occur , and when was contingent upon strength . One of the former Frankfurt Parliament members , Johann Gustav Droysen , summed up the problem :
We cannot conceal the fact that the whole German question is a simple alternative between Prussia and Austria . In these states , German life has its positive and negative poles — in the former , all the interests [ that ] are national and reformative , in the latter , all that are dynastic and destructive . The German question is not a constitutional question but a question of power ; and the Prussian monarchy is now wholly German , while that of Austria cannot be .
Unification under these conditions raised a basic diplomatic problem . The possibility of German ( or Italian ) unification would overturn the overlapping spheres of influence system created in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna . The principal architects of this convention , Metternich , Castlereagh , and Tsar Alexander ( with his foreign secretary Count Karl Nesselrode ) , had conceived of and organized a Europe balanced and guaranteed by four " great powers " : Great Britain , France , Russia , and Austria , with each power having a geographic sphere of influence . France 's sphere included the Iberian Peninsula and a share of influence in the Italian states . Russia 's included the eastern regions of Central Europe and a balancing influence in the Balkans . Austria 's sphere expanded throughout much of the Central European territories formerly held by the Holy Roman Empire . Britain 's sphere was the rest of the world , especially the seas .
This sphere of influence system depended upon the fragmentation of the German and Italian states , not their consolidation . Consequently , a German nation united under one banner presented significant questions . There was no readily applicable definition for who the German people would be or how far the borders of a German nation would stretch . There was also uncertainty as to who would best lead and defend " Germany " , however it was defined . Different groups offered different solutions to this problem . In the Kleindeutschland ( " Lesser Germany " ) solution , the German states would be united under the leadership of the Prussian Hohenzollerns ; in the Grossdeutschland ( " Greater Germany " ) solution , the German states would be united under the leadership of the Austrian Habsburgs . This controversy , the latest phase of the German dualism debate that had dominated the politics of the German states and Austro @-@ Prussian diplomacy since the 1701 creation of the Kingdom of Prussia , would come to a head during the following twenty years .
= = = External expectations of a unified Germany = = =
Other nationalists had high hopes for the German unification movement , and the frustration with lasting German unification after 1850 seemed to set the national movement back . Revolutionaries associated national unification with progress . As Giuseppe Garibaldi wrote to German revolutionary Karl Blind on 10 April 1865 , " The progress of humanity seems to have come to a halt , and you with your superior intelligence will know why . The reason is that the world lacks a nation [ that ] possesses true leadership . Such leadership , of course , is required not to dominate other peoples but to lead them along the path of duty , to lead them toward the brotherhood of nations where all the barriers erected by egoism will be destroyed . " Garibaldi looked to Germany for the " kind of leadership [ that ] , in the true tradition of medieval chivalry , would devote itself to redressing wrongs , supporting the weak , sacrificing momentary gains and material advantage for the much finer and more satisfying achievement of relieving the suffering of our fellow men . We need a nation courageous enough to give us a lead in this direction . It would rally to its cause all those who are suffering wrong or who aspire to a better life and all those who are now enduring foreign oppression . "
German unification had also been viewed as a prerequisite for the creation of a European federation , which Giuseppe Mazzini and other European patriots had been promoting for more than three decades :
In the spring of 1834 , while at Berne , Mazzini and a dozen refugees from Italy , Poland and Germany founded a new association with the grandiose name of Young Europe . Its basic , and equally grandiose idea , was that , as the French Revolution of 1789 had enlarged the concept of individual liberty , another revolution would now be needed for national liberty ; and his vision went further because he hoped that in the no doubt distant future free nations might combine to form a loosely federal Europe with some kind of federal assembly to regulate their common interests . [ ... ] His intention was nothing less than to overturn the European settlement agreed [ to ] in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna , which had reestablished an oppressive hegemony of a few great powers and blocked the emergence of smaller nations . [ ... ] Mazzini hoped , but without much confidence , that his vision of a league or society of independent nations would be realized in his own lifetime . In practice Young Europe lacked the money and popular support for more than a short @-@ term existence . Nevertheless he always remained faithful to the ideal of a united continent for which the creation of individual nations would be an indispensable preliminary .
= = = Prussia 's growing strength : Realpolitik = = =
King Frederick William IV suffered a stroke in 1857 and could no longer rule . This led to his brother William becoming Prince Regent of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1858 . Meanwhile , Helmuth von Moltke had become chief of the Prussian General Staff in 1857 , and Albrecht von Roon would become Prussian Minister of War in 1859 . This shuffling of authority within the Prussian military establishment would have important consequences . Von Roon and William ( who took an active interest in military structures ) began reorganizing the Prussian army , while Moltke redesigned the strategic defense of Prussia by streamlining operational command . Prussian army reforms ( especially how to pay for them ) caused a constitutional crisis beginning in 1860 because both parliament and William — via his minister of war — wanted control over the military budget . William , crowned King Wilhelm I in 1861 , appointed Otto von Bismarck to the position of Minister @-@ President of Prussia in 1862 . Bismarck resolved the crisis in favor of the war minister .
The Crimean War of 1854 – 55 and the Italian War of 1859 disrupted relations among Great Britain , France , Austria , and Russia . In the aftermath of this disarray , the convergence of von Moltke 's operational redesign , von Roon and Wilhelm 's army restructure , and Bismarck 's diplomacy influenced the realignment of the European balance of power . Their combined agendas established Prussia as the leading German power through a combination of foreign diplomatic triumphs — backed up by the possible use of Prussian military might — and an internal conservativism tempered by pragmatism , which came to be known as Realpolitik .
Bismarck expressed the essence of Realpolitik in his subsequently famous " Blood and Iron " speech to the Budget Committee of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies on 30 September 1862 , shortly after he became Minister President : " The great questions of the time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions — that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849 — but by iron and blood . " Bismarck 's words , " iron and blood " ( or " blood and iron " , as often attributed ) , have often been misappropriated as evidence of a German lust for blood and power . First , the phrase from his speech " the great questions of time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions " is often interpreted as a repudiation of the political process — a repudiation Bismarck did not himself advocate . Second , his emphasis on blood and iron did not imply simply the unrivaled military might of the Prussian army but rather two important aspects : the ability of the assorted German states to produce iron and other related war materials and the willingness to use those war materials if necessary .
= = Founding a unified state = =
There is , in political geography , no Germany proper to speak of . There are Kingdoms and Grand Duchies , and Duchies and Principalities , inhabited by Germans , and each [ is ] separately ruled by an independent sovereign with all the machinery of State . Yet there is a natural undercurrent tending to a national feeling and toward a union of the Germans into one great nation , ruled by one common head as a national unit .
– article from The New York Times published in July 1 , 1866
The need for both iron and blood soon became apparent . By 1862 , when Bismarck made his speech , the idea of a German nation @-@ state in the peaceful spirit of Pan @-@ Germanism had shifted from the liberal and democratic character of 1848 to accommodate Bismarck 's more conservative Realpolitik . Ever the pragmatist , Bismarck understood the possibilities , obstacles , and advantages of a unified state . He also understood the importance of linking that state to the Hohenzollern dynasty , which for some historians remains one of Bismarck 's primary contributions to the creation of the German Empire in 1871 . While the conditions of the treaties binding the various German states to one another prohibited Bismarck from taking unilateral action , the politician and diplomat in him realized the impracticality of such an action . In order to get the German states to unify , Bismarck needed a single , outside enemy that would declare war on one of the German states first , thus providing a casus belli to rally all Germans behind . This opportunity arose with the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1870 . Historians have long debated Bismarck 's role in the events leading up to the war . The traditional view , promulgated in large part by late 19th and early 20th century pro @-@ Prussian historians , maintains that Bismarck 's intent was always German unification . Post @-@ 1945 historians , however , see more short @-@ term opportunism and cynicism in Bismarck 's manipulation of the circumstances to create a war , rather than a grand scheme to unify a nation @-@ state . Regardless , Bismarck was neither villain nor saint : by manipulating events of 1866 and 1870 , he demonstrated the political and diplomatic skill that had caused Wilhelm to turn to him in 1862 .
Three episodes proved fundamental to the administrative and political unification of Germany . First , the death without male heirs of Frederick VII of Denmark led to the Second War of Schleswig in 1864 . Second , the unification of Italy provided Prussia an ally against Austria in the Austro @-@ Prussian War of 1866 . Finally , France — fearing Hohenzollern encirclement — declared war on Prussia in 1870 , resulting in the Franco @-@ Prussian War . Through a combination of Bismarck 's diplomacy and political leadership , von Roon 's military reorganization , and von Moltke 's military strategy , Prussia demonstrated that none of the European signatories of the 1815 peace treaty could guarantee Austria 's sphere of influence in Central Europe , thus achieving Prussian hegemony in Germany and ending the dualism debate .
= = = The Schleswig @-@ Holstein Question = = =
The first episode in the saga of German unification under Bismarck came with the Schleswig @-@ Holstein Question . On 15 November 1863 , King Christian IX of Denmark became king of Denmark and duke of Schleswig and Holstein . On 18 November 1863 , he signed the Danish November Constitution and declared the Duchy of Schleswig a part of Denmark . The German Confederation saw this act as a violation of the London Protocol of 1852 , which emphasized the status of the kingdom of Denmark as distinct from the independent duchies of Schleswig and Holstein . The populations of Schleswig and Holstein , furthermore , greatly valued this separate status . The German Confederation could use the ethnicities of these duchies as a rallying cry : large portions of both Schleswig and Holstein were of German origin and spoke German in everyday life ( though Schleswig had a sizable Danish minority ) . Diplomatic attempts to have the November Constitution repealed collapsed , and fighting began when Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the border into Schleswig on 1 February 1864 . Initially , the Danes attempted to defend their country using an ancient earthen wall known as the Danevirke , but this proved futile . The Danes were no match for the combined Prussian and Austrian forces , and they could not rely on help from their allies in the other Scandinavian states because Denmark had nullified its alliance rights by violating the London Protocol . The Needle Gun , one of the first bolt action rifles to be used in conflict , aided the Prussians in both this war and the Austro @-@ Prussian War two years later . The rifle enabled a Prussian soldier to fire five shots while lying prone , while its muzzle @-@ loading counterpart could only fire one shot and had to be reloaded while standing . The Second Schleswig War resulted in victory for the combined armies of Prussia and Austria , and the two countries won control of Schleswig and Holstein in the concluding peace of Vienna , signed on 30 October 1864 .
= = = War between Austria and Prussia , 1866 = = =
The second episode in Bismarck 's unification efforts occurred in 1866 . In concert with the newly formed Italy , Bismarck created a diplomatic environment in which Austria declared war on Prussia . The dramatic prelude to the war occurred largely in Frankfurt , where the two powers claimed to speak for all the German states in the parliament . In April 1866 , the Prussian representative in Florence signed a secret agreement with the Italian government , committing each state to assist the other in a war against Austria . The next day , the Prussian delegate to the Frankfurt assembly presented a plan calling for a national constitution , a directly elected national Diet , and universal suffrage . German liberals were justifiably skeptical of this plan , having witnessed Bismarck 's difficult and ambiguous relationship with the Prussian Landtag ( State Parliament ) , a relationship characterized by Bismarck 's cajoling and riding roughshod over the representatives . These skeptics saw the proposal as a ploy to enhance Prussian power rather than a progressive agenda of reform .
= = = = Choosing sides = = = =
The debate over the proposed national constitution became moot when news of Italian troop movements in Tyrol and near the Venetian border reached Vienna in April 1866 . The Austrian government ordered partial mobilization in the southern regions ; the Italians responded by ordering full mobilization . Despite calls for rational thought and action , Italy , Prussia , and Austria continued to rush toward armed conflict . On 1 May , Wilhelm gave von Moltke command over the Prussian armed forces , and the next day he began full @-@ scale mobilization .
In the Diet , the group of middle @-@ sized states , known as Mittelstaaten ( Bavaria , Württemberg , the grand duchies of Baden and Hesse , and the duchies of Saxony – Weimar , Saxony – Meiningen , Saxony – Coburg , and Nassau ) , supported complete demobilization within the Confederation . These individual governments rejected the potent combination of enticing promises and subtle ( or outright ) threats Bismarck used to try to gain their support against the Habsburgs . The Prussian war cabinet understood that its only supporters among the German states against the Habsburgs were two small principalities bordering on Brandenburg that had little military strength or political clout : the Grand Duchies of Mecklenburg @-@ Schwerin and Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz . They also understood that Prussia 's only ally abroad was Italy .
Opposition to Prussia 's strong @-@ armed tactics surfaced in other social and political groups . Throughout the German states , city councils , liberal parliamentary members who favored a unified state , and chambers of commerce — which would see great benefits from unification — opposed any war between Prussia and Austria . They believed any such conflict would only serve the interests of royal dynasties . Their own interests , which they understood as " civil " or " bourgeois " , seemed irrelevant . Public opinion also opposed Prussian domination . Catholic populations along the Rhine — especially in such cosmopolitan regions as Cologne and in the heavily populated Ruhr Valley — continued to support Austria . By late spring , most important states opposed Berlin 's effort to reorganize the German states by force . The Prussian cabinet saw German unity as an issue of power and a question of who had the strength and will to wield that power . Meanwhile , the liberals in the Frankfurt assembly saw German unity as a process of negotiation that would lead to the distribution of power among the many parties .
= = = = Austria isolated = = = =
Although several German states initially sided with Austria , they stayed on the defensive and failed to take effective initiatives against Prussian troops . The Austrian army therefore faced the technologically superior Prussian army with support only from Saxony . France promised aid , but it came late and was insufficient . Complicating the situation for Austria , the Italian mobilization on Austria 's southern border required a diversion of forces away from battle with Prussia to fight the Third Italian War of Independence on a second front in Venetia and on the Adriatic sea . The day @-@ long Battle of Königgrätz , near the village of Sadová , gave Prussia an uncontested and decisive victory .
= = = Realpolitik and the North German Confederation = = =
A quick peace was essential to keep Russia from entering the conflict on Austria 's side . Prussia annexed Hanover , Hesse @-@ Kassel , Nassau , and the city of Frankfurt . Hesse Darmstadt lost some territory but not its sovereignty . The states south of the Main River ( Baden , Württemberg , and Bavaria ) signed separate treaties requiring them to pay indemnities and to form alliances bringing them into Prussia 's sphere of influence . Austria , and most of its allies , were excluded from the North German Confederation .
The end of Austrian dominance of the German states shifted Austria 's attention to the Balkans . In 1867 , the Austrian emperor Franz Joseph accepted a settlement ( the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 ) in which he gave his Hungarian holdings equal status with his Austrian domains , creating the Dual Monarchy of Austria @-@ Hungary . The Peace of Prague ( 1866 ) offered lenient terms to Austria , in which Austria 's relationship with the new nation @-@ state of Italy underwent major restructuring ; although the Austrians were far more successful in the military field against Italian troops , the monarchy lost the important province of Venetia . The Habsburgs ceded Venetia to France , which then formally transferred control to Italy . The French public resented the Prussian victory and demanded Revanche pour Sadová ( " Revenge for Sadova " ) , illustrating anti @-@ Prussian sentiment in France — a problem that would accelerate in the months leading up to the Franco @-@ Prussian War . The Austro @-@ Prussian War also damaged relations with the French government . At a meeting in Biarritz in September 1865 with Napoleon III , Bismarck had let it be understood ( or Napoleon had thought he understood ) that France might annex parts of Belgium and Luxembourg in exchange for its neutrality in the war . These annexations did not happen , resulting in animosity from Napoleon towards Bismarck .
The reality of defeat for Austria caused a reevaluation of internal divisions , local autonomy , and liberalism . The new North German Confederation had its own constitution , flag , and governmental and administrative structures . Through military victory , Prussia under Bismarck 's influence had overcome Austria 's active resistance to the idea of a unified Germany . Austria 's influence over the German states may have been broken , but the war also splintered the spirit of pan @-@ German unity : most of the German states resented Prussian power politics .
= = War with France = =
By 1870 three of the important lessons of the Austro @-@ Prussian war had become apparent . The first lesson was that , through force of arms , a powerful state could challenge the old alliances and spheres of influence established in 1815 . Second , through diplomatic maneuvering , a skillful leader could create an environment in which a rival state would declare war first , thus forcing states allied with the " victim " of external aggression to come to the leader 's aid . Finally , as Prussian military capacity far exceeded that of Austria , Prussia was clearly the only state within the Confederation ( or among the German states generally ) capable of protecting all of them from potential interference or aggression . In 1866 , most mid @-@ sized German states had opposed Prussia , but by 1870 these states had been coerced and coaxed into mutually protective alliances with Prussia . In the event that a European state declared war on one of their members , they all would come to the defense of the attacked state . With skillful manipulation of European politics , Bismarck created a situation in which France would play the role of aggressor in German affairs , while Prussia would play that of the protector of German rights and liberties .
= = = Spheres of influence fall apart in Spain = = =
At the Congress of Vienna in 1815 , Metternich and his conservative allies had reestablished the Spanish monarchy under King Ferdinand VII . Over the following forty years , the great powers supported the Spanish monarchy , but events in 1868 would further test the old system . A revolution in Spain overthrew Queen Isabella II , and the throne remained empty while Isabella lived in sumptuous exile in Paris . The Spanish , looking for a suitable Catholic successor , had offered the post to three European princes , each of whom was rejected by Napoleon III , who served as regional power @-@ broker . Finally , in 1870 the Regency offered the crown to Leopold of Hohenzollern @-@ Sigmaringen , a prince of the Catholic cadet Hohenzollern line . The ensuing furor has been dubbed by historians as the Hohenzollern candidature .
Over the next few weeks , the Spanish offer turned into the talk of Europe . Bismarck encouraged Leopold to accept the offer . A successful installment of a Hohenzollern @-@ Sigmaringen king in Spain would mean that two countries on either side of France would both have German kings of Hohenzollern descent . This may have been a pleasing prospect for Bismarck , but it was unacceptable to either Napoleon III or to Agenor , duc de Gramont , his minister of foreign affairs . Gramont wrote a sharply formulated ultimatum to Wilhelm , as head of the Hohenzollern family , stating that if any Hohenzollern prince should accept the crown of Spain , the French government would respond — although he left ambiguous the nature of such response . The prince withdrew as a candidate , thus defusing the crisis , but the French ambassador to Berlin would not let the issue lie . He approached the Prussian king directly while Wilhelm was vacationing in Ems Spa , demanding that the King release a statement saying he would never support the installation of a Hohenzollern on the throne of Spain . Wilhelm refused to give such an encompassing statement , and he sent Bismarck a dispatch by telegram describing the French demands . Bismarck used the king 's telegram , called the Ems Dispatch , as a template for a short statement to the press . With its wording shortened and sharpened by Bismarck — and further alterations made in the course of its translation by the French agency Havas — the Ems Dispatch raised an angry furor in France . The French public , still aggravated over the defeat at Sadová , demanded war .
= = = Military operations = = =
Napoleon III had tried to secure territorial concessions from both sides before and after the Austro @-@ Prussian War , but despite his role as mediator during the peace negotiations , he ended up with nothing . He then hoped that Austria would join in a war of revenge and that its former allies — particularly the southern German states of Baden , Württemberg , and Bavaria — would join in the cause . This hope would prove futile since the 1866 treaty came into effect and united all German states militarily — if not happily — to fight against France . Instead of a war of revenge against Prussia , supported by various German allies , France engaged in a war against all of the German states without any allies of its own . The reorganization of the military by von Roon and the operational strategy of Moltke combined against France to great effect . The speed of Prussian mobilization astonished the French , and the Prussian ability to concentrate power at specific points — reminiscent of Napoleon I 's strategies seventy years earlier — overwhelmed French mobilization . Utilizing their efficiently laid rail grid , Prussian troops were delivered to battle areas rested and prepared to fight , whereas French troops had to march for considerable distances to reach combat zones . After a number of battles , notably Spicheren , Wörth , Mars la Tour , and Gravelotte , the Prussians defeated the main French armies and advanced on the primary city of Metz and the French capital of Paris . They captured Napoleon III and took an entire army as prisoners at Sedan on 1 September 1870 .
= = = Proclamation of the German Empire = = =
The humiliating capture of the French emperor and the loss of the French army itself , which marched into captivity at a makeshift camp in the Saarland ( " Camp Misery " ) , threw the French government into turmoil ; Napoleon 's energetic opponents overthrew his government and proclaimed the Third Republic . The German High Command expected an overture of peace from the French , but the new republic refused to surrender . The Prussian army invested Paris and held it under siege until mid @-@ January , with the city being " ineffectually bombarded " . On 18 January 1871 , the German princes and senior military commanders proclaimed Wilhelm " German Emperor " in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles . Under the subsequent Treaty of Frankfurt , France relinquished most of its traditionally German regions ( Alsace and the German @-@ speaking part of Lorraine ) ; paid an indemnity , calculated ( on the basis of population ) as the precise equivalent of the indemnity that Napoleon Bonaparte imposed on Prussia in 1807 ; and accepted German administration of Paris and most of northern France , with " German troops to be withdrawn stage by stage with each installment of the indemnity payment " .
= = = Importance in the unification process = = =
Victory in the Franco @-@ Prussian War proved the capstone of the nationalist issue . In the first half of the 1860s , Austria and Prussia both contended to speak for the German states ; both maintained they could support German interests abroad and protect German interests at home . In responding to the Schleswig @-@ Holstein Question , they both proved equally diligent in doing so . After the victory over Austria in 1866 , Prussia began internally asserting its authority to speak for the German states and defend German interests , while Austria began directing more and more of its attention to possessions in the Balkans . The victory over France in 1871 expanded Prussian hegemony in the German states to the international level . With the proclamation of Wilhelm as Kaiser , Prussia assumed the leadership of the new empire . The southern states became officially incorporated into a unified Germany at the Treaty of Versailles of 1871 ( signed 26 February 1871 ; later ratified in the Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871 ) , which formally ended the war . Although Bismarck had led the transformation of Germany from a loose confederation into a federal nation state , he had not done it alone . Unification was achieved by building on a tradition of legal collaboration under the Holy Roman Empire and economic collaboration through the Zollverein . The difficulties of the Vormärz , the impact of the 1848 liberals , the importance of von Roon 's military reorganization , and von Moltke 's strategic brilliance all played a part in political unification .
= = Political and administrative unification = =
The new German Empire included 25 states , three of them Hanseatic cities . It realized the Kleindeutsche Lösung ( " Lesser German Solution " , with the exclusion of Austria ) as opposed to a Großdeutsche Lösung or " Greater German Solution " , which would have included Austria . Unifying various states into one nation required more than some military victories , however much these might have boosted morale . It also required a rethinking of political , social , and cultural behaviors and the construction of new metaphors about " us " and " them " . Who were the new members of this new nation ? What did they stand for ? How were they to be organized ?
= = = Constituent states of the Empire = = =
Though often characterized as a federation of monarchs , the German Empire , strictly speaking , federated a group of 26 states .
= = = Political structure of the Empire = = =
The 1866 North German Constitution became ( with some semantic adjustments ) the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire . With this constitution , the new Germany acquired some democratic features : notably the Imperial Diet , which — in contrast to the parliament of Prussia — gave citizens representation on the basis of elections by direct and equal suffrage of all males who had reached the age of 25 . Furthermore , elections were generally free of chicanery , engendering pride in the national parliament . However , legislation required the consent of the Bundesrat , the federal council of deputies from the states , in and over which Prussia had a powerful influence ; Prussia could appoint 17 of 58 delegates with only 14 votes needed for a veto . Prussia thus exercised influence in both bodies , with executive power vested in the Prussian King as Kaiser , who appointed the federal chancellor . The chancellor was accountable solely to , and served entirely at the discretion of , the Emperor . Officially , the chancellor functioned as a one @-@ man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs ; in practice , the State Secretaries ( bureaucratic top officials in charge of such fields as finance , war , foreign affairs , etc . ) acted as unofficial portfolio ministers . With the exception of the years 1872 – 1873 and 1892 – 1894 , the imperial chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of the imperial dynasty 's hegemonic home @-@ kingdom , Prussia . The Imperial Diet had the power to pass , amend , or reject bills , but it could not initiate legislation . ( The power of initiating legislation rested with the chancellor . ) The other states retained their own governments , but the military forces of the smaller states came under Prussian control . The militaries of the larger states ( such as the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Saxony ) retained some autonomy , but they underwent major reforms to coordinate with Prussian military principles and came under federal government control in wartime .
= = = Historical arguments and the Empire 's social anatomy = = =
The Sonderweg hypothesis attributed Germany 's difficult 20th century to the weak political , legal , and economic basis of the new empire . The Prussian landed elites , the Junkers , retained a substantial share of political power in the unified state . The Sonderweg hypothesis attributed their power to the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the middle classes , or by peasants in combination with the urban workers , in 1848 and again in 1871 . Recent research into the role of the Grand Bourgeoisie — which included bankers , merchants , industrialists , and entrepreneurs — in the construction of the new state has largely refuted the claim of political and economic dominance of the Junkers as a social group . This newer scholarship has demonstrated the importance of the merchant classes of the Hanseatic cities and the industrial leadership ( the latter particularly important in the Rhineland ) in the ongoing development of the Second Empire .
Additional studies of different groups in Wilhelmine Germany have all contributed to a new view of the period . Although the Junkers did , indeed , continue to control the officer corps , they did not dominate social , political , and economic matters as much as the Sonderweg theorists had hypothesized . Eastern Junker power had a counterweight in the western provinces in the form of the Grand Bourgeoisie and in the growing professional class of bureaucrats , teachers , professors , doctors , lawyers , scientists , etc .
= = Beyond the political mechanism : forming a nation = =
If the Wartburg and Hambach rallies had lacked a constitution and administrative apparatus , that problem was addressed between 1867 and 1871 . Yet , as Germans discovered , grand speeches , flags , and enthusiastic crowds , a constitution , a political reorganization , and the provision of an imperial superstructure ; and the revised Customs Union of 1867 – 68 , still did not make a nation .
A key element of the nation @-@ state is the creation of a national culture , frequently — although not necessarily — through deliberate national policy . In the new German nation , a Kulturkampf ( 1872 – 78 ) that followed political , economic , and administrative unification attempted to address , with a remarkable lack of success , some of the contradictions in German society . In particular , it involved a struggle over language , education , and religion . A policy of Germanization of non @-@ German people of the empire 's population , including the Polish and Danish minorities , started with language , in particular , the German language , compulsory schooling ( Germanization ) , and the attempted creation of standardized curricula for those schools to promote and celebrate the idea of a shared past . Finally , it extended to the religion of the new Empire 's population .
= = = Kulturkampf = = =
For some Germans , the definition of nation did not include pluralism , and Catholics in particular came under scrutiny ; some Germans , and especially Bismarck , feared that the Catholics ' connection to the papacy might make them less loyal to the nation . As chancellor , Bismarck tried without much success to limit the influence of the Roman Catholic Church and of its party @-@ political arm , the Catholic Center Party , in schools and education and language @-@ related policies . The Catholic Center Party remained particularly well entrenched in the Catholic strongholds of Bavaria and southern Baden , and in urban areas that held high populations of displaced rural workers seeking jobs in the heavy industry , and sought to protect the rights not only of Catholics , but other minorities , including the Poles , and the French minorities in the Alsatian lands . The May Laws of 1873 brought the appointment of priests , and their education , under the control of the state , resulting in the closure of many seminaries , and a shortage of priests . The Congregations Law of 1875 abolished religious orders , ended state subsidies to the Catholic Church , and removed religious protections from the Prussian constitution .
= = = Integrating the Jewish community = = =
The Germanized Jews remained another vulnerable population in the new German nation @-@ state . Since 1780 , after emancipation by the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II , Jews in the former Habsburg territories had enjoyed considerable economic and legal privileges that their counterparts in other German @-@ speaking territories did not : they could own land , for example , and they did not have to live in a Jewish quarter ( also called the Judengasse , or " Jews ' alley " ) . They could also attend universities and enter the professions . During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras , many of the previously strong barriers between Jews and Christians broke down . Napoleon had ordered the emancipation of Jews throughout territories under French hegemony . Like their French counterparts , wealthy German Jews sponsored salons ; in particular , several Jewish salonnières held important gatherings in Frankfurt and Berlin during which German intellectuals developed their own form of republican intellectualism . Throughout the subsequent decades , beginning almost immediately after the defeat of the French , reaction against the mixing of Jews and Christians limited the intellectual impact of these salons . Beyond the salons , Jews continued a process of Germanization in which they intentionally adopted German modes of dress and speech , working to insert themselves into the emerging 19th @-@ century German public sphere . The religious reform movement among German Jews reflected this effort .
By the years of unification , German Jews played an important role in the intellectual underpinnings of the German professional , intellectual , and social life . The expulsion of Jews from Russia in the 1880s and 1890s complicated integration into the German public sphere . Russian Jews arrived in north German cities in the thousands ; considerably less educated and less affluent , their often dismal poverty dismayed many of the Germanized Jews . Many of the problems related to poverty ( such as illness , overcrowded housing , unemployment , school absenteeism , refusal to learn German , etc . ) emphasized their distinctiveness for not only the Christian Germans , but for the local Jewish populations as well .
= = = Writing the story of the nation = = =
Another important element in nation @-@ building , the story of the heroic past , fell to such nationalist German historians as the liberal constitutionalist Friedrich Dahlmann ( 1785 – 1860 ) , his conservative student Heinrich von Treitschke ( 1834 – 1896 ) , and others less conservative , such as Theodor Mommsen ( 1817 – 1903 ) and Heinrich von Sybel ( 1817 – 1895 ) , to name two . Dahlmann himself died before unification , but he laid the groundwork for the nationalist histories to come through his histories of the English and French revolutions , by casting these revolutions as fundamental to the construction of a nation , and Dahlmann himself viewed Prussia as the logical agent of unification .
Heinrich von Treitschke 's History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century , published in 1879 , has perhaps a misleading title : it privileges the history of Prussia over the history of other German states , and it tells the story of the German @-@ speaking peoples through the guise of Prussia 's destiny to unite all German states under its leadership . The creation of this Borussian myth ( Borussia is the Latin name for Prussia ) established Prussia as Germany 's savior ; it was the destiny of all Germans to be united , this myth maintains , and it was Prussia 's destiny to accomplish this . According to this story , Prussia played the dominant role in bringing the German states together as a nation @-@ state ; only Prussia could protect German liberties from being crushed by French or Russian influence . The story continues by drawing on Prussia 's role in saving Germans from the resurgence of Napoleon 's power in 1815 , at Waterloo , creating some semblance of economic unity , and uniting Germans under one proud flag after 1871 . It is the role of the nationalist historian to write the history of the nation ; this means viewing that nation 's past with the goal of a nationalist history in mind . The process of writing history , or histories , is a process of remembering and forgetting : of selecting certain elements to be remembered , that is , emphasized , and ignoring , or forgetting , other elements and events .
Mommsen 's contributions to the Monumenta Germaniae Historica laid the groundwork for additional scholarship on the study of the German nation , expanding the notion of " Germany " to mean other areas beyond Prussia . A liberal professor , historian , and theologian , and generally a titan among late 19th @-@ century scholars , Mommsen served as a delegate to the Prussian House of Representatives from 1863 – 1866 and 1873 – 1879 ; he also served as a delegate to the Reichstag from 1881 – 1884 , for the liberal German Progress Party ( Deutsche Fortschrittspartei ) and later for the National Liberal Party . He opposed the antisemitic programs of Bismarck 's Kulturkampf and the vitriolic text that Treitschke often employed in the publication of his Studien über die Judenfrage ( Studies of the Jewish Question ) , which encouraged assimilation and Germanization of Jews .
= Joint Agency Coordination Centre =
The Joint Agency Coordination Centre ( JACC ) is an Australian government agency which was established on 30 March 2014 to coordinate search and recovery operations for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 , which disappeared on 8 March 2014 and was soon thereafter determined to have ended in the Southern Indian Ocean , within Australia 's concurrent aeronautical and maritime search and rescue regions . The JACC is an agency within Australia 's Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development , headed by Judith Zielke . It does not perform any search , recovery , or investigation activities , but coordinates the search effort and serves as a primary point of contact for information about the search for media and families of Flight 370 passengers .
= = Background = =
On 8 March 2014 , Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappeared en route from Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia to Beijing , China with 239 persons aboard ; a search in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand was promptly initiated near the aircraft 's last voice contact with air traffic control and final contact with secondary radar ( the type of radar used by air traffic control ) . A week after the disappearance , Malaysia announced that military radar determined that the aircraft had traveled west across the Malay Peninsula after being lost by air traffic control . They also announced that communications with a satellite indicated that the aircraft continued to fly for several hours and was last located along one of two corridors — arcing northwest and southwest from Malaysia .
The northern corridor was soon discounted and the focus of the search shifted to the Southern Indian Ocean , west of Australia and within Australia 's concurrent aeronautical and maritime Search and Rescue ( SAR ) regions that extend to 75 ° E longitude . On 17 March , Australia agreed to lead the search in the southern locus from Sumatra to the southern Indian Ocean ; the Australian Maritime Safety Authority ( AMSA ) , Australia 's search and rescue agency , initially coordinated the search within Australia 's SAR region , correlating information with the Australian Transport Safety Bureau ( ATSB ) and officials in Malaysia .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott announced the creation of the JACC on 30 March 2014 to coordinate the search within Australian waters ; the JACC became operational the following day , assuming from AMSA the coordination of the search effort and communications with the media , foreign governments , and between Australian government agencies . Initially based in Perth , Western Australia , the JACC offices were relocated in May 2014 to Canberra , although they can be quickly relocated to Perth if necessary .
= = = Search = = =
After the establishment of the JACC , a search of the ocean surface by aircraft continued until 28 April . An acoustic underwater search for underwater locator beacons attached to the aircraft 's flight recorders ended 14 April , followed by a sonar survey of the seafloor near an area where acoustic detections were made . The sonar survey finished on 28 May and found nil debris from the aircraft .
After the initial search efforts through May , active searching ceased as plans and preparations were made for a new phase , called the " underwater search , " which would be preceded by a bathymetric survey . Plans for the new phase were announced in late June and the underwater search commenced in October 2014 .
= = Organisation = =
The JACC is a division of the Australian government 's Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development . The Australian government has budgeted A $ 2 million over two years to the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development for costs related to the JACC .
At the time of its establishment , retired Air Chief Marshal Sir Angus Houston — former head of Australia 's military ( 2005 @-@ 2011 ) — was appointed to head the JACC by Prime Minister Abbott . After the crash of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 , in July 2014 , Houston left the agency when he was appointed as Australia 's special envoy in Ukraine to recover and repatriate bodies of Australian victims , assist relatives of Australian victims , and ensure that a proper investigation of the crash was initiated in accordance with international standards . In January 2015 , Houston was appointed a Knight of the Order of Australia for his military service and for his " continued commitment to serve the nation in leadership roles , particularly the national responses to the [ Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 ] and [ Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 ] disasters . " As of March 2015 , Judith Zielke is the Chief Coordinator of the JACC . Zielke is also the Executive Director of the JACC 's parent division , the Surface Transport Policy division , within the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development .
= = Activities = =
The JACC does not perform any search , recovery , or investigation activities , but provides a single point of contact for affected parties , including relatives of the missing passengers and crew , and communication between agencies and organisations involved in the search . The JACC also provides information to the public about the latest developments in the search and recovery operation .
= = = Search coordination = = =
The JACC is responsible for coordinating the search efforts for Flight 370 within Australian waters . At the time of the agency 's creation , the search effort involved China , Japan , Malaysia , New Zealand , South Korea , United Kingdom , and the United States as well as several agencies of the Australian government : the Australian Maritime Safety Authority ( AMSA ) , the Australian Transport Safety Bureau ( ATSB ) , the Department of Defence ,
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a second time , returning any useful products to the coelom and dumping the remaining wastes through a pair of nephridiopores beside the anus .
= = = Nervous system and movement = = =
There is a nervous center is between the mouth and anus , and a nerve ring at the base of the lophophore . The ring supplies nerves to the tentacles and , just under the skin , to the body @-@ wall muscles . Phoronis ovalis has two nerve trunks under the skin , whereas other species have one . The trunk ( s ) have giant axons ( nerves that transmit signals very fast ) which co @-@ ordinate the retraction of the body when danger threatens .
Except for retracting the body into the tube , phoronids have limited and slow movement : partial emerging from the tube ; bending the body when extended ; and the lophophore 's flicking of food into the mouth .
= = = Reproduction and lifecycle = = =
Only Phoronis ovalis naturally builds colonies by budding or by splitting into top and bottom sections which then grow into full bodies . In experiments , other species have split successfully , but only when both parts have enough gonadal ( reproductive ) tissue . All phoronids breed sexually from spring to autumn . Some species are hermaphroditic ( have both male and female reproductive organs ) but cross @-@ fertilize ( fertilize the eggs of other members ) , while others are dioecious ( have separate sexes ) . The gametes ( sperms and ova ) are produced in the swollen gonads , around the stomach . The gametes swim through the metacoelom to the metanephridia . Sperm exit by the nephridiopores and some are captured by the lophophores of individuals of the same species . Species that lay small fertilized eggs release them into the water as plankton , while species with larger eggs brood them either in the body 's tube or stuck in the center of the lophophore by adhesive . The brooded eggs are released to feed on plankton when they develop into larvae .
Development of the eggs is a mixture of deuterostome and protostome characteristics . Early divisions of the egg are holoblastic ( the cells divide completely ) and radial ( they gradually form a stack of circles ) . The process is regulative ( the fate of each cell depends on interaction with other cells , not on a rigid program in each cell ) , and experiments that divided early embryos produced complete larvae . Mesoderm is formed from mesenchyme originating from the archenteron . The coelom is formed by schizocoely , and the blastopore ( a dent in the embryo ) becomes the mouth .
The slug @-@ like larva of Phoronis ovalis swims for about 4 days , creeps on the sea @-@ bed for 3 to 4 days , then bores into a carbonate floor . Nothing is known about three species . The remaining species develop free @-@ swimming actinotroch larvae , which feed on plankton . The actinotroch is an upright cylinder with the anus at the bottom and fringed with cilia . At the top is a lobe or hood , under which are : a ganglion , connected to a patch of cilia outside the apex of the hood ; a pair of protonephridia ( smaller and simpler than the metanephridia in the adult ) ; the mouth ; and feeding tentacles that encircle the mouth . After swimming for about 20 days , the actinotroch settles on the seabed and undergoes a catastrophic metamorphosis ( radical change ) in 30 minutes : the hood and larval tentacles are absorbed and the adult lophophore is created round the mouth , and both now points upward ; the gut develops a U @-@ bend so that the anus is just under and outside the lophophore . Finally the adult phoronid builds a tube .
Phoronids live for about one year .
= = Ecology = =
Phoronids live in all the oceans and seas including the Arctic and excepting the Antarctic Ocean , and appear between the intertidal zone and about 400 meters down . Some occur separately , in vertical tubes embedded in soft sediment such as sand , mud , or fine gravel . Others form tangled masses of many individuals buried in or encrusting rocks and shells . In some habitats populations of phoronids reach tens of thousand of individuals per square meter . The actinotroch larvae are familiar among plankton , and sometimes account for a significant proportion of the zooplankton biomass .
Phoronis australis bores into the wall of the tube of a cerianthid anemone , Ceriantheomorphe brasiliensis , and uses this as a foundation for building its own tube . One cerianthid can house up to 100 phoronids . In this unequal relationship , the anemone experiences no significant benefits nor harm , while the phoronid benefits from : a foundation for its tube ; food ( both animals are filter @-@ feeders ) ; and protection , as the cerianthid withdraws into its tube when danger threatens , and this alerts the phoronid to retract into its own tube .
Although predators of phoronids are not well known , they include fish , gastropods ( snails ) , and nematodes ( tiny roundworms ) . Phoronopsis viridis , which reaches densities of 26 @,@ 500 per square meter on tidal flats in California ( USA ) , is unpalatable to many epibenthic predators , including fish and crabs . The unpalatability is strongest in the top section , including the lophophore , which is exposed to predators when phoronids feed . When the lophophores were removed in an experiment , the phoronids were more palatable , but this effect reduced over 12 days as the lophophores regenerated . These broadly effective defenses , which appear unusual among invertebrates inhabiting soft sediment , may be important in allowing Phoronopsis viridis to reach high densities . Some parasites infest phoronids : progenetic metacercariae and cysts of trematodes in phoronids ' coelomic cavities ; unidentified gregarines in phoronids ' digestive tract ; and an ancistrocomid ciliate parasite , Heterocineta , in the tentacles .
It is unknown whether phoronids have any significance for humans . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has not listed any phoronid species as endangered .
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
As of 2010 there are no indisputable body fossils of phoronids . Researching the Lower Cambrian Chengjiang fossils , in 1997 Chen and Zhou interpreted Iotuba chengjiangensis as a phoronid since it had tentacles and a U @-@ shaped gut , and in 2004 Chen interpreted Eophoronis as a phoronid . However , in 2006 Conway Morris regarded Iotuba and Eophoronis as synonyms for the same genus , which in his opinion looked like the priapulid Louisella . In 2009 Balthasar and Butterfield found in western Canada two specimens from about 505 million years ago of a new fossil , Lingulosacculus nuda , which had two shells like those of brachiopods but not mineralized . In the authors ' opinion , the U @-@ shaped gut extended beyond the hinge line and outside the smaller shell . This would have precluded the attachment of muscles to close and open the shells , and the 50 % of the animal 's length beyond the hinge line would have needed longitudinal muscles and also a cuticle for protection . Hence they suggest that Lingulosacculus may have been a member of a phoronid stem group within the linguliform brachiopods .
There is good evidence that species of Phoronis created the trace fossils of the ichnogenus Talpina , which have been found in the Devonian , Jurassic and Cretaceous periods . The Talpina animal bored into calcareous algae , corals , echinoid tests ( shells ) , mollusc shells and the rostra of belemnites . Hederellids or Hederelloids are fossilized tubes , usually curved and between 0 @.@ 1 and 1 @.@ 8 mm wide , found from the Silurian to the Permian , and possibly in the Ordovician and Triassic . Their branching colonies may have been made by phoronids .
= = = Family tree = = =
Phoronids , brachiopods and bryozoans ( ectoprocts ) are collectively called lophophorates , because all feed using lophophores . From about the 1940s to the 1990s , family trees based on embryological and morphological features placed lophophorates among or as a sister group to the deuterostomes , a super @-@ phylum that includes chordates and echinoderms . In the early development of their embryos , deuterostomes form the anus before the mouth , while protostomes form the mouth first .
Nielsen ( 2002 ) views the phoronids and brachiopods as affiliated with the deuterostome pterobranchs , which also filter @-@ feed by tentacles , because the current @-@ driving cells of the lophophores of all three have one cilium per cell , while lophophores of bryozoans , which he regards as protostomes , have multiple cilia per cell . Helmkampf , Bruchhaus and Hausdorf ( 2008 ) summarise several authors ' embryological and morphological analyses which doubt or disagree that phoronids and brachiopods are deuterostomes :
While deuterostomes have three coelomic cavities , lophophorates such as phoronids and brachiopods have only two .
Pterobranchs may be a sub @-@ group of enteropneusts ( " acorn worms " ) . This suggests that the ancestral deuterostome looks more like a mobile worm @-@ like enteropneust than a sessile colonial pterobranch . The fact that lophophorates and pterobranchs both use tentacles for feeding is probably not a synapomorphy of lophophorates and deuterostomes , but evolved independently as convergent adaptations to a sessile lifestyle .
The mesoderm does not form by enterocoely in phoronids and bryozoans , but does in deuterostomes , while there are disagreements about whether brachiopods form the mesoderm by enterocoely .
From 1988 onwards analyses based on molecular phylogeny , which compares biochemical features such as similarities in DNA , have placed phoronids and brachiopods among the Lophotrochozoa , a protostome super @-@ phylum that includes molluscs , annelids and flatworms but excludes the other main protostome super @-@ phylum Ecdysozoa , whose members include arthropods . Cohen wrote , " This inference , if true , undermines virtually all morphology – based reconstructions of phylogeny made during the past century or more . "
While analyses by molecular phylogeny are confident that members of Lophotrochozoa are more closely related to each other than of non @-@ members , the relationships between members are mostly unclear . The Lophotrochozoa are generally divided into : Lophophorata ( animals that have lophophores ) , including Phoronida and Brachiopoda ; Trochozoa ( animals many of which have trochophore larvae ) , including molluscs , annelids , echiurans , sipunculans and nemerteans ; and some other phyla ( such as Platyhelminthes , Gastrotricha , Gnathostomulida , Micrognathozoa , and Rotifera ) .
Molecular phylogeny indicates that Phoronida are closely related to Brachiopoda , but Bryozoa ( Ectoprocta ) are not closely related to this group , despite using a similar lophophore for feeding and respiration . This implies that the traditional definition " Lophophorata " is not monophyletic . Recently the term " Lophophorata " has been applied only to the Phoronida and Brachiopoda , and Halanych thinks this change will cause confusion . Some analyses regard Phoronida and Brachiopoda as sister @-@ groups , while others place Phoronida as a sub @-@ group within Brachiopoda , implying that Brachiopoda is paraphyletic . Cohen and Weydman 's analysis ( 2005 ) concludes that phoronids are a sub @-@ group of inarticulate brachiopods ( those in which the hinge between the two valves have no teeth and sockets ) and sister @-@ group of the other inarticulate sub @-@ groups . The authors also suggest that the ancestors of molluscs and the brachiopod + phoronid clade diverged between 900 Ma and 560 Ma , most probably about 685 Ma .
= = Taxonomy = =
The phylum has two genera , with no class or order names . Zoologists have given the larvae , usually called an actinotroch , a separate genus name from the adults .
In 1999 Temereva and Malakhov described Phoronis svetlanae . In 2000 Temereva described a new species , Phoronopsis malakhovi , while Emig regards it as a synonym for Phoronopsis harmeri . Santagata thinks Phoronis architecta is a different species from both Phoronis psammophila and Phoronis muelleri , and that " [ the phoronids ' ] species diversity is currently underestimated " . In 2009 Temereva described what may be larvae of Phoronopsis albomaculata and Phoronopsis californica . She wrote that , while there are 12 undisputed adult phoronid species , 25 morphological types of larvae have been identified .
= Spider @-@ Man in film =
The fictional character Spider @-@ Man , a comic book superhero created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko and featured in Marvel Comics publications , has appeared in six live @-@ action films since his inception ; one animated film is also in the works . Spider @-@ Man is the alter @-@ ego of Peter Parker , a talented young freelance photographer and aspiring scientist , imbued with superhuman abilities after being bitten by a radioactive / genetically @-@ altered spider .
The first live @-@ action film based on Spider @-@ Man was an American , made @-@ for @-@ television film that premiered on the CBS network in 1977 . It starred Nicholas Hammond and was intended as a backdoor pilot for what became a short @-@ lived , weekly episodic TV series . The rights to further films featuring the character were purchased in 1985 , and moved through various production companies and studios before being secured by Sony Pictures Entertainment , who hired Sam Raimi to direct Spider @-@ Man ( 2002 ) , Spider @-@ Man 2 ( 2004 ) , and Spider @-@ Man 3 ( 2007 ) starring Tobey Maguire . The first two films were met with positive reviews from critics , while the third film met mixed reviews . In 2010 , Sony announced that the franchise would be rebooted . Marc Webb was hired to direct , with Andrew Garfield starring , and The Amazing Spider @-@ Man ( 2012 ) was released to positive reviews . The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 ( 2014 ) saw mixed reviews .
Raimi 's trilogy grossed nearly US $ 2 @.@ 5 billion worldwide on a $ 597 million total budget , while Webb 's films grossed over $ 1 @.@ 4 billion on a $ 480 million total budget . The Spider @-@ Man films are the sixth highest @-@ grossing film franchise , having grossed over $ 3 @.@ 9 billion collectively . In February 2015 , Sony , Disney and Marvel Studios announced a deal to share the Spider @-@ Man film rights , leading to a new iteration of Spider @-@ Man being introduced and integrated into the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) . This younger version of Peter Parker is played by Tom Holland , and appears in Captain America : Civil War ( 2016 ) ( distributed by Disney ) before starring in Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming ( distributed by Sony ) in 2017 .
= = Early films = =
= = = The Amazing Spider @-@ Man ( 1977 @-@ 79 ) = = =
In 1977 , the pilot episode of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man television series was released by Columbia Pictures as a feature film outside of the United States . In 1978 , episodes from the television series were re @-@ edited and released outside of the United States as a feature film titled Spider @-@ Man Strikes Back . In 1979 , a film made using the same method was released as Spider @-@ Man : The Dragon 's Challenge .
= = = Spider @-@ Man ( 1978 ) = = =
On July 22 , 1978 , Tōei released a theatrical spin @-@ off of their Spider @-@ Man TV series at the Tōei Cartoon Festival . The film was directed by Kōichi Takemoto , who also directed eight episodes of the TV series . The week after the film 's release , a character introduced in the film , Jūzō Mamiya ( played by Noboru Nakaya ) , began appearing in episodes of the TV series . Like the rest of the series , the film was made available for streaming on Marvel 's official website in 2009 .
= = Development = =
= = = Cannon Films = = =
The underperformance of 1983 's Superman III made feature @-@ film adaptations of comic book properties a very low priority in Hollywood until the 1990s . In 1985 , after a brief option on Spider @-@ Man by Roger Corman expired , Marvel Comics optioned the property to Cannon Films . Cannon chiefs Menahem Golan and his cousin Yoram Globus agreed to pay Marvel Comics $ 225 @,@ 000 over the five @-@ year option period , plus a percentage of any film ’ s revenues . However , the rights would revert to Marvel if a film was not made by April 1990 .
Tobe Hooper , then preparing both Invaders From Mars and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 , was mooted as director . Golan and Globus misunderstood the concept of the character ( " They thought it was like The Wolf Man " , said director Joseph Zito ) and instructed writer Leslie Stevens , creator of The Outer Limits , to write a treatment reflecting their misconception . In Stevens ' story , a corporate scientist intentionally subjects ID @-@ badge photographer Peter Parker to radioactive bombardment , transforming him into a hairy , suicidal , eight @-@ armed monster . This human tarantula refuses to join the scientist ’ s new master @-@ race of mutants , battling a succession of mutations kept in a basement laboratory .
Unhappy with this perceived debasement of his comic book creation , Marvel ’ s Stan Lee pushed for a new story and screenplay , written for Cannon by Ted Newsom and John Brancato . The variation on the origin story had Otto Octavius as a teacher and mentor to a college @-@ aged Peter Parker . The cyclotron accident which " creates " Spider @-@ Man also deforms the scientist into Doctor Octopus and results in his mad pursuit of proof of the Fifth Force . " Doc Ock " reconstructs his cyclotron and causes electromagnetic abnormalities , anti @-@ gravity effects , and bilocation which threatens to engulf New York City and the world . Joseph Zito , who had directed Cannon ’ s successful Chuck Norris film Invasion USA , replaced Tobe Hooper . The new director hired Barney Cohen to rewrite the script . Cohen , creator of TV 's Sabrina the Teenage Witch and Forever Knight , added action scenes , a non @-@ canonical comic for the villain , gave Doc Ock the catch phrase , " Okey @-@ dokey " , and altered his goal from the Fifth Force to a quest for anti @-@ gravity . Producer Golan ( using his pen name " Joseph Goldman " ) then made a minor polish to Cohen 's rewrite . Zito scouted locations and studio facilities in both the U.S. and Europe , and oversaw storyboard breakdowns supervised by Harper Goff . Cannon planned to make the film on the then @-@ substantial budget of between $ 15 and $ 20 million .
While no casting was finalized , Zito expressed interest in actor / stunt man Scott Leva , who had posed for Cannon 's promotional photos and ads , and made public appearances as Spider @-@ Man for Marvel . The up @-@ and @-@ coming actor Tom Cruise was also discussed for the leading role . Zito considered Bob Hoskins as Doc Ock . Stan Lee expressed his desire to play Daily Bugle editor J. Jonah Jameson . Lauren Bacall and Katharine Hepburn were considered for Aunt May , Peter Cushing as a sympathetic scientist , and Adolph Caesar as a police detective . With Cannon finances siphoned by the expensive Superman IV : The Quest for Peace and Masters of the Universe , the company slashed the proposed Spider @-@ Man budget to under $ 10 million . Director Zito opted out , unwilling to make a compromised Spider @-@ Man . The company commissioned low @-@ budget rewrites from writers Shepard Goldman , Don Michael Paul , and finally Ethan Wiley , and penciled in company workhorse Albert Pyun as director , who also made script alterations .
Scott Leva was still associated with the character through Marvel ( he had appeared in photo covers of the comic ) , and read each draft . Leva commented , " Ted Newsom and John Brancato had written the script . It was good but it needed a little work . Unfortunately , with every subsequent rewrite by other writers , it went from good to bad to terrible . " Due to Cannon 's assorted financial crises , the project shut down after spending about $ 1 @.@ 5 million on the project . In 1989 , Pathé , owned by corrupt Italian financier Giancarlo Parretti , acquired the overextended Cannon . The filmmaking cousins parted , Globus remaining associated with Pathé , Golan leaving to run 21st Century Film Corporation , keeping a number of properties ( including Spider @-@ Man ) in lieu of a cash buy @-@ out . He also extended his Spider @-@ Man option with Marvel up to January 1992 .
Golan shelved the low @-@ budget rewrites and attempted to finance an independent production from the original big @-@ budget script , already budgeted , storyboarded and laid out . At Cannes in May 1989 , 21st Century announced a September start date , with ads touting the script by " Barney Cohen , Ted Newsom & John Brancato and Joseph Goldman . " As standard practice , Golan pre @-@ sold the unmade film to raise production funds , with television rights bought by Viacom and home video rights by Columbia Pictures , which wanted to establish a studio franchise . Stephen Herek was attached as director at this point . Golan submitted this " new " screenplay to Columbia in late 1989 ( actually the 1985 script with an adjusted " 1989 " date ) and the studio requested yet another rewrite . Golan hired Frank LaLoggia , who turned in his draft but grew disenchanted with 21st Century . Neil Ruttenberg was hired for one more draft , which was also " covered " by script readers at Columbia . Columbia ’ s script analysts considered all three submissions " essentially the same story . " A tentative production deal was set . Said Stan Lee in 1990 , " 21st Century [ is ] supposed to do Spider @-@ Man and now they 're talking to Columbia and the way it looks now , Columbia may end up buying Spider @-@ Man from 21st Century . "
= = = Carolco Pictures = = =
21st Century ’ s Menahem Golan still actively immersed himself mounting " his " Spider @-@ Man , sending the original " Doc Ock " script for production bids . In 1990 , he contacted Canadian effects company Light and Motion Corporation regarding the visual effects , which in turn offered the stop @-@ motion chores to Steven Archer ( Krull , Clash of the Titans ) .
Toward the end of shooting True Lies , Variety carried the announcement that Carolco Pictures had received a completed screenplay from James Cameron . This script bore the names of James Cameron , John Brancato , Ted Newsom , Barry [ sic ] Cohen and " Joseph Goldmari " , a typographical scrambling of Golan 's pen name ( " Joseph Goldman " ) with Marvel executive Joseph Calamari . The script text was identical to the one Golan submitted to Columbia the previous year , with the addition of a new 1993 date . Cameron stalwart Arnold Schwarzenegger was frequently linked to the project as the director 's choice for Dr. Octopus .
= = = = James Cameron " scriptment " = = = =
Months later , James Cameron submitted an undated 47 @-@ page " scriptment " with an alternate story ( the copyright registration was dated 1991 ) , part screenplay , part narrative story outline . The " scriptment " told the Spider @-@ Man origin , but used variations on the comic book characters Electro and Sandman as villains . This " Electro " ( named Carlton Strand , instead of Max Dillion ) was a megalomaniacal parody of corrupt capitalists . Instead of Flint Marko 's character , Cameron ’ s " Sandman " ( simply named Boyd ) is mutated by an accident involving Philadelphia Experiment @-@ style bilocation and atom @-@ mixing , in lieu of getting caught in a nuclear blast on a beach . The story climaxes with a battle atop the World Trade Center and had Peter Parker revealing his identity to Mary Jane Watson . In addition , the treatment was also heavy on profanity , and had Spider @-@ Man and Mary Jane having sex on the Brooklyn Bridge .
This treatment reflected elements in previous scripts : from the Stevens treatment , organic web @-@ shooters , and a villain who tempts Spider @-@ Man to join a coming " master race " of mutants ; from the original screenplay and rewrite , weird electrical storms causing blackouts , freak magnetic events and bi @-@ location ; from the Ethan Wiley draft , a villain addicted to toxic super @-@ powers and multiple experimental spiders , one of which escapes and bites Peter , causing an hallucinatory nightmare invoking Franz Kafka ’ s The Metamorphosis ; from the Frank LaLoggia script , a blizzard of stolen cash fluttering down onto surprised New Yorkers ; and from the Neil Ruttenberg screenplay , a criminal assault on the NYC Stock Exchange . In 1991 , Carolco Pictures extended Golan ’ s option agreement with Marvel through May 1996 , but in April 1992 , Carolco ceased active production on Spider @-@ Man due to continued financial and legal problems .
= = = = Litigation = = = =
When James Cameron agreed to make Spider @-@ Man , Carolco lawyers simply used his previous Terminator 2 contract as a template . A clause in this agreement gave Cameron the right to decide on movie and advertising credits . Show business trade articles and advertisements made no mention of Golan , who was still actively assembling the elements for the film . In 1993 , Golan complained publicly and finally instigated legal action against Carolco for disavowing his contractual guarantee credit as producer . On the other hand , Cameron had the contractual right to decide on credits . Eventually , Carolco sued Viacom and Columbia to recover broadcast and home video rights , and the two studios countersued . 20th Century Fox , though not part of the litigation , contested Cameron ’ s participation , claiming exclusivity on his services as a director under yet another contract . In 1996 , Carolco , 21st Century , and Marvel went bankrupt .
Via a quitclaim from Carolco dated March 28 , 1995 , MGM acquired 21st Century 's film library and assets , and received " ... all rights in and to all drafts and versions of the screenplay ( s ) for Spider @-@ Man written by James Cameron , Ted Newsom & John Brancato , Menahem Golan , Jon [ sic ] Michael Paul , Ethan Wiley , Leslie Stevens , Frank Laloggia , Neil Ruttenberg , Barney Cohen , Shepard Goldman and any and all other writers . " MGM also sued 21st Century , Viacom , and Marvel Comics , alleging fraud in the original deal between Cannon and Marvel . In 1998 , Marvel emerged from bankruptcy with a reorganization plan that merged the company with Toy Biz . The courts determined that the original contract of Marvel 's rights to Golan had expired , returning the rights to Marvel , but the matter was still not completely resolved . In 1999 , Marvel licensed Spider @-@ Man rights to Columbia , a subsidiary of Sony Pictures Entertainment . MGM disputed the legality , claiming it had the Spider @-@ Man rights via Cannon , 21st Century , and Carolco .
= = = Columbia Pictures = = =
In the meantime , MGM / UA chief executive John Calley moved to Columbia Pictures . Intimately familiar with the legal history of producer Kevin McClory ’ s claim to the rights to both Thunderball and other related James Bond characters and elements , Calley announced that Columbia would produce an alternate 007 series , based on the " McClory material " , which Calley acquired for Columbia . ( Columbia had made the original 1967 film spoof of Casino Royale , a non @-@ Eon production ) .
Both studios now faced rival projects , which could undercut their own long @-@ term financial stability and plans . Columbia had no consistent movie franchise , and had sought Spider @-@ Man since 1989 ; MGM / UA ’ s only reliable source of theatrical income was a new James Bond film every two or three years . An alternate 007 series could diminish or even eliminate the power of MGM / UA ’ s long @-@ running Bond series . Likewise , an MGM / UA Spider @-@ Man film could negate Columbia ’ s plans to create an exclusive cash cow . Both sides seemed to have strong arguments for the rights to do such films .
The two studios made a trade @-@ off in March 1999 ; Columbia relinquished its rights to create a new 007 series in exchange for MGM 's giving up its claim to Spider @-@ Man . Columbia acquired the rights to all previous scripts in 2000 , but exercised options only on the " Cameron Material " , i.e. , both the completed multi @-@ author screenplay and the subsequent " scriptment . " After more than a decade of attempts , Spider @-@ Man truly went into production and all of the Spider @-@ Man films were distributed by Columbia Pictures , the primary film production holding of Sony . The first three were directed by Sam Raimi , and the reboot and its sequel were directed by Marc Webb . Laura Ziskin served as producer until her death in 2011 .
= = Sam Raimi films = =
= = = Spider @-@ Man ( 2002 ) = = =
Spider @-@ Man follows Peter Parker ( Tobey Maguire ) , an orphaned high schooler who pines after popular girl @-@ next @-@ door Mary Jane Watson ( Kirsten Dunst ) . While on a science class field trip , Peter is bitten by a genetically @-@ engineered " super spider . " As a result , Peter gains superhuman abilities , including increased strength , speed , and the abilities to scale walls and generate organic webbing . After his beloved Uncle Ben ( Cliff Robertson ) is murdered , the teenager realizes that he must use his newfound abilities to protect New York City . Meanwhile , wealthy industrialist Norman Osborn ( Willem Dafoe ) , the father of Peter 's best friend Harry Osborn ( James Franco ) , subjects himself to an experimental performance @-@ enhancing serum , which creates a psychotic and murderous split personality . Donning a military battlesuit , Norman becomes a freakish " Green Goblin " , who begins to terrorize the city . Peter , as Spider @-@ Man , now must do battle with the Goblin , all while trying to express his true feelings for Mary Jane .
= = = Spider @-@ Man 2 ( 2004 ) = = =
Two years after the events of the first film , Peter struggles to balance his superhero and private lives and still pines after Mary Jane Watson , who is now engaged . Harry Osborn continues to believe Spider @-@ Man is responsible for his father Norman Osborn 's death . Spider @-@ Man contends with scientist Otto Octavius ( Alfred Molina ) , a.k.a. Dr. Octopus , who has four mechanical tentacles fused to his spine and sets out to recreate a fusion @-@ based experiment that could destroy much of New York City .
= = = Spider @-@ Man 3 ( 2007 ) = = =
Spider @-@ Man 3 picks up one year after the events of the second film . Peter is still seeing Mary Jane Watson , while Harry Osborn succeeds his father as the new Green Goblin . Eddie Brock ( Topher Grace ) , who like Peter is a photographer for the Daily Bugle , sets out to defame Spider @-@ Man and incriminate him . Flint Marko ( Thomas Haden Church ) , an escaped convict , falls into a particle accelerator and becomes a shape @-@ shifting sand monster later known as Sandman . Peter later learns that Marko is the one that killed Uncle Ben , causing Peter 's own dark intentions to grow . This vendetta is enhanced by the appearance of the mysterious black alien symbiotic substance that bonds to Peter , resulting in the formation of a new black costume . Once Peter separates himself from the alien , it finds a new host in the form of Brock , resulting in the creation of Venom .
= = = Canceled films = = =
= = = = Spider @-@ Man 4 = = = =
In 2008 , Spider @-@ Man 4 entered development , with Raimi attached to direct and Maguire , Dunst and other cast members set to reprise their roles . Both a fourth and a fifth film were planned and at one time the idea of shooting the two sequels concurrently was under consideration . However , Raimi stated in March 2009 that only the fourth film was in development at that time and that if there were fifth and sixth films , those two films would actually be a continuation of each other.James Vanderbilt was hired in October 2007 to pen the screenplay after initial reports in early 2007 that Sony Pictures was in contact with David Koepp , who wrote the first Spider @-@ Man film . The script was being rewritten by Gary Ross in October 2009 . Sony also engaged Vanderbilt to write scripts for Spider @-@ Man 5 and Spider @-@ Man 6 .
In 2008 , Raimi expressed interest in portraying the transformation of Dr. Curt Connors into his villainous alter @-@ ego , the Lizard ; the character 's actor Dylan Baker and producer Grant Curtis were also enthusiastic about the idea . Raimi also discussed his desire to upgrade Bruce Campbell from a cameo appearance to a significant role , later revealed to be Quentin Beck / Mysterio . It was reported in December 2009 that John Malkovich was in negotiations to play Vulture and that Anne Hathaway would play Felicia Hardy , though she would not have transformed into the Black Cat as in the comics . Instead , Raimi 's Felicia was expected to become a new superpowered figure called the Vulturess . However , several years later , in 2013 , Raimi stated that Anne Hathaway was going to be Black Cat if Spider @-@ Man 4 had been made . Concept art revealed in June 2016 showed the inclusion of an opening montage of Spider @-@ Man going up against C and D @-@ list villains , such as Mysterio , the Shocker , the Prowler , and the Rhino , with the Vulture serving as the main antagonist .
As disagreements between Sony and Raimi threatened to push the film off the intended May 6 , 2011 release date , Sony Pictures announced in January 2010 that plans for Spider @-@ Man 4 had been canceled due to Raimi 's withdrawal from the project . Raimi reportedly ended his participation due to his doubt that he could meet the planned May 6 , 2011 release date while at the same time upholding the film creatively ; he admitted that he was " very unhappy " with the way Spider @-@ Man 3 had turned out , and was under pressure to make the fourth film the best that he could . Raimi purportedly went through four iterations of the script with different screenwriters and still " hated it " .
= = = = Venom = = = =
In July 2007 , Avi Arad revealed a Venom spin @-@ off was in the works . The studio commissioned Jacob Aaron Estes to write a script , but rejected it the following year . In September 2008 , Paul Wernick and Rhett Reese signed on to write . Stan Lee signed on to make a cameo in the film . Rhett Reese later revealed that they had written two drafts for the film and that the studio was pushing the film forward . In 2009 , Gary Ross , who was then rewriting the latest draft of the unproduced Spider @-@ Man 4 , was assigned to rewrite the Venom script and direct the film , in which Venom would be an antihero rather than a supervillain . In March 2012 , Chronicle director Josh Trank negotiated with Sony about his interest in directing the film after Ross left development to direct The Hunger Games . In June 2012 , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man producer Matt Tolmach , speaking of his and fellow producer Avi Arad 's next project , a Venom film , suggested it could follow the shared @-@ universe model of the film The Avengers : " What I 'm trying to say to you without giving anything away is hopefully all these worlds will live together in peace someday . "
= = Marc Webb films = =
= = = The Amazing Spider @-@ Man ( 2012 ) = = =
Sony announced that the franchise would be rebooted with a new director and new cast . The Amazing Spider @-@ Man was released on July 3 , 2012 in 3D and IMAX 3D , and focused on Peter Parker developing his abilities in high school . He fights the Lizard , the monstrous form of Dr. Curt Connors , his father 's former partner and a scientist at OsCorp .
= = = The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 ( 2014 ) = = =
The film takes place two years after the first film 's events . Peter Parker graduates high school , continues his relationship with Gwen Stacy , and combats the electricity @-@ manipulating Electro .
= = = Canceled films = = =
= = = = Sequels = = = =
In June 2013 , Sony Pictures announced it had set release dates for the next two Spider @-@ Man films . The third film was scheduled to be released on June 10 , 2016 , and the fourth was scheduled to be released on May 4 , 2018 . Paul Giamatti confirmed that Rhino would return in the third film . That November , Sony Pictures Entertainment chief Michael Lynton told analysts , " We do very much have the ambition about creating a bigger universe around Spider @-@ Man . There are a number of scripts in the works . " Andrew Garfield stated that his contract is for three films , and is unsure of his involvement for the fourth film . In February 2014 , Sony announced that Webb would return to direct the third Amazing Spider @-@ Man film . In March 2014 , Webb stated that he would not be directing the fourth film , but would like to remain as a consultant for the series . On July 11 , 2014 , Orci told IGN that he is not working on the third film due to the third Star Trek film . Kurtzman revealed in an interview that the third film is still continuing production and there is a possibility of seeing a Black Cat film . On July 23 , 2014 , Sony Pictures announced that The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 3 was delayed to 2018 . After the announcement in February 2015 of a new franchise with Marvel Studios , the sequels to The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 were canceled .
= = = = Spin @-@ offs = = = =
On December 12 , 2013 , Sony issued a press release through the viral site , Electro Arrives announcing that two films were in development , with Alex Kurtzman , Roberto Orci and Ed Solomon writing a spin @-@ off to The Amazing Spider @-@ Man focused on Venom ( with Kurtzman attached to direct ) and Drew Goddard writing one focused on the villain team Sinister Six with an eye to direct . Hannah Minghella and Rachel O ’ Connor will oversee the development and production of these films for the studio . In April 2014 , it was announced that Goddard would direct the Sinister Six film , and that both spin @-@ offs would be released before a fourth Amazing Spider @-@ Man , with Spider @-@ Man potentially appearing in both spin @-@ offs . Later in the month , Tolmach and Arad revealed the Sinister Six film would be a redemption story and that the film 's lineup might differ from the comics . On July 23 , 2014 , Sony Pictures announced that The Sinister Six was scheduled for release on November 11 , 2016 . By August 2014 , Sony was also looking to release a female @-@ centered spin @-@ off film in 2017 , with Lisa Joy Nolan writing , and had given the Venom spin @-@ off the potential title of Venom Carnage .
Despite the announcement in February 2015 of a new franchise with Marvel Studios , the Sinister Six , Venom , and the female @-@ led spin @-@ off films set in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man franchise were then " still moving forward " . Feige was not expected to be creatively involved with these films . However , the Sinister Six film was canceled due to The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 underperforming commercially , and by November 2015 , the other prospective spin @-@ off films were canceled as well .
= = Licensing agreement with Marvel Studios = =
In December 2014 , following the hacking of Sony Pictures ' computers , both Sony and Marvel were revealed to have had discussions about allowing Spider @-@ Man to appear in the 2016 Marvel Cinematic Universe film Captain America : Civil War while having control of the film rights remaining with Sony . However , talks between the studios then broke down . Instead , Sony had considered having Sam Raimi return to direct a new trilogy .
However , on February 9 , 2015 , Sony Pictures and Marvel Studios announced that Spider @-@ Man would appear in the Marvel Cinematic Universe , with the character appearing in a Marvel Cinematic Universe film and Sony releasing a Spider @-@ Man film co @-@ produced by Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige and Amy Pascal . Sony Pictures will continue to own , finance , distribute , and exercise final creative control over the Spider @-@ Man films . The next month , Marvel Entertainment CCO Joe Quesada indicated that the Peter Parker version of the character would be used , which Feige confirmed in April . Feige also stated that Marvel had been working to add Spider @-@ Man to the MCU since at least October 2014 . The following June , Feige clarified that the initial Sony deal does not allow the character to appear in any of the MCU television series , as it was " very specific ... with a certain amount of back and forth allowed . "
= = = Captain America : Civil War ( 2016 ) = = =
Reports indicated that the MCU film that Spider @-@ Man would appear in as part of the deal would be Captain America : Civil War . Joe and Anthony Russo , the directors of Captain America : Civil War , had lobbied for months to include the character in the film . Anthony Russo stated that , despite Marvel telling them to have a " plan B " should the deal with Sony fail , the Russos never created one because " it was very important to us to reintroduce " Spider @-@ Man in the film , adding , " We only have envisioned the movie with Spider @-@ Man . " By the end of May 2015 , Asa Butterfield , Tom Holland , Judah Lewis , Matthew Lintz , Charlie Plummer and Charlie Rowe screen tested for the lead role , against Robert Downey Jr . , who portrays Iron Man , for chemistry . The six were chosen out of a search of over 1 @,@ 500 actors to test in front of Feige , Pascal and the Russo brothers . In June , Feige and Pascal narrowed the actors considered to Holland and Rowe . Both screen tested again with Downey , with Holland also testing with Chris Evans , who
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-@ disc sets and on VHS , with the third film being released in both single and two @-@ disc editions . All three films were later packaged in a " Motion Picture DVD Trilogy " box set .
Spider @-@ Man 3 was initially the only Spider @-@ Man film to be released individually on the high @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray format . The first two films were made available on Blu @-@ ray , but only as part of a boxed set with the third film , called Spider @-@ Man : The High @-@ Definition Trilogy . The first two films lacked the bonus features from the DVDs , although Spider @-@ Man 2 did contain both cuts of the film .
Sony announced on April 2 , 2012 that the three films would be re @-@ released on June 12 , 2012 . The DVDs of the first two films reinstated a selection of the bonus features missing from the earlier Blu @-@ ray releases , although the Spider @-@ Man 3 reissue did not include the bonus disc of additional special features that appeared on earlier Blu @-@ ray releases .
All three films which comprise the Raimi trilogy are available in the U.S. on iTunes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The first three Spider @-@ Man films set new opening day records in North America in their opening weekend . The films are among the top of North American rankings of films based on Marvel Comics , with Spider @-@ Man ranking second , Spider @-@ Man 2 ranking third , and Spider @-@ Man 3 ranking fourth . In North America , Spider @-@ Man , Spider @-@ Man 2 , and Spider @-@ Man 3 are ranked third , fourth and fifth for all superhero films , with the third film ranking fifth worldwide for superhero films ( behind The Avengers , Iron Man 3 , The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises ) . Spider @-@ Man , Spider @-@ Man 2 , and Spider @-@ Man 3 are the most successful films produced by Sony / Columbia Pictures in North America .
= = = Critical and public response = = =
David Ansen of Newsweek enjoyed Spider @-@ Man as a fun film to watch , though he considered Spider @-@ Man 2 to be " a little too self @-@ important for its own good . " Ansen saw Spider @-@ Man 3 as a return to form , finding it " the most grandiose chapter and the nuttiest . " Tom Charity of CNN appreciated the films ' " solidly redemptive moral convictions " , also noting the vast improvement of the visual effects from the first film to the third . While he saw the second film 's Doc Ock as the " most engaging " villain , he applauded the third film 's Sandman as " a triumph of CGI wizardry . " Richard Corliss of Time enjoyed the action of the films and thought that they did better than most action movies by " rethinking the characters , the franchise and the genre . "
Colin Covert of the Star Tribune praised Spider @-@ Man as a " superb debut " of the superhero as well as Spider @-@ Man 2 as a " superior sequel " for filmgoers who are fans " of spectacle and of story . " Covert expressed disappointment in Spider @-@ Man 3 as too ambitious with the multiple storylines leaving one " feeling overstuffed yet shortchanged . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times enjoyed the humor of the first two films , but found it missing in the third installment . Dargis also noted , " The bittersweet paradox of this franchise is that while the stories have grown progressively less interesting the special effects have improved tremendously . " Robert Denerstein of the Rocky Mountain News ranked the films from his favorite to his least favorite : Spider @-@ Man 2 , Spider @-@ Man , and Spider @-@ Man 3 . While Denerstein missed the presence of Alfred Molina as Doctor Octopus from the second film , he found the third film – despite being " bigger , though not necessarily better " – to have a " satisfying conclusion . "
= Morchella sextelata =
Morchella sextelata is a species of ascomycete fungus in the family Morchellaceae . Described as new to science in 2012 , it is found in North America ( in Washington , Idaho , Montana , Wyoming , New Mexico , and Yukon Territory ) . It has also been found in China , although it is not known if this is a result of an accidental introduction or natural dispersion . The fruit bodies have a roughly conical cap up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 in ) tall and 5 cm ( 2 in ) wide , with a surface of mostly vertically arranged pits . The cap is initially yellowish to brownish , but it darkens to become almost black in maturity . The stipe is white and hollow , measuring 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) high by 1 – 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) wide .
Morchella sextelata is one of four species of wildfire @-@ adapted morels in western North America , the others being M. capitata , M. septimelata , and M. tomentosa . M. sextelata cannot be reliably distinguished from M. septimelata without the use of DNA analysis .
= = Taxonomy = =
Morchella sextelata was originally identified as phylogenetic species " Mel @-@ 6 " in the species @-@ rich Elata clade ( brown morels ) elucidated by microbiologist Kerry O 'Donnell and colleagues in a 2011 publication . The specific epithet sextelata alludes to this preliminary name . Although M. sextelata is not distinguishable from Morchella septimelata on physical or ecological characteristics , they are clearly genetically distinct species , and can be differentiated by comparing DNA sequences or with restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis . Allopatric speciation is thought to have been the driving evolutionary force that caused M. sextelata to diverge from its ancestors roughly 25 million years ago . The original specimens collected were obtained as part of the Morel Data Collection Project , a research effort designed to improve the understanding of North American morels .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Morchella sextelata are 4 – 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 1 in ) high with a conical cap that is 2 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) high and 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide at the widest point . The cap surface features pits and ridges , formed by the intersection of 12 – 20 primary vertical ridges and frequent shorter , secondary vertical ridges , with occasional sunken , horizontal ridges . The cap is attached to the stipe with a sinus about 2 – 4 mm deep and 2 – 4 mm wide . The ridges are smooth or very finely tomentose ( covered with densely matted filaments ) . They are initially colorless , becoming pale tan , then dark grayish brown in maturity , eventually darkening to nearly black . They are flattened when young but sometimes become sharpened or eroded in maturity . The pits are somewhat elongated vertically . They are smooth , brownish to yellowish tan to pinkish to buff .
The whitish to pale brownish stipe is 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long by 1 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) wide and is roughly equal in width throughout its length , or sometimes slightly club @-@ shaped near the base . Its surface is either smooth or covered with whitish granules . The flesh is whitish , measuring 1 – 2 mm thick in the hollow cap ; it may become layered and chambered in the base of the stipe . The sterile inner surface of the cap is whitish and pubescent ( covered with short , soft " hair " ) .
The ascospores of M. sextelata are elliptical and smooth , typically measuring 18 – 25 by 10 – 16 µm . Asci ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are eight @-@ spored , hyaline ( translucent ) , cylindrical , and measure 200 – 325 by 5 – 25 µm . Paraphyses are cylindrical , septate , and measure 175 – 300 by 2 – 15 µm . Their tips are variably shaped , from rounded , to club @-@ shaped , to fuse @-@ shaped . The contents of the paraphyses are hyaline ( translucent ) to faintly brownish in dilute potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) . Hyphae on the sterile cap ridges are septate and measure 50 – 180 by 5 – 25 µm . The terminal cells are variably shaped ( similar to the paraphyses ) , and have brownish contents in KOH .
North American Morchella are generally considered choice edibles , but the edibility of M. sextelata was not mentioned in its original description .
= = = Similar species = = =
Morchella sextelata is morphologically indistinguishable from several other morel species in the M. elata clade , including M. septimelata , M. brunnea , M. angusticeps , and M. septentrionalis . M. septimelata can be distinguished from these latter three lookalikes by habitat or distribution : M. brunnea is found in non @-@ burned forests of western North America ; M. angusticeps is found east of the Rocky Mountains ; and M. septentrionalis is restricted to a northern distribution ( about 44 ° N northward ) in eastern North America . M. septimelata , however , also grows in burn sites and so is both morphologically and ecologically indistinguishable from M. sextelata . Although there are subtle differences in the structure of the sterile ridges between the species , the authors were not confident that enough specimens had been examined to establish that these differences were consistent .
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
Morchella sextelata may be either saprobic or mycorrhizal at different times in its life cycle . Its fruit bodies grow in partially burned conifer forests , particularly those dominated by Douglas fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) and ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ) . They tend to appear in great numbers the year immediately following fire and appear in decreasing frequency in successive years . Fruiting occurs from April through July , at elevations between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 500 m ( 3 @,@ 300 and 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . The distribution includes Washington , Idaho , Montana , Wyoming , and Yukon Territory . M. sextelata has also been found in China , but it remains unclear whether dispersal between these distant locations occurred naturally or through accidental introduction by humans .
Morchella sextelata , identified as phylogenetic species " Mel @-@ 6 " , has been shown to colonize the non @-@ native species Bromus tectorum ( cheatgrass ) as an endophyte , increasing the overall growth of the grass , as well as the abundance of seeds and their tolerance to extreme heat ( 60 – 65 ° C ( 140 – 149 ° F ) ) . This has been hypothesized to be a contributing factor in the success of cheatgrass as an invasive species in western North America .
= Churche 's Mansion =
Churche 's Mansion is a timber @-@ framed , black @-@ and @-@ white Elizabethan mansion house at the eastern end of Hospital Street in Nantwich , Cheshire , England . The Grade I listed building dates from 1577 , and is one of the very few to have survived the Great Fire of Nantwich in 1583 .
Built for Richard Churche , a wealthy Nantwich merchant , and his wife , it remained in their family until the 20th century . In 1930 , it was rescued from being shipped to the USA by Edgar Myott and his wife , who began restoration work . As well as a dwelling , the mansion has been used as a school , restaurant , shop , and granary and hay store .
The building has four gables to the front ; the upper storey and the attics all overhang with jetties . The upper storeys feature decorative panels , and the exterior has many gilded carvings . The principal rooms have oak panelling , some of which is Elizabethan in date . The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner considered Churche 's Mansion to be among the best timber @-@ framed Elizabethan buildings in Cheshire , describing it as " an outstanding piece of decorated half @-@ timber architecture . "
= = History = =
Churche 's Mansion was built for Richard Churche and his wife Margerye by Thomas Clease in 1577 . A panel under a window to the right of the main entrance bears the inscription :
Rychard Churche , and Margerye Churche , his wyfe mai iiii
Thomas Clease made this worke , anno dni , M , ccccc , lxxvii ,
in the xviiii yere of the reane of our noble queene elesabeth
The only other remaining work signed by craftsman Thomas Clease ( also Cleese ) is the Queen 's Aid House on Nantwich High Street , known for its inscription thanking Elizabeth I for her aid in the town 's rebuilding after the Great Fire .
The land in " Hospitull Strete " on which the mansion was built had been granted to John and Nicolas Churchehouse of Grayste ( Gresty ) in 1474 / 5 by John Marchomley and his son John , Richard and William Cholmondeley , and John Bromley . By the late 16th century , the Churche family ( known variously as Church , Chirche , Kyrke and Churchehouse ) was a prominent one in Nantwich . Richard Churche was a wealthy local merchant who , at his death in 1592 , owned " one wiche @-@ house of six leads in Wich Malbank " , as well as considerable land holdings both locally and in Shropshire and Stafford . His wife , Margerye or Margaret Churche , daughter of Roger Wright , came from another significant Nantwich family ; she survived her husband , living until 1599 .
Standing on the edge of the old town , the recently completed Churche 's Mansion survived the fire of 1583 which destroyed almost all of Nantwich east of the River Weaver . The only other buildings known to have survived were Sweetbriar Hall , also on Hospital Street , and the parish church . Richard Churche willed " the house ... wherein I now dwell on the Ospell Street " to his second son , Rondull , Randol or Randle Church ( e ) . The house is mentioned among the principal houses of the town in a 1622 / 3 account by William Webb , who describes the mansion as " a fair timber @-@ house of Mr. Randol Church , a gentleman of singular integrity . " Randle Church survived until 1648 , outliving his son and grandson , and Churche 's Mansion then passed to the Shropshire branch of the family , descended from Richard Churche 's eldest son , William . The Churche family inhabited the house until at least 1691 , when a rate book records Saboth Church as the resident and gives the rates as 2 shillings 8 ½ pence .
Although Saboth Church ( also Sabbath or Sabboth ) was the last Churche family member to live in the mansion ( he died in 1717 ) , it remained in the family 's possession until the 20th century , with a succession of tenants . In the early 19th century , the mansion was tenanted by a tanner and later by an attorney @-@ at @-@ law . In 1858 – 68 , it was untenanted , and was used as a granary and hay store by a local cowkeeper . From 1869 until at least 1883 , it housed the ladies ' boarding and day school of Mrs E.H. Rhodes . The mansion later fell into disrepair , and in 1930 , it was saved from dismantling to ship to the USA by local resident Edgar Myott and his wife , who purchased the building and began restoration work . It was listed at grade I on 19 April 1948 . During much of the 20th century it was used as a restaurant , and it has been an antiques shop since 2001 . In 2007 the mansion was featured on Most Haunted : Midsummer Murders .
= = Architecture = =
The mansion house has four gables to the front and a two @-@ gabled wing to the left @-@ hand side ; its plan resembles the nearby Dorfold Hall . The roof is tiled , with two prominent brick chimney stacks . There are two storeys with an attic , with both the first and second floors overhanging the floor beneath to form jetties , a typical feature of timber @-@ framed town houses of this date . The protruding floor joists are concealed by plaster coving built up over shaped brackets and laths , in a fashion described by Pevsner as a " speciality of Cheshire " .
The upper storeys have ornamental panels featuring several different decorative motifs , including roundels and diagonal ogee braces . The eaves have corbel brackets with carvings including human faces and animals . These include a lion , ape and devil , as well as a salamander , supposed to give protection against fire . Gilded carvings of Richard and Margerye Churche are located above the main entrance , on either side . The timbers bear carpenters ' marks with both Roman and Arabic numerals , some being unusually long . The highly decorated style is typical of the timber @-@ framed buildings of the Elizabethan period .
The windows are predominantly mullioned and transomed , with three to five lights including some stained glass panels . Only the window above the porch is possibly original ; some casements date from the 18th century , and several are 20th @-@ century replacements . Two windows have inscriptions beneath them : one inscription gives the date of construction and is quoted previously ; the other states " The roote of Wysedom is to Feare God , & the branch thereof shall too endure . "
= = Interior features = =
The house is laid out around a large central hall connecting the mansion 's two gabled end @-@ pieces , which was used for dining . The other major rooms on the ground floor are the withdrawing room to the right of the hall , and the buttery and kitchen to the left ; there is also a small entrance porch at the main Hospital Street entrance . The first floor has five main rooms : the upper hall ( never open to the roof ) and four solars ( private upper rooms , some of which would have contained beds ) , as well as a small chapel . The attic is divided into five rooms and provided servants ' accommodation .
The entrance porch has a panelled ceiling with inlaid decoration and a moulded doorcase with an 18th @-@ century oak door . The hall has a spiral staircase between storeys ; it also contains an original cupboard bearing the Churche 's initials and crest , and the inscription " Blessed art thou that feares and walkest in His wayes for thou shalte eate and happie arte . " The first floor hall features a coffin drop , a hole in the floor allowing the lowering of large items that would otherwise be difficult to manipulate on the narrow spiral staircase . Traditionally used for coffins , the coffin drop would also facilitate the movement of large pieces of furniture . Several rooms have large open fireplaces , with a brick inglenook fireplace in the kitchen . An Elizabethan well was discovered during renovation work .
The principal rooms on both ground and first floors feature oak panelling ; that in one of the upper rear rooms is Elizabethan . This room also features a fine carved overmantel with a woven love knot and central heart ; the ground floor room to the right of the hall contains a further good example of a carved overmantel . One of the rooms has panels decorated with intersecting triangles .
= = Grounds and outbuildings = =
Churche 's Mansion was constructed on the edge of Nantwich , and in the 16th century would presumably have been surrounded by farmland . The building was originally moated , and traces of the moat remained in the late 19th century . The transfer deed of 1474 / 5 mentions that the plot had gardens and orchards , while Richard Churche 's will of 1592 describes the property as having " gardens meadowe dovehouse stable & buyldings " and an orchard is also mentioned in the 1691 rate book . The rear garden formerly featured a sunken pond .
The house has a small formal garden facing Hospital Street , and a walled garden at the rear with lawns , fruit trees and an oak .
= Purple Haze =
" Purple Haze " is a song written by Jimi Hendrix and released as the second record single by the Jimi Hendrix Experience on March 17 , 1967 . As a record chart hit in several countries and the opening number on the Experience 's debut American album , it was many people 's first exposure to Hendrix 's psychedelic rock sound .
The song features his inventive guitar playing , which uses the signature Hendrix chord and a mix of blues and Eastern modalities , shaped by novel sound processing techniques . Because of ambiguities in the lyrics , listeners often interpret the song as referring to a psychedelic experience , although Hendrix described it as a love song .
" Purple Haze " is one of Hendrix 's best @-@ known songs and appears on many Hendrix compilation albums . The song featured regularly in concerts and each of Hendrix 's group configurations issued live recordings . It was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame and is included on lists of the greatest guitar songs , including at number two by Rolling Stone and number one by Q magazine .
= = Background and recording = =
By January 5 , 1967 , the Jimi Hendrix Experience 's first single , " Hey Joe " , backed with " Stone Free " , peaked at number six on the UK record chart . " Hey Joe " was not a Hendrix composition – it was written by Billy Roberts and recorded by several groups prior to the Experience . Hendrix commented , " That record isn 't us . The next one 's gonna be different . We 're working on an LP which will mainly be our stuff . " The group recorded several demos of original material at studios in London , including " Can You See Me " , " Foxy Lady " , " Third Stone from the Sun " , " Red House " , and " Remember " . In the middle of December , producer Chas Chandler heard Hendrix toying around with a new guitar riff . " I heard him playing it at the flat and was knocked out . I told him to keep working on that , saying , ' That 's the next single ! ' " Chandler claimed that after some more urging , Hendrix wrote the rest of " Purple Haze " in the dressing room of a London club during the afternoon of December 26 , 1966 , before a gig . In several interviews , Hendrix spoke about writing the song , but did not mention where or when he wrote it .
The Experience began recording " Purple Haze " on January 11 , 1967 , at De Lane Lea Studios in London . According to drummer Mitch Mitchell , he and bassist Noel Redding learned the song in the studio : " Hendrix came in and kind of hummed us the riff and showed Noel the chords and the changes . I listened to it and we went , ' OK , let 's do it . ' We got it on the third take as I recall . " The basic track was recorded in four hours , according to Chandler . Multitrack recording technology allowed engineers to record and complete additional parts on the final master . After the basic track was finished , Chandler explained that he and Hendrix developed the song :
With ' Purple Haze ' , Hendrix and I were striving for a sound and just kept going back in [ to the studio ] , two hours at a time , trying to achieve it . It wasn 't like we were there for days on end . We recorded it , and then Hendrix and I would be sitting at home saying , ' Let 's try that . ' Then we would go in for an hour or two . That 's how it was in those days . However long it took to record one specific idea , that 's how long we would book . We kept going in and out .
Redding and Mitchell were not included in the process because Chandler felt that it was more efficient for him and Hendrix to do it alone . To get a better quality recording , Chandler took the four @-@ track tape recorded at De Lane Lea to Olympic Studios for overdubbing ( although Hendrix had worked with eight @-@ track recording in the US , it was not yet available in the UK ) . At Olympic , they were assigned Eddie Kramer , who , as a sound engineer , played an important role in subsequent Hendrix recordings . Hendrix added new vocals and guitar parts between February 3 and 8 , 1967 . Unlike the conventional techniques used by the Experience to record previous songs , Chandler decided to try out new effects and sounds for " Purple Haze " . He enhanced background sounds ( some contributed by Redding ) by playing them back through headphones , which were moved around the recording microphone , creating " a weird echo " . Chandler also used sped @-@ up guitar parts recorded at half @-@ speed ( which also raises the pitch ) and panning to create novel effects . The guitar solo features the first use of the Octavia guitar effects unit . Acoustical and electronics engineer Roger Mayer developed the unit with input from Hendrix . The Octavia doubles the frequency of the sound it is fed , essentially adding an upper octave .
= = Lyrics and interpretation = =
In interviews , Hendrix usually gave different answers about the development of the song 's lyrics . Biographer Harry Shapiro points out that " Purple Haze " is most likely " a pot @-@ pourri of ideas " which Hendrix developed over time . As a fan of science fiction , he frequently incorporated its imagery in his songwriting . Hendrix read Night of Light , a 1966 novel by Philip Jose Farmer , that expanded on a short story published in 1957 . In the story set on a distant planet , sunspots produce a " purplish haze " which has a disorienting effect on the inhabitants . An early handwritten draft by Hendrix , titled " Purple Haze – Jesus Saves " , uses dream @-@ like imagery where the sense of direction and time is distorted . In an interview on January 28 , 1967 , before the song was completed , Hendrix was asked how he wrote songs ; he responded , " I dream a lot and I put my dreams down as songs . I wrote one called ' First Look Around the Corner ' and another called ' The Purple Haze , ' which was about a dream I had that I was walking under the sea . " He later expressed frustration that he was unable to more fully develop his ideas for the song :
You know the song we had named ' Purple Haze ' ? [ It ] had about a thousand , thousand words ... I had it all written out . It was about going through , through this land . This mythical ... because that 's what I like to do is write a lot of mythical scenes . You know , like the history of the wars on Neptune .
So far , only a crumpled single sheet of ruled yellow tablet paper is on exhibit at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and does not include any of the lyrics used in the Experience song . Chandler admitted that in the early stages , he helped Hendrix shape the songs and lyrics to radio single length . Biographer Keith Shadwick comments that although much of the complexity may have been sacrificed , it resulted in verses that are " simple , focused and striking . "
After its release , Hendrix offered another explanation : " He [ the song 's protagonist ] likes this girl so much , that he doesn 't know what [ state ] he 's in , ya know . A sort of daze , I suppose . That 's what the song is all about . " This draws on an experience Hendrix had while still in New York , where he felt that a girl was attempting to use voodoo to trap him and he became ill . Shapiro believes that this is reflected in most of the first two verses :
Many fans and the press interpret the song as referring to a psychedelic experience due to lines such as " purple haze all in my brain " and " ' scuse me while I kiss the sky " . However , Hendrix and those closest to him never discussed any connection between psychedelic drugs and the song , although Shapiro admits that , at the time , to do so would have been " professional suicide " . Chandler , who claimed he was present when Hendrix wrote it , later denied suggestions that Hendrix did so while under the influence of psychedelics . Commenting on the lyrics , Shadwick concludes " the music [ was allowed ] to tell the larger story . Poised effectively between the twin intoxicants of drugs and desire , they could be interpreted to the listener 's taste " . In concert , Hendrix sometimes substituted lyrics for comic effect ; " ' scuse me while I kiss the sky " was rendered " ' scuse me while I kiss this guy " ( while gesturing towards Mitchell ) , " ' scuse me while I kiss that policeman " ( at a near riot in Los Angeles ) , or " ' scuse me while I fuck the sky " ( during a downpour in Seattle ) .
= = Composition = =
Music critic William Ruhlmann describes " Purple Haze " as having " relentlessly driving , if relatively slow @-@ paced underlying music , which provides a good platform for some of Hendrix 's inventive guitar playing . " Beginning with its dissonant opening and heavy use of distortion , Hendrix 's techniques " all contributed to the dirty , raw , metallic , [ and ] angular sounds " heard in the song , according to Shapiro . The intro consists of the melodic interval of a tritone or diminished ( sometimes called flattened ) fifth . Historically , this dissonant interval has been referred to as diabolus in musica ( literally " Devil in music " ) and was reputedly proscribed by papal bull during the Spanish Inquisition , because " to play it was like ringing Satan 's doorbell " . It is sounded during the first two measures by Hendrix playing a B ♭ on guitar against an E played by Redding on bass , followed by the respective octaves . Mitchell on drums comes in for the third measure , when Hendrix introduces the riff that piqued Chandler 's interest , and Redding continues playing the octaves in E.
After the riff , the verse sections begin , which Shadwick describe as " simplicity itself , consisting of just three chords " : E7 ♯ 9 , G , and A. The E7 ♯ 9 , or dominant seventh sharp ninth chord , has come to be called the " Hendrix chord " by guitarists and was used primarily in rhythm and blues and jazz before Hendrix helped popularize it . He also used an unconventional fingering technique for the G and A chords . Because Hendrix used his thumb to fret the roots of the G and A chords on the sixth string , his fingers were left in a position to create different chord voicings . Instead of the usual G barre chord ( G – B – G – B – D – G ) , a G5 ( G – X – G – G – D – G ) is sometimes played with the major third ( B ) being muted on the fifth string and replaced by the open third string ( G ) . Redding follows the chord changes mostly by playing the root with occasional passing notes , while Mitchell heightens the tension with drum flourishes that accentuate Hendrix 's vocal and guitar .
Biographer David Henderson describes Hendrix 's guitar tone as " at the razor edge of distort " . However , individual notes are still clear , as well as the harmonically more complex chords , even with the use of extreme overdrive for the time . The tension is maintained until the guitar solo , which " arrives as something of a release rather than a further racking up of the atmosphere . " It is also when Hendrix first introduces the Octavia , coupled with a Fuzz Face distortion unit . Whitehill describes the solo as " almost sound [ ing ] likes he 's playing a blues raga . He starts out playing in the Mixolydian mode and then he goes right into the blues side . The Octavia has the effect of a sitar , kind of like Ravi Shankar meets B.B. King . " During the song 's outro , the guitar part recorded at 7 ½ inches per second ( ips ) played back at 15 ips , is combined with the Octavia , further extending the guitar 's upper frequency range . Henderson describes it as " an uncanny piercing tone that takes off , Eastern @-@ sounding beyond the range of the guitar " and , according to Shadwick , " gives the impression that the guitar notes are flying off into the ether . "
= = Releases and charts = =
On March 17 , 1967 , " Purple Haze " was released in the UK as the first single on Track Records . Another Hendrix composition , the R & B @-@ influenced " 51st Anniversary " was included as the B @-@ side . Paul McCartney , who was an early Hendrix supporter , gave the record an enthusiastic pre @-@ release review in Melody Maker . The single entered the charts at number 39 on Record Mirror and at number 43 on Melody Maker . It peaked at number three and spent 14 weeks on the chart . During March 1967 , several performances of " Purple Haze " were filmed to promote the song and used for television programs , such as Beat @-@ Club , Dee Time , and Top of the Pops . Live performances were also broadcast on German NDR and BBC Radio 's Saturday Club .
For the American single , Reprise Records paired the song with " The Wind Cries Mary " . It was released on June 19 , 1967 , the day following the Experience 's performance at the Monterey Pop Festival . The single entered the Billboard Hot 100 pop chart on August 26 , where it spent eight weeks and reached number 65 . " Purple Haze " was included as the opening track on the American release of Are You Experienced on August 23 , 1967 . Because of the song 's airplay on underground FM radio , the album became more popular than Hendrix 's singles .
One of Hendrix 's most popular songs , " Purple Haze " appears on numerous compilation albums . Some of these include Smash Hits , The Essential Jimi Hendrix , The Singles Album , Kiss the Sky , Cornerstones : 1967 – 1970 , The Ultimate Experience , Experience Hendrix : The Best of Jimi Hendrix , Voodoo Child : The Jimi Hendrix Collection , and The Singles Collection . An alternative version recorded at the same time , but with different vocal and guitar overdubs , is the first song on The Jimi Hendrix Experience 2000 box set . Live recordings of " Purple Haze " as performed by each of the different Hendrix lineups have been released . These include Live at Monterey ( the Experience ) , Live at Woodstock ( Gypsy Sun and Rainbows ) , Live at the Fillmore East ( Band of Gypsys ) , and Live at Berkeley ( the Cry of Love touring group ) . Additional live recordings with the Experience appear on Winterland ( 2011 Billboard number 49 album ) and Miami Pop Festival ( 2013 Billboard number 39 album ) .
= = Recognition and influence = =
In March 2005 , Q magazine ranked " Purple Haze " at number one in its list of the " 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks Ever ! " The song placed at number two on Rolling Stone magazine 's " 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time " list , which noted that the song " unveiled a new guitar language charged with spiritual hunger and the poetry possible in electricity and studio technology . " It also appears at number 17 on the magazine 's " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " list , with the comment that " it launched not one but two revolutions : late @-@ Sixities psychedelia and the unprecedented genius of Jimi Hendrix . " In 1995 , " Purple Haze " was included as one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's " 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll " . NPR named the song to its list of the " 100 Most Important American Musical Works of the 20th Century " in 2000 . In 2008 , it was given a Grammy Hall of Fame Award , which " honor [ s ] recordings of lasting qualitative or historical significance " .
Many musicians have recorded their interpretations of the song , making it one of Hendrix 's most covered songs . Dion DiMucci included an acoustic version with strings on his 1968 comeback album Dion . Released as a single in 1969 , it appeared at number 63 on the Billboard Hot 100 , which was two positions higher than Hendrix ' single in 1967 . Also with a new arrangement , the Cure recorded it for the various artist 's Stone Free : A Tribute to Jimi Hendrix in 1993 . Their rendition reached number two on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks alternative rock chart . " Purple Haze " has achieved an unusual level of interest among classical musicians . The Meridian Arts Ensemble , the Hampton String Quartet , and Nigel Kennedy have recorded their interpretations and the Kronos Quartet often play it as an encore .
= Killer whale =
The killer whale or orca ( Orcinus orca ) is a toothed whale belonging to the oceanic dolphin family , of which it is the largest member . Killer whales are found in all oceans , from Arctic and Antarctic regions to tropical seas . Killer whales have a diverse diet , although individual populations often specialize in particular types of prey . Some feed exclusively on fish , while others hunt marine mammals such as seals and dolphins . They have been known to attack baleen whale calves , and even adult whales . Killer whales are apex predators , as there is no animal which preys on them .
Killer whales are highly social ; some populations are composed of matrilineal family groups ( pods ) which are the most stable of any animal species . Their sophisticated hunting techniques and vocal behaviours , which are often specific to a particular group and passed across generations , have been described as manifestations of animal culture .
The IUCN ( International Union for the Conservation of Nature ) currently assesses the orca 's conservation status as data deficient because of the likelihood that two or more killer whale types are separate species . Some local populations are considered threatened or endangered due to prey depletion , habitat loss , pollution ( by PCBs ) , capture for marine mammal parks , and conflicts with human fisheries . In late 2005 , the Southern Resident Killer Whales , the population that inhabits British Columbia and Washington state waters , were placed on the U.S. Endangered Species list .
Wild killer whales are not considered a threat to humans , but there have been cases of captive orcas killing or injuring their handlers at marine theme parks . Killer whales feature strongly in the mythologies of indigenous cultures , with their reputation ranging from being the souls of humans to merciless killers .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
Orcinus orca is the only recognized extant species in the genus Orcinus , one of many animal species originally described by Linnaeus in 1758 in Systema Naturae . Konrad Gessner wrote the first scientific description of a killer whale in his " Fish book " of 1558 , based on examination of a dead stranded animal in the Bay of Greifswald that had attracted a great deal of local interest .
The killer whale is one of 35 species in the oceanic dolphin family , which first appeared about 11 million years ago . The killer whale lineage probably branched off shortly thereafter . Although it has morphological similarities with the pygmy killer whale , the false killer whale and the pilot whales , a study of cytochrome b gene sequences by Richard LeDuc indicated that its closest extant relatives are the snubfin dolphins of the genus Orcaella .
= = = Common names = = =
English @-@ speaking scientists most often use the term " killer whale " , although the term " orca " is increasingly used . Killer whale advocates point out it has a long heritage . Indeed , the genus name Orcinus means " of the kingdom of the dead " , or " belonging to Orcus " . Ancient Romans originally applied orca ( plural orcae ) to these animals , possibly borrowing it from the Greek ὄρυξ , which referred ( among other things ) to a whale species . Since the 1960s , " orca " has steadily grown in popularity ; both names are now used . The term " orca " is euphemistically preferred by some to avoid the negative connotations of " killer " , and because , being part of the family Delphinidae , the species is more closely related to other dolphins than to whales .
According to some authors , the name killer whale is a mistranslation of the 18th century Spanish name asesina de ballenas which means literally whale killer . Basque whalers would have given it such name after observing pods of orcas hunting baleen whales .
They are sometimes referred to as " blackfish " , a name also used for other whale species . " Grampus " is a former name for the species , but is now seldom used . This meaning of " grampus " should not be confused with the genus Grampus , whose only member is Risso 's dolphin .
= = = Types = = =
The three to five types of killer whales may be distinct enough to be considered different races , subspecies , or possibly even species ( see Species problem ) . The IUCN reported in 2008 , " The taxonomy of this genus is clearly in need of review , and it is likely that O. orca will be split into a number of different species or at least subspecies over the next few years . " Although large variation in the ecological distinctiveness of different killer whale groups complicate simple differentiation into types , research off the west coast of Canada and the United States in the 1970s and 1980s identified the following three types :
Resident : These are the most commonly sighted of the three populations in the coastal waters of the northeast Pacific . Residents ' diets consist primarily of fish and sometimes squid , and they live in complex and cohesive family groups called pods . Female residents characteristically have rounded dorsal fin tips that terminate in a sharp corner . They visit the same areas consistently . British Columbia and Washington resident populations are amongst the most intensively studied marine mammals anywhere in the world . Researchers have identified and named over 300 killer whales over the past 30 years .
Transient : The diets of these whales consist almost exclusively of marine mammals . Transients generally travel in small groups , usually of two to six animals , and have less persistent family bonds than residents . Transients vocalize in less variable and less complex dialects . Female transients are characterized by more triangular and pointed dorsal fins than those of residents . The gray or white area around the dorsal fin , known as the " saddle patch " , often contains some black colouring in residents . However , the saddle patches of transients are solid and uniformly gray . Transients roam widely along the coast ; some individuals have been sighted in both southern Alaska and California . Transients are also referred to as Bigg 's killer whale in honor of cetologist Michael Bigg . The term has become increasingly common and may eventually replace the transient label .
Offshore : A third population of killer whales in the northeast Pacific was discovered in 1988 , when a humpback whale researcher observed them in open water . As their name suggests , they travel far from shore and feed primarily on schooling fish . However , because they have large , scarred and nicked dorsal fins resembling those of mammal @-@ hunting transients , it may be that they also eat mammals and sharks . They have mostly been encountered off the west coast of Vancouver Island and near Haida Gwaii . Offshores typically congregate in groups of 20 – 75 , with occasional sightings of larger groups of up to 200 . Currently , little is known about their habits , but they are genetically distinct from residents and transients . Offshores appear to be smaller than the others , and females are characterized by dorsal fin tips that are continuously rounded .
Transients and residents live in the same areas , but avoid each other . The name " transient " originated from the belief that these killer whales were outcasts from larger resident pods . Researchers later discovered transients are not born into resident pods . The evolutionary split between the two groups is believed to have begun two million years ago . Genetic data indicate the types have not interbred for up to 10 @,@ 000 years .
Other populations have not been as well studied , although specialized fish and mammal eating killer whales have been distinguished elsewhere . In addition , separate populations of " generalist " ( fish- and mammal @-@ eating ) and " specialist " ( mammal @-@ eating ) killer whales have been identified off northwestern Europe . As with residents and transients , the lifestyle of these whales appears to reflect their diet ; fish @-@ eating killer whales in Alaska and Norway have resident @-@ like social structures , while mammal @-@ eating killer whales in Argentina and the Crozet Islands behave more like transients .
Three types have been documented in the Antarctic . Two dwarf species , named Orcinus nanus and Orcinus glacialis , were described during the 1980s by Soviet researchers , but most cetacean researchers are skeptical about their status , and linking these directly to the types described below is difficult .
Type A looks like a " typical " killer whale , a large , black and white form with a medium @-@ sized white eye patch , living in open water and feeding mostly on minke whales .
Type B is smaller than type A. It has a large white eye patch . Most of the dark parts of its body are medium gray instead of black , although it has a dark gray patch called a " dorsal cape " stretching back from its forehead to just behind its dorsal fin . The white areas are stained slightly yellow . It feeds mostly on seals .
Type C is the smallest type and lives in larger groups than the others . Its eye patch is distinctively slanted forwards , rather than parallel to the body axis . Like type B , it is primarily white and medium gray , with a dark gray dorsal cape and yellow @-@ tinged patches . Its only observed prey is the Antarctic cod .
Type D was identified based on photographs of a 1955 mass stranding in New Zealand and six at @-@ sea sightings since 2004 . The first video record of this type in life happened between the Kerguelen and Crozet Islands in 2014 . It is immediately recognizable by its extremely small white eye patch , narrower and shorter than usual dorsal fin , bulbous head ( similar to a pilot whale ) , and smaller teeth . Its geographic range appears to be circumglobal in subantarctic waters between latitudes 40 ° S and 60 ° S. And although nothing is known about the type D diet , it is suspected to include fish because groups have been photographed around longline vessels , where they reportedly prey on Patagonian toothfish ( Dissostichus eleginoides ) .
Types B and C live close to the ice pack , and diatoms in these waters may be responsible for the yellowish colouring of both types . Mitochondrial DNA sequences support the theory that these are recently diverged separate species . More recently , complete mitochondrial sequencing indicates the two Antarctic groups that eat seals and fish should be recognized as distinct species , as should the North Pacific transients , leaving the others as subspecies pending additional data . Advanced methods that sequenced the entire mitochondrial genome revealed systematic differences in DNA between different populations .
Mammal @-@ eating killer whales were long thought likely to be closely related to other mammal @-@ eating killer whales from different regions , but genetic testing refuted this hypothesis .
The identified seven ecotypes in isolated ecological niches . Of three orca ecotypes in the Antarctic , one preys on minke whales , the second on seals and penguins and the third on fish . Another ecotype lives in the eastern North Atlantic , while the three Northeast Pacific ecotypes are labeled the transient , resident and offshore populations , as discussed above . The research supported a proposal to reclassify the Antarctic seal- and fish @-@ eating populations and the North Pacific transients as a distinct species , leaving the remaining ecotypes as subspecies . The first split in the orca population , between the North Pacific transients and the rest , occurred an estimated 700 @,@ 000 years ago . Such a designation would mean that each new species becomes subject to separate conservation assessments .
= = Appearance and morphology = =
A typical killer whale distinctively bears a black back , white chest and sides , and a white patch above and behind the eye . Calves are born with a yellowish or orange tint , which fades to white . It has a heavy and robust body with a large dorsal fin up to 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) tall . Behind the fin , it has a dark grey " saddle patch " across the back . Antarctic killer whales may have pale grey to nearly white backs . Adult killer whales are very distinctive and are not usually confused with any other sea creature . When seen from a distance , juveniles can be confused with other cetacean species , such as the false killer whale or Risso 's dolphin . The killer whale 's teeth are very strong and its jaws exert a powerful grip ; the upper teeth fall into the gaps between the lower teeth when the mouth is closed . The front teeth are inclined slightly forward and outward , thus allowing the killer whale to withstand powerful jerking movements from its prey while the middle and back teeth hold it firmly in place .
Killer whales are the largest extant members of the dolphin family . Males typically range from 6 to 8 metres ( 20 to 26 ft ) long and weigh in excess of 6 tonnes ( 5 @.@ 9 long tons ; 6 @.@ 6 short tons ) . Females are smaller , generally ranging from 5 to 7 m ( 16 to 23 ft ) and weighing about 3 to 4 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 long tons ; 3 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) . The largest male killer whale on record was 9 @.@ 8 m ( 32 ft ) , weighing 10 tonnes ( 9 @.@ 8 long tons ; 11 short tons ) , while the largest female was 8 @.@ 5 m ( 28 ft ) , weighing 7 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 7 @.@ 4 long tons ; 8 @.@ 3 short tons ) . Calves at birth weigh about 180 kg ( 400 lb ) and are about 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long . The killer whale 's large size and strength make it among the fastest marine mammals , able to reach speeds in excess of 56 km / h ( 30 kn ) . The skeleton of the killer whale is of the typical delphinid structure , but is more robust . Its integument , unlike that of most other dolphin species , is characterised by a well @-@ developed dermal layer with a dense network of fascicles of collagen fibers .
Killer whale pectoral fins , analogous to forelimbs , are large and rounded , resembling paddles . Males have significantly larger pectoral fins than females . At about 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) the male 's dorsal fin is more than twice the size of the female 's and is more of a triangular shape — a tall , elongated isosceles triangle — whereas hers is shorter and more curved . Males and females also have different patterns of black and white skin in their genital areas . Sexual dimorphism is also apparent in the skull ; adult males have longer lower jaws than females , and have larger occipital crests .
An individual killer whale can often be identified from its dorsal fin and saddle patch . Variations such as nicks , scratches , and tears on the dorsal fin and the pattern of white or grey in the saddle patch are unique . Published directories contain identifying photographs and names for hundreds of North Pacific animals . Photographic identification has enabled the local population of killer whales to be counted each year rather than estimated , and has enabled great insight into lifecycles and social structures .
Occasionally a killer whale is white ; they have been spotted in the northern Bering Sea and around St. Lawrence Island , and near the Russian coast . In February 2008 , a white killer whale was photographed 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) off Kanaga Volcano in the Aleutian Islands . In 2010 , the Far East Russia Orca Project ( FEROP ) , co @-@ founded and co @-@ directed by Alexander M. Burdin and Erich Hoyt , filmed an adult male nicknamed Iceberg .
Killer whales have good eyesight above and below the water , excellent hearing , and a good sense of touch . They have exceptionally sophisticated echolocation abilities , detecting the location and characteristics of prey and other objects in their environments by emitting clicks and listening for echoes , as do other members of the dolphin family .
The mean body temperature of the orca is 36 to 38 ° C ( 97 to 100 ° F ) . Like most marine mammals , orcas have a layer of insulating blubber ranging from 7 @.@ 6 to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick beneath its skin .
The heart beats at a rate of about 60 beats / min when the orca is at the surface , dropping to 30 beats / min when submerged .
= = Life cycle = =
Female killer whales begin to mature at around the age of 10 ( reaching peak fertility around 20 ) , which consists of periods of polyestrous cycling with noncycling periods of between three and 16 months . Females can often breed until age 40 , after which comes a rapid decrease in fertility . Orcas are not the only animals to go through menopause and live for decades after they have finished breeding . The lifespans of wild females average 50 years , with a maximum of 90 years . An exception is Granny ( J2 ) , who is the oldest known orca , estimated to be 103 years old .
To avoid inbreeding , males mate with females from other pods . Gestation varies from 15 to 18 months . Mothers calve , with usually a single offspring , about once every five years . In resident pods , births occur at any time of year , although winter is the most common . Mortality is extremely high during the first seven months of life , when 37 – 50 % of all calves die . Weaning begins at about 12 months and completes by the age of two . According to observations in several regions , all male and female pod members participate in the care of the young .
Males sexually mature at the age of 15 , but do not typically reproduce until age 21 . Wild males live around 29 years on average , with a maximum of about 60 years . One male , known as Old Tom , was reportedly spotted every winter between the 1840s and 1930 off New South Wales , Australia . This would have made him up to 90 years old . Examination of his teeth indicated he died around age 35 , but this method of age determination is now believed to be inaccurate for older animals . One male known to researchers in the Pacific Northwest ( identified as J1 ) was estimated to have been 59 years old when he died in 2010 .
Captive killer whale lifespans are typically significantly shorter , usually less than 25 years ; however , numerous individuals are alive in their 30s , and a few have reached their 40s . Killer whales are unique among cetaceans , as their heads become relatively shorter as they age , i.e. , the orca 's caudal section enlongates more @-@ so relative to its head .
= = Range and habitat = =
Killer whales are found in all oceans and most seas . Due to their enormous range , numbers , and density , distributional estimates are difficult to compare , but they clearly prefer higher latitudes and coastal areas over pelagic environments .
Systematic surveys indicate the highest densities of killer whales ( > 0 @.@ 40 individuals per 100 km ² ) in the northeast Atlantic around the Norwegian coast , in the north Pacific along the Aleutian Islands , the Gulf of Alaska and in the Southern Ocean off much of the coast of Antarctica . They are considered " common " ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 40 individuals per 100 km ² ) in the eastern Pacific along the coasts of British Columbia , Washington and Oregon , in the
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North Atlantic Ocean around Iceland and the Faroe Islands . High densities have also been reported but not quantified in the western North Pacific around the Sea of Japan ( in very limited areas and more abundant on the side of Primorsky Krai ) , Shiretoko Peninsula and off Kushiro ( Resident and Transient groups began colonizing in these areas possibly after in 2000s ) , Sea of Okhotsk , Kuril Islands , Kamchatka and the Commander Islands and in the Southern Hemisphere off the coasts of South Australia , off the coast of northern to southern Brazil and the tip of southern Africa . They are reported as seasonally common in the Canadian Arctic , including Baffin Bay between Greenland and Nunavut , and around Tasmania and Macquarie Island . The northwest Atlantic population of at least 67 individuals ranges from Labrador and Newfoundland to New England with sightings to Cape Cod and Long Island .
Information for offshore regions and tropical waters is more scarce , but widespread , if not frequent , sightings indicate the killer whale can survive in most water temperatures . They have been sighted , for example , in the Mediterranean , the Arabian Sea , the Gulf of Mexico and the Indian Ocean around the Seychelles . In the Mediterranean , killer whales are considered " visitors " with the exception of one small population which lives in the Strait of Gibraltar . Except for northeastern basins from Black Sea , records have been among almost entire basin including Aegean and Levantine basins such as off Israel . A distinct population may also exist in Papua New Guinea . Distributions and abundances in other Aisan waters are very unclear , only with sightings time to time have been reported , such as off Phuket and Mergui Archipelago .
Population structure in mid to lower latitudes of the North Pacific is unclear especially in coastal waters . Large concentrations are known to occur north of the Northern Mariana Islands and in the Gulf of Sendai , and repeated sightings are reported off Bali , the east coast of Taiwan , Ryukyu Islands , Izu Islands , in Tsushima Strait , and Izu Peninsula . The modern status of the species along coastal mainland China and its vicinity is unknown . Recorded sightings have been made from almost the entire shoreline ; from Bohai and the Yellow Sea in the north to the Zhoushan Islands in the east and the Vietnam coast in the south .
In the Antarctic , killer whales range up to the edge of the pack ice and are believed to venture into the denser pack ice , finding open leads much like beluga whales in the Arctic . However , killer whales are merely seasonal visitors to Arctic waters , and do not approach the pack ice in the summer . With the rapid Arctic sea ice decline in the Hudson Strait , their range now extends deep into the northwest Atlantic . Occasionally , killer whales swim into freshwater rivers . They have been documented 100 mi ( 160 km ) up the Columbia River in the United States . They have also been found in the Fraser River in Canada and the Horikawa River in Japan .
Migration patterns are poorly understood . Each summer , the same individuals appear off the coasts of British Columbia and Washington . Despite decades of research , where these animals go for the rest of the year remains unknown . Transient pods have been sighted from southern Alaska to central California .
= = = Population = = =
Worldwide population estimates are uncertain , but recent consensus suggests an absolute minimum of 50 @,@ 000 . Local estimates include roughly 25 @,@ 000 in the Antarctic , 8 @,@ 500 in the tropical Pacific , 2 @,@ 250 – 2 @,@ 700 off the cooler northeast Pacific and 500 – 1 @,@ 500 off Norway . Japan 's Fisheries Agency estimated 2 @,@ 321 killer whales were in the seas around Japan .
= = Feeding = =
Killer whales are apex predators , meaning that they themselves have no natural predators . They are sometimes called the wolves of the sea , because they hunt in groups like wolf packs . Killer whales hunt varied prey including fish , cephalopods , mammals , sea birds and sea turtles . However , different populations or species tend to specialize and some can have a dramatic impact on certain prey species . Those that feed on mammals may not even recognize fish as food . This specialization in diet and hunting is another reason to suggest that the orca is in fact several species , as discussed above .
= = = Fish = = =
Fish @-@ eating killer whales prey on around 30 species of fish . Some populations in the Norwegian and Greenland sea specialize in herring and follow that fish 's autumnal migration to the Norwegian coast . Salmon account for 96 % of northeast Pacific residents ' diet . About 65 % of them are large , fatty Chinook . Chum salmon are also eaten , but smaller sockeye and pink salmon are not a significant food item . Depletion of specific prey species in an area is , therefore , cause for concern for local populations , despite the high diversity of prey . On average , a killer whale eats 227 kilograms ( 500 lb ) each day . While salmon are usually hunted by an individual or a small group of individuals , herring are often caught using carousel feeding ; the killer whales force the herring into a tight ball by releasing bursts of bubbles or flashing their white undersides . They then slap the ball with their tail flukes , either stunning or killing up to 15 fish at a time . The herring are then eaten one at a time . Carousel feeding has only been documented in the Norwegian killer whale population and with some oceanic dolphin species .
In New Zealand , sharks and rays appear to be important prey ; species taken include eagle rays , long @-@ tail and short @-@ tail stingrays , common threshers , smooth hammerheads , blue sharks and shortfin mako sharks . With sharks , orcas may herd them to the surface and strike them with their tail flukes , while bottom @-@ dwelling rays are cornered , pinned to the ground and taken to the surface . Killer whales can induce tonic immobility in sharks and rays by holding them upside down , rendering them helpless and incapable of injuring the whale . Some sharks suffocate within about 15 minutes while the whale holds them still , because these sharks need to move to breathe . In one incident filmed near the Farallon Islands in October 1997 , a 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 3 @-@ metre ( 15 – 17 ft ) female killed a 3 – 4 @-@ metre ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) great white shark , apparently after swimming with it upside @-@ down in her mouth and inducing tonic immobility in it . She and another pod member ate the shark 's liver and allowed the rest of the carcass to sink . In February 2015 , a pod of orcas was recorded to have killed a white shark off South Australia . Interspecific competition between the two species is probable in regions where dietary preferences overlap . In July 1992 , two killer whales attacked , killed and fed on an 8 @-@ metre ( 26 ft ) long whale shark , Rhincodon typus , in the waters off Bahia de los Angeles in Baja California .
= = = Mammals = = =
Killer whales are very sophisticated and effective predators of marine mammals . Thirty @-@ two cetacean species have been recorded as prey , from observing orcas ' feeding activity , examining the stomach contents of dead orcas , and seeing scars on the bodies of surviving prey animals . Groups even attack larger cetaceans such as minke whales , gray whales , and rarely sperm whales or blue whales .
Hunting large whales usually takes several hours . Killer whales generally choose to attack young or weak animals ; however , a group of five or more may attack a healthy adult . When hunting a young whale , a group chases it and its mother until they wear out . Eventually , they separate the pair and surround the calf , preventing it from surfacing to breathe , drowning it . Pods of female sperm whales sometimes protect themselves by forming a protective circle around their calves with their flukes facing outwards , using them to repel the attackers . Rarely , large killer whale pods can overwhelm even adult female sperm whales . Adult bull sperm whales , which are large , powerful and aggressive when threatened , and fully grown adult blue whales , which are possibly too large to overwhelm , are not believed to be prey for killer whales .
Prior to the advent of industrial whaling , great whales may have been the major food source for killer whales . The introduction of modern whaling techniques may have aided killer whales by the sound of exploding harpoons indicating availability of prey to scavenge , and compressed air inflation of whale carcasses causing them to float , thus exposing them to scavenging . However , the toll on great whale populations by unfettered whaling had possibly reduced their availability as prey for killer whales , and caused them to expand their consumption of smaller marine mammals , thus contributing to their decline as well .
Predation by orcas on whale calves in high productivity , high latitude areas has been hypothesised to be the reason for great whale migrations to low productivity tropical waters , to reduce the risk of attacks on the highly vulnerable calves due to lower density of orcas in these waters .
Other marine mammal prey species include nearly 20 species of seal , sea lion and fur seal . Walruses and sea otters are less frequently taken . Often , to avoid injury , killer whales disable their prey before killing and eating it . This may involve throwing it in the air , slapping it with their tails , ramming it , or breaching and landing on it . Sea lions are killed by head @-@ butting or after a stunning blow from a tail fluke . In the Aleutian Islands , a decline in sea otter populations in the 1990s was controversially attributed by some scientists to killer whale predation , although with no direct evidence . The decline of sea otters followed a decline in harbour seal and Steller sea lion populations , the killer whale 's preferred prey , which in turn may be substitutes for their original prey , now decimated by industrial whaling .
In steeply banked beaches off Península Valdés , Argentina , and the Crozet Islands , killer whales feed on South American sea lions and southern elephant seals in shallow water , even beaching temporarily to grab prey before wriggling back to the sea . Beaching , usually fatal to cetaceans , is not an instinctive behaviour , and can require years of practice for the young . Killer whales can then release the animal near juvenile whales , allowing the younger whales to practice the difficult capture technique on the now @-@ weakened prey . " Wave @-@ hunting " killer whales spy @-@ hop to locate Weddell seals , crabeater seals , leopard seals , and penguins resting on ice floes , and then swim in groups to create waves that wash over the floe . This washes the prey into the water , where other killer whales lie in wait .
Killer whales have also been observed preying on terrestrial mammals , such as deer swimming between islands off the northwest coast of North America . Killer whale cannibalism has also been reported based on analysis of stomach contents , but this is likely to be the result of scavenging remains dumped by whalers . One killer whale was also attacked by its companions after being shot . Although resident killer whales have never been observed to eat other marine mammals , they occasionally harass and kill porpoises and seals for no apparent reason .
= = = Birds = = =
Killer whales in many areas may prey on cormorants and gulls . A captive killer whale at MarineLand discovered it could regurgitate fish onto the surface , attracting sea gulls , and then eat the birds . Four others then learned to copy the behaviour .
= = Behaviour = =
Day @-@ to @-@ day killer whale behaviour generally consists of foraging , travelling , resting and socializing . Killer whales engage in frequent behaviour at the surface such as breaching ( jumping completely out of the water ) and tail @-@ slapping . These activities may have a variety of purposes , such as courtship , communication , dislodging parasites , or play . Spyhopping , a behaviour in which a whale holds its head above water , helps the animal view its surroundings .
Resident killer whales swim with porpoises , other dolphins , seals , and sea lions , which are common prey for transient killer whales .
= = = Social structure = = =
Killer whales are notable for their complex societies . Only elephants and higher primates , such as humans , live in comparably complex social structures . Due to orcas ' complex social bonds and society , many marine experts have concerns about how humane it is to keep these animals in captive situations .
Resident killer whales in the eastern North Pacific have a particularly complex and stable social grouping system . Unlike any other mammal species whose social structure is known , residents live with their mothers for their entire lives . These family groups are based on matrilines consisting of the eldest female ( matriarch ) and her sons and daughters , and the descendants of her daughters , etc . The average size of a matriline is 5 @.@ 5 animals . Because females can reach age 90 , as many as four generations travel together . These matrilineal groups are highly stable . Individuals separate for only a few hours at a time , to mate or forage . With one exception , the killer whale named Luna , no permanent separation of an individual from a resident matriline has been recorded .
Closely related matrilines form loose aggregations called pods , usually consisting of one to four matrilines . Unlike matrilines , pods may separate for weeks or months at a time . DNA testing indicates resident males nearly always mate with females from other pods.Clans , the next level of resident social structure , are composed of pods with similar dialects , and common but older maternal heritage . Clan ranges overlap , mingling pods from different clans . The final association layer , perhaps more arbitrarily defined than the familial groupings , is called the community , and is defined as a set of clans that regularly commingle . Clans within a community do not share vocal patterns .
Transient pods are smaller than resident pods , typically consisting of an adult female and one or two of her offspring . Males typically maintain stronger relationships with their mothers than other females . These bonds can extend well into adulthood . Unlike residents , extended or permanent separation of transient offspring from natal matrilines is common , with juveniles and adults of both sexes participating . Some males become " rovers " and do not form long @-@ term associations , occasionally joining groups that contain reproductive females . As in resident clans , transient community members share an acoustic repertoire , although regional differences in vocalizations have been noted .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
Like all cetaceans , killer whales depend heavily on underwater sound for orientation , feeding , and communication . They produce three categories of sounds : clicks , whistles , and pulsed calls . Clicks are believed to be used primarily for navigation and discriminating prey and other objects in the surrounding environment , but are also commonly heard during social interactions .
Northeast Pacific resident groups tend to be much more vocal than transient groups in the same waters . Residents feed primarily on Chinook and chum salmon , species that are insensitive to killer whale calls ( inferred from the audiogram of Atlantic salmon ) . In contrast , the marine mammal prey of transients hear well underwater at the frequencies used in killer whale calls . As such , transients are typically silent , probably to avoid alerting their mammalian prey . They sometimes use a single click ( called a cryptic click ) rather than the long train of clicks observed in other populations . Residents are only silent when resting .
All members of a resident pod use similar calls , known collectively as a dialect . Dialects are composed of specific numbers and types of discrete , repetitive calls . They are complex and stable over time . Call patterns and structure are distinctive within matrilines . Newborns produce calls similar to their mothers , but have a more limited repertoire . Individuals likely learn their dialect through contact with their mother and other pod members . For instance , family @-@ specific calls have been observed more frequently in the days following a calf 's birth , which may help the calf learn them . Dialects are probably an important means of maintaining group identity and cohesiveness . Similarity in dialects likely reflects the degree of relatedness between pods , with variation building over time . When pods meet , dominant call types decrease and subset call types increase . The use of both call types is called biphonation . The increased subset call types may be the distinguishing factor between pods and inter @-@ pod relations .
Dialects of killer whales not only distinguish them between pods , but also between types . Resident dialects contain seven to 17 ( mean = 11 ) distinctive call types . All members of the North American west coast transient community express the same basic dialect , although minor regional variation in call types is evident . Preliminary research indicates offshore killer whales have group @-@ specific dialects unlike those of residents and transients .
The vocalizations of killer whales in other parts of the world have also been studied . Norwegian and Icelandic herring @-@ eating orcas appear to have different vocalizations for activities like hunting and traveling .
= = = Intelligence = = =
Killer whales have the second @-@ heaviest brains among marine mammals ( after sperm whales , which have the largest brain of any animal ) . They can be trained in captivity and are often described as intelligent , although defining and measuring " intelligence " is difficult in a species whose environment and behavioural strategies are very different from those of humans .
Killer whales imitate others , and seem to deliberately teach skills to their kin . Off the Crozet Islands , mothers push their calves onto the beach , waiting to pull the youngster back if needed .
People who have interacted closely with killer whales offer numerous anecdotes demonstrating the whales ' curiosity , playfulness , and ability to solve problems . Alaskan killer whales have not only learned how to steal fish from longlines , but have also overcome a variety of techniques designed to stop them , such as the use of unbaited lines as decoys . Once , fishermen placed their boats several miles apart , taking turns retrieving small amounts of their catch , in the hope that the whales would not have enough time to move between boats to steal the catch as it was being retrieved . A researcher described what happened next :
It worked really well for a while . Then the whales split into two groups . It didn 't even take them an hour to figure it out . They were so thrilled when they figured out what was going on , that we were playing games . They were breaching by the boats .
In other anecdotes , researchers describe incidents in which wild killer whales playfully tease humans by repeatedly moving objects the humans are trying to reach , or suddenly start to toss around a chunk of ice after a human throws a snowball .
The killer whale 's use of dialects and the passing of other learned behaviours from generation to generation have been described as a form of animal culture .
The complex and stable vocal and behavioural cultures of sympatric groups of killer whales ( Orcinus orca ) appear to have no parallel outside humans and represent an independent evolution of cultural faculties .
( Two species or populations are considered sympatric when they exist in the same geographic area and thus regularly encounter one another . )
= = Conservation = =
In 2008 , the IUCN ( International Union for Conservation of Nature ) changed its assessment of the killer whale 's conservation status from conservation dependent to data deficient , recognizing that one or more killer whale types may actually be separate , endangered species . Depletion of prey species , pollution , large @-@ scale oil spills , and habitat disturbance caused by noise and conflicts with boats are currently the most significant worldwide threats .
Like other animals at the highest trophic levels , the killer whale is particularly at risk of poisoning from bioaccumulation of toxins , including polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) . European harbour seals have problems in reproductive and immune functions associated with high levels of PCBs and related contaminants , and a survey off the Washington coast found PCB levels in killer whales were higher than levels that had caused health problems in harbour seals . Blubber samples in the Norwegian Arctic show higher levels of PCBs , pesticides and brominated flame @-@ retardants than in polar bears . When food is scarce , killer whales metabolize blubber for energy , which increases pollutant concentrations in their blood .
In the Pacific Northwest , wild salmon stocks , a main resident food source , have declined dramatically in recent years . On the west coast of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands , seal and sea lion populations have also substantially declined .
In 2005 , the United States government listed the southern resident community as an endangered population under the Endangered Species Act . This community comprises three pods which live mostly in the Georgia and Haro Straits and Puget Sound in British Columbia and Washington . They do not breed outside of their community , which was once estimated at around 200 animals and later shrank to around 90 . In October 2008 , the annual survey revealed seven were missing and presumed dead , reducing the count to 83 . This is potentially the largest decline in the population in the past ten years . These deaths can be attributed to declines in Chinook salmon .
Scientist Ken Balcomb has extensively studied killer whales since 1976 ; he is the research biologist responsible for discovering U.S. Navy sonar may harm killer whales . He studied killer whales from the Center for Whale Research , located in Friday Harbor , Washington . He was also able to study killer whales from " his home porch perched above Puget Sound , where the animals hunt and play in summer months " . In May 2003 , Balcomb ( along with other whale watchers near the Puget Sound coastline ) noticed uncharacteristic behaviour displayed by the killer whales . The whales seemed " agitated and were moving haphazardly , attempting to lift their heads free of the water " to escape the sound of the sonars . " Balcomb confirmed at the time that strange underwater pinging noises detected with underwater microphones were sonar . The sound originated from a U.S. Navy frigate 12 miles ( 19 kilometers ) distant , Balcomb said . " The impact of sonar waves on killer whales is potentially life @-@ threatening . Three years prior to Balcomb 's discovery , research in the Bahamas showed 14 beaked whales washed up on the shore . These whales were beached on the day U.S. Navy destroyers were activated into sonar exercise . Of the 14 whales beached , six of them died . These six dead whales were studied , and CAT scans of the two of the whale heads showed hemorrhaging around the brain and the ears , which is consistent with decompression sickness .
Another conservation concern was made public in September 2008 when the Canadian government decided it was not necessary to enforce further protections ( including the Species at Risk Act in place to protect endangered animals along their habitats ) for killer whales aside from the laws already in place . In response to this decision , six environmental groups sued the federal government , claiming killer whales were facing many threats on the British Columbia Coast and the federal government did nothing to protect them from these threats . A legal and scientific nonprofit organization , Ecojustice , led the lawsuit and represented the David Suzuki Foundation , Environmental Defence , Greenpeace Canada , International Fund for Animal Welfare , the Raincoast Conservation Foundation , and the Wilderness Committee . Many scientists involved in this lawsuit , including Bill Wareham , a marine scientist with the David Suzuki Foundation , noted increased boat traffic , water toxic wastes , and low salmon population as major threats , putting approximately 87 killer whales on the British Columbia Coast in danger .
Underwater noise from shipping , drilling , and other human activities is a significant concern in some key killer whale habitats , including Johnstone Strait and Haro Strait . In the mid @-@ 1990s , loud underwater noises from salmon farms were used to deter seals . Killer whales also avoided the surrounding waters . High @-@ intensity sonar used by the Navy disturbs killer whales along with other marine mammals . Killer whales are popular with whale watchers , which may stress the whales and alter their behaviour , particularly if boats approach too closely or block their lines of travel .
The Exxon Valdez oil spill adversely affected killer whales in Prince William Sound and Alaska 's Kenai Fjords region . Eleven members ( about half ) of one resident pod disappeared in the following year . The spill damaged salmon and other prey populations , which in turn damaged local killer whales . By 2009 , scientists estimated the AT1 transient population ( considered part of a larger population of 346 transients ) , numbered only seven individuals and had not reproduced since the spill . This population is expected to die out .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Indigenous cultures = = =
The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast feature killer whales throughout their art , history , spirituality and religion . The Haida regarded killer whales as the most powerful animals in the ocean , and their mythology tells of killer whales living in houses and towns under the sea . According to these myths , they took on human form when submerged , and humans who drowned went to live with them . For the Kwakwaka 'wakw , the killer whale was regarded as the ruler of the undersea world , with sea lions for slaves and dolphins for warriors . In Nuu @-@ chah @-@ nulth and Kwakwaka 'wakw mythology , killer whales may embody the souls of deceased chiefs . The Tlingit of southeastern Alaska regarded the killer whale as custodian of the sea and a benefactor of humans .
The Maritime Archaic people of Newfoundland also had great respect for killer whales , as evidenced by stone carvings found in a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old burial at the Port au Choix Archaeological Site .
In the tales and beliefs of the Siberian Yupik people , killer whales are said to appear as wolves in winter , and wolves as killer whales in summer . Killer whales are believed to assist their hunters in driving walrus . Reverence is expressed in several forms : the boat represents the animal , and a wooden carving hung from the hunter 's belt . Small sacrifices such as tobacco are strewn into the sea for them . Killer whales were believed to have helped the hunters even when in wolf guise , by forcing reindeer to allow themselves to be killed .
= = = " Killer " stereotype = = =
In Western cultures , killer whales were historically feared as dangerous , savage predators . The first written description of a killer whale was given by Pliny the Elder circa AD 70 , who wrote , " Orcas ( the appearance of which no image can express , other than an enormous mass of savage flesh with teeth ) are the enemy of [ other whales ] ... they charge and pierce them like warships ramming . "
Of the very few confirmed attacks on humans by wild killer whales , none have been fatal . In one instance , killer whales tried to tip ice floes on which a dog team and photographer of the Terra Nova Expedition was standing . The sled dogs ' barking is speculated to have sounded enough like seal calls to trigger the killer whale 's hunting curiosity . In the 1970s , a surfer in California was bitten , and in 2005 , a boy in Alaska who was splashing in a region frequented by harbor seals was bumped by a killer whale that apparently misidentified him as prey . Unlike wild killer whales , captive killer whales are reported to have made nearly two dozen attacks on humans since the 1970s , some of which have been fatal .
Competition with fishermen also led to killer whales being regarded as pests . In the waters of the Pacific Northwest and Iceland , the shooting of killer whales was accepted and even encouraged by governments . As an indication of the intensity of shooting that occurred until fairly recently , about 25 % of the killer whales captured in Puget Sound for aquaria through 1970 bore bullet scars . The U.S. Navy claimed to have deliberately killed hundreds of killer whales in Icelandic waters in 1956 with machine @-@ guns , rockets , and depth charges .
= = = Modern Western attitudes = = =
Western attitudes towards killer whales have changed dramatically in recent decades . In the mid @-@ 1960s and early 1970s , killer whales came to much greater public and scientific awareness , starting with the first live @-@ capture and display of a killer whale known as Moby Doll , a resident harpooned off Saturna Island in 1964 . So little was known at the time , it was nearly two months before the whale 's keepers discovered what food ( fish ) it was willing to eat . To the surprise of those who saw him , Moby Doll was a docile , nonaggressive whale that made no attempts to attack humans .
Between 1964 and 1976 , 50 killer whales from the Pacific Northwest were captured for display in aquaria , and public interest in the animals grew . In the 1970s , research pioneered by Michael Bigg led to the discovery of the species ' complex social structure , its use of vocal communication , and its extraordinarily stable mother – offspring bonds . Through photo @-@ identification techniques , individuals were named and tracked over decades .
Bigg 's techniques also revealed the Pacific Northwest population was in the low hundreds rather than the thousands that had been previously assumed . The southern resident community alone had lost 48 of its members to captivity ; by 1976 , only 80 remained . In the Pacific Northwest , the species that had unthinkingly been targeted became a cultural icon within a few decades .
The public 's growing appreciation also led to growing opposition to whale – keeping in aquaria . Only one whale has been taken in North American waters since 1976 . In recent years , the extent of the public 's interest in killer whales has manifested itself in several high @-@ profile efforts surrounding individuals . Following the success of the 1993 film Free Willy , the movie 's captive star Keiko was returned to the coast of his native Iceland in 1998 . The director of the International Marine Mammal Project for the Earth Island Institute , David Phillips , led the efforts to return Keiko to the Iceland waters . In 2002 the orphan Springer was discovered in Puget Sound , Washington . She became the first whale to be successfully reintegrated into a wild pod after human intervention , crystallizing decades of research into the vocal behaviour and social structure of the region 's killer whales . The saving of Springer raised hopes that another young killer whale named Luna , which had become separated from his pod , could be returned to it . However , his case was marked by controversy about whether and how to intervene , and in 2006 , Luna was killed by a boat propeller .
= = = Whaling = = =
The earlier of known records of commercial hunting of killer whales date to the 18th century in Japan . During the 19th and early 20th centuries , the global whaling industry caught immense numbers of baleen and sperm whales , but largely ignored killer whales because of their limited amounts of recoverable oil , their smaller populations , and the difficulty of taking them . Once the stocks of larger species were depleted , killer whales were targeted by commercial whalers in the mid @-@ 20th century . Between 1954 and 1997 , Japan took 1 @,@ 178 killer whales ( although the Ministry of the Environment claims that there had been domestic catches of about 1 @,@ 600 whales between late 1940s to 1960s ) and Norway took 987 . Over 3 @,@ 000 killer whales were taken by Soviet whalers , including an Antarctic catch of 916 in 1979 – 80 alone , prompting the International Whaling Commission to recommend a ban on commercial hunting of the species pending further research . ( Compare with the situation on land , Commercial hunting . ) Today , no country carries out a substantial hunt , although Indonesia and Greenland permit small subsistence hunts ( see Aboriginal whaling ) . Other than commercial hunts , killer whales were hunted along Japanese coasts out of public concern for potential conflicts with fisheries . Such cases include a semi @-@ resident male @-@ female pair in Akashi Strait and Harimanada being killed in the Seto Inland Sea in 1957 , the killing of five whales from a pod of 11 members that swam into Tokyo Bay in 1970 , and a catch record in southern Taiwan in the 1990s .
= = = = Cooperation with humans = = = =
Killer whales have helped humans hunting other whales . One well @-@ known example was the killer whales of Eden , Australia , including the male known as Old Tom . Whalers more often considered them a nuisance , however , as orcas would gather to scavenge meat from the whalers ' catch . Some populations , such as in Alaska 's Prince William Sound , may have been reduced significantly by whalers shooting them in retaliation .
= = = Captivity = = =
The killer whale 's intelligence , trainability , striking appearance , playfulness in captivity and sheer size have made it a popular exhibit at aquaria and aquatic theme parks . From 1976 to 1997 , 55 whales were taken from the wild in Iceland , 19 from Japan , and three from Argentina . These figures exclude animals that died during capture . Live captures fell dramatically in the 1990s , and by 1999 , about 40 % of the 48 animals on display in the world were captive @-@ born .
Organizations such as World Animal Protection and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society campaign against the practice of keeping them in captivity . In captivity , they often develop pathologies , such as the dorsal fin collapse seen in 60 – 90 % of captive males . Captives have vastly reduced life expectancies , on average only living into their 20s . In the wild , females who survive infancy live 46 years on average , and up to 70 – 80 years in rare cases . Wild males who survive infancy live 31 years on average , and up to 50 – 60 years . Captivity usually bears little resemblance to wild habitat , and captive whales ' social groups are foreign to those found in the wild . Critics claim captive life is stressful due to these factors and the requirement to perform circus tricks that are not part of wild killer whale behaviour , see above . Wild killer whales may travel up to 160 kilometres ( 100 mi ) in a day , and critics say the animals are too big and intelligent to be suitable for captivity . Captives occasionally act aggressively towards themselves , their tankmates , or humans , which critics say is a result of stress . Between 1991 and 2010 , the bull orca known as Tilikum was involved in the death of three people , and was featured in the critically acclaimed 2013 film , Blackfish . Tilikum has lived at SeaWorld since 1992 .
A 2015 study coauthored by staff at SeaWorld and the Minnesota Zoo indicates that there is no significant difference in survivorship between free @-@ ranging and captive killer whales . The authors speculate about the future utility of studying captive populations for the purposes of understanding orca biology and the implications of such research of captive animals in the overall health of both wild and marine park populations . The study has been criticised by Dr Trevor Willis , senior lecture in marine biology at the University of Portsmouth , who stated that the study is misleading , " clearly wrong " and indicative of " poor practice " . He said that this is the case because it compares swimming pools to the wild ocean and the extrapolates the survival rates of calves to life expectancy in adulthood .
= = Gallery = =
Orcinus orca on Wikimedia Commons .
= James Tod =
Lieutenant @-@ Colonel James Tod ( 20 March 1782 – 18 November 1835 ) was an English @-@ born officer of the British East India Company and an Oriental scholar . He combined his official role and his amateur interests to create a series of works about the history and geography of India , and in particular the area then known as Rajputana that corresponds to the present day state of Rajasthan , and which Tod referred to as Rajas 'han .
Tod was born in London and educated in Scotland . He joined the East India Company as a military officer and travelled to India in 1799 as a cadet in the Bengal Army . He rose quickly in rank , eventually becoming captain of an escort for an envoy in a Sindian royal court . After the Third Anglo @-@ Maratha War , during which Tod was involved in the intelligence department , he was appointed Political Agent for some areas of Rajputana . His task was to help unify the region under the control of the East India Company . During this period Tod conducted most of the research that he would later publish . Tod was initially successful in his official role , but his methods were questioned by other members of the East India Company . Over time , his work was restricted and his areas of oversight were significantly curtailed . In 1823 , owing to declining health and reputation , Tod resigned his post as Political Agent and returned to England .
Back home in England , Tod published a number of academic works about Indian history and geography , most notably Annals and Antiquities of Rajas 'han , based on materials collected during his travels . He retired from the military in 1826 , and married Julia Clutterbuck that same year . He died in 1835 , aged 53 .
Tod 's major works have been criticised as containing significant inaccuracies and bias , but he is highly regarded in some areas of India , particularly in communities whose ancestors he praised . His accounts of the Rajputs and of India in general had a significant effect on British views of the area for many years .
= = Life and career = =
Tod was born in Islington , London , on 20 March 1782 . He was the second son for his parents , James and Mary ( née Heatly ) , both of whom came from families of " high standing " , according to his major biographer , the historian Jason Freitag . He was educated in Scotland , whence his ancestors came , although precisely where he was schooled is unknown . Those ancestors included people who had fought with the King of Scots , Robert the Bruce ; he took pride in this fact and had an acute sense of what he perceived to be the chivalric values of those times .
As with many people of Scots descent who sought adventure and success at that time , Tod joined the British East India Company and initially spent some time studying at the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich . He left England for India in 1799 and in doing so followed in the footsteps of various other members of his family , including his father , although Tod senior had not been in the Company but had instead owned an indigo plantation at Mirzapur . The young Tod journeyed as a cadet in the Bengal Army , appointment to which position was at the time reliant upon patronage . He was appointed lieutenant in May 1800 and in 1805 was able to arrange his posting as a member of the escort to a family friend who had been appointed as Envoy and Resident to a Sindian royal court . By 1813 he had achieved promotion to the rank of captain and was commanding the escort .
Rather than being situated permanently in one place , the royal court was moved around the kingdom . Tod undertook various topographical and geological studies as it travelled from one area to another , using his training as an engineer and employing other people to do much of the field work . These studies culminated in 1815 with the production of a map which he presented to the Governor @-@ General , the Marquis of Hastings . This map of " Central India " ( his phrase ) became of strategic importance to the British as they were soon to fight the Third Anglo @-@ Maratha War . During that war , which ran from 1817 to 1818 , Tod acted as a superintendent of the intelligence department and was able to draw on other aspects of regional knowledge which he had acquired while moving around with the court . He also drew up various strategies for the military campaign .
In 1818 he was appointed Political Agent for various states of western Rajputana , in the northwest of India , where the British East India Company had come to amicable arrangements with the Rajput rulers in order to exert indirect control over the area . The anonymous author of the introduction to Tod 's posthumously published book , Travels in Western India , says that
Clothed with this ample authority , he applied himself to the arduous task of endeavouring to repair the ravages of foreign invaders who still lingered in some of the fortresses , to heal the deeper wounds inflicted by intestine feuds , and to reconstruct the framework of society in the disorganised states of Rajas 'han .
Tod continued his surveying work in this physically @-@ challenging , arid and mountainous area . His responsibilities were extended quickly : initially involving himself with the regions of Mewar , Kota , Sirohi and Bundi , he soon added Marwar to his portfolio and in 1821 was also given responsibility for Jaisalmer . These areas were considered a strategic buffer zone against Russian advances from the north which , it was feared , might result in a move into India via the Khyber Pass . Tod believed that to achieve cohesion it was necessary that the Rajput states should contain only Rajput people , with all others being expelled . This would assist in achieving stability in the areas , thus limiting the likelihood of the inhabitants being influenced by outside forces . According to Ramya Sreenivasan , a researcher of religion and caste in early modern Rajasthan and of colonialism , Tod 's " transfers of territory between various chiefs and princes helped to create territorially consolidated states and ' routinised ' political hierarchies . " His successes were plentiful and the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography notes that Tod was
so successful in his efforts to restore peace and confidence that within less than a year some 300 deserted towns and villages were repeopled , trade revived , and , in spite of the abolition of transit duties and the reduction of frontier customs , the state revenue had reached an unprecedented amount . During the next five years Tod earned the respect of the chiefs and people , and was able to rescue more than one princely family , including that of the ranas of Udaipur , from the destitution to which they had been reduced by Maratha raiders .
Tod was not , however , universally respected in the East India Company . His immediate superior , David Ochterlony , was unsettled by Tod 's rapid rise and frequent failure to consult with him . One Rajput prince objected to Tod 's close involvement in the affairs of his state and succeeded in persuading the authorities to remove Marwar from Tod 's area of influence . In 1821 his favouritism towards one party in a princely dispute , contrary to the orders given to him , gave rise to a severe reprimand and a formal restriction of his ability to operate without consulting Ochterlony , as well as the removal of Kota from his charge . Jaisalmer was then taken out of his sphere of influence in 1822 , as official concerns grew regarding his sympathy for the Rajput princes . This and other losses of status , such as the reduction in the size of his escort , caused him to believe that his personal reputation and ability to work successfully in Mewar , by now the one area still left to him , was too diminished to be acceptable . He resigned his role as Political Agent in Mewar later that year , citing ill health . Reginald Heber , the Bishop of Calcutta , commented that
His misfortune was that , in consequence of favouring native princes so much , the government of Calcutta were led to suspect him of corruption , and consequently to narrow his powers and associate other officers with him in his trust , till he was disgusted and resigned his place . They are now satisfied , I believe , that their suspicions were groundless .
In February 1823 , Tod left India for England , having first travelled to Bombay by a circuitous route for his own pleasure .
During the last years of his life Tod talked about India at functions in Paris and elsewhere across Europe . He also became a member of the newly established Royal Asiatic Society in London , for whom he acted for some time as librarian . He suffered an apoplectic fit in 1825 as a consequence of overwork , and retired from his military career in the following year , soon after he had been promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel . His marriage to Julia Clutterbuck ( daughter of Henry Clutterbuck ) in 1826 produced three children – Grant Heatly Tod @-@ Heatly , Edward H. M. Tod and Mary Augusta Tod – but his health , which had been poor for much of his life , was declining . Having lived at Birdhurst , Croydon , from October 1828 , Tod and his family moved to London three years later . He spent much of the last year of his life abroad in an attempt to cure a chest complaint and died on 18 November 1835 soon after his return to England from Italy . The cause of death was an apoplectic fit sustained on the day of his wedding anniversary , although he survived for a further 27 hours . He had moved into a house in Regent 's Park earlier in that year .
= = Worldview = =
According to Theodore Koditschek , whose fields of study include historiography and British imperial history , Tod saw the Rajputs as " natural allies of the British in their struggles against the Mughal and Maratha states " . Norbert Peabody , an anthropologist and historian , has gone further , arguing that " maintaining the active support of groups , like the Rajputs for example , was not only important in meeting the threat of indigenous rivals but also in countering the imperial aspirations of other European powers . " He stated that some of Tod 's thoughts were " implicated in [ British ] colonial policy toward western India for over a century . "
Tod favoured the then @-@ fashionable concept of Romantic nationalism . Influenced by this , he thought that each princely state should be inhabited by only one community and his policies were designed to expel Marathas , Pindaris and other groups from Rajput territories . It also influenced his instigation of treaties that were intended to redraw the territorial boundaries of the various states . The geographical and political boundaries before his time had in some cases been blurred , primarily due to local arrangements based on common kinship , and he wanted a more evident delineation of the entities , He was successful in both of these endeavours .
Tod was unsuccessful in implementing another of his ideas , which was also based on the ideology of Romantic nationalism . He believed that the replacement of Maratha rule with that of the British had resulted in the Rajputs merely swapping the onerous overlordship of one government for that of another . Although he was one of the architects of indirect rule , in which the princes looked after domestic affairs but paid tribute to the British for protection in foreign affairs , he was also a critic of it . He saw the system as one that prevented achievement of true nationhood , and therefore , as Peabody describes , " utterly subversive to the stated goal of preserving them as viable entities . " Tod wrote in 1829 that the system of indirect rule had a tendency to " national degradation " of the Rajput territories and that this undermined them because
Who will dare to urge that a government , which cannot support its internal rule without restriction , can be national ? That without power unshackled and unrestrained by exterior council or espionage , it can maintain its self @-@ respect ? This first of feelings these treaties utterly annihilate . Can we suppose such denationalised allies are to be depended upon in emergencies ? Or , if allowed to retain a spark of their ancient moral inheritance , that it will not be kindled into a flame against us when opportunity offers ?
There was a political aspect to his views : if the British recast themselves as overseers seeking to re @-@ establish lost Rajput nations , then this would at once smooth the relationship between those two parties and distinguish the threatening , denationalising Marathas from the paternal , nation @-@ creating British . It was an argument that had been deployed by others in the European arena , including in relation to the way in which Britain portrayed the imperialism of Napoleonic France as denationalising those countries which it conquered , whereas ( it was claimed ) British imperialism freed people ; William Bentinck , a soldier and statesmen who later in life served as Governor @-@ General of India , noted in 1811 that " Bonaparte made kings ; England makes nations " . However , his arguments in favour of granting sovereignty to the Rajputs failed to achieve that end , although the frontispiece to volume one of his Annals did contain a plea to the then English King George IV to reinstate the " former independence " of the Rajputs .
While he viewed the Muslim Mughals as despotic and the Marathas as predatory , Tod saw the Rajput social systems as being similar to the feudal system of medieval Europe , and their traditions of recounting history through the generations as similar to the clan poets of the Scottish Highlanders . There was , he felt , a system of checks and balances between the ruling princes and their vassal lords , a tendency for feuds and other rivalries , and often a serf @-@ like peasantry . The Rajputs were , in his opinion , on the same developmental trajectory that nations such as Britain had followed . His ingenious use of these viewpoints later enabled him to promote in his books the notion that there was a shared experience between the people of Britain and this community in a distant , relatively unexplored area of the empire . He speculated that there was a common ancestor shared by the Rajputs and Europeans somewhere deep in prehistory and that this might be proven by comparison of the commonality in their history of ideas , such as myth and legend . In this he shared a contemporary aspiration to prove that all communities across the world had a common origin . There was another appeal inherent in a feudal system , and it was not unique to Tod : the historian Thomas R. Metcalf has said that
In an age of industrialism and individualism , of social upheaval and laissez @-@ faire , marked by what were perceived as the horrors of continental revolution and the rationalist excesses of Benthamism , the Middle Ages stood forth as a metaphor for paternalist ideals of social order and proper conduct ... [ T ] he medievalists looked to the ideals of chivalry , such as heroism , honour and generosity , to transcend the selfish calculation of pleasure and pain , and recreate a harmonious and stable society .
Above all , the chivalric ideal viewed character as more worthy of admiration than wealth or intellect , and this appealed to the old landed classes at home as well as to many who worked for the Indian Civil Service .
In the 1880s , Alfred Comyn Lyall , an administrator of the British Raj who also studied history , revisited Tod 's classification and asserted that the Rajput society was in fact tribal , based on kinship rather than feudal vassalage . He had previously generally agreed with Tod , who acknowledged claims that blood @-@ ties played some sort of role in the relationship between princes and vassals in many states . In shifting the emphasis from a feudal to a tribal basis , Lyall was able to deny the possibility that the Rajput kingdoms might gain sovereignty . If Rajput society was not feudal , then it was not on the same trajectory that European nations had followed , thereby forestalling any need to consider that they might evolve into sovereign states . There was thus no need for Britain to consider itself to be illegitimately governing them .
Tod 's enthusiasm for bardic poetry reflected the works of Sir Walter Scott on Scottish subjects , which had a considerable influence both on British literary society and , bearing in mind Tod 's Scottish ancestry , on Tod himself . Tod reconstructed Rajput history on the basis of the ancient texts and folklore of the Rajputs , although not everyone – for example , the polymath James Mill – accepted the historical validity of the native works . Tod also used philological techniques to reconstruct areas of Rajput history that were not even known to the Rajputs themselves , by drawing on works such as the religious texts known as Puranas .
= = Publications = =
Koditschek says that Tod " developed an interest in triangulating local culture , politics and history alongside his maps " , and Metcalf believes that Tod " ordered [ the Rajputs ' ] past as well as their present " while working in India . During his time in Rajputana , Tod was able to collect materials for his Annals and Antiquities of Rajas 'han , which detailed the contemporary geography and history of Rajputana and Central India along with the history of the Rajput clans who ruled most of the area at that time . Described by historian Crispin Bates as " a romantic historical and anecdotal account " and by David Arnold , another historian , as a " travel narrative " by " one of India 's most influential Romantic writers " , the work was published in two volumes , in 1829 and 1832 , and included illustrations and engravings by notable artists such as the Storers , Louis Haghe and either Edward or William Finden . He had to finance publication himself : sales of works on history had been moribund for some time and his name was not particularly familiar either at home or abroad . Original copies are now scarce , but they have been reprinted in many editions . The version published in 1920 , which was edited by the orientalist and folklorist William Crooke , is significantly editorialised .
Freitag has argued that the Annals " is first and foremost a story of the heroes of Rajasthan ... plotted in a certain way – there are villains , glorious acts of bravery , and a chivalric code to uphold " . So dominant did Tod 's work become in the popular and academic mind that they largely replaced the older accounts upon which Tod based much of his content , notably the Prithvirãj Rãjo and the Nainsi ri Khyãt . Kumar Singh , of the Anthropological Survey of India , has explained that the Annals were primarily based on " bardic accounts and personal encounters " and that they " glorified and romanticised the Rajput rulers and their country " but ignored other communities .
One aspect of history that Tod studied in his Annals was the genealogy of the Chathis Rajkula ( 36 royal races ) , for the purpose of which he took advice on linguistic issues from a panel of pandits , including a Jain guru called Yati Gyanchandra . He said that he was " desirous of epitomising the chronicles of the martial races of Central and Western India " and that this necessitated study of their genealogy . The sources for this were Puranas held by the Rana of Udaipur .
Tod also submitted archæological papers to the Royal Asiatic Society 's Transactions series . He was interested in numismatics as well , and he discovered the first specimens of Bactrian and Indo @-@ Greek coins from the Hellenistic period following the conquests of Alexander the Great , which were described in his books . These ancient kingdoms had been largely forgotten or considered semi @-@ legendary , but Tod 's findings confirmed the long @-@ term Greek presence in Afghanistan and Punjab . Similar coins have been found in large quantities since his death .
In addition to these writings , he produced a paper on the politics of Western India that was appended to the report of the House of Commons committee on Indian affairs , 1833 . He had also taken notes on his journey to Bombay and collated them for another book , Travels in Western India . That book was published posthumously in 1839 .
= = Reception = =
Criticism of the Annals came soon after publication . The anonymous author of the introduction to his posthumously published Travels states that
The only portions of this great work which have experienced anything like censure are those of a speculative character , namely , the curious Dissertation on the Feudal System of the Rajpoots , and the passages wherein the Author shows too visible a leaning towards hypotheses identifying persons , as well as customs , manners , and superstitions , in the East and the West , often on the slender basis of etymological affinities .
Further criticism followed . Tod was an officer of the British imperial system , at that time the world 's dominant power . Working in India , he attracted the attention of local rulers who were keen to tell their own tales of defiance against the Mughal empire . He heard what they told him but knew little of what they omitted . He was a soldier writing about a caste renowned for its martial abilities , and he was aided in his writings by the very people whom he was documenting . He had been interested in Rajput history prior to coming into contact with them in an official capacity , as administrator of the region in which they lived . These factors , says Freitag , contribute to why the Annals were " manifestly biased " . Freitag argues that critics of Tod 's literary output can be split into two groups : those who concentrate on his errors of fact and those who concentrate on his failures of interpretation .
Tod relied heavily on existing Indian texts for his historical information and most of these are today considered unreliable . Crooke 's introduction to Tod 's 1920 edition of the Annals recorded that the old Indian texts recorded " the facts , not as they really occurred , but as the writer and his contemporaries supposed that they occurred . " Crooke also says that Tod 's " knowledge of ethnology was imperfect , and he was unable to reject the local chronicles of the Rajputs . " More recently , Robin Donkin , a historian and geographer , has argued that , with one exception , " there are no native literary works with a developed sense of chronology , or indeed much sense of place , before the thirteenth century " , and that researchers must rely on the accounts of travellers from outside the country .
Tod 's work relating to the genealogy of the Chathis Rajkula was criticised as early as 1872 , when an anonymous reviewer in the Calcutta Review said that
It seems a pity that Tod 's classification of 36 royal races should be accepted as anything but a purely ornamental arrangement , founded as it was on lists differing considerably both in the numbers and names of the tribes included in it , and containing at least two tribes , the Jats and Gujars , with whom the Rajputs do not even generally intermarry .
Other examples of dubious interpretations made by Tod include his assertions regarding the ancestry of the Mohil Rajput clan when , even today , there is insufficient evidence to prove his point . He also mistook Rana Kumbha , a ruler of Mewar in the fifteenth century , as being the husband of the princess @-@ saint Mira Bai and misrepresented the story of the queen Padmini . The founder of the Archaeological Survey of India , Alexander Cunningham , writing in 1885 , noted that Tod had made " a whole bundle of mistakes " in relation to the dating of the Battle of Khanwa , and Crooke notes in his introduction to the 1920 edition that Tod 's " excursions into philology are the diversions of a clever man , not of a trained scholar , but interested in the subject as an amateur . " Michael Meister , an architectural historian and professor of South Asia Studies , has commented that Tod had a " general reputation for inaccuracy ... among Indologists by late in the nineteenth century " , although the opinion of those Indologists sometimes prevented them from appreciating some of the useful aspects in his work . That reputation persists , with one modern writer , V. S. Srivastava of Rajasthan 's Department of Archaeology and Museums , commenting that his works " are erroneous and misleading at places and they are to be used with caution as a part of sober history " . In its time , Tod 's work was influential even among officials of the government , although it was never formally recognised as authoritative . Andrea Major , who is a cultural and colonial historian , has commented on a specific example , that of the tradition of sati ( ritual immolation of a widow ) :
The overly romanticised image of Rajasthan , and of the Rajput sati , that Tod presented came to be extremely influential in shaping British understanding of the rite 's Rajput context . Though Tod does make a point of denouncing sati as a cruel and barbarous custom , his words are belied by his treatment of the subject in the rest of the Annals . ... Tod 's image of the Rajput sati as the heroic equivalent of the Rajput warrior was one that caught the public imagination and which exhibited surprising longevity .
The romantic nationalism that Tod espoused was used by Indian nationalist writers , especially those from the 1850s , as they sought to resist British control of the country . Works such as Jyotirindranath Tagore 's Sarojini ba Chittor Akrama and Girishchandra Ghosh 's Ananda Raho retold Tod 's vision of the Rajputs in a manner to further their cause . Other works which drew their story from Tod 's works include Padmini Upakhyan ( 1858 ) by Rangalal Banerjee and Krishna Kumari ( 1861 ) by Michael Madhusudan Dutt .
In modern @-@ day India , he is still revered by those whose ancestors he documented in good light . In 1997 , the Maharana Mewar Charitable Foundation instituted an award named after Tod and intended it to be given to modern non @-@ Indian writers who exemplified Tod 's understanding of the area and its people . In other recognition of his work in Mewar Province , a village has been named Todgarh , and it has been claimed that Tod was in fact a Rajput as an outcome of the process of karma and rebirth . Freitag describes the opinion of the Rajput people
Tod , here , is not about history as such , but is a repository for " truth " and " splendor " ... The danger , therefore , is that the old received wisdom – evident and expressed in the work of people like Tod – will not be challenged at all , but will become much more deeply ingrained .
Furthermore , Freitag points out that " the information age has also anointed Tod as the spokesman for Rajasthan , and the glories of India in general , as attested by the prominent quotations from him that appear in tourism related websites . "
= = Works = =
Published works by James Tod include :
Tod , James ( 1824 ) . " Translation of a Sanscrit Inscription , Relative to the Last Hindu King of Delhi , with Comments Thereon " . Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ( London : Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ) 1 ( 1 ) : 133 – 154 .
Tod , James ( 1826 ) . " Comments on an Inscription upon Marble , at Madhucarghar ; And Three Grants Inscribed on Copper , Found at Ujjayani " . Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ( London : Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ) 1 ( 2 ) : 207 – 229 .
Tod , James ( 1826 ) . " An Account of Greek , Parthian , and Hindu Medals , Found in India " . Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ( London : Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ) 1 ( 2 ) : 313 – 342 .
Tod , James ( 1829 ) . " On the Religious Establishments of Mewar " . Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ( London : Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ) 2 ( 1 ) : 270 – 325 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0950473700001415 .
Tod , James ( 1829 ) . " Remarks on Certain Sculptures in the Cave Temples of Ellora " . Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ( London : Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ) 2 ( 1 ) : 328 – 339 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0950473700001439 .
Tod , James ( 1829 ) . Annals and Antiquities of Rajast 'han or the Central and Western Rajpoot States of India , Volume 1 . London : Smith , Elder .
Tod , James ( 1830 ) . " Observations on a Gold Ring of Hindu Fabrication found at Montrose in Scotland " . Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ( London : Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ) 2 ( 2 ) : 559 – 571 .
Tod , James ( 1831 ) . " Comparison of the Hindu and Theban Hercules , illustrated by an ancient Hindu Intaglio " . Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ( London : Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ) 3 ( 1 ) : 139 – 159 .
Tod , James ( 1832 ) . Annals and Antiquities of Rajast 'han or the Central and Western Rajpoot States of India , Volume 2 . London : Smith , Elder .
Tod , James ( 1839 ) . Travels in Western India . London : W. H. Allen .
= = = Later editions = = =
Tod , James ( 1920 ) . Crooke , William , ed . Annals and Antiquities of Rajast 'han or the Central and Western Rajpoot States of India 1 . London : Humphrey Milford / Oxford University Press .
Tod , James ( 1920 ) . Crooke , William , ed . Annals and Antiquities of Rajast 'han or the Central and Western Rajpoot States of India 2 . London : Humphrey Milford / Oxford University Press .
Tod , James ( 1920 ) . Crooke , William , ed . Annals and Antiquities of Rajast 'han or the Central and Western Rajpoot States of India 3 . London : Humphrey Milford / Oxford University Press .
= Connecticut @-@ class battleship =
The Connecticut @-@ class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships were the penultimate class of the type built for the United States Navy . The class comprised six ships : Connecticut , Louisiana , Vermont , Kansas , Minnesota , and New Hampshire , which were built between 1903 and 1908 . The ships were armed with a mixed offensive battery of 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) , 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) , and 7 @-@ inch ( 180 mm ) guns . This arrangement was rendered obsolete by the advent of all @-@ big @-@ gun battleships like the British HMS Dreadnought , which was completed before most of the Connecticuts entered service .
Nevertheless , the ships had active careers . The first five ships took part in the cruise of the Great White Fleet in 1907 – 1909 — New Hampshire had not entered service . From 1909 onward , they served as the workhorses of the US Atlantic Fleet , conducting training exercises and showing the flag in Europe and Central America . As unrest broke out in several Central American countries in the 1910s , the ships became involved in police actions in the region . The most significant was the American intervention in the Mexican Revolution during the occupation of Veracruz in April 19
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During the American participation in World War I , the Connecticut @-@ class ships were used to train sailors for an expanding wartime fleet . In late 1918 , they began to escort convoys to Europe , and in September that year , Minnesota was badly damaged by a mine laid by a German U @-@ boat . After the war , they were used to bring American soldiers back from France and later as training ships . The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , which mandated major reductions in naval weapons , cut the ships ' careers short . Within two years , all six ships had been sold for scrap .
= = Design = =
The United States ' victory in the Spanish – American War in 1898 before had a dramatic impact on battleship design , as the question of the role of the fleet — namely , whether it should be focused on coastal defense or high seas operations — had been solved . The fleet 's ability to conduct offensive operations overseas showed the necessity of a powerful fleet of battleships . As a result , the US Congress was willing to authorize much larger ships . Design work on what would become the Connecticut class began in 1901 . The Secretary of the Navy submitted a request for a new battleship design on 6 March to the Board on Construction . Among the issues considered was the composition and placement of the secondary battery . The preceding design , the Virginia class , placed some of its secondary guns in fixed turrets atop the main battery turrets as a way to save weight . The Board disliked the arrangement , as some members argued that guns in casemates could be fired faster . Additionally , the Virginias had mounted a mixed secondary battery of 6 in ( 152 mm ) and 8 in ( 203 mm ) guns ; the Bureau of Ordnance ( BuOrd ) had recently introduced a quick @-@ firing 7 in ( 178 mm ) gun , which was more powerful than the 6 in and fired faster than the 8 in .
The initial version of the Connecticut design , proposed by BuOrd , featured a secondary battery of twenty @-@ four 7 in guns with the same number of 3 in ( 76 mm ) guns for defense against torpedo boats . The armor layout was more comprehensive but thinner , and displacement rose to 15 @,@ 560 long tons ( 15 @,@ 810 t ) . BuOrd determined that a longer and finer hull shape , coupled with a small increase in engine power , would maintain the standard speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . The Bureau of Construction and Repair ( C & R ) proposed a ship more closely based on the Virginias , with the same two @-@ story turrets and mixed 6- and 8 @-@ inch secondary battery , on a displacement of 15 @,@ 860 long tons ( 16 @,@ 110 t ) . This design featured only eight 3 in guns , which was deemed wholly insufficient to defend the ship from small craft .
In November , the Board agreed to a compromise design that incorporated a secondary battery of eight 8 in guns in four twin turrets amidships and twelve 7 in guns in casemates . The decision to retain the 8 in guns was made in large part due to American experiences in the Spanish – American War three years before . US Navy officers had been impressed with the performance of the gun at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba ; despite scoring only 13 hits out of 309 shells fired , the gun had a flat trajectory and good range for its size . Armor protection was improved over the BuOrd design , with a thicker armored belt and casemate protection , albeit at the expense of thinner armor covering the barbettes that supported the gun turrets . The designers reasoned that since the barbettes were behind the belt and a transverse bulkhead , weight could be saved by reducing the level of direct protection .
The last four ships , starting with Vermont , received slightly improved armor protection , with the last vessel — New Hampshire — having further improvements . As a result , they are sometimes referred to as the Vermont class . The six Connecticut @-@ class ships were the most powerful pre @-@ dreadnought type battleship built by the US Navy , and they compared well with contemporary foreign designs . They were nevertheless rendered obsolescent almost immediately due to the advent of the " all @-@ big @-@ gun " battleship epitomized by the British HMS Dreadnought . Two follow @-@ on ships , the Mississippi class , were built at the same time to a design based on the Connecticuts but significantly reduced in size .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The Connecticut @-@ class ships were 450 feet ( 140 m ) long at the waterline and 456 ft 4 in ( 139 @.@ 09 m ) long overall . They had a beam of 76 ft 10 in ( 23 @.@ 42 m ) and a draft of 24 ft 6 in ( 7 @.@ 47 m ) . Freeboard forward was 20 ft 6 in ( 6 @.@ 25 m ) . They displaced 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 000 t ) as designed and up to 17 @,@ 666 long tons ( 17 @,@ 949 t ) at full load . The ships had a flush deck , and they were better sea boats than preceding designs , many of which had poor stability . The Connecticut class had a metacentric height of 4 @.@ 62 feet ( 1 @.@ 41 m ) . As built , the ships were fitted with two heavy military masts , but these were quickly replaced by lattice masts in 1909 . They had a crew of 42 officers and 785 men .
The ships were powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines , with steam provided by twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The engines were rated at 16 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 300 kW ) and generated a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The boilers were trunked into three closely spaced funnels amidships . The first five ships were equipped with eight 100 @-@ kilowatt ( 130 hp ) electricity generators , while New Hampshire had four of these generators and two 200 kW ( 270 hp ) units . All of the ships had a combined output of 800 kW ( 1 @,@ 100 hp ) ; this was the highest output in any American warship then built . Steering was controlled with a single rudder . The ships ' turning radius was 620 yards ( 570 m ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
On trials , the ships exceeded their design speed slightly , with Minnesota being the fastest , at 18 @.@ 85 knots ( 34 @.@ 91 km / h ; 21 @.@ 69 mph ) . The ships carried 900 long tons ( 910 t ) of coal normally , but additional spaces could be used for coal bunkers , with storage capacity ranging between 2 @,@ 249 to 2 @,@ 405 long tons ( 2 @,@ 285 to 2 @,@ 444 t ) for each ship . At a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , the ships could steam for 6 @,@ 620 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 260 km ; 7 @,@ 620 mi ) , though New Hampshire 's engines were more efficient , allowing her to steam for 7 @,@ 590 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 060 km ; 8 @,@ 730 mi ) at the same speed .
= = = Armament = = =
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch / 45 Mark 5 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft , as was typical for battleships of the period . The guns fired a 870 @-@ pound ( 390 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 feet per second ( 820 m / s ) . The turrets were Mark VI mounts , which allowed for reloading at all angles of elevation . These mounts could elevate to 20 degrees and depress to -5 degrees . Each gun was supplied with sixty shells . New Hampshire 's magazines were rearranged compared to her sisters , which allowed for her to carry 20 percent more 12- and 7 @-@ inch shells , though under normal conditions she carried the same load .
The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) / 45 guns and twelve 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) / 45 guns ; this mixed battery proved to be problematic , as shell splashes from the two types could not be distinguished . The 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted in four twin Mark XII turrets amidships and the 7 @-@ inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull . The 8 @-@ inch guns were the Mark VI type , and they fired 260 lb ( 120 kg ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 750 ft / s ( 840 m / s ) . The 7 @-@ inch Mark I guns fired a 165 lb ( 75 kg ) shell at 2 @,@ 700 ft / s . These guns were later removed during World War I and converted for use on tracked gun carriages in France . The outfit per gun was 100 shells for both types .
For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , they carried twenty 3 @-@ inch / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3 @-@ pounder guns . They also carried four 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , the Connecticut class carried four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in their hulls on the broadside . Each ship carried a total of 16 torpedoes . They were initially equipped with the Mark I Bliss @-@ Leavitt design , but these were quickly replaced with Mark II , designed in 1905 . The Mark II carried a 207 pounds ( 94 kg ) warhead and had a range of 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) at a speed of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The first two ships ' main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick over the machinery spaces and reduced to 9 in ( 229 mm ) abreast of the main battery turrets . This portion of the belt was 200 ft ( 61 m ) long and 9 feet 3 inches ( 3 m ) wide . On either end of the ship , the belt then thinned , first to 7 in , then to 5 in ( 127 mm ) and finally to 4 in ( 102 mm ) at the bow and stern . The last four ships ' belts were reduced to 9 in between the main battery . The armored deck was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick amidships , where it was partially protected by the belt and casemate armor . It had 3 in thick sloped sides , which connected to the bottom edge of the belt . The deck was increased to 3 in forward and aft , where it was directly exposed to shellfire , also with 3 in thick sloped sides . New Hampshire 's belt was slightly shortened to permit a thicker deck over the magazines . Each ship 's conning tower had 9 in ( 229 mm ) thick sides and a 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick roof .
The main battery gun turrets had 11 in thick faces , with 9 in thick sides and 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) thick roofs . The supporting barbettes had the 10 in ( 254 mm ) of armor plating , reduced to 6 in ( 152 mm ) . The secondary turrets had 6 @.@ 5 in ( 165 mm ) of frontal armor , with 6 in on the sides and 2 in on the roofs . Their barbettes were given 6 in of armor plating on the outboard sides and 4 in inboard . The casemates for the 7 in guns were 7 in thick and below the gun ports , the casemates reduced slightly to 6 in . For the last four ships , the savings in weight gained by reducing the thickness of the belt were used to increase the lower casement armor to 7 in . Those for the 3 in guns were 2 in thick . The 7 in guns were divided by splinter bulkheads that were 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 to 64 mm ) thick to prevent one shell hit from disabling multiple guns .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
All six ships of the class served with the Atlantic Fleet for the duration of their careers . The first five ships took part in the cruise of the Great White Fleet in 1907 – 09 . The fleet left Hampton Roads on 16 December 1907 and steamed south , around South America and back north to the US west coast . The ships then crossed the Pacific and stopped in Australia , the Philippines , and Japan before continuing on through the Indian Ocean . They transited the Suez Canal and toured the Mediterranean before crossing the Atlantic , arriving bank in Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 . New Hampshire , which had not been completed in time to take part in the journey , met the fleet there during a naval review with President Theodore Roosevelt .
The ships then began a peacetime training routine off the east coast of the United States and the Caribbean , including gunnery training off the Virginia Capes , training cruises in the Atlantic , and winter exercises in Cuban waters . In late 1909 , all six ships crossed the Atlantic to visit British and French ports . Louisiana and Kansas made another trip to Europe in early 1911 . As political unrest began to erupt in several Central American countries in the 1910s , the ships became increasingly active in the region . All six ships became involved in the Mexican Revolution , including the occupation of Veracruz in April 1914 ; Vermont and New Hampshire were among the ships that contributed landing parties to the initial occupation of the city . Several men from the two ships were awarded the Medal of Honor during the action .
In July 1914 , World War I broke out in Europe ; the United States remained neutral for the first three years of the war . Tensions with Germany came to a head in early 1917 following the German unrestricted submarine warfare campaign , which sank several American merchant ships in European waters . On 6 April 1917 , the United States declared war on Germany . The Connecticut @-@ class ships initially were used for training gunners and engine room personnel that would be necessary for the rapidly expanding wartime fleet . In June 1918 , New Hampshire and Louisiana were involved in a serious gunnery accident , where gunners aboard the former accidentally hit the latter , killing one and injuring several other men . The following month , Louisiana was used to test Arthur Pollen 's Argo Clock , the first fire control system to use an analog computer to calculate firing solutions .
From late 1918 , the ships were used to escort convoys part @-@ way across the Atlantic . In late September , Minnesota struck a naval mine laid by the German U @-@ boat U @-@ 117 , causing serious damage that kept her out of service for five months . Convoy duty was cut short by the German surrender in November ; thereafter , the Connecticuts were used to ferry American soldiers back from the battlefields of France . This work was completed by mid @-@ 1919 . The ships briefly operated as training ships in the early 1920s , though under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty , they were all sold for scrap by 1924 and broken up .
= Delaware Route 9 =
Delaware Route 9 ( DE 9 ) is a 58 @.@ 18 @-@ mile ( 93 @.@ 63 km ) state highway that connects DE 1 at the Dover Air Force Base in Kent County to DE 2 in the city of Wilmington in New Castle County . DE 9 is a designated scenic highway known as the Delaware 's Bayshore Byway south of New Castle , running through mostly rural areas to the west of the Delaware Bay and the Delaware River as a two @-@ lane undivided road . Between New Castle and Wilmington , DE 9 is a four @-@ lane road that runs through urban and suburban areas . DE 9 passes through several cities and towns including Little Creek , Leipsic , Port Penn , Delaware City , and New Castle . DE 9 has a suffixed route , DE 9A , that provides access to the Port of Wilmington . In addition , it has a truck route , DE 9 Truck , located to the south of New Castle .
DE 9 was first designated by 1936 to run from US 113 ( now DE 1 ) southeast of Dover north to US 13 in Smyrna , following its current alignment to Leipsic and Smyrna @-@ Leipsic Road to Smyrna . In the 1950s , the road was extended to US 13 Alt . ( now US 13 ) in Wilmington , in which it was rerouted at Leipsic to follow its current alignment to Wilmington . DE 9 was extended further north to DE 2 by the 1970s . The route was rerouted to bypass downtown New Castle in the 1980s . The intersection with DE 1 was reconstructed into an interchange in 2009 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Dover Air Force Base to Delaware City = = =
DE 9 begins at an interchange with DE 1 just south of the toll road terminus at the south end of Dover Air Force Base near Dover in Kent County . Past DE 1 , the route heads north @-@ northeast on two @-@ lane undivided Bayside Drive . DE 9 soon reaches an intersection with Kitts Hummock Road , which leads east to the John Dickinson Plantation and the community of Kitts Hummock on the Delaware Bay . Following this , the route passes between the runways of Dover Air Force Base to the west and fields to the east . Along this stretch , an access road leads west to the Air Mobility Command Museum on the base grounds . After the air base , the road continues north through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes to the west of the Little Creek Wildlife Area .
DE 9 crosses the marshy Little River and enters the town of Little Creek , where it becomes Main Street and is lined with residences . The route comes to an intersection with the eastern terminus of DE 8 as it leaves Little Creek and becomes Bayside Drive again . The road continues northwest through farmland with some trees and homes , passing to the southwest of Octagonal Schoolhouse before heading through the community of Cowgills Corner . Past this intersection , the route runs southwest of Chandelle Estates Airport . DE 9 curves to the north and enters the town of Leipsic . At this point , the route turns northwest onto Denny Street and runs past homes and businesses , curving north to intersect the eastern terminus of DE 42 .
DE 9 heads into marshland and crosses the Leipsic River on a high @-@ level bridge , leaving Leipsic . Here , the road becomes Smyrna @-@ Leipsic Road and enters agricultural areas with some woods and homes . Smyrna @-@ Leipsic Road curves to the northwest and the route continues north on Hay Point Landing Road , running to the west of the Bombay Hook National Wildlife Refuge , where the Allee House is located . DE 9 comes to an intersection with DE 6 as it passes through the Woodland Beach Wildlife Area , turning to the northwest as it heads through a mix of woods and marshland . The road continues to a high @-@ level bridge over the Smyrna River .
Upon crossing the Smyrna River , DE 9 enters New Castle County and becomes Fleming Landing Road , passing through agricultural areas with some woods to the west of the Cedar Swamp Wildlife Area . The road runs to the north before curving northwest again . The route turns west onto Taylors Bridge Road and crosses the marshy Blackbird Creek . DE 9 curves to the north @-@ northwest and passes through more rural areas with some residential subdivisions to the west . The route heads to the northwest before turning northeast onto Thomas Corner Road in Mathews Corners , with DE 299 continuing northwest on Taylors Bridge Road .
DE 9 runs between farmland to the north and housing developments to the south prior to turning north onto Silver Run Road . The road curves northeast through agricultural areas before entering marshland and crossing the Appoquinimink River . After this , the route turns north to remain on Silver Run Road and passes through areas of farms , woods , and wetlands in the Augustine Wildlife Area a short distance to the west of the Delaware River . DE 9 turns east onto Bayview Road before turning north onto St. Augustine Road and following the west bank of the Delaware River . The road reaches the community of Port Penn , where it is lined with homes . In Port Penn , the route turns west onto Market Street before turning north onto Delaware City Port Penn Road near the Port Penn Interpretive Center .
Upon leaving Port Penn , DE 9 heads through marshland with some fields and woods within the Augustine Wildlife Area . The route rises onto the Reedy Point Bridge , which carries it over the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal . After crossing over the canal , the road crosses over Fort DuPont State Park , curving northwest and passing to the southwest of Fort DuPont and the Governor Bacon Health Center . DE 9 continues into Delaware City and becomes 5th Street , crossing the Delaware City Channel on a drawbridge . Past the drawbridge , the road heads through residential areas of the city .
= = = Delaware City to Wilmington = = =
Upon leaving Delaware City , DE 9 continues west as Wrangle Hill Road , passing between the Delaware City Refinery to the north and farm fields to the south . The route turns north onto River Road to head into the oil refinery complex , with DE 72 continuing west on Wrangle Hill Road . Within the oil refinery , the road crosses Norfolk Southern 's Reybold Running Track railroad line . DE 9 leaves the industrial area upon crossing marshy Red Lion Creek and continues into a mix of fields , woods , and marshland , with DE 9 Truck heading northwest on Hamburg Road . At this point , the route turns to the northeast and passes between Ommelanden Park to the west and the Ommelanden Hunter Training Center to the east before running between residential subdivisions to the west and the northern training grounds for the Delaware National Guard to the east . DE 9 passes through wooded areas with some homes before continuing into industrial areas and crossing a railroad spur . The road continues into marshland immediately to the northwest of the Delaware River before entering New Castle .
At this point , DE 9 becomes West 7th Street and passes and industrial development . The route turns north @-@ northwest onto Washington Street and crosses Norfolk Southern 's New Castle Secondary railroad line , heading into residential areas . DE 9 comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 141 and the eastern terminus of DE 273 , at which point DE 9 Truck returns to the route by way of DE 273 . Here , DE 9 turns east onto Delaware Street and is signed concurrent with DE 273 , even though this portion of road is officially not DE 273 . The road carries one eastbound lane and two westbound lanes . The route narrows back to two lanes and crosses the New Castle Industrial Track Trail before it heads across the Norfolk Southern line again , at which point it turns east @-@ northeast onto Ferry Cut Off Street near the New Castle Historic District . The road passes homes and businesses before intersecting East 6th Street , where DE 273 signage ends .
Here , DE 9 turns northeast onto East 6th Street , crossing a marshy creek and widening into a four @-@ lane divided highway . The route curves north and becomes Wilmington Road , passing through commercial areas . The road crosses the Norfolk Southern New Castle Secondary again and runs through suburban residential neighborhoods and businesses , leaving New Castle . DE 9 becomes New Castle Avenue and passes to the west of Veterans Memorial Park before it comes to an interchange with I @-@ 295 / US 40 a short distance to the west of the Delaware Memorial Bridge . After the Rogers Road intersection , DE 9 becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road that continues through industrial and residential areas , crossing under I @-@ 495 . The road briefly becoming a divided highway again and intersects the southern terminus of DE 9A , which heads east to provide access to I @-@ 495 and the Port of Wilmington .
After DE 9A , DE 9 enters Wilmington and heads through urban areas as an undivided road , crossing Norfolk Southern 's Shellpot Branch before intersecting the northbound direction of US 13 . At this point , DE 9 splits into a one @-@ way pair with the northbound direction becoming concurrent with northbound US 13 on one @-@ way New Castle Avenue and the southbound direction following southbound US 13 on South Heald Street , briefly turning east along with northbound US 13 on D Street at the south end of the one @-@ way pair . The one @-@ way pair , which carries two lanes in each direction , passes rowhomes and businesses , with New Castle Avenue merging onto South Heald Street . Here , US 13 / DE 9 continue north @-@ northeast on four @-@ lane undivided South Heald Street , coming to an intersection with the northern terminus of DE 9A .
Following this , the road becomes East 4th Street and heads north @-@ northwest across the Christina River on a drawbridge . US 13 / DE 9 curves northwest and passes under Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line , at which point northbound US 13 splits from the road by turning northeast on North Church Street . A block later , the concurrency between DE 9 and southbound US 13 ends at the point where southbound US 13 joins the road from North Spruce Street . DE 9 continues northwest through residential and commercial areas as a four @-@ lane undivided road , entering downtown Wilmington . Here , it intersects US 13 Bus . , which is routed on the one @-@ way pair of North Walnut Street northbound and North King Street southbound . In between these two streets , the road runs to the south of the New Castle County Court House .
Upon crossing North Market Street , the route becomes West 4th Street and passes to the north of the Wilmington Campus of Delaware Technical Community College . DE 9 continues into residential areas and crosses under I @-@ 95 / US 202 , with access to that road provided by northbound North Adams Street and southbound North Jackson Street . Past this , the road heads through more of the city before reaching the Little Italy neighborhood . Here , DE 9 intersects the eastbound direction of DE 2 ( North Lincoln Street ) before coming to its northern terminus at the westbound direction of DE 2 ( North Union Street ) .
Much of DE 9 is designated as part of the Delaware Byways system . From the southern terminus north to New Castle , DE 9 is designated as the Delaware 's Bayshore Byway ( formerly Route 9 Coastal Heritage Byway ) , a road that is noted for following the Delaware River and Delaware Bay shoreline . The sections of the route between DE 299 east of Odessa and 7th Street southwest of New Castle , Wilmington Road north of New Castle and A Street in Wilmington , and along 4th Street in Wilmington between Swedes Landing Road and US 13 Bus. and Market and West streets are part of the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Byway . DE 9 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 19 @,@ 064 vehicles at the intersection between East 6th Street and New Castle Avenue in New Castle to a low of 258 vehicles at the intersection with Cedar Swamp Road in southeastern New Castle County . The portion of DE 9 concurrent with DE 273 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
The section of the present route between New Castle and Wilmington was constructed as the New Castle and Wilmington Turnpike , a private turnpike , in 1813 . What would become DE 9 originally existed as a county road by 1920 . Four years later , the road between Leipsic and Smyrna was upgraded to a state highway . In addition , the current alignment of DE 9 around Taylors Bridge and between Delaware City and Wilmington was paved . In 1931 , what would become DE 9 was upgraded to a state highway between Bay Road and Little Creek and between Port Penn and Delaware City . A year later , the road became a state highway between Delaware City and Wilmington . By this time , what would become DE 9 between Little Creek and Leipsic was upgraded to a state highway .
DE 9 was designated to run from US 113 ( now DE 1 ) west of Kitts Hummock north to US 13 in Smyrna by 1936 , following its current alignment to Leipsic and Smyrna @-@ Leipsic Road to Smyrna . By 1942 , what is now DE 9 between the Taylors Bridge area and Port Penn was paved . In 1956 , New Castle Avenue was widened to a four @-@ lane divided highway between Landers Lane and Rogers Corner .
DE 9 was extended north to US 13 Alt . ( now US 13 ) in Wilmington by 1959 , being rerouted off Smyrna @-@ Leipsic Road to follow its current alignment to New Castle , passing through that city on 6th Street before continuing along its current alignment to Wilmington . At this point , the entire route was paved . The current Reedy Point Bridge carrying DE 9 over the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal was completed in 1968 . By 1971 , DE 9 was extended north to its current terminus at DE 2 . DE 9 was realigned to bypass New Castle by 1984 by following Washington Street and DE 273 . The intersection at the southern terminus with DE 1 was rebuilt into an interchange in 2009 .
The Delaware State Highway Department recommended that DE 9 along the Delaware Bay and Delaware River be designated a scenic highway as far back as 1965 . In 2007 , the Route 9 Coastal Heritage Byway was nominated and designated as a Delaware Scenic and Historic Highway .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Bannered and suffixed routes = =
= = = DE 9A = = =
Delaware Route 9A ( DE 9A ) is a two- to four @-@ lane road in Wilmington , Delaware that serves as the primary access route to the Port of Wilmington as well as provide access to I @-@ 495 . The official designation of the route runs 0 @.@ 78 miles ( 1 @.@ 26 km ) along Terminal Avenue between DE 9 and the Port of Wilmington , interchanging with I @-@ 495 . Signage has the route continuing north along Christiana Avenue to an intersection with US 13 and DE 9 for a total length of 2 @.@ 0 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . Christiana Avenue originally became a state highway by 1924 becoming a part of US 40 that connected to a ferry across the Delaware River to Penns Grove , New Jersey in 1926 . US 40 was removed from this road by 1931 and it later became part of DE 48 by 1936 . DE 48 was subsequently removed by 1952 following the discontinuance of the ferry in 1949 . DE 9A was designated by 1971 .
= = = DE 9 Truck = = =
Delaware Route 9 Truck ( DE 9 Truck ) is a truck bypass of a stretch of DE 9 south of New Castle . It heads northwest from DE 9 on two @-@ lane undivided Hamburg Road , passing through farmland with some development . In Tybouts Corner , the truck route turns northeast to join US 13 on the four @-@ lane divided South Dupont Highway . The road passes through farmland with some residential and commercial development . Farther north , the road heads into business areas , passing under Norfolk Southern 's New Castle Secondary railroad line before intersecting US 40 in State Road . At this point , US 40 joins US 13 and DE 9 Truck , with the road widening to eight lanes . In Hares Corner , DE 9 Truck turns east to follow DE 273 on two @-@ lane undivided Frenchtown Road , heading east between business parks to the south and farm fields to the north . DE 9 Truck ends along with DE 273 at an intersection with DE 9 and the southern terminus of DE 141 west of New Castle .
Major intersections
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Philip the Arab and Christianity =
Philip the Arab was one of the few 3rd @-@ century Roman emperors sympathetic to Christians , although his relationship with Christianity is obscure and controversial . Philip was born in Auranitis , an Arab district east of the Sea of Galilee . The urban and Hellenized centers of the region were Christianized in the early years of the 3rd century via major Christian centers at Bosra and Edessa ; there is little evidence of Christian presence in the small villages of the region in this period , such as Philip 's birthplace at Philippopolis . Philip served as praetorian prefect , commander of the Praetorian Guard , from 242 ; he was made emperor in 244 . In 249 , after a brief civil war , he died at the hands of his successor , Decius .
During the late 3rd century and into the 4th , it was held by some churchmen that Philip had been the first Christian emperor ; he was described as such in Jerome 's Chronicon ( Chronicle ) , which was well known during the Middle Ages , and in Orosius ' highly popular Historia Adversus Paganos ( History Against the Pagans ) . Most scholars hold that these and other early accounts ultimately derive from Eusebius of Caesarea 's Historia Ecclesiastica ( Ecclesiastical History ) .
The most important section of Eusebius ' Historia on Philip 's religious beliefs describes the emperor 's visit to a church on Easter Eve when he was denied entry by the presiding bishop until he confessed his sins . The account is paralleled by Chrysostom 's homily , which celebrates Saint Babylas , Bishop of Antioch , for denying a sinful emperor entry to his church ; and quotations of Leontius in the Chronicon Paschale which describe Philip seeking penitence from Babylas for the sin of murdering his predecessor . Given the parallels between the accounts , most scholars believe that Eusebius , Chrysostom , and Leontius are referring to the same event ( or legend ) .
With the growth of scholarly criticism in the 17th and 18th centuries , fewer historians believed Philip to be a Christian . Historians had become increasingly aware of secular texts , which did not describe Philip as a Christian — and which , indeed , recorded him participating as pontifex maximus ( chief priest ) over the millennial Secular Games in 248 . Modern scholars are divided on the issue . Some , like Hans Pohlsander and Ernst Stein , argue that the ecclesiastic narratives are ambiguous , based on oral rumor , and do not vouch for a Christian Philip ; others , like John York , Irfan Shahîd , and Warwick Ball , argue that the ecclesiastic narratives are clear and dependable enough that Philip can be described as a Christian ; still others , like Glen Bowersock , argue that the sources are strong enough to describe Philip as a man interested in and sympathetic to Christianity , but not strong enough to call him a Christian .
= = Background = =
= = = Biography of Philip the Arab = = =
Philip was born in a village in Auranitis , part of the district of Trachonitis , east of the Sea of Galilee in Palestine . Philip renamed the village Philippopolis ( the modern al @-@ Shahbā ' , Syria ) during his reign as emperor . He was one of only three Easterners to be made emperor before the decisive separation of East and West in 395 . ( The other two were Elagabalus and Alexander Severus ) . Even among Easterners Philip was atypical , as he was an Arab , not a Greek . His father was Julius Marinus ; nothing besides his name is known , but the name indicates that he held Roman citizenship and that he must have been prominent in his community .
The early details of Philip 's career are obscure , but his brother , Gaius Julius Priscus , was made praetorian prefect under Emperor Gordian III ( r . 238 – 44 )
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caught off guard and would prefer to respond after he has time to reflect on his season . On April 9 before boarding the airplane to return from the NCAA Final Four , Beilein met with Burke , Hardaway , Robinson and McGary to direct them to seek the advice of the NBA advisory committee . The draft board has until April 15 to develop each individual report and the players have until April 28 to enter the draft . On April 12 , ESPN journalist Myron Medcalf described McGary 's likelihood of entering the draft as " borderline , " noting that his NCAA tournament performance may have given him a sudden chance to be a lottery selection . Several sources regarded him as a likely first round draft choice in the NBA Draft , so there was much speculation about him entering his name into the draft . On April 18 , he and Robinson held a joint press conference to announce that they would not enter the draft . This came after Burke and Hardaway entered the draft on the 14th and 17th , respectively .
= = = Sophomore = = =
= = = = Preseason = = = =
On April 30 , ESPN 's Eamonn Brennan named him a first team 2013 @-@ 14 pre @-@ offseason All @-@ American selection . In June 2013 , Sporting News ' Mike DeCourcy named McGary the best center for the upcoming season . McGary declined an invitation to try out for the USA Basketball team that competed at the 2013 Summer Universiade , opting instead to attend the Nike Skills Academy for big men featuring Amar 'e Stoudemire and Anthony Davis and the LeBron James Skills Academy .
On September 6 , Sporting News named McGary to its preseason All @-@ American first team ( along with Doug McDermott , Marcus Smart , Jabari Parker and Andrew Wiggins ) , as well as the best overall player in the Big Ten Conference after he led Michigan to the championship game by averaging 14 @.@ 3 points and 10 @.@ 7 rebounds per game in the tournament . NBC Sports named him a second team selection . Later that month , McGary joined McDermott , Smart , Wiggins and Julius Randle as first team preseason All @-@ Americans by USA Today Sports 2013 @-@ 14 College Basketball Preview Magazine . However , USA Today sports staff later selected him as second team . Blue Ribbon College Basketball Yearbook named McGary a preseason second team All @-@ American . Lindy 's Sports selected McGary to the preseason All @-@ Big Ten second team and named him the nation 's second best power forward . Athlon Sports selected McGary to its preseason All @-@ American second team and preseason All @-@ Big Ten first team . CBS Sports selected McGary as a second team preseason All @-@ American . Dick Vitale selected McGary to his All @-@ Solid Gold preseason first team ( along with McDermott , Smart , Russ Smith and Aaron Craft ) . On November 4 , McGary was named first team preseason All @-@ American by the Associated Press along with Mcdermott , Smart , Wiggins and Smith . McGary was on the 50 @-@ man Naismith Award and Wooden Award preseason watchlists .
In September , McGary experienced an unspecified lower back condition that impaired his basketball activity . He sat out the first exhibition game on October 29 against Concordia University . McGary was a preseason All @-@ Big Ten selection in both the official media poll released by the Big Ten Conference and the unofficial media poll released by the Big Ten Network . He was also on the 15 @-@ man Oscar Robertson Trophy Preseason Watch List .
= = = = Regular season = = = =
McGary sat out the season opener on November 8 due to his back problems . By November 11 , head coach Beilein stated that McGary had begun participating in limited full @-@ speed workouts . After missing the preseason and first two regular season games , McGary returned to play against Iowa State on November 17 posting 9 points , 6 rebounds and 4 steals . McGary posted a 14 @-@ point and 12 rebound double @-@ double in his third game , which was the November 22 Puerto Rico Tip @-@ Off semifinal against Florida State . With leading scorer Stauskas sidelined with an injury , the November 29 contest against Coppin State was McGary 's first start of the season . On December 3 , McGary had 15 points and 14 rebounds against Duke . McGary tied his career high with 6 assists as Michigan defeated Houston Baptist by the 54 points on December 7 . On December 21 , McGary sat out against Stanford due to assorted ailments . On December 27 , McGary announced that he would have back surgery . On January 3 , the surgery date was announced as January 7 . By March 15 , he had progressed to running on hardcourt surfaces , after some time spent running on an underwater treadmill . He was nearing jumping activities . The 2013 – 14 team advanced to the elite eight round of the 2014 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament before being eliminated by Kentucky on March 30 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2014 NBA Draft = = =
Following the season , McGary , who had slipped from a projected 2013 first round selection to a projected 2014 second round selection , stated that he had to evaluate whether he was mentally and physically ready to pursue a professional career . McGary and teammates Robinson and Stauskas all submitted evaluation requests to the NBA Undergraduate Advisory Committee which must respond by April 14 , giving the players until April 27 to make themselves eligible for the draft if they so choose . Many in the press felt he should return to " rebuild his draft stock " . Upon learning that he had tested positive for marijuana following the Sweet Sixteen victory over Tennessee and was facing a one @-@ year suspension , McGary declared for the draft , following teammates Stauskas and Robinson who had declared ten days earlier . Of Michigan 's prior 14 early NBA draft entrants , 10 were selected in the first round and 3 in the second . McGary was tested 18 days before the NCAA decided to reduce the automatic punishment for marijuana use to a half a season and his appeal for lenience was unsuccessful . During his two years with Michigan , the school enjoyed its winningest two @-@ year stretch in school history marked by a total of 59 wins . McGary signed with sports agent Mark Bartelstein ( along with teammate Stauskas ) . Bartelstein is the father of former Michigan teammate Josh Bartelstein , and agent for former teammate Tim Hardaway , Jr . Due to his continuing rehabilitation for his back , it was unclear whether McGary would attend the NBA Draft Combine . McGary and Bartlestein decided that McGary should not participate in combines at less than 100 % .
= = = Oklahoma City Thunder ( 2014 – present ) = = =
McGary was drafted 21st overall by the Oklahoma City Thunder . With teammates Stauskas and Robinson also being drafted , it marked the first time Michigan had at least three draft picks since the 1990 NBA draft . With Burke and Hardaway having been drafted the year before , every player that started in the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Game was drafted either in the 2013 or 2014 NBA draft .
On July 5 , 2014 , McGary signed with the Thunder and joined them for the 2014 NBA Summer League . On the first possession of his first NBA Summer League game , McGary issued a halfcourt pass for a lob slam dunk by Jeremy Lamb , highlighting the passing that he is known for . On October 8 during training camp , McGary fractured the second metatarsal of his left foot , causing him to be sidelined for an estimated six weeks . This occurred three weeks before the team 's October 29 season opener and meant McGary was expected to miss the first 14 games of the season . After missing the first 14 games , he began to be a limited participant in practices . McGary debuted with the Thunder on December 14 with 4 rebounds and 3 points in 7 : 15 of play against the Phoenix Suns . Subsequently , McGary was sidelined for 2 – 3 weeks with periostitis ( inflammation ) in his left tibia . He returned from injury on February 2 as he appeared in just his second NBA game in a 104 @-@ 97 win over the Orlando Magic . On February 8 , in his third NBA game , McGary posted a double double with 19 points and 10 rebounds against the Los Angeles Clippers , while energizing the crowd and team . Then on February 9 , he posted a 17 @-@ point , 10 @-@ rebound double double against the Denver Nuggets . He was one of the finalists for NBA Western Conference Rookie of the Month . On March 13 , McGary made his first start against the Minnesota Timberwolves in place of an injured Serge Ibaka , scoring 12 points in 22 minutes . At power forward , his defensive assignment was supposed to have been Kevin Garnett , but Garnett sat out a third consecutive game and was replaced by fellow rookie ( and former Michigan State rival ) Adreian Payne who had replaced Garnett in the two previous games as well . McGary had made his first college basketball start against Payne 's 2012 – 13 Michigan State team . On March 16 , McGary established a new career high by nabbing 11 rebounds in his first 6 minutes of play before going on to post a double double with 13 rebounds and 12 points in 17 minutes against Dallas Mavericks . In the April 15 season finale against the Minnesota Timberwolves , McGary posted a season @-@ high 4 blocked shots in just 14 : 54 of play . During his rookie and sophomore seasons , he had multiple assignments with Oklahoma City Blue , the Thunder 's D @-@ League affiliate .
On October 16 , 2015 , McGary suffered a loose ball collision with Matt Barnes of the Memphis Grizzlies that resulted in concussion @-@ like symptoms . On October 21 , the Thunder exercised their third @-@ year team option on McGary 's rookie scale contract , extending the contract through the 2016 – 17 season . On October 26 , he was cleared for the October 28 season opener . However , McGary did not appear in the game .
On July 8 , 2016 , McGary was suspended for five games by the NBA for a failed drug test .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = Personal life = =
McGary 's father is a Chesterton High School alumnus and his mother worked there as the school treasurer . McGary entertains his teammates with rapping on and off the court . McGary 's older brother Ryan bought him a unicycle for his 12th birthday and McGary quickly became proficient , eventually delivering newspapers on unicycles with his childhood friend Spencer who had a paper route and also had a unicycle . According to his AAU basketball coach , Wayne Brumm , McGary is said to have thrown a baseball in the mid to high 80 miles per hour range . McGary is an avid skateboarder , with a set of skateboard ramps built by his father in his backyard .
= Johannes Kepler =
Johannes Kepler ( German : [ ˈkɛplɐ ] ; December 27 , 1571 – November 15 , 1630 ) was a German mathematician , astronomer , and astrologer . A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution , he is best known for his laws of planetary motion , based on his works Astronomia nova , Harmonices Mundi , and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy . These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton 's theory of universal gravitation .
Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz , Austria , where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg . Later he became an assistant to the astronomer Tycho Brahe , and eventually he was the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II . He was also a mathematics teacher in Linz , Austria , and an adviser to General Wallenstein . Additionally , he did fundamental work in the field of optics , invented an improved version of the refracting telescope ( the Keplerian telescope ) , and was mentioned in the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei .
Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology , but there was a strong division between astronomy ( a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts ) and physics ( a branch of natural philosophy ) . Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work , motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason . Kepler described his new astronomy as " celestial physics " , as " an excursion into Aristotle 's Metaphysics " , and as " a supplement to Aristotle 's On the Heavens " , transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics .
= = Early years = =
Kepler was born on December 27 , the feast day of St. John the Evangelist , 1571 , at the Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt ( now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden @-@ Württemberg , 30 km west of Stuttgart 's center ) . His grandfather , Sebald Kepler , had been Lord Mayor of that town but , by the time Johannes was born , he had two brothers and one sister and the Kepler family fortune was in decline . His father , Heinrich Kepler , earned a precarious living as a mercenary , and he left the family when Johannes was five years old . He was believed to have died in the Eighty Years ' War in the Netherlands . His mother Katharina Guldenmann , an inn @-@ keeper 's daughter , was a healer and herbalist . Born prematurely , Johannes claimed to have been weak and sickly as a child . Nevertheless , he often impressed travelers at his grandfather 's inn with his phenomenal mathematical faculty .
He was introduced to astronomy at an early age , and developed a love for it that would span his entire life . At age six , he observed the Great Comet of 1577 , writing that he " was taken by [ his ] mother to a high place to look at it . " At age nine , he observed another astronomical event , a lunar eclipse in 1580 , recording that he remembered being " called outdoors " to see it and that the moon " appeared quite red " . However , childhood smallpox left him with weak vision and crippled hands , limiting his ability in the observational aspects of astronomy .
In 1589 , after moving through grammar school , Latin school , and seminary at Maulbronn , Kepler attended Tübinger Stift at the University of Tübingen . There , he studied philosophy under Vitus Müller and theology under Jacob Heerbrand ( a student of Philipp Melanchthon at Wittenberg ) , who also taught Michael Maestlin while he was a student , until he became Chancellor at Tübingen in 1590 . He proved himself to be a superb mathematician and earned a reputation as a skillful astrologer , casting horoscopes for fellow students . Under the instruction of Michael Maestlin , Tübingen 's professor of mathematics from 1583 to 1631 , he learned both the Ptolemaic system and the Copernican system of planetary motion . He became a Copernican at that time . In a student disputation , he defended heliocentrism from both a theoretical and theological perspective , maintaining that the Sun was the principal source of motive power in the universe . Despite his desire to become a minister , near the end of his studies Kepler was recommended for a position as teacher of mathematics and astronomy at the Protestant school in Graz . He accepted the position in April 1594 , at the age of 23 .
= = Graz ( 1594 – 1600 ) = =
= = = Mysterium Cosmographicum = = =
Kepler 's first major astronomical work , Mysterium Cosmographicum ( The Cosmographic Mystery ) , was the first published defense of the Copernican system . Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on July 19 , 1595 , while teaching in Graz , demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac : he realized that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios , which , he reasoned , might be the geometrical basis of the universe . After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations ( even with extra planets added to the system ) , Kepler began experimenting with 3 @-@ dimensional polyhedra . He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be inscribed and circumscribed by spherical orbs ; nesting these solids , each encased in a sphere , within one another would produce six layers , corresponding to the six known planets — Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , Jupiter , and Saturn . By ordering the solids selectively — octahedron , icosahedron , dodecahedron , tetrahedron , cube — Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding to the relative sizes of each planet 's path , assuming the planets circle the Sun . Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet 's orb to the length of its orbital period : from inner to outer planets , the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius . However , Kepler later rejected this formula , because it was not precise enough .
As he indicated in the title , Kepler thought he had revealed God 's geometrical plan for the universe . Much of Kepler 's enthusiasm for the Copernican system stemmed from his theological convictions about the connection between the physical and the spiritual ; the universe itself was an image of God , with the Sun corresponding to the Father , the stellar sphere to the Son , and the intervening space between to the Holy Spirit . His first manuscript of Mysterium contained an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with biblical passages that seemed to support geocentrism .
With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin , Kepler received permission from the Tübingen university senate to publish his manuscript , pending removal of the Bible exegesis and the addition of a simpler , more understandable description of the Copernican system as well as Kepler 's new ideas . Mysterium was published late in 1596 , and Kepler received his copies and began sending them to prominent astronomers and patrons early in 1597 ; it was not widely read , but it established Kepler 's reputation as a highly skilled astronomer . The effusive dedication , to powerful patrons as well as to the men who controlled his position in Graz , also provided a crucial doorway into the patronage system .
Though the details would be modified in light of his later work , Kepler never relinquished the Platonist polyhedral @-@ spherist cosmology of Mysterium Cosmographicum . His subsequent main astronomical works were in some sense only further developments of it , concerned with finding more precise inner and outer dimensions for the spheres by calculating the eccentricities of the planetary orbits within it . In 1621 , Kepler published an expanded second edition of Mysterium , half as long again as the first , detailing in footnotes the corrections and improvements he had achieved in the 25 years since its first publication .
In terms of the impact of Mysterium , it can be seen as an important first step in modernizing the theory proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus in his " De Revolutionibus " . Whilst Copernicus sought to advance a heliocentric system in this book , he resorted to Ptolemaic devices ( viz . , epicycles and eccentric circles ) in order to explain the change in planets ' orbital speed , and also continued to use as a point of reference the center of the earth 's orbit rather than that of the sun " as an aid to calculation and in order not to confuse the reader by diverging too much from Ptolemy . " Modern astronomy owes much to " Mysterium Cosmographicum " , despite flaws in its main thesis , " since it represents the first step in cleansing the Copernican system of the remnants of the Ptolemaic theory still clinging to it . "
= = = Marriage to Barbara Müller = = =
In December 1595 , Kepler was introduced to Barbara Müller , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old widow ( twice over ) with a young daughter , Regina Lorenz , and he began courting her . Müller , heiress to the estates of her late husbands , was also the daughter of a successful mill owner . Her father Jobst initially opposed a marriage despite Kepler 's nobility ; though he had inherited his grandfather 's nobility , Kepler 's poverty made him an unacceptable match . Jobst relented after Kepler completed work on Mysterium , but the engagement nearly fell apart while Kepler was away tending to the details of publication . However , Protestant officials — who had helped set up the match — pressured the Müllers to honor their agreement . Barbara and Johannes were married on April 27 , 1597 .
In the first years of their marriage , the Keplers had two children ( Heinrich and Susanna ) , both of whom died in infancy . In 1602 , they had a daughter ( Susanna ) ; in 1604 , a son ( Friedrich ) ; and in 1607 , another son ( Ludwig ) .
= = = Other research = = =
Following the publication of Mysterium and with the blessing of the Graz school inspectors , Kepler began an ambitious program to extend and elaborate his work . He planned four additional books : one on the stationary aspects of the universe ( the Sun and the fixed stars ) ; one on the planets and their motions ; one on the physical nature of planets and the formation of geographical features ( focused especially on Earth ) ; and one on the effects of the heavens on the Earth , to include atmospheric optics , meteorology , and astrology .
He also sought the opinions of many of the astronomers to whom he had sent Mysterium , among them Reimarus Ursus ( Nicolaus Reimers Bär ) — the imperial mathematician to Rudolph II and a bitter rival of Tycho Brahe . Ursus did not reply directly , but republished Kepler 's flattering letter to pursue his priority dispute over ( what is now called ) the Tychonic system with Tycho . Despite this black mark , Tycho also began corresponding with Kepler , starting with a harsh but legitimate critique of Kepler 's system ; among a host of objections , Tycho took issue with the use of inaccurate numerical data taken from Copernicus . Through their letters , Tycho and Kepler discussed a broad range of astronomical problems , dwelling on lunar phenomena and Copernican theory ( particularly its theological viability ) . But without the significantly more accurate data of Tycho 's observatory , Kepler had no way to address many of these issues .
Instead , he turned his attention to chronology and " harmony , " the numerological relationships among music , mathematics and the physical world , and their astrological consequences . By assuming the Earth to possess a soul ( a property he would later invoke to explain how the sun causes the motion of planets ) , he established a speculative system connecting astrological aspects and astronomical distances to weather and other earthly phenomena . By 1599 , however , he again felt his work limited by the inaccuracy of available data — just as growing religious tension was also threatening his continued employment in Graz . In December of that year , Tycho invited Kepler to visit him in Prague ; on January 1 , 1600 ( before he even received the invitation ) , Kepler set off in the hopes that Tycho 's patronage could solve his philosophical problems as well as his social and financial ones .
= = Prague ( 1600 – 1612 ) = =
= = = Work for Tycho Brahe = = =
On February 4 , 1600 , Kepler met Tycho Brahe and his assistants Franz Tengnagel and Longomontanus at Benátky nad Jizerou ( 35 km from Prague ) , the site where Tycho 's new observatory was being constructed . Over the next two months he stayed as a guest , analyzing some of Tycho 's observations of Mars ; Tycho guarded his data closely , but was impressed by Kepler 's theoretical ideas and soon allowed him more access . Kepler planned to test his theory from Mysterium Cosmographicum based on the Mars data , but he estimated that the work would take up to two years ( since he was not allowed to simply copy the data for his own use ) . With the help of Johannes Jessenius , Kepler attempted to negotiate a more formal employment arrangement with Tycho , but negotiations broke down in an angry argument and Kepler left for Prague on April 6 . Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled and eventually reached an agreement on salary and living arrangements , and in June , Kepler returned home to Graz to collect his family .
Political and religious difficulties in Graz dashed his hopes of returning immediately to Brahe ; in hopes of continuing his astronomical studies , Kepler sought an appointment as mathematician to Archduke Ferdinand . To that end , Kepler composed an essay — dedicated to Ferdinand — in which he proposed a force @-@ based theory of lunar motion : " In Terra inest virtus , quae Lunam ciet " ( " There is a force in the earth which causes the moon to move " ) . Though the essay did not earn him a place in Ferdinand 's court , it did detail a new method for measuring lunar eclipses , which he applied during the July 10 eclipse in Graz . These observations formed the basis of his explorations of the laws of optics that would culminate in Astronomiae Pars Optica .
On August 2 , 1600 , after refusing to convert to Catholicism , Kepler and his family were banished from Graz . Several months later , Kepler returned , now with the rest of his household , to Prague . Through most of 1601 , he was supported directly by Tycho , who assigned him to analyzing planetary observations and writing a tract against Tycho 's ( by then deceased ) rival , Ursus . In September , Tycho secured him a commission as a collaborator on the new project he had proposed to the emperor : the Rudolphine Tables that should replace the Prutenic Tables of Erasmus Reinhold . Two days after Tycho 's unexpected death on October 24 , 1601 , Kepler was appointed his successor as imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete his unfinished work . The next 11 years as imperial mathematician would be the most productive of his life .
= = = Advisor to Emperor Rudolph II = = =
Kepler 's primary obligation as imperial mathematician was to provide astrological advice to the emperor . Though Kepler took a dim view of the attempts of contemporary astrologers to precisely predict the future or divine specific events , he had been casting well @-@ received detailed horoscopes for friends , family , and patrons since his time as a student in Tübingen . In addition to horoscopes for allies and foreign leaders , the emperor sought Kepler 's advice in times of political trouble . Rudolph was actively interested in the work of many of his court scholars ( including numerous alchemists ) and kept up with Kepler 's work in physical astronomy as well .
Officially , the only acceptable religious doctrines in Prague were Catholic and Utraquist , but Kepler 's position in the imperial court allowed him to practice his Lutheran faith unhindered . The emperor nominally provided an ample income for his family , but the difficulties of the over @-@ extended imperial treasury meant that actually getting hold of enough money to meet financial obligations was a continual struggle . Partly because of financial troubles , his life at home with Barbara was unpleasant , marred with bickering and bouts of sickness . Court life , however , brought Kepler into contact with other prominent scholars ( Johannes Matthäus Wackher von Wackhenfels , Jost Bürgi , David Fabricius , Martin Bachazek , and Johannes Brengger , among others ) and astronomical work proceeded rapidly .
= = = Astronomiae Pars Optica = = =
As he slowly continued analyzing Tycho 's Mars observations — now available to him in their entirety — and began the slow process of tabulating the Rudolphine Tables , Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600 . Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena , such as unexpected shadow sizes , the red color of a total lunar eclipse , and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse . Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical observations . Through most of 1603 , Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory ; the resulting manuscript , presented to the emperor on January 1 , 1604 , was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica ( The Optical Part of Astronomy ) . In it , Kepler described the inverse @-@ square law governing the intensity of light , reflection by flat and curved mirrors , and principles of pinhole cameras , as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies . He also extended his study of optics to the human eye , and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the eye 's lens onto the retina . The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics , although he did suggest that the image was later corrected " in the hollows of the brain " due to the " activity of the Soul . " Today , Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics ( though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent ) . With respect to the beginnings of projective geometry , Kepler introduced the idea of continuous change of a mathematical entity in this work . He argued that if a focus of a conic section were allowed to move along the line joining the foci , the geometric form would morph or degenerate , one into another . In this way , an ellipse becomes a parabola when a focus moves toward infinity , and when two foci of an ellipse merge into one another , a circle is formed . As the foci of a hyperbola merge into one another , the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines . He also assumed that if a straight line is extended to infinity it will meet itself at a single point at infinity , thus having the properties of a large circle .
= = = The Supernova of 1604 = = =
In October 1604 , a bright new evening star ( SN 1604 ) appeared , but Kepler did not believe the rumors until he saw it himself . Kepler began systematically observing the nova . Astrologically , the end of 1603 marked the beginning of a fiery trigon , the start of the about 800 @-@ year cycle of great conjunctions ; astrologers associated the two previous such periods with the rise of Charlemagne ( c . 800 years earlier ) and the birth of Christ ( c . 1600 years earlier ) , and thus expected events of great portent , especially regarding the emperor . It was in this context , as the imperial mathematician and astrologer to the emperor , that Kepler described the new star two years later in his De Stella Nova . In it , Kepler addressed the star 's astronomical properties while taking a skeptical approach to the many astrological interpretations then circulating . He noted its fading luminosity , speculated about its origin , and used the lack of observed parallax to argue that it was in the sphere of fixed stars , further undermining the doctrine of the immutability of the heavens ( the idea accepted since Aristotle that the celestial spheres were perfect and unchanging ) . The birth of a new star implied the variability of the heavens . In an appendix , Kepler also discussed the recent chronology work of the Polish historian Laurentius Suslyga ; he calculated that , if Suslyga was correct that accepted timelines were four years behind , then the Star of Bethlehem — analogous to the present new star — would have coincided with the first great conjunction of the earlier 800 @-@ year cycle .
= = = Astronomia nova = = =
The extended line of research that culminated in Astronomia nova ( A New Astronomy ) — including the first two laws of planetary motion — began with the analysis , under Tycho 's direction , of Mars ' orbit . Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars ' orbit using an equant ( the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system ) , eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho 's observations to within two arcminutes ( the average measurement error ) . But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result ; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes . The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him , Kepler set about trying to fit an ovoid orbit to the data .
Within Kepler 's religious view of the cosmos , the Sun ( a symbol of God the Father ) was the source of motive force in the solar system . As a physical basis , Kepler drew by analogy on William Gilbert 's theory of the magnetic soul of the Earth from De Magnete ( 1600 ) and on his own work on optics . Kepler supposed that the motive power ( or motive species ) radiated by the Sun weakens with distance , causing faster or slower motion as planets move closer or farther from it . Perhaps this assumption entailed a mathematical relationship that would restore astronomical order . Based on measurements of the aphelion and perihelion of the Earth and Mars , he created a formula in which a planet 's rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun . Verifying this relationship throughout the orbital cycle , however , required very extensive calculation ; to simplify this task , by late 1602 Kepler reformulated the proportion in terms of geometry : planets sweep out equal areas in equal times — Kepler 's second law of planetary motion .
He then set about calculating the entire orbit of Mars , using the geometrical rate law and assuming an egg @-@ shaped ovoid orbit . After approximately 40 failed attempts , in early 1605 he at last hit upon the idea of an ellipse , which he had previously assumed to be too simple a solution for earlier astronomers to have overlooked . Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data , he immediately concluded that all planets move in ellipses , with the sun at one focus — Kepler 's first law of planetary motion . Because he employed no calculating assistants , however , he did not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars . By the end of the year , he completed the manuscript for Astronomia nova , though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho 's observations , the property of his heirs .
= = = Dioptrice , Somnium manuscript , and other work = = =
In the years following the completion of Astronomia Nova , most of Kepler 's research was focused on preparations for the Rudolphine Tables and a comprehensive set of ephemerides ( specific predictions of planet and star positions ) based on the table ( though neither would be completed for many years ) . He also attempted ( unsuccessfully ) to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini . Some of his other work dealt with chronology , especially the dating of events in the life of Jesus , and with astrology , especially criticism of dramatic predictions of catastrophe such as those of Helisaeus Roeslin .
Kepler and Roeslin engaged in a series of published attacks and counter @-@ attacks , while physician Philip Feselius published a work dismissing astrology altogether ( and Roeslin 's work in particular ) . In response to what Kepler saw as the excesses of astrology on the one hand and overzealous rejection of it on the other , Kepler prepared Tertius Interveniens [ Third @-@ party Interventions ] . Nominally this work — presented to the common patron of Roeslin and Feselius — was a neutral mediation between the feuding scholars , but it also set out Kepler 's general views on the value of astrology , including some hypothesized mechanisms of interaction between planets and individual souls . While Kepler considered most traditional rules and methods of astrology to be the " evil @-@ smelling dung " in which " an industrious hen " scrapes , there was an " occasional grain @-@ seed , indeed , even a pearl or a gold nugget " to be found by the conscientious scientific astrologer . Conversely , Sir Oliver Lodge observed that Kepler was somewhat disdainful of astrology , as Kepler was " continually attacking and throwing sarcasm at astrology , but it was the only thing for which people would pay him , and on it after a fashion he lived . "
In the first months of 1610 , Galileo Galilei — using his powerful new telescope — discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter . Upon publishing his account as Sidereus Nuncius [ Starry Messenger ] , Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler , in part to bolster the credibility of his observations . Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply , Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo [ Conversation with the Starry Messenger ] . He endorsed Galileo 's observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo 's discoveries and telescopic methods , for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology . Later that year , Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus , providing further support of Galileo . To Kepler 's disappointment , however , Galileo never published his reactions ( if any ) to Astronomia Nova .
After hearing of Galileo 's telescopic discoveries , Kepler also started a theoretical and experimental investigation of telescopic optics using a telescope borrowed from Duke Ernest of Cologne . The resulting manuscript was completed in September 1610 and published as Dioptrice in 1611 . In it , Kepler set out the theoretical basis of double @-@ convex converging lenses and double @-@ concave diverging lenses — and how they are combined to produce a Galilean telescope — as well as the concepts of real vs. virtual images , upright vs. inverted images , and the effects of focal length on magnification and reduction . He also described an improved telescope — now known as the astronomical or Keplerian telescope — in which two convex lenses can produce higher magnification than Galileo 's combination of convex and concave lenses .
Around 1611 , Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published ( posthumously ) as Somnium [ The Dream ] . Part of the purpose of Somnium was to describe what practicing astronomy would be like from the perspective of another planet , to show the feasibility of a non @-@ geocentric system . The manuscript , which disappeared after changing hands several times , described a fantastic trip to the moon ; it was part allegory , part autobiography , and part treatise on interplanetary travel ( and is sometimes described as the first work of science fiction ) . Years later , a distorted version of the story may have instigated the witchcraft trial against his mother , as the mother of the narrator consults a demon to learn the means of space travel . Following her eventual acquittal , Kepler composed 223 footnotes to the story — several times longer than the actual text — which explained the allegorical aspects as well as the considerable scientific content ( particularly regarding lunar geography ) hidden within the text .
= = = Work in mathematics and physics = = =
As a New Year 's gift that year ( 1611 ) , he also composed for his friend and some @-@ time patron , Baron Wackher von Wackhenfels , a short pamphlet entitled Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula ( A New Year 's Gift of Hexagonal
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Snow ) . In this treatise , he published the first description of the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and , extending the discussion into a hypothetical atomistic physical basis for the symmetry , posed what later became known as the Kepler conjecture , a statement about the most efficient arrangement for packing spheres .
= = = Personal and political troubles = = =
In 1611 , the growing political @-@ religious tension in Prague came to a head . Emperor Rudolph — whose health was failing — was forced to abdicate as King of Bohemia by his brother Matthias . Both sides sought Kepler 's astrological advice , an opportunity he used to deliver conciliatory political advice ( with little reference to the stars , except in general statements to discourage drastic action ) . However , it was clear that Kepler 's future prospects in the court of Matthias were dim .
Also in that year , Barbara Kepler contracted Hungarian spotted fever , then began having seizures . As Barbara was recovering , Kepler 's three children all fell sick with smallpox ; Friedrich , 6 , died . Following his son 's death , Kepler sent letters to potential patrons in Württemberg and Padua . At the University of Tübingen in Württemberg , concerns over Kepler 's perceived Calvinist heresies in violation of the Augsburg Confession and the Formula of Concord prevented his return . The University of Padua — on the recommendation of the departing Galileo — sought Kepler to fill the mathematics professorship , but Kepler , preferring to keep his family in German territory , instead travelled to Austria to arrange a position as teacher and district mathematician in Linz . However , Barbara relapsed into illness and died shortly after Kepler 's return .
Kepler postponed the move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolph 's death in early 1612 , though between political upheaval , religious tension , and family tragedy ( along with the legal dispute over his wife 's estate ) , Kepler could do no research . Instead , he pieced together a chronology manuscript , Eclogae Chronicae , from correspondence and earlier work . Upon succession as Holy Roman Emperor , Matthias re @-@ affirmed Kepler 's position ( and salary ) as imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz .
= = Linz and elsewhere ( 1612 – 1630 ) = =
In Linz , Kepler 's primary responsibilities ( beyond completing the Rudolphine Tables ) were teaching at the district school and providing astrological and astronomical services . In his first years there , he enjoyed financial security and religious freedom relative to his life in Prague — though he was excluded from Eucharist by his Lutheran church over his theological scruples . His first publication in Linz was De vero Anno ( 1613 ) , an expanded treatise on the year of Christ 's birth ; he also participated in deliberations on whether to introduce Pope Gregory 's reformed calendar to Protestant German lands ; that year he also wrote the influential mathematical treatise Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum , on measuring the volume of containers such as wine barrels , published in 1615 .
= = = Second marriage = = =
On October 30 , 1613 , Kepler married the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Susanna Reuttinger . Following the death of his first wife Barbara , Kepler had considered 11 different matches over two years ( a decision process formalized later as the marriage problem ) . He eventually returned to Reuttinger ( the fifth match ) who , he wrote , " won me over with love , humble loyalty , economy of household , diligence , and the love she gave the stepchildren . " The first three children of this marriage ( Margareta Regina , Katharina , and Sebald ) died in childhood . Three more survived into adulthood : Cordula ( born 1621 ) ; Fridmar ( born 1623 ) ; and Hildebert ( born 1625 ) . According to Kepler 's biographers , this was a much happier marriage than his first .
= = = Epitome of Copernican Astronomy , calendars , and the witch trial of his mother = = =
Since completing the Astronomia nova , Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook . In 1615 , he completed the first of three volumes of Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae ( Epitome of Copernican Astronomy ) ; the first volume ( books I @-@ III ) was printed in 1617 , the second ( book IV ) in 1620 , and the third ( books V @-@ VII ) in 1621 . Despite the title , which referred simply to heliocentrism , Kepler 's textbook culminated in his own ellipse @-@ based system . The Epitome became Kepler 's most influential work . It contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes . Though it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion ( applied to Mars in Astronomia nova ) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean satellites of Jupiter , it did not explain how elliptical orbits could be derived from observational data .
As a spin @-@ off from the Rudolphine Tables and the related Ephemerides , Kepler published astrological calendars , which were very popular and helped offset the costs of producing his other work — especially when support from the Imperial treasury was withheld . In his calendars — six between 1617 and 1624 — Kepler forecast planetary positions and weather as well as political events ; the latter were often cannily accurate , thanks to his keen grasp of contemporary political and theological tensions . By 1624 , however , the escalation of those tensions and the ambiguity of the prophecies meant political trouble for Kepler himself ; his final calendar was publicly burned in Graz .
In 1615 , Ursula Reingold , a woman in a financial dispute with Kepler 's brother Christoph , claimed Kepler 's mother Katharina had made her sick with an evil brew . The dispute escalated , and in 1617 Katharina was accused of witchcraft ; witchcraft trials were relatively common in central Europe at this time . Beginning in August 1620 , she was imprisoned for fourteen months . She was released in October 1621 , thanks in part to the extensive legal defense drawn up by Kepler . The accusers had no stronger evidence than rumors . Katharina was subjected to territio verbalis , a graphic description of the torture awaiting her as a witch , in a final attempt to make her confess . Throughout the trial , Kepler postponed his other work to focus on his " harmonic theory " . The result , published in 1619 , was Harmonices Mundi ( " Harmony of the World " ) .
= = = Harmonices Mundi = = =
Kepler was convinced " that the geometrical things have provided the Creator with the model for decorating the whole world " . In Harmony , he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural world — particularly the astronomical and astrological aspects — in terms of music . The central set of " harmonies " was the musica universalis or " music of the spheres " , which had been studied by Pythagoras , Ptolemy and many others before Kepler ; in fact , soon after publishing Harmonices Mundi , Kepler was embroiled in a priority dispute with Robert Fludd , who had recently published his own harmonic theory .
Kepler began by exploring regular polygons and regular solids , including the figures that would come to be known as Kepler 's solids . From there , he extended his harmonic analysis to music , meteorology , and astrology ; harmony resulted from the tones made by the souls of heavenly bodies — and in the case of astrology , the interaction between those tones and human souls . In the final portion of the work ( Book V ) , Kepler dealt with planetary motions , especially relationships between orbital velocity and orbital distance from the Sun . Similar relationships had been used by other astronomers , but Kepler — with Tycho 's data and his own astronomical theories — treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them .
Among many other harmonies , Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion . He then tried many combinations until he discovered that ( approximately ) " The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances . " Although he gives the date of this epiphany ( March 8 , 1618 ) , he does not give any details about how he arrived at this conclusion . However , the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s . When conjoined with Christiaan Huygens ' newly discovered law of centrifugal force , it enabled Isaac Newton , Edmund Halley , and perhaps Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them . This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies , such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated , and also by Galileo 's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics .
= = = Rudolphine Tables and his last years = = =
In 1623 , Kepler at last completed the Rudolphine Tables , which at the time was considered his major work . However , due to the publishing requirements of the emperor and negotiations with Tycho Brahe 's heir , it would not be printed until 1627 . In the meantime , religious tension — the root of the ongoing Thirty Years ' War — once again put Kepler and his family in jeopardy . In 1625 , agents of the Catholic Counter @-@ Reformation placed most of Kepler 's library under seal , and in 1626 the city of Linz was besieged . Kepler moved to Ulm , where he arranged for the printing of the Tables at his own expense .
In 1628 , following the military successes of the Emperor Ferdinand 's armies under General Wallenstein , Kepler became an official advisor to Wallenstein . Though not the general 's court astrologer per se , Kepler provided astronomical calculations for Wallenstein 's astrologers and occasionally wrote horoscopes himself . In his final years , Kepler spent much of his time traveling , from the imperial court in Prague to Linz and Ulm to a temporary home in Sagan , and finally to Regensburg . Soon after arriving in Regensburg , Kepler fell ill . He died on November 15 , 1630 , and was buried there ; his burial site was lost after the Swedish army destroyed the churchyard . Only Kepler 's self @-@ authored poetic epitaph survived the times :
Mensus eram coelos , nunc terrae metior umbras
Mens coelestis erat , corporis umbra iacet .
I measured the skies , now the shadows I measure
Skybound was the mind , earthbound the body rests .
= = Reception of his astronomy = =
Kepler 's laws were not immediately accepted . Several major figures such as Galileo and René Descartes completely ignored Kepler 's Astronomia nova . Many astronomers , including Kepler 's teacher , Michael Maestlin , objected to Kepler 's introduction of physics into his astronomy . Some adopted compromise positions . Ismael Boulliau accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler 's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse , while Seth Ward used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant .
Several astronomers tested Kepler 's theory , and its various modifications , against astronomical observations . Two transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory , under circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed . In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631 , Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury , and advised observers to look for the transit the day before and after the predicted date . Pierre Gassendi observed the transit on the date predicted , a confirmation of Kepler 's prediction . This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury . However , his attempt to observe the transit of Venus just one month later was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables . Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe , including Paris . Jeremiah Horrocks , who observed the 1639 Venus transit , had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model , predicted the transit , and then built apparatus to observe the transit . He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian model .
Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers throughout Europe , and following Kepler 's death it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler 's ideas . Between 1630 and 1650 , it was the most widely used astronomy textbook , winning many converts to ellipse @-@ based astronomy . However , few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions . In the late 17th century , a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler 's work — notably those of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke — began to incorporate attractive forces ( though not the quasi @-@ spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler ) and the Cartesian concept of inertia . This culminated in Isaac Newton 's Principia Mathematica ( 1687 ) , in which Newton derived Kepler 's laws of planetary motion from a force @-@ based theory of universal gravitation .
= = Historical and cultural legacy = =
= = = History of science = = =
Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy , Kepler has loomed large in the philosophy and historiography of science . Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as Jean Etienne Montucla 's 1758 Histoire des mathématiques and Jean @-@ Baptiste Delambre 's 1821 Histoire de l 'astronomie moderne . These and other histories written from an Enlightenment perspective treated Kepler 's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval , but later Romantic @-@ era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success . William Whewell , in his influential History of the Inductive Sciences of 1837 , found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius ; in his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences of 1840 , Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of scientific method . Similarly , Ernst Friedrich Apelt — the first to extensively study Kepler 's manuscripts , after their purchase by Catherine the Great — identified Kepler as a key to the " Revolution of the sciences " . Apelt , who saw Kepler 's mathematics , aesthetic sensibility , physical ideas , and theology as part of a unified system of thought , produced the first extended analysis of Kepler 's life and work .
Alexandre Koyré 's work on Kepler was , after Apelt , the first major milestone in historical interpretations of Kepler 's cosmology and its influence . In the 1930s and 1940s , Koyré , and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science , described the " Scientific Revolution " as the central event in the history of science , and Kepler as a ( perhaps the ) central figure in the revolution . Koyré placed Kepler 's theorization , rather than his empirical work , at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world @-@ views . Since the 1960s , the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly , including studies of his astrology and meteorology , his geometrical methods , the role of his religious views in his work , his literary and rhetorical methods , his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time , and even his role as an historian of science .
Philosophers of science — such as Charles Sanders Peirce , Norwood Russell Hanson , Stephen Toulmin , and Karl Popper — have repeatedly turned to Kepler : examples of incommensurability , analogical reasoning , falsification , and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler 's work . Physicist Wolfgang Pauli even used Kepler 's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of analytical psychology on scientific investigation .
= = = Editions and translations = = =
Modern translations of a number of Kepler 's books appeared in the late @-@ nineteenth and early @-@ twentieth centuries , the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 ( and is nearing completion in the early 21st century ) .
An edition in eight volumes , Kepleri Opera omnia , was prepared by Christian Frisch ( 1807 – 1881 ) , during 1858 to 1871 , on the occasion of Kepler 's 300th birthday . Frisch 's edition only included Kepler 's Latin , with a Latin commentary .
A new edition was planned beginning in 1914 by Walther von Dyck ( 1856 – 1934 ) . Dyck compiled copies of Kepler 's unedited manuscripts , using international diplomatic contacts to convince the Soviet authorities to lend him the manuscripts kept in Leningrad for photographic reproduction . These manuscripts contained several works by Kepler that had not been available to Frisch . Dyck 's photographs remain the basis for the modern editions of Kepler 's unpublished manuscripts .
Max Caspar ( 1880 – 1956 ) published his German translation of Kepler 's Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1923 . Both Dyck and Caspar were influenced in their interest in Kepler by mathematician Alexander von Brill ( 1842 – 1935 ) . Caspar became Dyck 's collaborator , succeeding him as project leader in 1934 , establishing the Kepler @-@ Kommission in the following year . Assisted by Martha List ( 1908 – 1992 ) and Franz Hammer ( 1898 – 1979 ) , Caspar continued editorial work during World War II . Max Caspar also published a biography of Kepler in 1948 . The commission was later chaired by Volker Bialas ( during 1976 – 2003 ) and Ulrich Grigull ( during 1984 – 1999 ) and Roland Bulirsch ( 1998 – 2014 ) .
= = = Popular science and historical fiction = = =
Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time ; science popularizer Carl Sagan described him as " the first astrophysicist and the last scientific astrologer " .
The debate over Kepler 's place in the Scientific Revolution has produced a wide variety of philosophical and popular treatments . One of the most influential is Arthur Koestler 's 1959 The Sleepwalkers , in which Kepler is unambiguously the hero ( morally and theologically as well as intellectually ) of the revolution .
A well @-@ received , if fanciful , historical novel by John Banville , Kepler ( 1981 ) , explored many of the themes developed in Koestler 's non @-@ fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science . Somewhat more fanciful is a recent work of nonfiction , Heavenly Intrigue ( 2004 ) , suggesting that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data .
= = = Veneration and eponymy = = =
In Austria , Kepler left behind such a historical legacy that he was one of the motifs of a silver collector 's coin : the 10 @-@ euro Johannes Kepler silver coin , minted on September 10 , 2002 . The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler , who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas . Kepler was acquainted with Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg personally , and he probably influenced the construction of Eggenberg Castle ( the motif of the obverse of the coin ) . In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra from Mysterium Cosmographicum .
The German composer Paul Hindemith wrote an opera about Kepler entitled Die Harmonie der Welt , and a symphony of the same name was derived from music for the opera . Philip Glass wrote an opera called Kepler based on Kepler 's life ( 2009 ) .
Kepler is honored together with Nicolaus Copernicus with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church ( USA ) on May 23 .
Directly named for Kepler 's contribution to science are Kepler 's laws of planetary motion , Kepler 's Supernova ( Supernova 1604 , which he observed and described ) and the Kepler Solids , a set of geometrical constructions , two of which were described by him and the Kepler conjecture on sphere packing .
In astronomy : The lunar crater Kepler ( Keplerus , named by Giovanni Riccioli , 1651 ) , the asteroid 1134 Kepler ( 1929 ) , Kepler ( crater on Mars ) ( 1973 ) , Kepler Launch Site for model rockets ( 2001 ) , the Kepler Mission , a space photometer launched by NASA in 2009 , Johannes Kepler ATV ( Automated Transfer Vehicle launched to resupply the ISS in 2011 ) .
Educational institutions : Johannes Kepler University of Linz ( 1975 ) , Kepler College ( Seattle , Washington ) , besides several institutions of primary and secondary education , such as Johannes Kepler Grammar School , at the site where Kepler lived in Prague , and Kepler Gymnasium , Tübingen
Streets or squares named after him : Keplerplatz Vienna ( station of Vienna U @-@ Bahn ) , Keplerstraße in Hanau near Frankfurt am Main , Keplerstraße in Munich , Germany , Keplerstraße and Keplerbrücke in Graz , Austria .
The Kepler Mountains and Kepler Track in Fiordland National Park , South Island , New Zealand ; Kepler Challenge ( 1988 ) .
Kepler , a high end graphics processing microarchitecture introduced by Nvidia in 2012 .
= = Works = =
Mysterium Cosmographicum ( The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos ) ( 1596 )
De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus ( On Firmer Fundaments of Astrology ; 1601 )
Astronomiae Pars Optica ( The Optical Part of Astronomy ) ( 1604 )
De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii ( On the New Star in Ophiuchus 's Foot ) ( 1606 )
Astronomia nova ( New Astronomy ) ( 1609 )
Tertius Interveniens ( Third @-@ party Interventions ) ( 1610 )
Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo ( Conversation with the Starry Messenger ) ( 1610 )
Dioptrice ( 1611 )
De nive sexangula ( On the Six @-@ Cornered Snowflake ) ( 1611 )
De vero Anno , quo aeternus Dei Filius humanam naturam in Utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit ( 1614 )
Eclogae Chronicae ( 1615 , published with Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo )
Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum ( New Stereometry of Wine Barrels ) ( 1615 )
Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae ( Epitome of Copernican Astronomy ) ( published in three parts from 1618 to 1621 )
Harmonices Mundi ( Harmony of the Worlds ) ( 1619 )
Mysterium cosmographicum ( The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos ) , 2nd edition ( 1621 )
Tabulae Rudolphinae ( Rudolphine Tables ) ( 1627 )
Somnium ( The Dream ) ( 1634 )
A critical edition of Kepler 's collected works ( Johannes Kepler Gesammelte Werke , KGW ) in 22 volumes is being edited by the Kepler @-@ Kommission ( founded 1935 ) on behalf of the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften .
Vol . 1 : Mysterium Cosmographicum . De Stella Nova . Ed . M. Caspar . 1938 , 2nd ed . 1993 . Paperback ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01639 @-@ 1 .
Vol . 2 : Astronomiae pars optica . Ed . F. Hammer . 1939 , Paperback ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01641 @-@ 3 .
Vol . 3 : Astronomia Nova . Ed . M. Caspar . 1937 . IV , 487 p . 2 @.@ ed . 1990 . Paperback ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01643 @-@ X. Semi @-@ parchment ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01642 @-@ 1 .
Vol . 4 : Kleinere Schriften 1602 – 1611 . Dioptrice . Ed . M. Caspar , F. Hammer . 1941 . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01644 @-@ 8 .
Vol . 5 : Chronologische Schriften . Ed . F. Hammer . 1953 . Out @-@ of @-@ print .
Vol . 6 : Harmonice Mundi . Ed . M. Caspar . 1940 , 2nd ed . 1981 , ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01648 @-@ 0 .
Vol . 7 : Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae . Ed . M. Caspar . 1953 , 2nd ed . 1991 . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01650 @-@ 2 , Paperback ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01651 @-@ 0 .
Vol . 8 : Mysterium Cosmographicum . Editio altera cum notis . De Cometis . Hyperaspistes . Commentary F. Hammer . 1955 . Paperback ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01653 @-@ 7 .
Vol 9 : Mathematische Schriften . Ed . F. Hammer . 1955 , 2nd ed . 1999 . Out @-@ of @-@ print .
Vol . 10 : Tabulae Rudolphinae . Ed . F. Hammer . 1969 . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01656 @-@ 1 .
Vol . 11 @,@ 1 : Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium . Commentary V. Bialas . 1983 . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01658 @-@ 8 , Paperback ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01659 @-@ 6 .
Vol . 11 @,@ 2 : Calendaria et Prognostica . Astronomica minora . Somnium . Commentary V. Bialas , H. Grössing . 1993 . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 37510 @-@ 3 , Paperback ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 37511 @-@ 1 .
Vol . 12 : Theologica . Hexenprozeß . Tacitus @-@ Übersetzung . Gedichte . Commentary J. Hübner , H. Grössing , F. Boockmann , F. Seck . Directed by V. Bialas . 1990 . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01660 @-@ X , Paperback ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01661 @-@ 8 .
Vols . 13 – 18 : Letters :
Vol . 13 : Briefe 1590 – 1599 . Ed . M. Caspar . 1945 . 432 p . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01663 @-@ 4 .
Vol . 14 : Briefe 1599 – 1603 . Ed . M. Caspar . 1949 . Out @-@ of @-@ print . 2nd ed. in preparation .
Vol 15 : Briefe 1604 – 1607 . Ed . M. Caspar . 1951 . 2nd ed . 1995 . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01667 @-@ 7 .
Vol . 16 : Briefe 1607 – 1611 . Ed . M. Caspar . 1954 . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01668 @-@ 5 .
Vol . 17 : Briefe 1612 – 1620 . Ed . M. Caspar . 1955 . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01671 @-@ 5 .
Vol . 18 : Briefe 1620 – 1630 . Ed . M. Caspar . 1959 . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01672 @-@ 3 .
Vol . 19 : Dokumente zu Leben und Werk . Commentary M. List . 1975 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 01674 @-@ 5 .
Vols . 20 – 21 : manuscripts
Vol . 20 @,@ 1 : Manuscripta astronomica ( I ) . Apologia , De motu Terrae , Hipparchus etc . Commentary V. Bialas . 1988 . ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 31501 @-@ 1 . Paperback ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 31502 @-@ X.
Vol . 20 @,@ 2 : Manuscripta astronomica ( II ) . Commentaria in Theoriam Martis . Commentary V. Bialas . 1998 . Paperback ISBN 3 @-@ 406 @-@ 40593 @-@ 2 .
Vol . 21 @,@ 1 : Manuscripta astronomica ( III ) et mathematica . De Calendario Gregoriano . In preparation .
Vol . 21 @,@ 2 : Manuscripta varia . In preparation .
Vol . 22 : General index , in preparation .
The Kepler @-@ Kommission also publishes Bibliographia Kepleriana ( 2nd ed . List , 1968 ) , a complete bibliography of editions of Kepler 's works , with a supplementary volume to the second edition ( ed . Hamel 1998 ) .
= Good Hit =
" Good Hit " is a song recorded by American entertainer Jennifer Lopez for her seventh studio album Love ? ( 2011 ) . It is an up @-@ tempo dance and R & B song , written and produced by Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash and C. " Tricky " Stewart . After the song leaked online in August 2010 , it was announced to be Lopez 's first single with her new record deal with Island Records and the lead single of Love ? . The song received negative reviews from music critics . The song was later issued as a promotional single for Love ? in January 2011 and appeared on the album . Upon the release of Love ? , the song debuted at number 193 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart .
An accompanying music video for " Good Hit " was directed by Alexandre Moors . A teaser for the video surfaced and was quickly removed online in October 2010 , to later appear again in early 2011 . In the video , Lopez acts as a beauty school teacher . Whipping her hair back and forth , she instructs a classroom of students on " Fierceology " and " Work It Out 101 " . These scenes are , in an alternative video , intercut with behind the scenes footage from the Love ? photoshoot . The clip was noted for its sex appeal , in which Lopez and her students were dressed in Dolce & Gabbana .
= = Production and leak = =
" Good Hit " was written and produced by Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash and Tricky Stewart . Lopez 's vocals for the song , which contain auto @-@ tune , were produced by Kuk Harrell . The vocals were recorded by Jim Annunziato , Josh Gudwin and Harrell at Triangle Sound Studios in Atlanta , Georgia , Record Plant Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California and Larrabee Studios in Hollywood , California . Brian " B @-@ Luv " Thomas and Pat Thrall handled audio engineering of " Good Hit " , with additional engineering from Chris " Tek " O 'Ryan and assistance from while Chris Galland and Dustin Capulong . The song was later mixed by Jaycen Joshua with the assistance of Jesus Garnica at Larrabee Studios .
In August 2010 a snippet of " Good Hit " was released onto the internet . It was revealed to be Lopez 's first single with her new record deal with Island Records and the lead single of Love ? . Upon the snippet 's leak , it was panned by critics . The song , however , ultimately appeared on the final track listing of Love ? when it was released in May 2011 and was also released as a promotional single in January 2011 .
= = Composition and critical response = =
" Good Hit " is an up @-@ tempo dance and R & B song , with a length of four minutes and four seconds ( 4 : 04 ) . The song contains a " neck @-@ snapping beat " that keeps " momentum going nicely " . MTV News ' Chris Ryan described " Good Hit " as a slick dance bear , where " Lopez sings about dropping it low in a voice coated with the much @-@ maligned but incredibly popular vocal filter . Scott Shetler of PopCrush noted " Good Hit " to be a near rap @-@ song .
" Good Hit " received negative reviews from music critics . Poppy Reid of The Music Network criticized the song for its reliance on autotune and lyrics " you just don 't expect ( or want ) from a 41 @-@ year @-@ old " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine stated in a review of Love ? that apart from " Good Hit " and " Invading My Mind " , " Lopez shines when the beat hits 120 or higher . " Robert Copsey from Digital Spy called the song generic . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club was critical of the song , stating that : " [ Good Hit ] in which she drones " I got that good hit " when she clearly doesn 't — nor does she seem to even want it . " Scott Shetler of PopCrush noted " Good Hit " to sound as if Lopez was covering Britney Spears " rather than doing her own thing . " Monica Herrera from Billboard agreed , comparing the song to Britney Spears ' " Piece of Me " and additionally to the work of Nicki Minaj .
= = Music video = =
A viral music video for " Good Hit " was directed by Alexandre Moors in October 2010 . The video follows a series of collaborations between Nice Shoes , a New York @-@ based visual effects company , and Moors , including the short film Cherry Bloom . Moors shot the footage for " Good Hit " on one location using two different sets . He wanted a " consistent look throughout " , allowing Nice Shoes to " apply the look of one shot to the rest , adjusting contrast to match " . They also readjusted the windows based on how Lopez moved through each shot . The music video " makes use of a bunch of different hair styling tools " . Oribe , who stylized the hair for the video , created a " classic JLo look : lots of hair , volume and wind " . A " teaser " for the video surfaced online in October 2010 , but was removed quickly afterwards . The music video was released on January 15 , 2011 .
The video for " Good Hit " begins with Lopez holding a pointer in her left hand , while asking for the attention of the students . Two chalk boards are shown behind her , saying the words " Fierceology " and " Work It Out 101 " . Lopez is then seen dancing on chairs with several female students , each with a hair dryer in hand . These scenes are intercut with Lopez teaching the students how to whip their hair . They then strut up and down a hallway . The music video was noted for its sex appeal , in which Lopez and the students are dressed in Dolce & Gabbana . An alternate version of the video was leaked online in December 2011 . This version begins with Lopez posing in front of a mirror , draped in jewelry and sitting on a couch with a telephone . This footage is taken from a behind the scenes look at the photoshoot for Love ? . These scenes are intercut with that from the original version .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love ? .
= = Charts = =
= Notting Hill ( film ) =
Notting Hill is a 1999 British romantic comedy film set in Notting Hill , London , released on 21 May 1999 . The screenplay was by Richard Curtis , who had written Four Weddings and a Funeral ( 1994 ) , and the film was produced by Duncan Kenworthy and directed by Roger Michell . The film stars Hugh Grant , Julia Roberts , Rhys Ifans , Emma Chambers , Tim McInnerny , Gina McKee , and Hugh Bonneville .
Notting Hill was well received by critics and became the highest grossing British film released that year . The film won a BAFTA , was nominated in two other categories , and won other awards , including a British Comedy Award and a Brit Award for the soundtrack .
= = Plot = =
William " Will " Thacker owns an independent travel bookshop in Notting Hill . He is divorced and shares his house with an eccentric , care @-@ free Welshman named Spike .
Will encounters Hollywood superstar Anna Scott when she enters his shop . Minutes later , they collide in the street and his drink spills on her clothes . Will offers his house nearby for Anna to change . Before leaving , she impulsively kisses him .
Days later , Anna leaves him a message that she is at the Ritz Hotel . Will is mistaken for a journalist — in a panic he claims he works for Horse & Hound , and is made to interview the cast of Anna 's new sci @-@ fi film , which he has not seen . Anna calls him back in and says she has cleared her evening for him . Will is exhilarated , before remembering that he is expected at his sister Honey 's birthday party ; Anna surprises him by saying she will join him .
At the house of Max and Bella , Anna feels at home as she share stories with the small group of birthday party guests . She and Will share a moment in a private garden square . The next day they go to a restaurant , where Will overhears Anna being criticised and defends her . Anna invites Will to her room at the Ritz , but her American boyfriend , film star Jeff King , has arrived unannounced . Will pretends to be a room @-@ service waiter and Jeff is very dismissive towards him . Anna is apologetic and embarrassed ; she thought King had broken up with her . Will realizes he must end things with Anna .
Over the next six months , Max and Bella set Will up on a series of awful blind dates , hoping to help him move on from Anna . Anna appears at Will 's house ; some pre @-@ stardom nude photos have been published , and she needs a place to hide out . When she sees Will 's poster of the Marc Chagall painting La Mariée , Anna describes it as " how being in love should be . " After an amazing day together , Anna goes to him at night and they make love . The next morning , she makes him breakfast in bed and she asks if she can stay . The doorbell rings and they are horrified to find a horde of reporters , alerted by Spike 's outspoken talk at the pub . Spike re @-@ opens the door to be photographed in only his dirty underwear , exacerbating the situation . While Anna gets dressed , she verbally berates Will for what she views as his desire for publicity . He tries to cheer her up , reminding her that the fame is all nonsense , but she tells him the scandal will follow her forever , departing with the statement that she regrets their time together .
Several months pass . At a dinner with his friends , Will discovers that Anna is back in town to make a Henry James film , which Will had previously suggested to her . He visits her location shoot , where Anna sees him and invites him past security . Given headphones to hear the dialogue , Will leaves when he overhears Anna evading questions from her co @-@ star , stating that Will is no one important .
The next day , Anna comes to the bookshop with a present . She explains that her co @-@ star is a notorious gossiper and she was simply being discreet . Anna admits she still has feelings for him , apologises for her behaviour months ago and explains that she now understands his comment , months earlier , that the fame is nonsense . Will hears her out , but turns her down , saying he is unable to handle another inevitable break up , especially considering how big of a star she is and that he would be unable to escape seeing her face . She leaves Will 's present behind , which turns out to be the original La Mariée .
Will meets his friends , where Spike is the first to lambaste him for turning away the woman he loves . His friends race him across London in Max 's car , to reach her press conference at the Savoy Hotel . Will adopts his Horse & Hound persona to ask a series of questions that reveals their relationship , while also convincing her to stay in the UK .
A montage shows the two getting married , at one of Anna 's movie premieres , then happily sitting on a garden square bench , where Will reads to a heavily pregnant Anna .
= = Cast = =
Julia Roberts as Anna Scott : A Hollywood film star . She meets Will when she comes into his book shop in Notting Hill . Roberts was the " one and only " choice for the role , although Roger Michell and Duncan Kenworthy did not expect her to accept . Her agent told her it was " the best romantic comedy she had ever read " . Roberts said that after reading the script she decided she was " going to have to do this " .
Hugh Grant as William " Will " Thacker : Recently divorced everyman owner of a travel book shop in Notting Hill . The decision to cast Grant was unanimous , as he and Richard Curtis had a " writer / actor marriage made in heaven " . Michell said that " Hugh does Richard better than anyone else , and Richard writes Hugh better than anyone else " , and that Grant is " one of the only actors who can speak Richard 's lines perfectly " .
Emma Chambers as Honey Thacker : Will 's younger sister , she is a fan of Anna Scott . She later marries her brother 's flatmate Spike .
Hugh Bonneville as Bernie : An incompetent stockbroker and a friend of Will . He does not recognise Anna Scott upon meeting her and by way of small talk about the low pay in acting , asks her how much money she made on her last film .
Rhys Ifans as Spike : Will 's slacker Welsh flatmate who dreams of being an artist . He later marries Honey Thacker and becomes Will 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . He is described by Will as " the stupidest person in the world , only doubled " .
Tim McInnerny as Max : Will 's best friend , in whom Will often confides . He and Bella host Honey 's birthday party .
Gina McKee as Bella : A paraplegic lawyer who is married to Max . She is described by Will as one of the only two women that he has ever loved .
James Dreyfus as Martin : William 's unprofessional assistant at his bookshop .
The casting of Bonneville , McInnerny , McKee , Chambers , and Ifans as Will 's friends was " rather like assembling a family " . Michell explained that " When you are casting a cabal of friends , you have to cast a balance of qualities , of types and of sensibilities . They were the jigsaw that had to be put together all in one go , and I think we 've got a very good variety of people who can realistically still live in the same world . "
Other characters
Richard McCabe as Tony : A failing restaurateur . The group meets at his restaurant .
Dylan Moran as Rufus : A thief who attempts to steal from Will 's bookshop . Despite being caught on CCTV concealing a book down his trousers he professes his innocence , then asks Anna if she wants his phone number .
Alec Baldwin makes an uncredited appearance as Anna 's boyfriend , Jeff King .
Sanjeev Bhaskar has a cameo role as a loud and offensive restaurant patron ( who refers to Meg Ryan as the actress who has an orgasm every time she 's taken out for a cup of coffee ) in the restaurant Anna and Will visit .
Mischa Barton appears as the child actor whom Will pretends to interview for Horse & Hound .
Emily Mortimer as Will 's " Perfect Girl , " a potential love interest for Will .
John Shrapnel as Anna 's UK press agent .
Lorelei King as an assistant to press events .
= = Production = =
Richard Curtis developed the film from thoughts while lying awake at night . He described the starting point as " the idea of a very normal person going out with an unbelievably famous person and how that impinges on their lives " . Four Weddings and a Funeral director Mike Newell was approached but rejected it to work on Pushing Tin . He said that in commercial terms he had made the wrong decision , but did not regret it . The producer , Duncan Kenworthy , then turned to Roger Michell , saying that " Finding someone as good as Roger , was just like finding the right actor to play each role . Roger shone out . "
Curtis chose Notting Hill as he lived there and knew the area , saying " Notting Hill is a melting pot and the perfect place to set a film " . This left the producers to film in a heavily populated area . Kenworthy noted " Early on , we toyed with the idea of building a huge exterior set . That way we would have more control , because we were worried about having Roberts and Grant on public streets where we could get thousands of onlookers . " In the end they decided to film in the streets . Michell was worried " that Hugh and Julia were going to turn up on the first day of shooting on Portobello Road , and there would be gridlock and we would be surrounded by thousands of people and paparazzi photographers who would prevent us from shooting " . The location team , and security personnel prevented this , as well as preventing problems the presence of a film crew may have caused the residents of Notting Hill , who Michell believes were " genuinely excited " about the film . The location manager Sue Quinn , described finding locations and getting permission to film as " a mammoth task " . Quinn and the rest of her team had to write to thousands of people in the area , promising to donate to each person 's favourite charity , resulting in 200 charities receiving money .
Stuart Craig , the production designer , was pleased to do a contemporary film , saying " we 're dealing with streets with thousands of people , market traders , shop owners and residents which makes it really complex " . Filming began on 17 April 1998 in West London and at Shepperton Studios . Will 's bookshop was on Portobello Road , one of the main areas in which filming took place . Other places within Notting Hill included Westbourne Park Road , Golborne Road , Landsdowne Road and the Coronet Cinema . Will 's house , 280 Westbourne Park Road , was owned by Richard Curtis and behind the entrance there is a grand house , not the flat in the film that was made up in the studios . The blue door was auctioned for charity . The current door is blue again . The Travel Book Store is located at 142 Portobello Road . After filming for six weeks in Notting Hill , filming moved to the Ritz Hotel , where work had to take place at night , the Savoy Hotel , the Nobu Restaurant , the Zen Garden of the Hempel Hotel and Kenwood House . One of the final scenes takes place at a film premiere , which presented difficulties . Michell wanted to film Leicester Square but was declined . Police had found fans at a Leonardo DiCaprio premiere problematic and were concerned the same might occur at the staged premiere . Through a health and safety act , the production received permission to film and constructed the scene in 24 hours . Interior scenes were the last to be filmed , at Shepperton Studios . The final cut was 3 @.@ 5 hours long , 90 minutes edited out for release .
The film features the 1950 Marc Chagall painting La Mariée . Anna sees a print of the painting in William 's home and later gives him what is presumably the original . Michell said in Entertainment Weekly that the painting was chosen because Curtis was a fan of Chagall 's work and because La Mariée " depicts a yearning for something that 's lost . " The producers had a reproduction made for the film , but had to get permission from the owner as well as clearance from the Design and Artists Copyright Society . Finally , according to Kenworthy , " we had to agree to destroy it . They were concerned that if our fake was too good , it might float around the market and create problems . " The article also noted that " some experts say the real canvas could be worth between US $ 500 @,@ 000 and US $ 1 million . "
The film features the book Istanbul : The Imperial City ( 1996 ) by John Freely . William recommends this book to Anna , commenting the author has at least been to Istanbul . In reality , Freely teaches at Boğaziçi University in Istanbul , and is the author of nine books about the city .
= = Music = =
Music was composed by Trevor Jones . Several additional songs written by other artists include Elvis Costello 's cover of the Charles Aznavour song " She " , Shania Twain 's remixed version of " You 've Got A Way " , as well as Ronan Keating 's specially recorded cover of " When You Say Nothing at All " ; the song reached number one in the British charts . Pulp recorded new song " Born to Cry " , which was released on the European version of the soundtrack album .
The song played when Will strides down Portobello Road is " Ain 't No Sunshine " by Bill Withers . Tony and Bernie play " Blue Moon " on the piano at Tony 's restaurant on the night it closes . Originally , Charles Aznavour 's version of " She " was used in the film , but American test screening audiences did not respond to it . Costello was then brought in by Richard Curtis to record a cover version of the song . Both versions of the song appear in non @-@ US releases .
The soundtrack album was released by Island Records .
US version track listing
" No Matter What " – Boyzone
" You 've Got a Way " ( Notting Hill remix ) – Shania Twain
" I Do ( Cherish You ) " – 98 Degrees
" She " – Elvis Costello
" Ain 't No Sunshine " – Bill Withers
" How Can You Mend a Broken Heart ? " – Al Green
" Gimme Some Lovin ' " – Spencer Davis Group
" When You Say Nothing at All " - Ronan Keating
" Ain 't No Sunshine " – Lighthouse Family
" From the Heart " - Another Level
" Everything About You " - Steve Poltz
" Will and Anna " – Trevor Jones ( Score )
" Notting Hill " – Trevor Jones ( Score )
The film score and original music was recorded and mixed by Gareth Cousins ( who also mixed all the songs used in the film ) and Simon Rhodes .
= = Release = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film had generally positive reviews , scoring an 82 % " Certified Fresh " rating at Rotten Tomatoes . Variety 's Derek Elley said that " It 's slick , it 's gawky , it 's 10 minutes too long , and it 's certainly not " Four Weddings and a Funeral Part 2 " in either construction or overall tone " , giving it an overall positive review . Cranky Critic called it " Bloody damned good " , as well as saying that it was " A perfect date flick . " Nitrate said that " Notting Hill is whimsical and light , fresh and quirky " , with " endearing moments and memorable characters " . In his review of the film 's DVD John J. Puccio noted that " the movie is a fairy tale , and writer Richard Curtis knows how much the public loves a fairy tale " , calling it " a sweet film " . Desson Howe of The Washington Post gave the film a very positive review , particularly praising Rhys Ifans ' performance as Spike . James Sanford gave Notting Hill three and a half stars , saying that " Curtis ' dialogue may be much snappier than his sometimes dawdling plot , but the first hour of Notting Hill is so beguiling and consistently funny it seems churlish to complain that the rest is merely good . " Sue Pierman of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel stated that " Notting Hill is clever , funny , romantic – and oh , yes , reminiscent of Four Weddings and a Funeral " , but that the film " is so satisfying , it doesn 't pay to nitpick . " Roger Ebert praised the film , saying " the movie is bright , the dialogue has wit and intelligence , and Roberts and Grant are very easy to like . " Kenneth Turan gave a good review , concluding that " the film 's romantic core is impervious to problems " . CNN reviewer Paul Clinton said that Notting Hill " stands alone as another funny and heartwarming story about love against all odds " .
Widgett Walls of Needcoffee.com gave the film " three and a half cups of coffee " , stating that " the humor of the film saves it from a completely trite and unsatisfying ( nay , shall I say enraging ) ending " , but criticised the soundtrack . Dennis Schwartz gave the film a negative review with a grade of " C- " citing " this film was pure and unadulterated balderdash " . Some criticised the film for giving a " sweetened unrealistic view of London life and British eccentricity . " The Independent derided the film for being unrealistic .
= = = Lists = = =
Notting Hill was 95th on the British Film Institute 's " list of the all @-@ time top 100 films " , based on estimates of each film 's British cinema admissions .
= = = Box office = = =
The film had its premiere at the Odeon , Leicester Square , on 27 April 1999 . It earned US $ 116 @,@ 089 @,@ 678 as its overall domestic gross , with a worldwide gross of US $ 363 @,@ 889 @,@ 678 . It totalled US $ 27 @.@ 7 million over its opening weekend , an American record , the biggest opening for a romantic comedy film , beating My Best Friend 's Wedding ( which also starred Julia Roberts ) . Notting Hill made another US $ 15 million the following week . One month after its release , Notting Hill lost its record for highest grossing opening weekend for a romantic comedy film to Runaway Bride ( again starring Roberts ) . It was the sixteenth highest grossing film of 1999 , and as of February 2014 is the 215th highest grossing film of all time . In 2007 , it became the then highest grossing British film . It opened the same weekend as Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace , which didn 't affect its Box Office as Notting Hill opened at Number 2 .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Notting Hill won the Audience Award for Most Popular Film at the BAFTAs in 2000 , and was nominated in the categories of The Alexander Korda Award for Outstanding British Film of the year , and Best Performance by an Actor in a supporting role for Rhys Ifans . The film won Best Comedy Film at the British Comedy Awards . The film 's soundtrack won Best Soundtrack at the Brit Awards , beating Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace . The film won Best British Film , Best British Director for Roger Michell , and Best British Actor for Hugh Grant at the Empire Awards . The film received three nominations at the Golden Globes , in the categories Best Motion Picture – Comedy / Musical , Best Motion Picture Actor – Comedy / Musical for Hugh Grant , and Best Motion Picture Actress – Comedy / Musical for Julia Roberts .
= Subtropical Storm One ( 1974 ) =
Subtropical Storm One was a short @-@ lived subtropical cyclone that brought copious amounts of rainfall to central Florida in late June 1974 . The storm originated in an area of convection that detached from a tropical depression over the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on June 24 . A new area of low pressure developed underneath the convection and the system began to intensify . Later that day , the storm had become sufficiently organized to be classified as a subtropical depression . Early on June 25 , it made landfall near Clearwater , Florida with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and later attained its peak intensity over eastern Florida with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . After reemerging into the Atlantic Ocean , the system began to weaken as it underwent an extratropical transition . The storm ultimately dissipated off the coast of North Carolina early on June 26 .
Despite its relatively weak strength , the system produced nearly 12 in ( 300 mm ) of rain around Tampa , Florida , and the National Hurricane Center reported upwards of 20 in ( 510 mm ) nearby . Around Lake Okeechobee , precipitation totals of 7 in ( 180 mm ) were common . The heavy rainfall led to moderate flooding across the state . One tornado was confirmed to have touched down in association with the cyclone . Three people drowned as a result of the storm and damage amounted to $ 10 million ( 1974 USD , $ 48 million in 2009 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical depression was situated over the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on June 22 , 1974 . By June 24 , the depression began to weaken as it moved near the Mexican coastline , causing convective activity to move away from the center of circulation . Later that day , a new area of low pressure developed underneath the convection in the central Gulf of Mexico . It continued to mature , and around 1800 UTC , the system had become sufficiently organized to be classified as a subtropical depression . Although subtropical , the storm was operationally considered to be non @-@ tropical , but was reassessed in a post @-@ season analysis of the system . Upon becoming subtropical , the storm tracked rapidly towards the northeast at 24 mph ( 39 km / h ) . Early on June 25 , the depression intensified into a subtropical storm as it neared the Florida coastline .
Reconnaissance missions were flown into the storm until it made landfall near Clearwater , Florida with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) during the morning of June 25 . Although over land , the system continued to intensify as it moved through the Florida Peninsula . Roughly six @-@ hours after landfall , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . Not long after attaining this intensity , the storm moved over the far western Atlantic Ocean and began to weaken . Later that day , it began to undergo an extratropical transition , acquiring frontal features and elongated convection . The storm completed this transition within 12 hours before becoming poorly defined and dissipating off the North Carolina coastline early on June 26 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Following the formation of the system , the National Hurricane Center issued small craft advisories and gale warnings for most of the Florida coastline . Although it was relatively weak , the system brought torrential rainfall to parts of central Florida , with amounts of 11 @.@ 38 in ( 289 mm ) in St. Petersburg . The National Hurricane Center reported that up to 20 in ( 510 mm ) fell near Tampa . In a 24 @-@ hour span , 9 @.@ 54 in ( 242 mm ) of rain fell in Inverness . Rainfall amounts exceeding 7 in ( 180 mm ) covered a large area north of Tampa and totals between 5 and 7 in ( 130 and 180 mm ) were common west of Lake Okeechobee . Two runways at the St. Petersburg @-@ Clearwater International Airport were submerged in flood waters during the storm .
Offshore , waves up to 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) affected coastal areas . Several vessels became stranded in the storm , resulted in many Coast Guard rescues , many by towing the ships back to shore . A tornado was reported near Fort Myers . Additionally , two waterspouts touched down near Sarasota ; however , both struck unpopulated areas and left no damage . One of the two waterspouts was later confirmed as an F0 tornado with a track length of roughly 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . Beach erosion was common along many beaches in southeastern states . The most significant erosion took place between Cedar Key and Naples where coastal flooding was reported . After moving through Florida , the subtropical storm brought gusty winds and light to moderate rainfall to Georgia , South Carolina and North Carolina . Throughout Florida , three people were killed by the storm from drowning and floods left roughly $ 10 million ( 1974 USD , $ 48 million in 2009 USD ) in damage .
= Survivors ( 2008 TV series ) =
Survivors is a British science fiction television series produced by the BBC . It depicts the lives of a group of people who survived a virulent unknown strain of influenza which has wiped out most of the human species . According to the producers , the series is not a remake of the 1970s BBC television series Survivors ( 1975 – 1977 ) , created by Terry Nation , but rather is loosely based on the novel of the same name that Nation wrote following the first series of the 1970s programme . Two series were produced of the new show : series 1 ran on BBC One and BBC HD in November – December 2008 , and series 2 ran in January – February 2010 , ending with a cliffhanger . The BBC announced on 13 April 2010 that , due to poor viewing figures and other considerations , Survivors had been cancelled .
The series premiered in South Africa on BBC Entertainment , in September 2009 , in France on DTTV channel NRJ 12 on 12 January 2010 , on BBC America in the United States on 13 February 2010 , and in Australia on Channel Nine , on 21 March 2010 .
= = Synopsis = =
Set in the present day , the series focuses on a group of ordinary people who survive the aftermath of a devastating viral pandemic – referred to as " European flu " – which kills most of the world 's population by causing
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recipient 's own purposes , so that such person will not be permitted to treat the property as his own or to use it for other than the stated purpose " ; this reference to " conscience " could make Quistclose trusts constructive in nature . However , no constructive trust could be created until the money is misused , which may be too late for an effective remedy .
= Tony Boles =
Tony Boles ( born December 11 , 1967 ) is a retired professional American football running back and kick returner who was drafted by the Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League ( NFL ) . After starring for the Michigan Wolverines football , where he once led the Big Ten Conference in rushing , he went on to a scandal ridden life . His college football career was ended prematurely due to a knee injury . He has been sentenced to prison multiple times and placed in homes for addicts due to cocaine abuse .
= = Youth = =
Although Boles was born in Thomasville , Georgia and his family settled in Westland , Michigan when he was ten years old . He grew up in a predominantly white neighborhood where he was one of only four African Americans in the entire student body at John Glenn High School . He had also attended Marshall Junior High School . He took a Caucasian woman to the high school prom , but was not allowed to enter her home . She had to pick him up for the prom .
= = College = =
Boles starred for coach Bo Schembechler at the University of Michigan where he was twice named All @-@ Big Ten on repeat conference champions in 1988 and 1989 and named the team most valuable player for the 1989 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season . These were Schembechler 's final two seasons at Michigan . With Boles , the team won the January 1 , 1989 Rose Bowl , but with him on the sidelines they lost the January 1 , 1990 contest . Boles shared the 1988 Big Ten rushing title with Anthony Thompson . Boles won the title for conference games only , while Thompson won the title for all games played . As a sophomore in 1988 , he rushed for 1 @,@ 408 yards ( 1 @,@ 287 m ) , but during his junior season he suffered a season ending knee injury . Entering the final game before his injury he had accumulated 822 yards ( 752 m ) rushing in nine games on 130 rushes , Schembechler was starting to support his Heisman Trophy candidacy :
During the 1989 season , his carries were somewhat limited due to a pinched nerve . He was seriously injured late in the 1989 season and had arthroscopic surgery on his knee , while Leroy Hoard replaced him for the final 2 @.@ 5 games . In 1990 , Boles attempted a senior season comeback as a wide receiver to no avail . Boles compiled 10 100 @-@ yard games while rushing for 2 @,@ 247 yards ( 2 @,@ 055 m ) in two years at Michigan . In addition to playing running back , Boles excelled as a kick returner where he accumulated 639 yards ( 584 m ) and a touchdown on 25 returns for a 25 @.@ 6 yards ( 23 @.@ 4 m ) per return average . In 1990 , Jon Vaughn and Ricky Powers carried the load at tailback in his place . In retrospect , Boles sometimes regrets not having gone to one of the historically black colleges and universities . Before the injury he had been projected as a first round draft pick . After the injury , he dropped out of school fell onto hard times . He dropped out of classes because he says " didn 't want to be crutching around campus " and he eventually stopped rehabbing his knee and became irregular with his workouts .
= = Professional career = =
Boles , who was represented by agent Thom Darden , was drafted in the eleventh round of the 1991 NFL Draft with the 291st overall selection by the Dallas Cowboys as part of Jimmy Johnson 's rebuilding efforts . He was part of a Cowboy draft class that included three first round selections ( Russell Maryland , Alvin Harper , and Kelvin Pritchett ) , eleven picks in the first four rounds and eighteen overall selections . Boles was assigned rookie initiation duties of washing Emmitt Smith 's Pathfinder , but instead of washing the car disappeared with it for two days while bingeing . He eventually tested positive and was released by the Cowboys . The Cowboys placed him on the reserve non @-@ football injury list in August 1991 . He then played a season with the San Antonio Riders of the World League of American Football for most of a season until he got mixed up in criminal activity . At first , he mysteriously disappeared from practice on a day of random drug testing . Before the disappearance , his World League performance had enabled Boles to get signed as a free agent by the Cowboys in early April 1992 , but by June the team released him .
= = Life after football = =
On November 11 , 1994 , Boles was arrested on charges of possession of drug paraphernalia and petty theft and wound up in jail in Naples , Florida .
Boles discovered at age 27 that he had not been reared by his biological father . He soon thereafter started using cocaine . After football ended , he worked various jobs such as construction and working at a grocery store . He then started selling drugs and then using his product . This led him to a series of arrests , prison stays , and homeless periods . In 2003 , two former teammates tracked him down and set him up with a job at a car wash . However , Boles fell back into his criminal ways . Boles was convicted of robbing an elderly couple and was sentenced to three to fifteen years in prison . He was released into a work program . He also found himself at the Elmhurst Home , Inc. substance abuse treatment center in 2006 . The residential treatment center has since 1972 been used to host about 100 recovering addicts at a time providing Narcotics Anonymous and Alcoholics Anonymous meeting places , military @-@ style roll calls , daily tasks , and progress logs .
Physically , in 2006 , Boles was described as starting to gray , missing two top front teeth and suffering from an arthritic knee . He stood 6 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) and 190 pounds ( 86 kg ; 14 st ) . He had a 21 @-@ year @-@ old daughter and kept in touch with his mother . His stepfather had died in 1994 .
Boles was arrested in Ypsilanti , Michigan on September 9 , 2007 and pleaded guilty to one count of receiving and concealing stolen property . He was sentenced to serve two to five years in prison for receiving and concealing stolen property in violation of his parole in Washtenaw County Circuit Court . He had previously served six months in prison for unarmed robbery before he was paroled in 2005 . Boles ' most recent infraction occurred when with an outstanding warrant , he provided a false name to officers investigating why he was blocking traffic with a car they would find out had been stolen from Detroit , Michigan . He had been attempting to converse with sidewalk pedestrians while purchasing drugs . Boles lost his son , Christopher , to a traffic accident at the age of 17 in February 2016 .
= Racial wage gap in the United States =
In the United States , despite the efforts of equality proponents , income inequality persists among races . Whites and Asian Americans have the highest average income , followed by Latino Americans , African Americans , and Native Americans . A variety of explanations for these differences have been proposed — such as differing intelligence , access to education , and experience of discrimination — and the topic is highly controversial .
When the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed , it became illegal for employers to discriminate based on race ; however , income disparities have not flattened out . After the passage of the act , the wage gap for minority groups narrowed , both in absolute difference with white wages and as a percentage of white wages , until the mid @-@ 1970s ; at this time , progress for many racial minorities slowed , stopped , or reversed . As of 2009 , the median weekly wage for African American and Hispanic workers was about 65 percent and 61 percent that of White workers , respectively . Asian workers ' median wage was about 101 percent that of white workers . Overall , minority women 's wages in comparison to those of white women are better than minority men 's wages when compared to those of white men .
Knowing the inequalities in the wages of various races is useful for understanding the overall racial inequality in the United States because of the integral role that wages play . Wages from the labor market are the primary source of income for most families in America , and income is a socio @-@ demographic status indicator that is important in understanding the building of wealth .
= = Causes = =
Studies of the wage gap for various minority races in the United States have revealed a number of factors that contribute to the differences in wages observed between white Americans and Americans of other races . The factors contributing to the wage gaps for various races and the degree to which they affect each race varies , but many factors are common to most or all races .
= = = Educational disparities = = =
Education is one of the most influential determinants of wage , and thus it is a factor that contributes to the racial wage gap . Varying education levels among races lead to different wages for various racial groups . Education affects wages because it allows access to occupations of higher status that offer greater earnings . Mary C. Waters and Karl Eschbach studied the decrease in the black @-@ white wage gap from the 1940s through the 1970s and found the primary reason for the decrease in the wage gap to be the narrowing of the education gap between blacks and whites . When the education of different groups becomes more equal , wage gaps decrease , though they do not disappear .
= = = Occupational distribution disparities = = =
The way in which races are distributed throughout occupations affects the racial wage gap . White and Asian Americans , who have the highest median incomes , are concentrated more in professional , executive , and managerial occupations than blacks , Hispanics , or American Indians . Black and Hispanic workers are not only more likely to work in blue @-@ collar or service jobs , but they tend to be concentrated in the lower @-@ wage / skilled jobs , such as operators , fabricators , and laborers , rather than higher @-@ paying precision production and craft jobs within those categories .
Occupational distribution varies for women of various races as well . White and Asian women are more likely to work in managerial and professional occupations , while black , Hispanic , and American Indian Women are more likely to work in service occupations . Thus , because certain races are more likely to have lower @-@ paying jobs , gaps in median incomes between races arise .
A study conducted by Kenneth Couch and Mary Daly found that the occupational distribution between blacks and white improved between 1970 and the 1990s . In 1968 , a black male was only 20 percent as likely to be employed as a manager as a white male and only 40 percent as likely to work in a professional occupation . In 1998 , the percentages increased to 50 % and 70 percent , respectively . Despite this improvement , however , occupational distribution differences still exist between blacks and whites . In 1998 , a black male was still more likely than a white male to work in lower @-@ skills jobs and less likely than a white male to work in high @-@ paying jobs .
= = = Globalization = = =
The globalization of the United States ' economy in the 1970s and 1980s caused a shift in the U.S. income distribution . As the United States joined the global market economy , three outcomes occurred . Those who possessed financial and human capital , such as education , succeeded in the new economy because the money and skills they had to offer were in short supply . Those who possessed only labor did not fare well because cheap , physical labor was in oversupply in the global market .
In the new globalized economy that formed , much of the United States ' manufacturing was exported , which affected most adversely the group of Americans in the lowest section of the education distribution , a section in which minority groups are overrepresented . The increase in overall wage inequality created by the new economy 's lower demand for physical labor disproportionately affected minorities as well . The economic restructuring also served to create structural barriers to improvement for those with the least education and skills . Thus , the United States ' shift to a globalized economy lead to greater income disparity between education groups , which , because of the uneven distribution of minorities in jobs and an overall increase in wage inequality , led to the wage gap between whites and minorities to increase .
= = = Geographic distribution = = =
The distance between jobs and the location of minorities ' homes affects the ability of minorities to find profitable work . Saskia Sassen found that the redistribution of manufacturing jobs out of central cities in the 1980s negatively affected the wage gap between blacks and whites because most blacks live in cities .
= = = Foreign birth = = =
A person of a minority race that is not born in the United States fares worse than those who are native born in terms of wages . The worst affected are men and women from Japan and China and Filipino women . However , a study by Gwartney and Long ( 1978 ) found that there is a positive effect on economic outcomes for second generation immigrants , or the children of immigrants who are foreign born , which they believe means that there are specific traits of immigrant parents that are beneficial to the economic success of their children .
= = = Client channeling = = =
When wage gaps in occupations for blacks and whites are compared , it is observed that occupations that depend on social networking for success tend to have the largest racial disparities , while occupations in which success does not depend on the type of clients served tend to have the least racial disparities . This difference has been attributed to employee channeling , or the assignment by white employers of minority employees to serve minority clients . The implications of employee channeling for a black real estate agent , for example , would be that they disproportionately served black clients and neighborhoods , resulting in lower sales commissions . In this way , employee channeling , identified as a social form of discrimination , contributes to the wage gap .
= = = Discrimination = = =
When human capital , skills , and other factors contributing to the racial wage gap are taken into account , many researchers find that there is still a portion of the racial wage gap that is unexplained . Many attribute this to another factor : race . Differences in wages due solely to race is racial discrimination . Through the use of statistical controls , sociologists and economists " ask whether a given person with the same background characteristics , such as level of education , region of residence , gender , marital characteristics , has the same earnings as a statistically equivalent person from a different racial / ethnic group " . Differences that emerge are taken as evidence of racial discrimination . Research has found wage and employment discrimination against blacks , Native Americans , Hispanics , and Asians ; however , discrimination has been found to be a much larger contributing factor for black wages than wages of other races .
A study conducted by Grodsky & Pager ( 2001 ) found that individual attributes , such as human capital and region , account for just more than half of the black @-@ white wage gap , and an additional 20 percent is due to different occupational distributions between blacks and whites . The remaining portion of the wage gap not accounted for by individual and occupational distribution factors is thought to be due , at least in part , to discrimination .
Discrimination based on race has been found in other research as well . Seventy @-@ four percent of employers in one study were found to be racially biased toward blacks , and blacks have been found to make lower wages than whites working in the same industry . White Latinos earn higher wages than nonwhite Latinos , regardless of whether they are native or immigrant , suggesting possible discrimination based on skin color . Additionally , many employers openly admit to discriminating against blacks and workers in the inner city , as one study by Kirschenman and Neckerman ( 1991 ) found . Hiring audits have also found discrimination in the labor market . Blacks and whites who have the same credentials receive jobs at a rate of 3 : 1 .
= = Specific races = =
Wage gaps have been identified for many races within the United States ; however , research has found that the size and causes of the wage gap differs by race . For instance , the median black male worker earns 74 percent as much as the median white male worker , while the median Hispanic male worker earns only 63 percent as much . To understand more fully and accurately the subject of the racial wage gap in the United States , it is useful to look at different races individually to understand the causes and outcomes that are unique to them .
= = = Black = = =
The history of Black Americans in the United States is one characterized by social control and domination . The disparity in wealth between Black and White America has a history as long as the relationship between the two groups . Across the country , white Americans benefitted from not being required to pay enslaved Africans for more than four centuries , and after slavery was abolished racist groups like the Ku Klux Klan led mobs to engage in boycotts at the least and outright violence against Black businesses ( 1921 Tulsa Race Riot ) , churches ( 16th Street Baptist Church bombing ) , schools , and other pillars of Black society at worst . Though these individuals have since died , their wealth has been passed down until the present in the form of inheritance and historical business investment .
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 , which forbade employers from discriminating on the basis of race , was one of the earliest and greatest influences on the black @-@ white wage gap . The act , along with the economic prosperity of the 1960s , contributed to rising black wages , increased education for blacks , and increased returns to education . Indeed , in 1940 , weekly wages of the average black male were only 48 @.@ 4 percent that of the average white male . In 1990 , that had risen to 75 percent , a 60 percent improvement over five decades .
From the ending of legal segregation through the mid @-@ 1970s , the black @-@ white wage gap continued to narrow . However , from the mid @-@ 1970s until almost 1990 , progress in wage equality greatly slowed . From 1968 @-@ 1979 , the black @-@ white wage gap decreased by an average of 1 @.@ 2 percent each year . During the 80s , however , it increased .24 percent each year . During the 1990s , the black @-@ white wage gap decreased .59 percent each year . This proportional decrease was also accompanied by a decrease in the absolute difference of black and white wages .
Analyses have uncovered some of the underlying influences in the improvements of the black @-@ white wage gap . During the decades of progress ( the 1970s and 1990s ) , 30 percent of the wage gap convergence can be attributed to changes in black education and experience . More equalization in employment distribution also influenced the convergence during those decades . Factors identified as contributing to decreases in wage gap convergence include " shifts in industry demand , greater occupational crowding , relative deterioration of unobservable skills in blacks , and rising overall male wage inequality " .
The decline of the black @-@ white wage gap in the 1990s was greatest for those who have less than 10 years of potential experience , for whom it decreased 1 @.@ 40 percent per year . Kenneth Couch and Mary C. Daly report in their 2002 study on black @-@ white wage inequality that these decreases are the result of greater occupational diversity and reductions in unobserved or residual differences . In the first decade of the twenty @-@ first century , the wage gap has fluctuated in terms of the ratio between black and white wages : 67 @.@ 7 percent in 2000 , 64 @.@ 0 percent in 2005 , 67 @.@ 5 percent in 2008 , and 64 @.@ 5 percent in 2009 . The absolute difference in black and white wages , however , has decreased over this period .
Black Americans now number 36 million , 12 @.@ 9 % of the total population . As of 2009 , the median black male income was $ 23 @,@ 738 , compared to the median white non @-@ Hispanic male income of $ 36 @,@ 785 .
While progress in wage inequality for blacks has been made since the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Acts , inequality and discrimination still exist . A study conducted by Major G. Coleman ( 2003 ) reports that as black and white men have more similar competitive performance ratings , racial wage differences increase rather than decrease . He also found that black wages are less than white wages in the same industry . When no factors other than race are considered , Coleman predicts the black hourly wage to be $ 7 @.@ 49 and the white hourly wage to be $ 8 @.@ 92 , 19 percent higher than the black hourly wage . When Coleman controlled for human capital , such as education and skills , the difference decreased to 11 percent . Coleman attributed this 11 percent difference to racial discrimination .
Grodsky and Pager also calculated wage differences , and found blacks to make $ 3 @.@ 65 less per hour than whites in the private sector and $ 2 @.@ 85 less in the public sector . Using statistical regressions , they found that human capital , region , and marital status account for 55 percent of the wage gap difference . An additional 20 percent of the wage gap was attributed to differences in occupational distributions between blacks and whites . Thus , 25 percent of the wage gap was unaccounted for by their model .
Black women experience more wage equality in comparison to white women than black men do to white men . By the mid @-@ 1970s , wages for black and white women were almost equal ; however , since then , black women 's wages have decreased about 10 percent relative to white women 's wages . This difference that emerged has been attributed to the increase of white women in the labor force following the mid @-@ 1970s .
It has been suggested that when more white women began working , the advantages of black women from unmeasured differences in labor force attachment disappeared , revealing a racial wage gap . While an overall wage gap appeared between black and white women , by 1980 , the earnings of black women with college degrees surpassed those of white women with college degrees . An understanding of the earnings of black women has recently become recognized as an important area of research due to role that black women traditionally have in terms of family income : black married couples typically have relied more on women 's earnings than other races and the percentage of single @-@ parent , female @-@ maintained families is highest among the black population .
= = = Hispanic = = =
The Hispanic minority group in the United States , composed of 50 @.@ 3 million individuals in 2010 , consists of much variance within itself with regard to wages , though all groups ' wages are lower than those of non @-@ Hispanic whites . In 2007 , the largest Hispanic group , consisting of 29 @.@ 2 million people , were individuals of Mexican origin , followed by 4 @.@ 1 million people of Puerto Rican origin and 1 @.@ 6 million people of Cuban origin . By 2009 , the median income of Hispanics was lower than that of Whites and Asians , but much higher than the median wages of African @-@ Americans ; $ 38 @,@ 039 , compared to $ 32 @,@ 584 for African @-@ Americans and $ 49 @,@ 777 for the general population . While their relative wages have fallen since 1979 , this has been attributed to a demand for more educated workers and a gap in educational attainment , supported by the fact that college @-@ educated Hispanic men 's relative wages have changed little over time .
Unlike research findings for the black minority , it has been a converging finding that largest contributing factor to the wage gap of Hispanics is observable skill characteristics , especially education . Thus , increased education has been seen to contribute to a decreased wage gap . College @-@ educated Hispanic men have wages that are approximately 80 percent of those earned by college @-@ educated white males and are 10 percent higher than wages earned by college @-@ educated black males . College @-@ educated Hispanic women earn approximately 90 percent of what college @-@ educated white women earn , which is slightly more than the earnings of college @-@ educated black women .
Despite the improvement in wages made by educational attainment , less educated Hispanic men still have less return to education than non @-@ Hispanic men that are statistically comparable . A study conducted using 1980 census data on income that controlled for age , education , English language ability , nativity , and State / Metro residence , found a wage gap of 10 percent still existed for Hispanics compared to non @-@ Hispanics . Additionally , discrimination against Hispanic men and women was found in an audit study of employers in San Diego and Chicago .
Because skills and educational attainment is the major contributing factor to the wage gap for Hispanics , differences in the education levels of the various Hispanic subgroups has been used to explain differences in their wages . The typical trend in wages for Hispanic subgroups is that Cubans do the best while Puerto Ricans do the worst , being severely disadvantaged even in comparison to blacks and American Indians . George J. Borjas attributes these group differences to two factors : 1 . The nature of the migration decision ( whether individuals migrated to the United States for political or economic reasons ) and 2 . The incentives for immigrants to adapt to the U.S. labor market .
When Hispanic persons immigrate to the United States , neither their physical nor human capital specific to their country of origin is easily transferred to the United States ' labor market ; human capital investments must be made in the United States in order to assimilate into the labor market . Borjas argues that the Hispanic groups that immigrate to the United States for economic reasons , rather than political reasons , have more incentive to acquire human capital in the United States and therefore do so faster than other groups . This faster acquisition of human capital results in better economic progress and higher wages .
Thus , the relative success of Cubans can be attributed to the fact that they invest in United States education and labor market skills faster and to a greater degree than other Hispanic groups . Borjas recognizes that one of the main reasons for Hispanic migration to the United States is political reasons , and he argues that political refugees have less incentive to assimilate and acquire human capital than those who migrate for economic reasons . This lower incentive leads to the education gaps seen between Hispanics and whites and therefore greatly contributes to the observed wage gap . Based on an analysis of Hispanic wages over the past six decades , Borjas concludes that , due to differing incentives to assimilate and other factors , Puerto Rican immigrants will wait twenty @-@ five years before the assimilation process is reflected in their wages and Mexican immigrants will wait fifteen years .
Hispanic women , like black women , have experienced greater success in wage equality relative to males of their race . As of 1995 , Hispanic women of all education levels , except for those without high school diplomas or associate degrees , had parity in earnings with white women . While this information is positive , a broader examination of Hispanic women 's wages reveals that inequality still exists . In the 1990s , Hispanic women 's full @-@ time earnings fell in real terms . This difference is attributed mainly to differences in educational attainment .
= = = Asian = = =
As of 2010 , 14 @,@ 011 @,@ 000 Asians were living in America . Asian Americans are the only minority in the United States whose median income is higher than whites , assuming Pacific Islanders are not counted as a separate race . In 2009 , the median income for Asian males was $ 37 @,@ 330 , compared to the median income for non @-@ Hispanic white males of $ 36 @,@ 785 . In 2015 , Asian American men were the highest earning racial group at $ 24 / hour . Asian American men earned 117 % as much as white American men ( $ 21 / hour ) and have been out earning their white Americans counterparts since about 2000 . Similarly , in 2015 Asian American women earned 106 % as much as white American women .
However , not all Asian groups in the United States have such high wages ; certain Asian groups have fared better than others in the United States labor market . The longer established Asians from China , Japan , the Philippines , and India have higher median wages and household income than Southeast Asian refugees from Laos and Vietnam , though all these groups still have median income above non @-@ Hispanic whites . Cambodians and Hmong , on the other hand , do not , though their median income is still quite close to the national average and above that of blacks and Hispanics . Indian @-@ Americans currently have the highest median household income of any ethnic group in the United States , while Bhutanese Americans have the lowest .
Part of the explanation for Asians ' higher wages is their greater @-@ than @-@ average educational attainment : in the 1990s , 23 @.@ 3 percent of the total U.S. male population had at least a college degree , while 48 @.@ 7 percent of Asian Indian men , 41 @.@ 6 percent of Filipino men , and 35 percent of Chinese men had at least a college degree . The higher educational attainment of Asians masks the fact that a wage gap exists between Asians and whites of the same occupations . Whites earn more than Asians in almost all occupational categories when other factors are controlled . Asians still make 8 % less than whites in comparable jobs .
= = = American Indian = = =
The American Indian minority has been less studied than other minority groups in the United States . In 1990 , the median family income for American Indians was $ 21 @,@ 750 , approximately 62 percent of the $ 35 @,@ 225 median family income for all families . By 2010 , the median household income for Native Americans was $ 38 @,@ 806 , compared to $ 51 @,@ 914 for the total population , making them the second poorest race on average after African @-@ Americans ( $ 35 @,@ 341 ) . The wage gap has been attributed in large part to " human capital differences " , and there is debate as to whether discrimination affects the wage gap .
= = Private vs. public sector employment = =
The racial wage gap for blacks and whites has been observed to differ in the public and private sectors . In a 2001 analysis , a $ 3 @.@ 65 difference per hour was found between blacks and whites in the private sector , a 34 percent difference . In contrast , a smaller difference of $ 2 @.@ 85 per hour was found in the public sector , a 21 percent difference . For the 23 percent of blacks that work in the public sector , evidence suggests that wages are based primary on individual qualifications , but for the 77 percent of blacks employed in the private sector , this assertion has not been found to be as valid .
Additionally , a larger percentage of the wage gap was found to be accounted for by the human capital characteristics of educational attainment and potential years of experience in the public than private sector . Also , an effect encountered in the private sector in which black males have higher absolute wages as they increase in status but lower wages relative to whites of the same status , has not been found in the public sector .
= = Policy discussion = =
Though solutions to eliminate the racial wage gap have been proposed , there is no one prescription that will eliminate it for all races , or even one race . Research has identified different wage gaps and sources of wage gaps for different minorities , suggesting that public policies will affect different minorities in different ways and that effective strategies must take into account the unique circumstances of each race group . Sociologist Douglas Massey offers two solutions to alleviate wage inequality : greater investments in education and elimination of racial segregation . He notes that , in a globalized economy , those with only physical labor to offer suffer .
He argues that investments in education , especially higher education , will result in higher rates of economic growth and lower income inequality . By eliminating racial segregation , Massey argues that many divides between races that exist would be broken down , including income segregation . To accomplish the abolition of racial segregation , Massey argues , simple enforcement of legislation already in place , such as the Fair Housing Act , the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act , and the Community Reinvestment Act , is required . For more group @-@ specific policies , focus on education and language inequalities could be helpful in equalizing employment opportunities , but other more specific policies are dependent on further research on wage gaps for various groups .
To tackle wage inequality specifically in companies , random job audits at the national , state , and local levels have been suggested . Audits have been used to study and find wage inequality in the past and could be used as way to actively monitor the presence of the racial wage gap in companies .
= = Limitations and criticisms of the racial wage gap = =
Evaluating and understanding the causes and consequences of the racial wage gap for various races is an important part of understanding racial inequality in the United States ; however , the wage gap does not encompass all aspects of inequality and therefore is useful when understood in conjunction with other types of inequalities . For example , sociologists Mary C. Waters and Karl Eschbach note that other types of inequalities are important for a holistic understanding of inequality in the United States , " including health and demographic measures , such as infant mortality rates , life expectancy , morbidity , and disability .
Ethnic and racial groups also differ in rates of homeownership , residential segregation , overall wealth , exposure to crime and toxic pollutants , and in access to power in the upper reaches of our society " . Thus , the racial wage gap is just one aspect of inequality in the United States .
A criticism of the racial wage gap has been noted by a few scholars : the racial wage gap fails to account for the amount of people in a certain race that are unemployed . Examining median incomes does not reflect the growing racial disparity in joblessness . The Butler @-@ Heckman hypothesis states that the least @-@ skilled members of society are also the ones who are most likely to be not working , suggesting that the wage gap does not account for the overall difference in wages between races . An analysis of the black @-@ white wage gap which accounted for unemployment found that when unemployment was included in the calculation of the weekly wages convergence from 1950 to 2000 , the convergence percentage went from 13 percent to only 3 percent .
= The Contest =
" The Contest " is the 51st episode of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld . The 11th episode of the fourth season , it aired on November 18 , 1992 . In the episode , George tells Jerry , Elaine , and Kramer that his mother caught him masturbating . The conversation results in George , Jerry , Elaine , and Kramer entering into a contest to determine who can go for the longest period of time without masturbating .
The episode was controversial when broadcast because NBC thought that masturbation was not a topic suitable for prime time television . As a result , the word " masturbation " is never used in the episode . Instead , the subject is described using a series of euphemisms , while the meaning of the subject is still made clear to the audience . The writer of the episode , Larry David , won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Writing in a Comedy Series for his work on the episode . One of the euphemisms used in the episode is " master of my domain , " said by a character when still in the contest . It has since become a catchphrase in popular culture , although it is not always used in reference to masturbation .
The episode was ranked # 1 on TV Guide 's list of " 100 Greatest Episodes of All @-@ Time " .
= = Background = =
The fourth season of Seinfeld has a continuous story arc , in which Jerry and George are writing a television pilot for NBC . In the previous episode , " The Virgin " , Jerry had started dating Marla ( played by Jane Leeves ) , a woman who is a virgin .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with Jerry , Kramer , and Elaine dining at Monk 's Cafe . George enters and says , " My mother caught me . " When asked what he was caught doing , he says , " I was alone " , and he goes on to imply that his mother caught him masturbating in her house while reading " a Glamour magazine " , resulting in her falling over in shock and ending up in the hospital . George says he 'll never do " that " again , and when the others express skepticism , Jerry and George make a $ 100 bet over who can go the longest without masturbating . Kramer then joins the bet , as does Elaine . However , Elaine is persuaded to bet $ 150 , because the men claim that it is harder for men not to masturbate , as it is part of a man 's " lifestyle " .
Kramer is almost immediately out , due to the presence of a beautiful exhibitionist woman in the apartment across the street who walks around with the curtains open . The others are distracted by various temptations : George is distracted in the hospital his mother is staying at by an attractive nurse giving an even more attractive woman a daily sponge bath ; Elaine visits a fitness club which is also patronized by John F. Kennedy , Jr . ; Jerry is tempted by the naked woman across the street and frustrated because the woman he 's dating won 't have sex with him since she wants to remain a virgin . One method he uses to distract himself is by watching wholesome shows like Tiny Toons on Nickelodeon .
The contest affects their sleep , and the remaining contestants suffer insomnia . Only the eliminated Kramer can sleep peacefully . Elaine shares a cab ride with Kennedy , and she tells him that she lives Uptown near Jerry in order to extend the ride . She then learns that Kennedy wants to see her , and says he 'll drop by Jerry 's apartment . Eventually , the pressure becomes too much for her and she is the second person to be knocked out of the contest .
While making out on the couch , Marla asks Jerry if they can have sex , claiming that she is ready . However , Jerry then tells Marla about the contest , prompting Marla to leave in disgust . Jerry immediately goes to his window to watch the naked woman across the street , implying that he gives in to his temptation . Elaine believes that Kennedy has changed his mind and not bothered to see her . George then tells Elaine that Kennedy did come , but missed her and went with Marla . They then see Kramer with the naked woman across the street . That night , everyone sleeps well — especially Kramer , who is sleeping with the naked woman — but it is not explicitly stated who won . ( In the fifth season episode " The Puffy Shirt " , George mentions that he " won a contest " when discussing refraining from masturbation with a hand modeling agent . However , in the series finale , he confesses that he cheated . ) Meanwhile , Marla is shown in bed with Kennedy , apparently having finally lost her virginity to him .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Larry David . Kenny Kramer claimed that there actually was a " Contest " in which David and some friends of his took part , although he did not initially want to take part because he thought he could not win it . David won the contest . When David came up with using the idea for an episode of Seinfeld , he did not talk about it with Seinfeld for a considerable time , because he thought the episode was impossible for him to pitch . However , Seinfeld thought it was not offensive . The original script was not revealed until the night before the cast read @-@ through . The first version written by David was not as clean as the one later broadcast . The note from the censor claimed that David should not use the word " Masturbate " . Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus thought that the episode would never go ahead due to the subject matter . Seinfeld decided it would be better to remove any references to what George actually did . Seinfeld claimed that what was noteworthy about " The Contest " was the " Dovetailing " of the stories . He claimed that it probably would have been possible to have used the word " masturbation " in the episode ( it is notable that in " The Ticket " — an earlier episode in the same season — George says " you must have a good story otherwise it 's just masturbation " ) although it would have probably ended up not being as funny . Part of the opening scene of the episode contains some of the script that was originally meant to be used in " The Seinfeld Chronicles " , the original pilot episode .
" The Contest " is the first episode to feature Estelle Costanza as an on @-@ screen character . Estelle Harris , who played the character , had not seen Seinfeld before she auditioned for the role . The cast and crew commented positively on the similarity in appearance between Harris and Jason Alexander , as it made it more believable that their characters could be related . Alexander 's real @-@ life mother looks similar to Harris .
Rachel Sweet has a cameo role in this episode as George 's cousin Shelly . She appears in the scene with George and his mother in the hospital .
There are two deleted scenes in " The Contest " . One features Joyce — the teacher of Elaine 's fitness class — in the opening scene talking to Elaine , Jerry , and Kramer . The second features George and Estelle Costanza in the hospital , where the female patient has been moved to the room next @-@ door after Estelle complained about her nakedness .
= = Reception = =
" The Contest " is considered to be one of the best Seinfeld episodes , winning several awards and positive reviews from the critics . David won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Writing in a Comedy Series for the episode . He also won a Writers Guild of America Award for his work on the episode . Director Tom Cherones won a Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy Series for this episode . He was also nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing . TV Guide ranked the episode # 1 on its list of " TV 's Top 100 Episodes of All Time " .
" The Contest " received a Nielsen rating of 13 / 19 , meaning that the episode was watched by an average of 13 % of households and 19 % of all televisions were tuned to the episode when it was broadcast . Approximately 18 @.@ 5 million people watched the episode then . The first repeat of the episode gave Seinfeld its highest ratings up till that point , with a 20 @.@ 1 / 30 Nielsen Rating . It also received only 31 complaints from viewers , despite the subject matter . There were worries from advertisers who did not want to advertise during the episode due to the topics that were being discussed . Most regular advertisers did not broadcast adverts during the show , because the series did not have good ratings at the time .
The episode is considered by most reviewers as a success for being able to cover a controversial subject in an inoffensive manner . Jonathan Boudreaux for tvdvdreviews.com said , " The Emmy @-@ winning script by Larry David introduced the brilliant euphemism ' master of my domain ' to our lexicon and helped the series to truly become must @-@ see TV . We know what the episode is about , but the script never explicitly says it . ' The Contest ' effortlessly takes a potentially incendiary subject and renders it utterly inoffensive yet hilarious . " He also said that " The Contest " was " one of the series ' most infamous " episodes . Donna Dorsett from audaud.com commented on the refusal to use the word " masturbation , " saying , " If the word had been used , even once , the show would not have been nearly as hilarious . The episode was totally inoffensive . "
James Plath from DVD Town said , " Estelle Harris , as George 's mother , is hilarious . " Although he himself did not appear in the episode , John F. Kennedy Jr. appeared to have had no problem with appearing as a character in the episode , with his role being played by an uncredited actor .
= = Cultural references = =
This is the second Seinfeld episode to feature Elaine 's fondness for the Kennedy family , the first being " The Baby Shower " .
Jerry Seinfeld claimed that he had never heard of the song " The Wheels on the Bus " before recording the episode .
The original script featured Jerry watching the TV series Flipper . It was changed due to concerns over music rights .
" The Contest " is referenced in other Seinfeld episodes , the first being " The Outing " , of which the plot is that Jerry and George are mistakenly outed as gay . During the episode , when George visits his mother , there is a male patient in the hospital , who receives daily sponge baths from a male nurse . Although the winner of the contest is not mentioned , it is implied in " The Puffy Shirt " that George was the winner . However , as the plane is going down in " The Finale " , it is revealed that George had actually cheated , therefore making Jerry the true winner . When Jerry asks him why he cheated , George simply replies , " Because I 'm a cheater ! "
" The Contest " is referenced in the " Shaq " episode of Curb Your Enthusiasm ( S02E08 ) , in which Larry David and Shaquille O 'Neal watch " The Contest " together . Shaq also refers to this episode as his favorite .
" The Contest " is referenced in the Beavis and Butt @-@ head book " This Book Sucks " as an excuse to get out of finishing a homework assignment . In the book , Kramer is mis @-@ identified as " Creamer " and the act of masturbation is referred to as " spanking the monkey . "
In the Family Guy episode " Jungle Love " , Peter pays the people of a South American village to re @-@ enact " The Contest " as one of them hums the Seinfeld scene @-@ changing music . A high priestess plays Elaine , but she says " You can 't spare one square ? " , a reference to " The Stall " .
= I Invented Sex =
" I Invented Sex " is a song by American R & B singer Trey Songz , and features Canadian recording artist Drake . Together , they wrote the song alongside Tony Scales and its producer , Los Da Mystro . It was released to urban airplay as the third single from Songz 's third studio album Ready on October 13 , 2009 . The song features a sensual message , accompanied by heavy percussion . " I Invented Sex " received positive reviews , and reached number forty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 , and became Songz 's first song to top the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Its official remix features fellow R & B singers Keri Hilson and Usher . The accompanying music video , containing a parental advisory warning , is the follow @-@ up to the " Say Aah " video .
= = Background = =
When speaking about the record with MTV News , Songz said , " It 's a groove record . It 's got that knock at the same time . It 's sexy at the same time . Conceptually , it 's mind @-@ blowing to tell a woman , ' You gonna think we invented sex when we 're done . ' That 's where I am . " The song was recorded at 11th Street Studios in Atlanta , Georgia . The official remix of the song features fellow American R & B singers Usher and Keri Hilson . Another remix features Willie Taylor of R & B group Day26 . R & B singer Chris Brown freestyled the song in his first mixtape , In My Zone , with the title " Invented Head . "
= = Composition and critical reception = =
Ajitpaul Mangat of Tiny Mix Tapes said the song , along with the intro , " Panty Droppa " , were " swagga @-@ oozing " and " expertly build the mood with chopped and screwed vocals and exploding percussion , respectively . " Drake 's closing rap has been described as " Best I Ever Had " -esque . David Jeffries of Allmusic noted the song as a standout track from Ready . Complimenting the wide appeal of song 's title , DJBooth said that , " With a high @-@ caliber guest feature and a radio @-@ ready sound , this single should be just the thing to boost the already @-@ substantial sales of Songz ' third album . "
In the song 's remix , Songz makes references to Tiger Woods , as he also refers to " going in like a Lil Wayne @-@ Drake song . " DJBooth said that Songz sings alongside , " Usher , who basically invented the modern sexual r & b blueprint that Songz is following , and Hilson , who more than holds her own alongside the boys with some scintillating vocals and hilarious ' soldier at attention ' sexual entendres . " The review goes on to state , " These three may not have invented sex , but they sure make listening to music while having sex more enjoyable . "
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending November 7 , 2009 , " I Invented Sex " debuted at number ninety on the Billboard Hot 100 . The following week , it moved up to eighty , and eventually peaked at forty @-@ two . It spent twenty weeks on the chart over 2009 – 10 eventually falling off the chart on the week ending March 10 , 2010 . The song also topped the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , making it Songz 's first number one on the chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Yolande Geralds , he car who also helmed the clip for " Say Aah " , Jessica White appears in the video once again while Drake does not appear in the it . The video carries a parental advisory warning . A combination video was released for the clips of " I Invented Sex " and " Say Aah " , as they were later released separately . Songz confirmed to MTV News that the previous would be a continuation of the latter . On the " I Invented Sex " clip , Songz said , " It 's very sensual . The idea I had , it came from a banned Calvin Klein ad . It was a dude and two girls and they was touching and kissing . I was like , ' Man , I wanna do that . ' We didn 't go all the way there . I didn 't have two girls — we simulated best we could , and it 's more sensual than raunchy . " . It ranked at number twenty @-@ two on BET : Notarized Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown .
= = Live performances = =
Songz performed " I Invented Sex " on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! on December 1 , 2009 and on 106 & Park on December 11 , 2009 . The song was then performed again with " Say Aah " on It 's On with Alexa Chung , and then on The Mo 'Nique Show In January , both Songz and Drake appeared at West Hollywood 's House of Blues to perform the song . As a part of a medley with one of his musical influences , Stevie Wonder , " I Invented Sex " was sung at the 2010 BET Honors on February 1 , 2010 . He performed the song once again on 106 & Park on February 11 , 2010 for " Love Week " with a medley of " Neighbors Know My Name " , and " Say Aah " . He again performed it in March 2010 at MTV 's Spring Break 2010 , in Acapulco , Mexico . Keri Hilson and Usher joined Songz to perform the official remix at WHTA 's Jingle Ball in December 2009 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Trey Songz , Drake , Los Da Mystro , Tony Scales
Production and all instruments – Los Da Mystro
Recording – Scott Naughton
Mixing – Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler and Dave Pensado , assisted by Giancarlo Lino
Source
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Stephenson Grand Army of the Republic Memorial =
The Stephenson Grand Army of the Republic Memorial , also known as Dr. Benjamin F. Stephenson , is a public artwork in Washington , D.C. honoring Dr. Benjamin F. Stephenson , founder of the Grand Army of the Republic , a fraternal organization for Union veterans . The memorial is sited at Indiana Plaza , located at the intersection of 7th Street , Indiana Avenue , and Pennsylvania Avenue NW in the Penn Quarter neighborhood . The bronze figures were sculpted by J. Massey Rhind , a prominent 20th century artist . Attendees at the 1909 dedication ceremony included President William Howard Taft , Senator William Warner , and hundreds of Union veterans .
The memorial is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 . The bronze sculptures of Stephenson and allegorical figures are displayed on a triangular granite shaft surmounting a concrete base . The memorial is owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Benjamin F. Stephenson ( 1823 – 1871 ) was a graduate of Rush Medical College who practiced medicine in Petersburg , Illinois . When the Civil War began in 1861 , he was appointed surgeon of the 14th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment and eventually achieved the rank of major . Following his honorable discharge in 1864 , Stephenson began practicing medicine in Springfield , Illinois , and soon began plans for a national association of Union veterans . He named the new organization the Grand Army of the Republic ( GAR ) , wrote the GAR 's constitution , and adopted the GAR motto " Fraternity , Charity , and Loyalty " . The organization would be open to all Union soldiers and sailors who were honorably discharged . Stephenson found a lack of enthusiasm for the GAR among Springfield veterans , so he chose nearby Decatur to establish Post No. 1 , Decatur , Department of Illinois , Grand Army of the Republic , on April 6 , 1866 . The date was the one year anniversary of the Battle of Shiloh where he and most of the other charter members had taken part . After the GAR began to attract new members , Stephenson was relegated to adjutant general and spent most of his time attending to routine duties . At the time of his death in 1871 , Stephenson 's medical practice was failing and he felt the GAR would never succeed .
Following Stephenson 's death , the GAR grew from a charitable organization for Union widows and wounded veterans to the country 's most powerful single @-@ issue political group in the late 19th century . It was the nation 's first veterans association open to both officers and enlisted men and membership grew to over 400 @,@ 000 . The GAR was responsible for securing large pensions for veterans and members played an active role in the election of six Union veterans as U.S. president . In the early 20th century , GAR membership declined as veterans died of old age and organization leaders began plans to memorialize them and the GAR itself . To honor the group 's founder , the GAR , at the behest of General Charles Partridge and the National Tribune , raised $ 35 @,@ 000 from its members to erect a memorial for Stephenson . Congress appropriated an additional $ 10 @,@ 000 on March 4 , 1907 .
GAR leaders had specific plans for the memorial which left little leeway for artist creativity . They wanted a tall , triangular granite shaft with three figures representing the organization 's motto . J. Massey Rhind ( 1860 – 1936 ) , a Scottish @-@ American sculptor who immigrated to the United States in 1889 , was chosen for the project . At the time he was considered one of the country 's best architectural sculptors known for the large Soldiers and Sailors Monument in Syracuse , New York . The architectural firm Rankin , Kellogg & Crane was chosen to design the central shaft of the memorial and the reliefs were founded by Roman Bronze Works . William Gray & Sons performed contracting duties for the memorial and P. R. Pullman and Company was chosen as the contractor for the foundation .
A resolution passed by the Senate in April 1902 provided the memorial to be erected on any of the city 's public lands other than the Library of Congress and Capitol grounds . The site chosen , at the corner of 7th Street and Louisiana Avenue ( now Indiana Avenue ) NW , was selected by a commission appointed by Congress . The commission consisted of Secretary of War Jacob M. Dickinson , Senator George P. Wetmore , Representative Samuel W. McCall , General Louis Wagner , and Thomas S. Hopkins . The soil at the chosen site , present @-@ day Indiana Plaza , could not support the memorial 's weight , so the concrete foundation had to be expanded .
= = = Dedication = = =
The Stephenson memorial was formally dedicated at 2 : 30pm on July 3 , 1909 . Hundreds of elderly veterans attended the event , many wearing their military uniforms . Prominent attendees included President William Howard Taft and Senator William Warner . Following the invocation , GAR commander @-@ in @-@ chief Colonel Henry M. Nevius gave an impassioned speech about the sacrifices made by Union forces during the Civil War . He said by the shedding of their blood " the flag of the United States has been raised from the dust and mire , smoke begrimed , powder stained and bullet ridden and thrown to the breeze to float forever over our broad land of the free . "
Taft paid tribute to the sacrifices made by veterans and accepted the memorial on behalf of the American people . Following his speech , Warner told the crowd : " Boys , the President of the United States talks like a comrade . Get up on your feet , all of you , now three cheers for the President of the United States . " The president and Rhind , who was introduced to the crowd , were both cheered . At the conclusion of the ceremony , the Marine Band played " Tenting on the Old Camp Ground " as the veterans sang . Brigadier General William Wallace Wotherspoon served as the grand marshal of a military parade that marched from City Hall , past the memorial , west on Pennsylvania Avenue to the Treasury Building , and ended at 15th Street and New York Avenue .
= = = Later history = = =
In 1987 , the Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation created Indiana Plaza by closing a portion of C Street , decreasing the width of Indiana Avenue , and adding landscaping . The process required relocating the memorial and nearby Temperance Fountain . The Stephenson memorial is now visible at the terminus of C Street while the fountain now stands where the Stephens memorial was previously located .
The memorial is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 20 , 1978 , and the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on March 3 , 1979 . It is also designated a contributing property to the Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Site , established on September 30 , 1965 . The memorial and surrounding plaza are owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department .
= = Design and location = =
The memorial is located at Indiana Plaza ( Reservation 36A ) in the Penn Quarter neighborhood . The small public plaza , located across the street from the Archives Metro station , is bounded by 7th Street to the west , Indiana Avenue to the north , and Pennsylvania Avenue to the south . The east side of the plaza is bounded by two historic buildings : Central National Bank and National Bank of Washington , Washington Branch . Sited directly to the north of the memorial is the historic Temperance Fountain . The memorial is sited within a circular plaza and surrounded by magnolia trees and ivy . Decorative lampposts are located at the three entrances .
The triangular shaft , consisting of granite blocks , is 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) tall and surmounts a 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) concrete base . On each side of the shaft is a bronze relief . On the front ( west ) side is a relief of a Union soldier and Union sailor symbolizing Fraternity . The soldier is holding a gun with his right hand and to his left , the sailor holds the American flag with his right hand . The word FRATERNITY is located on the bottom of the relief . Below the Fraternity relief is a relief bust of Stephenson dressed in military uniform . The bust is displayed on a bronze medallion installed in a circular niche decorated with foliage . Below the Stephenson relief is an inscription flanked by Grand Army of the Republic emblems . On the northeast side of the memorial , the relief depicts a woman cloaked in a long robe and cape protecting a small child standing to her left . She is touching the child 's shoulder with her left hand and the word CHARITY is on the bottom of the relief . A woman holding a shield and drawn sword is on the southeast side of the memorial . The word LOYALTY is located on the bottom of the relief .
Inscriptions on the memorial include the following :
1861 1865 ( upper portion of shaft , above the Union soldier and sailor relief )
FRATERNITY ( on relief , below the soldier and sailor )
GRAND ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC / ORGANIZED AT DECATUR ILLINOIS , APRIL 6 , 1866 / BY BENJAMIN FRANKLIN STEPHENSON M.D. ( lower portion of shaft , below the Stephenson relief )
CHARITY ( on relief , below the Charity figure )
THE GREATEST / OF THESE IS / CHARITY ( lower portion of shaft , below the Charity relief )
LOYALTY ( on relief , below the Loyalty figure )
WHO KNEW NO / GLORY BUT HIS / COUNTRY 'S GOOD ( lower portion of shaft , below the Loyalty relief )
= The Box ( Fringe ) =
" The Box " is the second episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode was co @-@ written by Josh Singer and Graham Roland , and directed by Jeffrey Hunt . The third season spent its time alternating between the prime and parallel universes , and " The Box " was set in the former . It followed a mysterious box that when opened , killed whomever heard it . The fringe team of Fauxlivia ( a doppelgänger of Olivia Dunham ) , Peter , and Walter investigate , with unknown consequences to the creation of a doomsday device .
It first aired on September 30 , 2010 in the United States to an estimated 5 @.@ 24 million viewers , helping the Fox network finish in fourth place for the night . The episode received generally positive reviews , and it was described as a " strong start " and " chock full of good stuff " by various critics . " The Box " was nominated by Motion Picture Sound Editors for the 2011 Golden Reel Awards but lost to an episode of Boardwalk Empire .
= = Plot = =
In the prime universe ( aka " Our Side " ) , the parallel universe 's Olivia — " Fauxlivia " — ( Anna Torv ) ; meets with Thomas Jerome Newton ( Sebastian Roché ) , who provides Fauxlivia several dossiers and books to help her acclimate herself to the prime universe 's version of the Fringe team . Through them , she is able to successfully impersonate the prime universe 's Olivia to Walter ( John Noble ) and Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , and joins the ranks of the Fringe division . Her first case on the team is at a house in Milton , Massachusetts . At first it appears to have been a robbery , with the family tied up and two thieves having dug a hole in the basement ; however , all of the people are dead due to being placed into a vegetative state . Walter believes that a third thief took whatever was uncovered in the hole , but is somehow unaffected by its presence . On examining the corpses , Walter determines that the people were exposed to an ultrasound signal , likely generated by the object that was stolen .
Meanwhile , they discover the identity of one of the dead robbers , Blake , and learn of his abandoned apartment . Fauxlivia goes to the apartment alone without alerting Peter , but Peter soon joins her . The two find that Blake had a roommate , likely the third man , but he is nowhere to be seen . That night , while at Olivia 's apartment , Fauxlivia studies Olivia 's case files , and comments of her prime counterpart , " You have a photographic memory . How am I gonna do that ? " indicating that she does not possess this ability . A moment later she is visited by the third man , Joe ( Russell Harvard ) , who had seen Fauxlivia at Blake 's apartment and , believing her to be a cop , brought the item stolen from the Milton home - a small box . Fauxlivia finds Joe is deaf , and thus was unaffected by the ultrasonics of the box . Fauxlivia contacts Newton , who collects the box — having originally hired the men to collect it for him — and offers to kill the deaf man . Fauxlivia tells him she will take care of things herself and shoots the deaf man . While hiding the body , Peter arrives to talk to her . To distract him and prevent him from noticing a pool of blood seeping under the bathroom door , Fauxlivia engages in romantic actions with Peter .
Newton takes the box to a crowded subway station , and entices a homeless man ( Eric the Midget ) to watch the box for a short while , expecting the person to steal it after he leaves . The Fringe team is soon on the scene having discovered the ultrasound signal , and find all of the passengers at the station are dead . They find no evidence of the box , and fear that someone took it into the tunnels and may still be active ; the ultrasound would kill everyone on any train that passed . Peter offers to go find the box , and Walter has the idea to make Peter momentarily deaf by having Fauxlivia fire her gun next to Peter 's ears . He finds the box , its lid cracked , in the dead hands of the homeless man . Without a way to seal the lid , Peter is forced to try to defuse the box . He does so in time before his hearing returns , but cannot hear the warning of an errant train bearing down on him ; Fauxlivia enters the tunnels to save Peter . After recovering , Peter and Walter surmise the box is part of the machine , and Peter begins studying it . On her own , Fauxlivia contacts the parallel world through the typewriter shop , informing them that Peter " has the first piece " and is now " engaged " .
In a side plot , William Bell is officially declared dead , and his will is read to Nina ( Blair Brown ) and Walter . Walter is hesitant about opening the envelope left for him , but Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) assures him of William 's friendship . Ultimately , Walter finds the envelope contains a typewritten note reading " Don 't be afraid to cross the line , " and a key to a safe deposit box , containing the entirety of the shares of Bell 's multi @-@ billion dollar biomedical technology corporation Massive Dynamic , making Walter the sole owner .
= = Production = =
" The Box " was co @-@ written by co @-@ executive producer Josh Singer and executive story editor Graham Roland , while being directed by CSI : Crime Scene Investigation veteran Jeffrey Hunt . The episode was shot in the second half of July 2010 . Hunt later tweeted on @-@ set photos in January 2011 . At San Diego Comic @-@ Con International during the summer leading up to the season premiere , actress Jasika Nicole told the audience they would finally be able to see her character 's apartment , which has previously been only alluded to in an early season two episode . She explained , " It 's really neat ! There 's all these tiny little things that give you insight into how things are . I know the color of ( Astrid 's ) walls , so watch out ! "
In early August 2010 , Entertainment Weekly reported that Eric the Midget had been cast for a small role in the new season 's second episode . Deaf actor Russell Harvard portrayed Joe , a man who is able to survive the box being opened only to be killed by Fauxlivia . Harvard later commented in an interview , " Fringe was so much fun and not even stressful compared to [ professional fighting film ] Hamill . It was very fast and rapid . Playing the dead guy was very easy . Working with Anna Torv was so much fun , she is a great , great actress and very sweet . I did not think she would be that kind of person . " He continued , " There was a stunt which she did not want to do herself , but I told her ' You want to be authentic so I want you to pull me , ' so she obliged . It was a great experience and so much fun and I wish I could have stayed on the show for a long time . "
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children focusing on the science seen in " The Box " , with the intention of having " students learn about the different characteristics of music and how it can have physiological effects on the listener . "
= = Cultural references = =
When researching popular culture in the prime universe , Fauxlivia says " Who 's Bono ? " ( pronouncing it " bone @-@ oh " ) , implying Irish rock band U2 and its lead singer Bono either do not exist in the parallel universe , or are not well known . Fauxlivia also mentions liking a song by country music singer Patsy Cline when she and Peter hear it playing in a bar , suggesting either that Cline is famous in both universes , or that Fauxlivia had further studied pop culture of the prime universe before her conversation with Peter . Peter tells Fauxlivia that living with Walter is like a bad buddy cop movie , referring to a genre of movies that have two men of very different and conflicting personalities forced to work together .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Box " first aired on September 30 , 2010 in the United States on the Fox network . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it was watched by an estimated 5 @.@ 24 million viewers and earned a 1 @.@ 9 / 5 ratings share among adults 18 to 49 . Fox finished in fourth place for the night , though time shifted viewings increased the episode 's ratings by 42 percent in the adult demographic , from 1 @.@ 9 to a 2 @.@ 7 rating .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Box " received mostly positive reviews . Salon.com gave the episode an A- , explaining " this week 's episode was chock full of good stuff . We get some more fun nuggets about how Earth 2 differs from Earth 1 ... Your Bose headphones cannot protect you from the awesome sonic power of " The Box " . UGO Networks ' Alex Zalben wrote " Two weeks in , Fringe is still the best damn show currently on
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@,@ 000 , with " probably 60 @,@ 000 people anxious to attend " . Club director Harry Morris identified a site three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 km ) nearer the city centre where a new ground could be built , on wet , sloping wasteland where a disused brickworks stood , near the railway and St Andrew 's Church . Within twelve months of a 21 @-@ year lease being signed , the new ground , which became known as St Andrew 's , was ready for use .
The last game at Muntz Street was played on 22 December 1906 . Birmingham beat Bury 3 – 1 in the First Division in front of some 10 @,@ 000 spectators . The last goal was scored by Arthur Mounteney , and the Birmingham Daily Post described how
At the conclusion of the match the band played " Auld Lang Syne " , and the crowd silently left the ground which has been the home of the club for so many years and the scene of many brilliant victories and many heartbreaking defeats , and of an uphill struggle from which the club , thanks to the courage of the directors , has at length emerged triumphant .
Within months the ground had been demolished , the land cleared and housing built in what became Swanage Road ; no plaque commemorates the site .
= = Other uses = =
Despite the apparently poor quality of pitch and facilities the Birmingham County Football Association XI , comprising players from teams in the Birmingham area , played several representative football matches at Muntz Street . The ground twice hosted matches against the London Football Association , and between 1898 and 1906 four matches were played against teams representing the Scottish Football Association .
Small Heath Athletic Club ( later called Small Heath Harriers ) established its headquarters at the Muntz Street ground from the club 's foundation in 1891 . Though primarily a cross @-@ country and road @-@ racing club , they also participated in track and field athletics , and during the summer months the athletes were allowed to train on the football pitch .
= Stoney Littleton Long Barrow =
The Stoney Littleton Long Barrow ( also known as the Bath Tumulus and the Wellow Tumulus ) is a Neolithic chambered tomb with multiple burial chambers , located near the village of Wellow in the English county of Somerset . It is an example of the Severn @-@ Cotswold tomb and was scheduled as an ancient monument in 1882 . It was one of the initial monuments included when the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 became law .
The chambered long barrow was built around 3500 BC . Excavations in the early 19th century uncovered bones from several individuals . The stone structure is about 30 metres ( 98 ft ) in length and contains a 12 @.@ 8 metres ( 42 ft ) long gallery with three pairs of side chambers and an end chamber .
= = Location and access = =
The barrow is approximately 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) south west of the village of Wellow . It is on a limestone ridge overlooking Wellow Brook approximately 200 metres ( 660 ft ) to the north and west of the barrow . It is surrounded by a rectangular grass area accessed via a stile and footpath from a car park at Stoney Littleton Farm .
= = History = =
Chambered long barrows were constructed during the Neolithic between 4000 and 2500 BC for the ritual inhumation of the dead . Stoney Littleton Long Barrow was probably constructed around 3500 BC .
The tomb was first opened around 1760 by a local farmer to obtain stone for road building . The site was excavated by John Skinner and Richard Hoare in 1816 @-@ 17 , who gained the entry through the hole which was made previously . The excavation revealed the bones ( some burned ) of several individuals . The mound was restored in 1858 by Thomas Joliffe . Some of the artefacts from the excavations are in the Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery .
It was scheduled as an ancient monument in 1882 . Since 1884 the Stoney Littleton Long Barrow has been in state care , and is now managed by English Heritage who have provided an information board at the site . Further conservation work and a geophysical survey were carried out in 1999 and 2000 by the Cotswold Archaeological Trust .
= = Description = =
Severn @-@ Cotswold tombs consist of precisely @-@ built , long trapezoid earth mounds covering a burial chamber . The Stoney Littleton Long Barrow stands on a limestone ridge overlooking Wellow Brook and the village of Wellow . It is constructed from stone , including Blue Lias and Forest Marble quarried within an 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) radius .
It is about 30 metres ( 98 ft ) in length and 15 metres ( 49 ft ) wide at the south @-@ east end , it stands nearly 3 metres ( 10 ft ) high . Internally it consists of a 12 @.@ 8 metres ( 42 ft ) long gallery with three pairs of side chambers and an end chamber . The passage and entrance are roughly aligned towards the midwinter sunrise . The roof is made of overlapping stones . There is a fossil ammonite decorating the left @-@ hand doorjamb .
Unusually , the barrow is not situated on flat ground and " looks as though it is sliding down the side of a hill . "
= James Bond =
The James Bond series focuses on a fictional British Secret Service agent created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming , who featured him in twelve novels and two short @-@ story collections . Since Fleming 's death in 1964 , eight other authors have written authorised Bond novels or novelizations : Kingsley Amis , Christopher Wood , John Gardner , Raymond Benson , Sebastian Faulks , Jeffery Deaver , William Boyd and Anthony Horowitz . The latest novel is Trigger Mortis by Anthony Horowitz , published in September 2015 . Additionally Charlie Higson wrote a series on a young James Bond , and Kate Westbrook wrote three novels based on the diaries of a recurring series character , Moneypenny .
The character has also been adapted for television , radio , comic strip , video games and film . The films are the longest continually running and the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film series to date , which started in 1962 with Dr. No , starring Sean Connery as Bond . As of 2016 , there have been twenty @-@ four films in the Eon Productions series . The most recent Bond film , Spectre ( 2015 ) , stars Daniel Craig in his fourth portrayal of Bond ; he is the sixth actor to play Bond in the Eon series . There have also been two independent productions of Bond films : Casino Royale ( a 1967 spoof ) and Never Say Never Again ( a 1983 remake of an earlier Eon @-@ produced film , Thunderball ) .
The Bond films are renowned for a number of features , including the musical accompaniment , with the theme songs having received Academy Award nominations on several occasions , and two wins . Other important elements which run through most of the films include Bond 's cars , his guns , and the gadgets with which he is supplied by Q Branch . The films are also noted for Bond 's relationships with various women , who are sometimes referred to as " Bond girls " .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Creation and inspiration = = =
As the central figure for his works , Ian Fleming created the fictional character of James Bond , an intelligence officer in the Secret Intelligence Service , commonly known as MI6 . Bond was also known by his code number , 007 , and was a Royal Naval Reserve Commander .
Fleming based his fictional creation on a number of individuals he came across during his time in the Naval Intelligence Division during World War II , admitting that Bond " was a compound of all the secret agents and commando types I met during the war " . Among those types were his brother , Peter , who had been involved in behind @-@ the @-@ lines operations in Norway and Greece during the war . Aside from Fleming 's brother , a number of others also provided some aspects of Bond 's make up , including Conrad O 'Brien @-@ ffrench , Patrick Dalzel @-@ Job and Bill " Biffy " Dunderdale .
The name James Bond came from that of the American ornithologist James Bond , a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide Birds of the West Indies . Fleming , a keen birdwatcher himself , had a copy of Bond 's guide and he later explained to the ornithologist 's wife that " It struck me that this brief , unromantic , Anglo @-@ Saxon and yet very masculine name was just what I needed , and so a second James Bond was born " . He further explained that :
When I wrote the first one in 1953 , I wanted Bond to be an extremely dull , uninteresting man to whom things happened ; I wanted him to be a blunt instrument ... when I was casting around for a name for my protagonist I thought by God , ( James Bond ) is the dullest name I ever heard .
On another occasion , Fleming said : " I wanted the simplest , dullest , plainest @-@ sounding name I could find , ' James Bond ' was much better than something more interesting , like ' Peregrine Carruthers ' . Exotic things would happen to and around him , but he would be a neutral figure — an anonymous , blunt instrument wielded by a government department . "
Fleming decided that Bond should resemble both American singer Hoagy Carmichael and himself and in Casino Royale , Vesper Lynd remarks , " Bond reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael , but there is something cold and ruthless . " Likewise , in Moonraker , Special Branch Officer Gala Brand thinks that Bond is " certainly good @-@ looking ... Rather like Hoagy Carmichael in a way . That black hair falling down over the right eyebrow . Much the same bones . But there was something a bit cruel in the mouth , and the eyes were cold . "
Fleming also endowed Bond with many of his own traits , including sharing the same golf handicap , the taste for scrambled eggs and using the same brand of toiletries . Bond 's tastes are also often taken from Fleming 's own as was his behaviour , with Bond 's love of golf and gambling mirroring Fleming 's own . Fleming used his experiences of his espionage career and all other aspects of his life as inspiration when writing , including using names of school friends , acquaintances , relatives and lovers throughout his books .
It was not until the penultimate novel , You Only Live Twice , that Fleming gave Bond a sense of family background . The book was the first to be written after the release of Dr. No in cinemas and Sean Connery 's depiction of Bond affected Fleming 's interpretation of the character , to give Bond both a sense of humour and Scottish antecedents that were not present in the previous stories . In a fictional obituary , purportedly published in The Times , Bond 's parents were given as Andrew Bond , from the village of Glencoe , Scotland , and Monique Delacroix , from the canton of Vaud , Switzerland . Fleming did not provide Bond 's date of birth , but John Pearson 's fictional biography of Bond , James Bond : The Authorized Biography of 007 , gives Bond a birth date on 11 November 1920 , while a study by John Griswold puts the date at 11 November 1921 .
= = = Novels and related works = = =
= = = = Ian Fleming novels = = = =
Whilst serving in the Naval Intelligence Division , Fleming had planned to become an author and had told a friend , " I am going to write the spy story to end all spy stories . " On 17 February 1952 , he began writing his first James Bond novel , Casino Royale at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica , where he wrote all his Bond novels during the months of January and February each year . He started the story shortly before his wedding to his pregnant girlfriend , Ann Charteris , in order to distract himself from his forthcoming nuptials .
After completing the manuscript for Casino Royale , Fleming showed the manuscript to his friend ( and later editor ) William Plomer to read . Plomer liked it and submitted it to the publishers , Jonathan Cape , who did not like it as much . Cape finally published it in 1953 on the recommendation of Fleming 's older brother Peter , an established travel writer . Between 1953 and 1966 , two years after his death , twelve novels and two short @-@ story collections were published , with the last two books – The Man with the Golden Gun and Octopussy and The Living Daylights – published posthumously . All the books were published in the UK through Jonathan Cape .
= = = = Post @-@ Fleming novels = = = =
After Fleming 's death a continuation novel , Colonel Sun , was written by Kingsley Amis ( as Robert Markham ) and published in 1968 . Amis had already written a literary study of Fleming 's Bond novels in his 1965 work The James Bond Dossier . Although novelizations of two of the Eon Productions Bond films appeared in print , James Bond , The Spy Who Loved Me and James Bond and Moonraker , both written by screenwriter Christopher Wood , the series of novels did not continue until the 1980s . In 1981 the thriller writer John Gardner picked up the series with Licence Renewed . Gardner went on to write sixteen Bond books in total ; two of the books he wrote – Licence to Kill and GoldenEye – were novelizations of Eon Productions films of the same name . Gardner moved the Bond series into the 1980s , although he retained the ages of the characters as they were when Fleming had left them . In 1996 Gardner retired from writing James Bond books due to ill health .
In 1996 the American author Raymond Benson became the author of the Bond novels . Benson had previously been the author of The James Bond Bedside Companion , first published in 1984 . By the time he moved on to other , non @-@ Bond related projects in 2002 , Benson had written six Bond novels , three novelizations and three short stories .
After a gap of six years , Sebastian Faulks was commissioned by Ian Fleming Publications to write a new Bond novel , which was released on 28 May 2008 , the 100th anniversary of Fleming 's birth . The book — titled Devil May Care — was published in the UK by Penguin Books and by Doubleday in the US . American writer Jeffery Deaver was then commissioned by Ian Fleming Publications to produce Carte Blanche , which was published on 26 May 2011 . The book updated Bond into a post @-@ 9 / 11 agent , independent of MI5 or MI6 . On 26 September 2013 Solo , written by William Boyd , was published , set in 1969 . In October 2014 it was announced that Anthony Horowitz was to write a Bond continuation novel . Set in the 1950s two weeks after the events of Goldfinger , it contains material written , but previously unreleased , by Fleming . Trigger Mortis was released on 8 September 2015 .
= = = = Young Bond = = = =
The Young Bond series of novels was started by Charlie Higson and , between 2005 and 2009 , five novels and one short story were published . The first Young Bond novel , SilverFin was also adapted and released as a graphic novel on 2 October 2008 by Puffin Books . In October 2013 Ian Fleming Publications announced that Stephen Cole would continue the series , with the first edition scheduled to be released in Autumn 2014 .
= = = = The Moneypenny Diaries = = = =
The Moneypenny Diaries are a trilogy of novels chronicling the life of Miss Moneypenny , M 's personal secretary . The novels are penned by Samantha Weinberg under the pseudonym Kate Westbrook , who is depicted as the book 's " editor " . The first instalment of the trilogy , subtitled Guardian Angel , was released on 10 October 2005 in the UK . A second volume , subtitled Secret Servant was released on 2 November 2006 in the UK , published by John Murray . A third volume , subtitled Final Fling was released on 1 May 2008 .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Television = = =
In 1954 CBS paid Ian Fleming $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 8 @,@ 812 in 2016 dollars ) to adapt his novel Casino Royale into a one @-@ hour television adventure as part of its Climax ! series . The episode aired live on 21 October 1954 and starred Barry Nelson as " Card Sense " James Bond and Peter Lorre as Le Chiffre . The novel was adapted for American audiences to show Bond as an American agent working for " Combined Intelligence " , while the character Felix Leiter — American in the novel — became British onscreen and was renamed " Clarence Leiter " .
In 1973 a BBC documentary Omnibus : The British Hero featured Christopher Cazenove playing a number of such title characters ( e.g. Richard Hannay and Bulldog Drummond ) . The documentary included James Bond in dramatised scenes from Goldfinger — notably featuring 007 being threatened with the novel 's circular saw , rather than the film 's laser beam — and Diamonds Are Forever . In 1991 a TV cartoon series James Bond Jr. was produced with Corey Burton in the role of Bond 's nephew , also called James Bond .
= = = Radio = = =
In 1956 the novel Moonraker was adapted for broadcast on South African radio , with Bob Holness providing the voice of Bond . According to The Independent , " listeners across the Union thrilled to Bob 's cultured tones as he defeated evil master criminals in search of world domination " .
The BBC have adapted five of the Fleming novels for broadcast : in 1990 You Only Live Twice was adapted into a 90 @-@ minute radio play for BBC Radio 4 with Michael Jayston playing James Bond . The production was repeated a number of times between 2008 and 2011 . On 24 May 2008 BBC Radio 4 broadcast an adaptation of Dr. No . The actor Toby Stephens , who played Bond villain Gustav Graves in the Eon Productions version of Die Another Day , played Bond , while Dr. No was played by David Suchet . Following its success , a second story was adapted and on 3 April 2010 BBC Radio 4 broadcast Goldfinger with Stephens again playing Bond . Sir Ian McKellen was Goldfinger and Stephens ' Die Another Day co @-@ star Rosamund Pike played Pussy Galore . The play was adapted from Fleming 's novel by Archie Scottney and was directed by Martin Jarvis . In 2012 the novel From Russia , with Love was dramatized for Radio 4 ; it featured a full cast again starring Stephens as Bond . In May 2014 Stephens again played Bond , in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , with Alfred Molina as Blofeld , and Joanna Lumley as Irma Bunt .
= = = Comics medium = = =
In 1957 the Daily Express approached Ian Fleming to adapt his stories into comic strips , offering him £ 1 @,@ 500 per novel and a share of takings from syndication . After initial reluctance , Fleming , who felt the strips would lack the quality of his writing , agreed . To aid the Daily Express in illustrating Bond , Fleming commissioned an artist to create a sketch of how he believed James Bond looked . The illustrator , John McLusky , however , felt that Fleming 's 007 looked too " outdated " and " pre @-@ war " and changed Bond to give him a more masculine look . The first strip , Casino Royale was published from 7 July 1958 to 13 December 1958 and was written by Anthony Hern and illustrated by John McLusky .
Most of the Bond novels and short stories have since been adapted for illustration , as well as Kingsley Amis 's Colonel Sun ; the works were written by Henry Gammidge or Jim Lawrence with Yaroslav Horak replacing McClusky as artist in 1966 . After the Fleming and Amis material had been adapted , original stories were produced , continuing in the Daily Express and Sunday Express until May 1977 .
Several comic book adaptations of the James Bond films have been published through the years : at the time of Dr. No 's release in October 1962 , a comic book adaptation of the screenplay , written by Norman J. Nodel , was published in Britain as part of the Classics Illustrated anthology series . It was later reprinted in the United States by DC Comics as part of its Showcase anthology series , in January 1963 . This was the first American comic book appearance of James Bond and is noteworthy for being a relatively rare example of a British comic being reprinted in a fairly high @-@ profile American comic . It was also one of the earliest comics to be censored on racial grounds ( some skin tones and dialogue were changed for the American market ) .
With the release of the 1981 film For Your Eyes Only , Marvel Comics published a two @-@ issue comic book adaptation of the film . When Octopussy was released in the cinemas in 1983 , Marvel published an accompanying comic ; Eclipse also produced a one @-@ off comic for Licence to Kill , although Timothy Dalton refused to allow his likeness to be used . New Bond stories were also drawn up and published from 1989 onwards through Marvel , Eclipse Comics and Dark Horse Comics .
= = = Films = = =
= = = = The Eon Productions films = = = =
In 1962 Eon Productions , the company of Canadian Harry Saltzman and American Albert R. " Cubby " Broccoli , released the first cinema adaptation of an Ian Fleming novel , Dr. No , featuring Sean Connery as 007 . Connery starred in a further four films before leaving the role after You Only Live Twice , which was taken up by George Lazenby for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service . Lazenby left the role after just one appearance and Connery was tempted back for his last Eon @-@ produced film Diamonds Are Forever .
In 1973 Roger Moore was appointed to the role of 007 for Live and Let Die and played Bond a further six times over twelve years before being replaced by Timothy Dalton for two films . After a six @-@ year hiatus , during which a legal wrangle threatened Eon 's productions of the Bond films , Irish actor Pierce Brosnan was cast as Bond in GoldenEye , released in 1995 ; he remained in the role for a total of four films , before leaving in 2002 . In 2006 , Daniel Craig was given the role of Bond for Casino Royale , which rebooted the series . The twenty @-@ third Eon produced film , Skyfall , was released on 26 October 2012 . The series has grossed almost $ 7 billion to date , making it the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film series ( behind Harry Potter and the Marvel Cinematic Universe ) , and the single most successful adjusted for inflation .
= = = = Non @-@ Eon films = = = =
In 1967 Casino Royale was adapted into a parody Bond film starring David Niven as Sir James Bond and Ursula Andress as Vesper Lynd . Niven had been Fleming 's preference for the role of Bond . The result of a court case in the High Court in London in 1963 allowed Kevin McClory to produce a remake of Thunderball titled Never Say Never Again in 1983 . The film , produced by Jack Schwartzman 's Taliafilm production company and starring Sean Connery as Bond , was not part of the Eon series of Bond films . In 1997 the Sony Corporation acquired all or some of McClory 's rights in an undisclosed deal , which were then subsequently acquired by MGM , whilst on 4 December 1997 , MGM announced that the company had purchased the rights to Never Say Never Again from Taliafilm . As at 2015 Eon holds the full adaptation rights to all of Fleming 's Bond novels .
= = = = Music = = = =
The " James Bond Theme " was written by Monty Norman and was first orchestrated by the John Barry Orchestra for 1962 's Dr. No , although the actual authorship of the music has been a matter of controversy for many years . In 2001 , Norman won £ 30 @,@ 000 in libel damages from the The Sunday Times newspaper , which suggested that Barry was entirely responsible for the composition . The theme , as written by Norman and arranged by Barry , was described by another Bond film composer , David Arnold , as " bebop @-@ swing vibe coupled with that vicious , dark , distorted electric guitar , definitely an instrument of rock ' n ' roll ... it represented everything about the character you would want : It was cocky , swaggering , confident , dark , dangerous , suggestive , sexy , unstoppable . And he did it in two minutes . " Barry composed the scores for eleven Bond films and had an uncredited contribution to Dr. No with his arrangement of the Bond Theme .
A Bond film staple are the theme songs heard during their title sequences sung by well @-@ known popular singers . Several of the songs produced for the films have been nominated for Academy Awards for Original Song , including Paul McCartney 's " Live and Let Die " , Carly Simon 's " Nobody Does It Better " , Sheena Easton 's " For Your Eyes Only " , Adele 's " Skyfall " , and Sam Smith 's " Writing 's on the Wall " . Adele won the award at the 85th Academy Awards , and Smith won at the 88th Academy Awards . For the non @-@ Eon produced Casino Royale , Burt Bacharach 's score included " The Look of Love " , which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song .
= = = Video games = = =
In 1983 the first Bond video game , developed and published by Parker Brothers , was released for the Atari 2600 , the Atari 5200 , the Atari 800 , the Commodore 64 and the ColecoVision . Since then , there have been numerous video games either based on the films or using original storylines . In 1997 the first @-@ person shooter video game GoldenEye 007 was developed by Rare for the Nintendo 64 , based on the 1995 Pierce Brosnan film GoldenEye . The game received very positive reviews , won the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Award for UK Developer of the Year in 1998 and sold over eight million copies worldwide , grossing $ 250 million .
In 1999 Electronic Arts acquired the licence and released Tomorrow Never Dies on 16 December 1999 . In October 2000 , they released The World Is Not Enough for the Nintendo 64 followed by 007 Racing for the PlayStation on 21 November 2000 . In 2003 , the company released James Bond 007 : Everything or Nothing , which included the likenesses and voices of Pierce Brosnan , Willem Dafoe , Heidi Klum , Judi Dench and John Cleese , amongst others . In November 2005 , Electronic Arts released a video game adaptation of 007 : From Russia with Love , which involved Sean Connery 's image and voice @-@ over for Bond . In 2006 Electronic Arts announced a game based on then @-@ upcoming film Casino Royale : the game was cancelled because it would not be ready by the film 's release in November of that year . With MGM losing revenue from lost licensing fees , the franchise was removed from EA to Activision . Activision subsequently released the 007 : Quantum of Solace game on 31 October 2008 , based on the film of the same name .
A new version of GoldenEye 007 featuring Daniel Craig was released exclusively for the Nintendo Wii and a handheld version for the Nintendo DS in November 2010 . A year later another new version was released for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 under the title GoldenEye 007 : Reloaded . In October 2012 007 Legends was released , which featured one mission from each of the Bond actors of the Eon Productions ' series .
= = Guns , vehicles and gadgets = =
= = = Guns = = =
For the first five novels , Fleming armed Bond with a Beretta 418 until he received a letter from a thirty @-@ one @-@ year @-@ old Bond enthusiast and gun expert , Geoffrey Boothroyd , criticising Fleming 's choice of firearm for Bond , calling it " a lady 's gun – and not a very nice lady at that ! " Boothroyd suggested that Bond should swap his Beretta for a Walther PPK 7.65mm and this exchange of arms made it to Dr. No . Boothroyd also gave Fleming advice on the Berns @-@ Martin triple draw shoulder holster and a number of the weapons used by SMERSH and other villains . In thanks , Fleming gave the MI6 Armourer in his novels the name Major Boothroyd and , in Dr. No , M introduces him to Bond as " the greatest small @-@ arms expert in the world " . Bond also used a variety of rifles , including the Savage Model 99 in " For Your Eyes Only " and a Winchester .308 target rifle in " The Living Daylights " . Other handguns used by Bond in the Fleming books included the Colt Detective Special and a long @-@ barrelled Colt .45 Army Special .
The first Bond film , Dr. No , saw M ordering Bond to leave his Beretta behind and take up the Walther PPK , which the film Bond used in eighteen films . In Tomorrow Never Dies and the two subsequent films , Bond 's main weapon was the Walther P99 semi @-@ automatic pistol .
= = = Vehicles = = =
In the early Bond stories Fleming gave Bond a battleship @-@ grey Bentley 4 ½ Litre with an Amherst Villiers supercharger . After Bond 's car was written off by Hugo Drax in Moonraker , Fleming gave Bond a Mark II Continental Bentley , which he used in the remaining books of the series . During Goldfinger , Bond was issued with an Aston Martin DB Mark III with a homing device , which he used to track Goldfinger across France . Bond returned to his Bentley for the subsequent novels .
The Bond of the films has driven a number of cars , including the Aston Martin V8 Vantage , during the 1980s , the V12 Vanquish and DBS during the 2000s , as well as the Lotus Esprit ; the BMW Z3 , BMW 750iL and the BMW Z8 . He has , however , also needed to drive a number of other vehicles , ranging from a Citroën 2CV to a Routemaster Bus , amongst others .
Bond 's most famous car is the silver grey Aston Martin DB5 , first seen in Goldfinger ; it later featured in Thunderball , GoldenEye , Tomorrow Never Dies , Casino Royale and Skyfall . The films have used a number of different Aston Martins for filming and publicity , one of which was sold in January 2006 at an auction in the US for $ 2 @,@ 090 @,@ 000 to an unnamed European collector .
= = = Gadgets = = =
Fleming 's novels and early screen adaptations presented minimal equipment such as the booby @-@ trapped attaché case in From Russia with Love , although this situation changed dramatically with the films . However , the effects of the two Eon @-@ produced Bond films Dr. No and From Russia with Love had an effect on the novel The Man with the Golden Gun , through the increased number of devices used in Fleming 's final story .
For the film adaptations of Bond , the pre @-@ mission briefing by Q Branch became one of the motifs that ran through the series . Dr. No provided no spy @-@ related gadgets , but a Geiger counter was used ; industrial designer Andy Davey observed that the first ever onscreen spy @-@ gadget was the attaché case shown in From Russia with Love , which he described as " a classic 007 product " . The gadgets assumed a higher profile in the 1964 film Goldfinger . The film 's success encouraged further espionage equipment from Q Branch to be supplied to Bond , although the increased use of technology led to an accusation that Bond was over @-@ reliant on equipment , particularly in the later films .
Davey noted that " Bond 's gizmos follow the zeitgeist more closely than any other ... nuance in the films " as they moved from the potential representations of the future in the early films , through to the brand @-@ name obsessions of the later films . It is also noticeable that , although Bond uses a number of pieces of equipment from Q Branch , including the Little Nellie autogyro , a jet pack and the exploding attaché case , the villains are also well @-@ equipped with custom @-@ made devices , including Scaramanga 's golden gun , Rosa Klebb 's poison @-@ tipped shoes , Oddjob 's steel @-@ rimmed bowler hat and Blofeld 's communication devices in his agents ' vanity case .
= = Cultural impact = =
Cinematically , Bond has been a major influence within the spy genre since the release of Dr. No in 1962 , with 22 secret agent films released in 1966 alone attempting to capitalise on the Bond franchise 's popularity and success . The first parody was the 1964 film Carry On Spying , which shows the villain Dr. Crow being overcome by agents who included James Bind ( Charles Hawtry ) and Daphne Honeybutt ( Barbara Windsor ) . One of the films that reacted against the portrayal of Bond was the Harry Palmer series , whose first film , The Ipcress File was released in 1965 . The eponymous hero of the series was what academic Jeremy Packer called an " anti @-@ Bond " , or what Christoph Lindner calls " the thinking man 's Bond " . The Palmer series were produced by Harry Saltzman , who also used key crew members from the Bond series , including designer Ken Adam , editor Peter R. Hunt and composer John Barry . The four " Matt Helm " films starring Dean Martin ( released between 1966 and 1969 ) , the " Flint " series starring James Coburn ( comprising two films , one each in 1966 and 1969 ) , while The Man from U.N.C.L.E. also moved onto the cinema screen , with eight films released : all were testaments to Bond 's prominence in popular culture . More recently , the Austin Powers series by writer , producer and comedian Mike Myers , and other parodies such as the 2003 film Johnny English , have also used elements from or parodied the Bond films .
Following the release of the film Dr. No in 1962 , the line " Bond ... James Bond " , became a catch phrase that entered the lexicon of Western popular culture : writers Cork and Scivally said of the introduction in Dr. No that the " signature introduction would become the most famous and loved film line ever " . In 2001 , it was voted as the " best @-@ loved one @-@ liner in cinema " by British cinema goers , and in 2005 , it was honoured as the 22nd greatest quotation in cinema history by the American Film Institute as part of their 100 Years Series . The 2005 American Film Institute 's ' 100 Years ' series recognised the character of James Bond himself as the third greatest film hero . He was also placed at number 11 on a similar list by Empire and as the fifth greatest movie character of all time by Premiere .
The 23 James Bond films produced by Eon Productions , which have grossed $ 4 @,@ 910 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in box office returns alone , have made the series one of the highest @-@ grossing ever . It is estimated that since Dr. No , a quarter of the world 's population have seen at least one Bond film . The UK Film Distributors ' Association have stated that the importance of the Bond series of films to the British film industry cannot be overstated , as they " form the backbone of the industry " .
Television also saw the effect of Bond films , with the NBC series The Man from U.N.C.L.E. , which was described as the " first network television imitation " of Bond , largely because Fleming provided advice and ideas on the development of the series , even giving the main character the name Napoleon Solo . Other 1960s television series inspired by Bond include I Spy , and Get Smart .
By 2012 , James Bond had become such a symbol of the United Kingdom that the character , played by Craig , appeared in the opening ceremony of the 2012 London Olympics as Queen Elizabeth II 's escort .
Throughout the life of the film series , a number of tie @-@ in products have been released .
= = Criticisms of James Bond = =
The James Bond character and related media have triggered a number of criticisms and reactions across the political spectrum , and are still highly debated in popular culture studies . Left @-@ leaning observers often accuse Bond novels and films of misogyny and sexism . Bond is also seen as a white male fantasy of the conspicuous consumption of luxury goods ( cars , clothes , houses , etc . ) and objectification of women . Geographers have considered the role of exotic locations in the movies in the dynamics of the Cold War , with power struggles among blocs playing out in the peripheral areas . Other critics claim that 21st century Bond movies reflect imperial nostalgia . American conservative critics , particularly in the 1960s and 1970s , saw Bond as a nihilistic , hedonistic , and amoral character that challenged family values .
= Silent Hill 3 =
Silent Hill 3 is a survival horror video game published by Konami for the PlayStation 2 and developed by Team Silent , a production group within Konami Computer Entertainment Tokyo . It is the third installment in the Silent Hill series and a direct sequel to the first Silent Hill game . It was released in May 2003 , with a port to Microsoft Windows released in October of the same year . This is the only Silent Hill that didn 't make a release on Xbox but is a PlayStation 2 exclusive . A remastered high @-@ definition version was released for the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 on March 20 , 2012 .
Set seventeen years after the events of Silent Hill in which Harry Mason defeats the god of the town cult and is given a baby girl to care for , Silent Hill 3 focuses on Heather Mason , a teenage girl raised by Harry in Portland . She discovers that the cult plans to use her to birth their god , and becomes caught in a conflict within the cult .
Silent Hill 3 was mostly well received by critics , especially in its presentation , including the environments , graphics and audio , as well as the overall horror elements and themes that are continued from past installments . Its plot was loosely adapted into the 2012 film Silent Hill : Revelation 3D .
= = Gameplay = =
Gameplay in Silent Hill 3 resembles closely that of its two predecessors , the three main gameplay elements being combat , exploration , and puzzle @-@ solving . Combat , as well as exploration , takes place in third @-@ person view , with the player able to equip weapons found throughout the game . Heather may also block and perform side @-@ step maneuvers to avoid enemies . As a series staple , the flashlight and radio return , the latter of which crackles when monsters are in proximity .
Players can set the difficulty of both the combat and puzzle elements of the game separately . In the case of the puzzle difficulties , there is a large difference between the " medium " difficulty level and the " hard " difficulty level ; one of the puzzles on the " medium " level requires only simple pattern recognition , while the " hard " difficulty level version of the same puzzle requires knowledge of Shakespeare plays to complete . The game also features unlockable weapons and costumes .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Silent Hill 3 is set in the fictional universe of the Silent Hill series . Seventeen years before the start of Silent Hill 3 , in the year 1983 , Harry Mason defeated a god brought forth by the resident cult of Silent Hill and at the ending , was given a baby girl to care for . The protagonist and player character of Silent Hill 3 is Heather , the teenaged adopted daughter of Harry . Claudia Wolf , the cult 's priestess who plans to bring about a paradise on Earth , serves as the game 's antagonist . As Heather attempts to unravel the reasons why the cult of Silent Hill is pursuing her , she encounters a private investigator named Douglas Cartland ; Vincent , a member of the cult who detests Claudia ; and Leonard Wolf , Claudia 's abusive father .
= = = Story = = =
At the beginning of the game , Heather awakens at a shopping mall , having fallen asleep while dining at a burger joint ; she had been dreaming of being trapped in a demented amusement park , forced to follow roller coaster tracks in her flight from monstrous creatures and subsequently being run down by the roller coaster . Before she can leave the mall , a private detective called Douglas Cartland confronts her , claiming to have information about her birth . Heather evades him and discovers that the mall is mostly abandoned except for monsters . She encounters Claudia , who hints about Heather 's fate . Heather finds herself in the Otherworld version of the mall — monster @-@ filled and decaying — and is eventually restored back to the original shopping mall where she encounters Douglas , who confesses that Claudia had hired him to find her . Heather leaves the mall and resolves to take the subway home . Having arrived at her residence , Heather discovers that her father has been killed by a monster under the orders of Claudia , who tells her that she will be waiting for her in Silent Hill and leaves .
Heather resolves to go to Silent Hill , intent on killing Claudia . She meets with Douglas in her apartment and accepts his offer to drive her there . On the journey there , Douglas explains that Vincent left him a message , telling them to look for a man named Leonard , while Heather reads a memo left by her father before his death , which reveals that she is the baby girl that was left to her adoptive father , Harry Mason , at the conclusion of the first game , after he defeated the god birthed by Alessa Gillespie . Claudia seeks Heather to birth the cult 's god , since Heather is Alessa 's reincarnation .
Upon arriving in Silent Hill , which is abandoned and fog @-@ shrouded , Heather checks Brookhaven Hospital for Leonard . After discovering that Leonard is Claudia 's father , Heather meets a transfigured Leonard , who attacks her after discovering that she is not a cult member ; Heather defeats him . She eventually meets Vincent , who directs her to a church via a local amusement park , purportedly at Douglas ' request . Heather arrives at the amusement park , where she finds Douglas wounded . She reaches the church and confronts Claudia , who kills Vincent . After swallowing a substance within a pendant that her father had given her , Heather vomits out the deity in fetus form . Claudia swallows the fetus and dies after birthing the deity ; Heather then fights and defeats the god .
Three endings appear in the game . The " Normal " ending , which is the only ending available on the first play @-@ through of the game , sees Heather and Douglas survive . The " Possessed " ending sees Douglas having been killed by Heather . The " Revenge " ending , which is a joke ending accessible by performing certain in @-@ game actions , sees Heather talking with Harry , and UFOs blow up Silent Hill .
= = = Tarot Card Puzzle = = =
The player is supposed to find five Tarot cards in the game in order to solve a crucial puzzle . Each card triggers a cut @-@ scene . When collected , they are arranged in a nine @-@ pane grid to solve the puzzle . The difficulty level determines what clues are given and what order the cards need to be laid out .
The cards are Marseilles Tarot @-@ style depictions of O. The Fool , II . The High Priestess , XII . The Hanged Man , XVIII . The Moon , and XXII . The Eye of Night . The latter card is fictional , as there are only twenty @-@ two cards in the Major Arcana of the Tarot Deck ( including The Fool , the " zero card " ) .
= = Development = =
Silent Hill 3 was created by Team Silent , a production group within Konami Computer Entertainment Tokyo . Development on the PlayStation 2 version began after the release of Silent Hill 2 in September 2001 , and was carried out almost simultaneously with development of another Silent Hill title that was intended to explore a different direction for the franchise and not be part of the main , numbered series ; known as Room 302 , this game would eventually become integrated into the main series as Silent Hill 4 : The Room . The development team for this iteration was smaller than that working on Silent Hill 2 , with around 40 people working on the game , made up of the core team from the second title and some newcomers . A smaller group of Konami Computer Entertainment Tokyo staff later developed a port for Microsoft Windows .
Like all Silent Hill games , one of Silent Hill 3 's influences is the film Jacob 's Ladder : one of the subway platforms is named Bergen Street Station , the station Jacob was inquiring about at the beginning of the film . The developers also cited horror writer Stephen King as another of their influences . Silent Hill 3 incorporates references drawn from real life actors and actresses . Douglas Cartland 's name came from American actor Douglas Fairbanks . The developers stated that his name " just seemed to suit him " and that there was no true connection to his namesake . During the sketching process , his character was modeled after actors Giancarlo Giannini and Ian Holm . It was noted that even during the concept designs that Cartland was designed as a middle @-@ aged detective . Claudia Wolf 's character was considered the most difficult to design . Early sketches revealed that the creators wanted to dress her like a holy woman , and at one point she had a shaved head , with her body covered with tattoos , however , the creators thought that this way of showing her malevolent side was too obvious . Eventually , the creators decided to model her on Julianne Moore , and then remove her eyebrows , so that the appearance was slightly skewed . She was first named " Christie " , but it was deemed too " cute " and the character was eventually named after actress Claudia Cardinale . Vincent 's name originated from actor Vincent Gallo in connection with his unshaven look . Early designs were based on actor Ethan Hawke and focused on capturing a look of " derangement and moodiness . "
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack for Silent Hill 3 , composed by Akira Yamaoka , was released in Europe on March 25 , 2003 and in Japan on July 16 , 2003 . The song " You 're Not Here " was included in the PS2 port of Dance Dance Revolution Extreme , and is also included in the Silent Hill Experience UMD media pack . The game 's soundtrack is the first using vocals prominently . Most of the vocalized tracks are performed by Mary Elizabeth McGlynn ( credited as Melissa Williamson ) ; one song features vocals by Joe Romersa .
= = Reception = =
Silent Hill 3 received positive reviews , garnering an 83 @.@ 77 % rating at Game Rankings for the PlayStation 2 version , and a 71 @.@ 15 % rating for the PC version . Its Metacritic rating for the PlayStation 2 version is 85 / 100 , while the PC version has a rating of 72 / 100 . The PC version fared less well , with some reviewers drawing unfavourable comparisons to other combat @-@ based games found on the PC platform , while others highlighted some technical issues , such as poor gamepad controller support .
Positive reactions were given to the general horror and atmosphere of the game , including " truly horrifying sections , " it " packs some genuine scares " and " the feeling of eeriness and doom is almost overwhelming . " The story told as part of the atmosphere was also received positively , making for a " satisfying , coherent sequel , " although its status as such meant that " it may be a little tough to follow for people who haven 't played the first game " , despite " a laudable effort to help people catch up . " In addition , the graphics , audio and production values were all credited with adding positively to the atmosphere .
Negative criticism largely stemmed from the lack of any innovations in gameplay ; the game " doesn 't do anything major that the series hasn 't done before " , " does little in term of innovation " and " doesn 't offer much beyond the other titles in the series . " Also criticised was the game 's camera and control system which , despite having been improved from previous games , was described as " awkward , disorienting , and motion sickness @-@ inducing . " Some criticism stemmed from the length of the game , as it " can be easily beaten in a handful of hours . "
Silent Hill 3 sold over 300 @,@ 000 copies by November 2003 . The game also topped sales charts in Japan upon its release .
= = Film adaptation = =
A film adaptation of Silent Hill 3 , titled Silent Hill : Revelation 3D , was released on October 26 , 2012 , by Open Road Films . The film is a sequel to the film adaptation of the first installment in the Silent Hill series . Directed by Michael J. Bassett , it starred Adelaide Clemens as Heather , Kit Harington as Vincent Cooper , Sean Bean as Harry Mason , Carrie @-@ Ann Moss as Claudia Wolf , and Malcolm McDowell as Leonard Wolf . The film received a five percent approval rating from review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , with a general consensus : " Mediocre effort even by the standards of video game adaptations , Silent Hill : Revelation 3D features weak characters and an incomprehensible plot with a shortage of scares . "
= Cloud ( video game ) =
Cloud is a 2005 indie puzzle video game developed by a team of students in the University of Southern California 's ( USC ) Interactive Media Program . The team began development of Cloud in January 2005 with a US $ 20 @,@ 000 grant from the USC ; the game was released as a free download that October . By July 2006 , the hosting website had received 6 million visits , and the game had been downloaded 600 @,@ 000 times .
The game centers on a boy who dreams of flying while asleep in a hospital bed . The concept was partially based on lead designer Jenova Chen 's childhood ; he was often hospitalized for asthma and would daydream while alone in his room . Assuming the role of the boy , the player flies through a dream world and manipulates clouds to solve puzzles . The game was intended to spark emotions in the player that the video game industry usually ignored .
Cloud won the Best Student Philosophy award at the 2006 Slamdance Guerilla Games Competition , and a Student Showcase award at the 2006 Independent Games Festival . The game was well received by critics , who cited its visuals , music , and relaxing atmosphere as high points . Chen and producer Kellee Santiago went on to co @-@ found the studio Thatgamecompany , which has considered remaking Cloud as a commercial video game .
= = Gameplay = =
Cloud , a single @-@ player video game for Microsoft Windows , centers on a boy who dreams of flying through the sky while asleep in a hospital bed . The player assumes control of the sleeping boy 's avatar — the projection of the boy into his dream world — and guides him through his dream of a small group of islands with a light gathering of clouds . The avatar 's direction and speed are controlled with a mouse ; movement is generally on a horizontal plane , but vertical flight can be attained by holding down the third button of the mouse . The player may interact with clouds only while flying horizontally .
The game contains three types of clouds : white clouds , which follow the avatar ; gray , neutral clouds , which become white when touched ; and black clouds , which may be combined with white clouds to cause rain , dissolving both clouds . A large number of white clouds more easily dissolves a small number of dark clouds than an equal number , and vice versa . White clouds stop following the avatar if the player moves too quickly and they resume following if approached again . Each of the four missions in Cloud has a different objective , including forming patterns in the sky with clouds , eliminating black clouds , and creating rain over each of the islands .
= = Development = =
Cloud was designed and released in 2005 by a team of seven students in the Interactive Media master 's degree program at the USC School of Cinematic Arts . The game was not made for a specific class . Development began in January 2005 and the game was released in late October , receiving its final update in December . The group was headed by Jenova Chen and included Stephen Dinehart , Erik Nelson , Aaron Meyers , Glenn Song , composer Vincent Diamante , and producer Kellee Santiago . The game won the 2005 Game Innovation Grant of $ 20 @,@ 000 from the USC , which is intended to support the production of experimental games . The idea for the game was partially based on Chen 's childhood experience , as he was often hospitalized for asthma and would daydream while waiting for the doctors .
According to Chen , Cloud was designed to " expand the spectrum of emotions video games evoke . " Chen had the first idea for the game ; while walking to school one day he looked up at the sky , noticing the difference between the fluffy clouds there and the " polluted and gray " clouds of Shanghai where he was born , and thought about making a game about clouds . It was given a story to " create the premise and help player to be emotionally invested " ; however , the team avoided making the story too strong , as it would " distract the player from the core experience " of flying freely and shaping clouds . In the early stages of development , the game had an involved backstory about an alien who attempts to clean up the environment , but this was cut down to " a simple ' poetic ' introduction to the cloud child trapped in a hospital bed . " The team intended Cloud to " communicate a feeling of youthfulness , freedom , and the wonder of imagination . " It was built on a modified version of a game engine developed by several team members for their previous game , Dyadin . At the 2006 Game Developers Conference student showcase , Chen and Santiago pitched Cloud to Sony representative John Hight as the first game in the " Zen " genre . Hight was interested , but Sony declined to publish the game .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Cloud won the Best Student Philosophy award for artistic achievement at the Slamdance Guerrilla Games Competition and a Student Showcase award at the Independent Games Festival . It was showcased on Spike TV , G4TV , and CBS Sunday . The game immediately received a great deal of attention when it was released ; site traffic overran the server they were hosting the website on , and then crashed those of the school . By February 2006 , just over three months after its release , the website had been viewed over one million times and the game downloaded over 300 @,@ 000 times . By July 2006 , it had reached six million visits and 600 @,@ 000 downloads .
The game received positive reviews from critics . Joel Durham , Jr. of GameSpy claimed that " everything about Cloud is simply jaw @-@ dropping " , and cited its music , visuals , and sensation of flying as high points . William Usher of Game Tunnel also praised the visuals and audio ; he believed that its graphics created a relaxing atmosphere , and that the " touching musical score " would emotionally move any player . A reviewer for Game Informer said that the game pointed " to a bright future " in which games would inspire a wider range of emotions ; however , the writer called Cloud more of
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other New World colonies . By the late 18th century , Texas was one of the least populated regions of New Spain , with fewer than two inhabitants per square league . The population was relatively stagnant , having grown only to 3 @,@ 169 individuals in 1790 from 3 @,@ 103 in 1777 . Over half of the population was classified as Spaniards , with settled Indians making up the next largest category . Blacks , mostly slaves , made up less than 1 % of the population in 1777 , and only 2 @.@ 2 % of the 1793 census . Over two @-@ thirds of the adults in Texas were married , and single men outnumbered single women , although there was a high percentage of widows . Intermarriage was fairly common , mostly between white men and women of mixed origin . Children from these unions often passed as whites . Illegitimate births increased steadily throughout the century , reaching 20 % of all births in 1799 . Despite the small population , however , Spain actively discouraged immigration to Texas , and a permanent garrison was placed in Nacogdoches in 1790 to keep foreigners from settling in the area . Immigrants from the United States were allowed to settle in Louisiana and Florida after taking an oath of allegiance , but were not required to convert to Roman Catholicism .
In 1799 , Spain gave Louisiana back to France in exchange for the promise of a throne in central Italy . Although the agreement was signed on October 1 , 1800 , it did not go into effect until 1802 . The following year , Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States . Many of the Spaniards who had moved to the colony left for Texas , Florida , or other Spanish @-@ held lands . The original agreement between Spain and France had not explicitly specified the borders of Louisiana , and the descriptions in the documents were ambiguous and contradictory . Even when both territories had been under Spanish control , there was disagreement on where the border should be . In 1793 , the King of Spain decided that there was no need to move the boundary from Natchitoches to the Sabine River , as had been recommended by some Frenchmen .
The United States insisted that its purchase also included most of West Florida and all of Texas . Thomas Jefferson claimed that Louisiana stretched west to the Rocky Mountains and included the entire watershed of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers and their tributaries , and that the southern border was the Rio Grande . Spain maintained that Louisiana extended only as far as Natchitoches , and that it did not include the Illinois Territory .
Texas was again considered a buffer province , this time between New Spain and the United States . In 1804 , Spain planned to send thousands of colonists to increase the number of residents in Texas ( then at 4 @,@ 000 Hispanic inhabitants ) . The plan was cancelled as the government did not have the money to relocate the settlers . The responsibility for defending Texas now rested with Nemesio Salcedo , who held the newly reopened position of Commandant General of the Internal Provinces . Salcedo promoted immigration to Texas , and a new town , Trinidad de Salcedo , was founded where the Trinity River intersected the road from San Antonio to Nacogdoches . For a brief time , Salcedo also allowed former Spanish subjects from Louisiana to come to Texas . A few Americans who had become naturalized Spaniards settled in Texas during that time . Salcedo warned , however , that " ' the foreigners are not and will not be anything but crows to pick out our eyes . ' "
King Charles IV of Spain ordered data compiled to determine the true boundary . Before the border was settled , both sides led armed excursions into the disputed areas , and Spain began increasing the number of troops stationed in Texas . By 1806 , the number had doubled , with over 883 stationed in and around Nacogdoches . At the end of 1806 , local commanders negotiated a temporary agreement in which neither the Spanish nor the Americans would venture into the area between the Sabine River and Arroyo Hondo . This neutral ground quickly became a haven for lawlessness and it did not stop individuals from crossing the boundary . While on a mission for the United States Army to explore some of the disputed areas of the Louisiana Purchase Zebulon Pike was arrested by the Spanish while camping on the Rio Grande and escorted back to Natchitoches . Although his maps and notes were confiscated , Pike was able to recreate most of it from memory . His glowing comments about Texas lands and animals made many Americans yearn to control the territory .
= = End of Spanish period = =
In May 1808 , Napoleon forced King Ferdinand VII to abdicate the Spanish throne . His replacement , Napoleon 's elder brother Joseph Bonaparte ( Joseph I ) , was appointed King of Spain , to violent protests from the Spanish citizens . The uprisings continued for the next six years , until his abdication in 1814 and the return of Ferdinand VII . During the time , there was little oversight of the New World colonies . A shadow government operated out Cádiz during Joseph 's reign , operating under the Spanish Constitution of 1812 . The constitutional government included representatives from the colonies , including Texas and New Mexico in New Spain . When King Ferdinand VII resumed his throne , he refused to recognize the new constitution or the representative government . He was forced to change his mind in 1820 as the only way to avert a military coup .
During this time of turmoil , it was unclear who actually governed the colonies : Joseph I , the shadow government representing Ferdinand VII , the colonial officials , or revolutionaries in each province . The Mexican War of Independence began in 1810 at the instigation of Miguel Hidalgo . Fearing that the revolution would reach colonial Texas , governor Manuel María de Salcedo ordered the Texas borders closed to all foreigners . He was soon reversed by his uncle , the Commandant General . Revolutionaries soon overthrew and imprisoned Salcedo , and a new government was established in Texas . Salcedo persuaded Ignacio Elizondo ( his jailer ) to return to the royalist cause and the two organized a counter @-@ coup . Hidalgo was captured and executed in 1811 .
Although officially neutral during the Peninsular War , the United States allowed rebels to trade at American ports and much of the weaponry and ammunition used by the rebels came from the United States . Americans also provided manpower for the conflict , with Natchitoches serving as a launching point for several expeditions into Texas . In 1812 , Mexican insurgent Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara led a small force of Americans into Texas . Indians from the eastern part of Texas quickly joined the insurgency . Calling themselves the Republican Army of the North , the group captured San Antonio in 1813 , assassinated the governor , Manuel María de Salcedo , and proclaimed Texas independent from Spain . The death of the governor caused many of the Anglo @-@ Americans to desert the cause , but on April 17 , 1813 , the Gutiérrez – Magee Expedition members composed Texas 's first constitution , which provided for a centralized form of government . Spanish forces recaptured the province later that year at the Battle of Medina , and killed 1300 and executed any Tejanos accused of having Republican tendencies . Within 2 weeks almost 400 rebels were executed and their wives and daughters were imprisoned for 2 months . Royalist soldiers even chased many of the women and children who had fled San Antonio , killing 200 – 300 . Captured Americans were given an opportunity to take an oath of loyalty to Spain , and those who refused were escorted back to the United States . Fearing that the Comanche would still constitute a threat , Spanish general Arredondo ordered all ranchers to move temporarily to San Antonio to help defend the city . When they returned to their ranches several months later , they found that the Comanche had slaughtered all of the livestock , leaving most of the carcasses where they fell . The Spanish army looted the rest of Texas too , and by 1820 fewer than 2000 Hispanic citizens remained in Texas . " Spanish Texas , or what remained of it , had become a desolate , unprotected land that could not feed itself . "
Another revolutionary , José Manuel Herrera , created a government on Galveston Island in September 1816 which he proclaimed part of a Mexican Republic . A group of French exiles in the United States attempted to create their own colony on the Trinity River , known as Le Champ d 'Asile . The exiles planned to use the colony as a base to liberate New Spain and then free Napoleon from St. Helena . They abandoned the colony shortly and returned to Galveston .
On February 22 , 1819 , Spain and the United States reached agreement on the Transcontinental Treaty , which ceded Florida to the United States in return for the United States relinquishing its claim on Texas . The official boundary of Texas was set at the Sabine River ( the current boundary between Texas and Louisiana ) , then following the Red and Arkansas Rivers to the 42nd parallel ( California 's current northern border ) . For the next two years , until early February 1821 , Spain delayed ratification of the treaty , using it as leverage to prevent the United States from formally recognizing one of the rebellious Spanish colonies as an independent nation . During this period many Americans spoke out against the treaty and the renunciation of the claim to Texas . An essay in the City of Washington Gazette denounced the treaty , claiming that " ' a league ' " of the land in Texas was worth more to the United States " ' than the whole territory west of the Rocky Mountains ' " .
In 1819 , James Long led the Long Expedition to invade Texas . He declared Texas an independent republic , but by the end of the year his rebellion had been quelled by Colonel Ignacio Pérez and his Spanish troops . The following year Long established a new base near Galveston Bay " to free Texas from ' the yoke of Spanish authority . . . the most atrocious despotism that ever disgraced the annals of Europe . ' " His basis for a rebellion was soon gone , however .
On February 24 , 1821 , Agustín de Iturbide launched a drive for Mexican Independence . Texas became a part of the newly independent nation without a shot being fired .
= = Legacy = =
Spanish control of Texas was followed by Mexican control of Texas , and it can be difficult to separate the Spanish and Mexican influences on the future state . The most obvious legacy is that of the language ; the state 's name comes from the Spanish rendering of an Indian word . Every major river in modern Texas , except the Red River , has a Spanish or Anglicized name , as do 42 of the state 's 254 counties and numerous towns also bear Spanish names . Even many of the words that have been incorporated into American English , such as barbecue , canyon , ranch , and plaza , come from Spanish words . An additional obvious legacy is that of Roman Catholicism . At the end of Spain 's reign over Texas , virtually all inhabitants practiced the Catholic religion , and it is still practiced in Texas by a large number of people . The Spanish missions built in San Antonio to convert Indians to Catholicism have been restored and are a National Historic Landmark .
The landscape of Texas was changed as a result of some Spanish policies . As early as the 1690s , Spaniards brought European livestock , including cattle , horses , and mules , with them on their expeditions throughout the province . Some of the livestock strayed or stayed behind when the Spanish retreated from the territory in 1693 , allowing the Indian tribes to begin loosely managing herds of the animals . These herds grazed heavily on the native grasses , allowing mesquite , which was native to the lower Texas coast , to spread inland . Although the introduced livestock were able to adapt to the changing conditions , the buffalo had a more difficult time grazing among the new vegetation , beginning the decline in their numbers . Spanish farmers also introduced tilling and irrigation to the land , further changing the landscape . Spanish architectural concepts were also adopted by those in Texas , including the addition of patios , tile floors and roofs , arched windows and doorways , carved wooden doors , and wrought iron grillwork .
Although Texas eventually adopted much of the Anglo @-@ American legal system , many Spanish legal practices were retained . Among these was the Spanish model of keeping certain personal property safe from creditors . Texas implemented the first homestead exemption in the United States in 1839 , and its property exemption laws are now the most liberal state in the United States . Furthermore , Spanish law maintained that both husband and wife should share equally in the profits of marriage , and , like many other former Spanish provinces , Texas retained the idea of community property rather than use the Anglo laws in which all property belonged to the husband . Furthermore , Spanish law allowed an independent executor to be named in probate cases who is not required to gain court permission for each act not explicitly listed in the testament . Texas retained this idea , and it has eventually spread to other states , included Arizona , Washington , and Idaho . In other legal matters , Texas kept the Spanish principle of adoption , becoming the first U.S. state to allow adoption .
= Kyle Nix =
Kyle Ashley Nix ( born 21 January 1986 ) is an Australian @-@ born English footballer who currently plays for PTT Rayong , where he plays as a midfielder .
Nix was born in Sydney , Australia to English parents and moved to England at an early age . Nix started his football career with the youth teams at Manchester United and Aston Villa , before he joined Sheffield United . He had a loan spell with Barnsley , but left Sheffield to join non @-@ league Buxton . He played seven games for Buxton during the 2006 – 07 season , before he joined Parkgate where he spent the remainder of the season .
He joined Bradford City for whom he made his debut in league football in August 2007 . After two seasons with City , he was released from his contract and returned to non @-@ league with Mansfield Town . He played two years with Mansfield during which time he reached the FA Trophy final before moving to another Conference side Gateshead . Internationally , Nix has represented England at youth level , playing for the U16 , U18 and U20 teams , and semi @-@ professional levels but holds an Australian passport and has expressed a desire to play for the latter country .
= = Early life = =
Nix was born in Sydney , Australia , while his father , Peter , was playing football there . Peter had been a left winger , whose own professional career included 22 league games for Rotherham United . When the family returned to Rotherham , South Yorkshire , Nix started his own football career . Nix 's brother Korey is also a footballer .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Nix started his football career in England as a youth player for Premier League side Manchester United , before joining Aston Villa 's youth side for a year . He was part of Villa 's youth team which lost in the final of the FA Youth Cup to Middlesbrough . In July 2005 , he was signed by Sheffield United of the Championship on a one @-@ year deal . His debut came in a League Cup tie against League Two side Shrewsbury Town , which United won on penalties , when he came on as a 90th minute substitute . His only other appearance for Sheffield United was again as a substitute in the League Cup against Reading .
Towards the end of the 2005 – 06 season he was sent on loan to League One side Barnsley where he stayed for three months . Barnsley won promotion to the Championship although Nix did not play in any games . He returned to Sheffield United but he was among seven players to be released by manager Neil Warnock . Nix had an unsuccessful trial at Peterborough United , and one at Grimsby Town which was curtailed by an ankle ligament injury , and played a reserve team outing for Rotherham United . But after failing to win a place at any of the three league teams , he turned to non @-@ league football . He first appeared for Northern Premier League side Buxton , making his debut against Bridlington Town on 11 November 2006 . He played seven times for Buxton , scoring one goal , which came in a 9 – 0 Derbyshire Senior Cup victory over Blackwell Miners Welfare . For the rest of the 2006 – 07 season he turned out for Northern Counties East League side Parkgate . He also scored once for Parkgate — in a 4 – 3 Sheffield and Hallamshire Senior Cup semi @-@ final defeat to Stocksbridge Park Steels .
= = = Bradford City = = =
In summer 2007 , he was offered a short @-@ term deal with League Two side Bradford City following a successful trial , teaming back up with Stuart McCall , who Nix knew from his days at Sheffield United . He made his Bradford debut against Wolverhampton Wanderers in a League Cup game scoring his first senior goal . His league debut came three days later in the first league game to be played at Shrewsbury Town 's new ground the New Meadow . He was offered a longer term deal at City , before becoming a regular first team player . His first league goal was a long @-@ range equaliser as Bradford drew 1 – 1 with Chesterfield on 8 December 2007 before he added a second in successive games in a 2 – 1 defeat to Peterborough United . His goals helped to win him a contract extension in January until the end of the 2007 – 08 season . Later that month he improved his run of goals by scoring in three successive matches to help Bradford to five points from three games within the space of eight days . Nix stayed in the team for the remainder of the season , but it was not until April that he scored again , with a long @-@ range volley against Brentford , as he bid for a new contract for the 2008 – 09 season . On 29 April 2008 , Nix was offered a new deal , which he signed the following week to remain at Bradford for another season .
Nix started Bradford 's first two games of the 2008 – 09 season in place of Joe Colbeck , who was suspended following a red card against Milton Keynes Dons at the end of the previous campaign . However , when Colbeck was available again , Nix was dropped to the substitutes ' bench , with new signing Paul McLaren partnering Lee Bullock , who had returned from injury , in central midfield . Nix struggled for form but was also playing with an ankle injury , which eventually forced him to take a hospital scan in November . He was one of six club midfielders to be injured at the time . He returned to action later that month as a second @-@ half substitute against his father 's former team Rotherham United , at the Don Valley Stadium . However , he struggled to hold down a regularly place in the side because of new midfielders signed during the course of the season , and he was released at the end of the campaign having played less than half the games that he played in his first year at City . Nix was offered the chance to return to Bradford by McCall if he could not find a new club but he rejected the invitation .
= = = Mansfield Town = = =
Nix spent two weeks of summer on holiday in Mexico with three former Bradford colleagues , Joe Colbeck , Dean Furman and Nicky Law . Although Nix had reported interest from League Two clubs , upon his return from holiday he dropped down a division to go on trial with Conference National club Mansfield Town . After just three days of his trial he signed a two @-@ year deal to become their 11th new player of the summer . Nix made his debut for Mansfield in their opening day 4 – 0 victory against Crawley Town , and scored his first goal for his new club at the end of September during a 3 – 1 defeat to Barrow . Nix enjoyed a run of games in the first team and was described by manager David Holdsworth as one of the club 's " best players " until he suffered an ankle injury , which required surgery at a hospital in Northallerton and kept him out of first @-@ team action until the new year . He returned to playing action for Mansfield reserves in late January and was back in the first team squad by the end of the month . He made his comeback to the first team in a 3 – 1 defeat to Stevenage Borough at the start of February . By the end of his first season with Mansfield , he had played 23 league games and scored twice .
During the follow pre @-@ season , Holdsworth allowed Nix to attend a trial with Dutch Eerste Divisie side Sparta Rotterdam . Nix described it as a " chance of a lifetime " to pursue his dream of playing for the Australian national side with Sparta having an Australian coach . However , his trial was unsuccessful and he returned to Mansfield and he immediately scored in a friendly ahead of the new Conference season . Nix was not included in Mansfield 's squad for the first three games of the season , and during the third match with the side losing , the club 's fans were singing Nix 's name . After eventually winning 3 – 1 , Holdsworth said : " I know Kyle is a very good player and I respect the fans have individuals they like . But we have a healthy squad here and I picked what I felt was a winning side today which proved to be right . " His first game of the season was as a late substitute for Adam Smith moments after Mansfield conceded an equaliser in a 1 – 1 draw with Kettering Town . His first start of the season came as Holdsworth made changes to personnel and formation for a game at Southport on 11 September . A 2 – 1 victory was Mansfield 's third consecutive win . Before the end of the month , he had scored his first goal of the month , during a 5 – 0 victory against York City which put Mansfield second in the table .
At the end of his second season , Nix was one of five players to be released by Mansfield .
= = = Gateshead = = =
During the summer , he had trials with fellow Conference side Gateshead , scoring a penalty in a friendly against Carlisle United on 16 July 2011 , before the game was abandoned after an hour due to torrential rain . Two weeks later , Nix signed an initial six @-@ month contract with Gateshead . He made his debut as a second @-@ half substitute on 13 August 2011 in Gateshead 's 3 – 2 win over Kidderminster Harriers at Aggborough . He made his first start for Gateshead on 22 October 2011 in a 3 – 1 win against Telford United at New Bucks Head . Having started only two games in five months with Gateshead , Nix is due to be released when his contracts expire on 24 January .
= = = Tamworth = = =
On 14 February 2012 , Nix joined Tamworth on a free transfer . He made his debut on 3 March coming on as a second @-@ half substitute for Chez Isaac in a 3 – 0 league defeat to Fleetwood Town .
= = = Chiangrai United = = =
Following a brief spell at UR La Louviere Centre in Belgium where he did not play a competitive match Nix moved to Chiangrai United F.C. in the Thai Premier League in 2013 . Nix so far made 26 appearances , scoring five goals and claiming three assists . Nix scored in matches against Muangthong , Chonburi F.C. , Bangkok Glass and BEC Tero .
= = International career = =
Nix has appeared for various England youth international teams including under 16s , under 18s and under 20s . He scored twice for the under 17s , in a 4 – 0 victory over Faroe Islands and another in a 2 – 1 victory over Norway , during the Nordic International Tournament in 2002 . After moving to Mansfield Town in 2009 , he was eligible to play for the England C team , which is the team which represents England at non @-@ league level . He was one of three Mansfield players , along with Louis Briscoe and Scott Garner , to play in a 1 – 1 with Hungary on 15 September 2009 . He was called back up for the England C team by manager Paul Fairclough a year later .
Nix also holds an Australian passport , which he picked up in summer 2008 , when he returned to the country for the first time since he left as a youngster in order to coach at Mitchelton Football Club . It enables him to play for the Australian side , a dream which Nix is still pursuing .
= = Personal Life = =
Nix holds an Australian passport .
On 2 June 2014 , Nix was reported missing by his family after leaving his home in Rotherham in the early hours of the morning . He was found safe and well by police later the same day .
= = Playing statistics = =
As of match played 28 April 2012 .
= TNM 02067 =
TNM 02067 ( Tanzanian National Museums specimen 02067 ) is a fragmentary fossil dentary ( lower jaw ) from the Cretaceous ( between 146 and 66 million years ago ) of Tanzania . The short , deep bone is about 19 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 77 in ) long , but the back part is broken off . It contains a large , forward @-@ inclined incisor with a root that extends deep into the jaw , separated by a diastema ( gap ) from five cheekteeth . Very little remains of the teeth , but enough to determine that they are hypsodont ( high @-@ crowned ) . The third cheektooth is the largest and the roots of the teeth are curved . First described in 2003 , TNM 02067 has been tentatively identified as a sudamericid — an extinct family of high @-@ crowned gondwanathere mammals otherwise known from South America , Madagascar , India , and Antarctica . If truly a gondwanathere , it would be the only African member of the group and may be the oldest . The describers could not exclude other possibilities , such as that the jaw represents some mammalian group known only from younger , Cenozoic times ( less than 66 million years ago ) .
= = Discovery and context = =
TNM 02067 was discovered in 2002 in the locality TZ @-@ 07 in the Mbeya Region of southwestern Tanzania , which has also yielded remains of various other vertebrates , including birds and other saurischian dinosaurs . The discovery was reported in a 2003 paper by David Krause and colleagues . TZ @-@ 07 lies in the " Red Sandstone Unit " ( RSU ) , an informal , poorly defined rock unit . Age estimates for the RSU have ranged from middle Jurassic to Miocene , but according to Krause and colleagues , part of this discrepancy is the result of confusion between two superficially similar rock units that outcrop nearby ; the older one , where TZ @-@ 07 is located , is undoubtedly Mesozoic and the younger is Cenozoic . Based on the presence of non @-@ avian dinosaurs and osteoglossomorph fishes , Krause and colleagues assigned TZ @-@ 07 to the Cretaceous ( 146 – 66 million years ago ) . In 2007 , Nancy Stevens and colleagues identified the unit that produced TNM 02067 as likely belonging to the middle part of the Cretaceous ( around Aptian to Cenomanian ) . TNM 02067 is significant as one of the very few mammals from the Cretaceous of the southern continents ( Gondwana ) .
= = Description = =
TNM 02067 is a damaged , partial left dentary ( lower jaw bone ) . It preserves much of the body of the bone , which is short and deep , but is broken along a vertical fracture behind the toothrow . There is another fracture in the front part of the jaw . The bone is 19 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 77 in ) long and 11 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 45 in ) deep . All the teeth are incomplete or absent , and lack both enamel and cementum , but what remains indicates that there was a large incisor at the front and five cheekteeth further back , separated by a diastema ( gap ) of about 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 098 in ) . On the labial ( outer ) surface of the dentary , there is one large mental foramen ( opening ) . The mandibular symphysis , where the two halves of the lower jaw meet , is poorly preserved , but there is nothing to suggest that the left and right dentaries were fused . The lower margin of the bone is convex at the front , but concave further back , so that the depth of the dentary is 8 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 33 in ) below the diastema , but only 7 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) below the third cheektooth . The origin of the coronoid process , a projection at the back of the dentary , lies far to the front .
The large incisor is inclined forward , and its root — the only part of the tooth that is preserved — forms an angle of about 55 ° with the horizontal . At the tip of the alveolus , where the tooth projects out of the bone , it is 3 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) high and 2 @.@ 1 mm broad . The root extends through the dentary to a position below the third cheektooth . Only the roots of the first and second cheekteeth are preserved . Both are about 1 @.@ 5 mm in diameter , but the first tooth may have been slightly smaller than the second . The third tooth , the largest of the cheekteeth , has the root slightly curved backward . This root is deeply anchored in the dentary , extending down through about three @-@ fourths of the bone . The crown is preserved in the form of a stump of dentine , 2 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 091 in ) long and 1 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 075 in ) broad , that extends high above the dentary , indicating that the tooth was hypsodont ( high @-@ crowned ) . High dentine stumps also remain of the fourth and fifth cheekteeth . The fourth is about as large as the first and second and the fifth is smaller , with a diameter of about 1 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) . The fourth cheektooth also has a long , curved root , which extends more than halfway through the dentary , and that of the fifth tooth is even smaller and shorter . The orientation of the roots and teeth indicates that all the teeth were single @-@ rooted .
= = Identity = =
The dentary superficially resembles that of various other mammalian groups with enlarged incisors , such as rodents , lagomorphs , hyraxes , wombats , the aye @-@ aye , and the extinct apatemyids , tillodonts , and taeniodonts — all of which are known only from the Cenozoic , less than 66 million years ago . Krause and colleagues could not exclude the possibility that TNM 02067 represents an early member of such a group or an otherwise unknown major group of mammals . However , only two groups of Mesozoic mammals resemble TNM 02067 : gondwanatheres ; and multituberculates in the superfamilies Djadochtatherioidea and Taeniolabidoidea . Djadochtatherioids and taeniolabidoids occur in the late Cretaceous through Paleogene of the northern continents ( Laurasia ) , and gondwanatheres , an enigmatic group of uncertain evolutionary affinities , are known from the late Cretaceous through Paleogene of Gondwana , with forms such as Gondwanatherium , Sudamerica ( both from Argentina ) , Lavanify ( Madagascar ) , and Bharattherium ( India ) .
No multituberculates are known to have had hypsodont teeth , none has more than two molariform ( molar @-@ like ) teeth in a single toothrow , and most have large , blade @-@ like teeth . However , the form of the remains of TNM 02067 's third cheektooth suggests it was not such a blade @-@ like tooth and that at least the last three cheekteeth were likely molariform . In these respects , TNM 02067 does resemble gondwanatheres in the family Sudamericidae , and Krause and colleagues tentatively identified it as representing that family , primarily on the basis of its hypsodont teeth . Krause and colleagues compared the dentary in detail to that of Sudamerica , the only other gondwanathere for which a substantial fragment of the jaw was known . Sudamerica has only four , not five , cheekteeth ( all of which are molariform ) , a higher , narrower incisor with a root that extends further through the dentary , and a shorter diastema ; in all these respects , TNM 02067 is more primitive . In addition , the mental foramen of the TNM 02067 is located lower and the cheekteeth vary more in size .
If truly a gondwanathere , TNM 02067 extends the known geographic range of the group to another part of Gondwana , the African mainland . The uncertain age of locality TZ @-@ 07 renders a precise assessment of the significance of TNM 02067 difficult . It may well be older than the oldest previously known gondwanathere , the Campanian Gondwanatherium . It also has implications for the hypothesis that Africa was isolated from the rest of Gondwana from an early date — as early as the early Cretaceous — and consequently had a fauna distinct from the rest of Gondwana for much of the Cretaceous , as it may be closely related to the sudamericids of South America , India , Madagascar , and Antarctica , a highly derived group .
= Battle of the Gates of Trajan =
The Battle of the Gates of Trajan ( Bulgarian : Битката при Траянови Врата , Greek : Μάχη στις Πύλες του Τραϊανού ) was a battle between Byzantine and Bulgarian forces in the year 986 . It took place in the pass of the same name , modern Trayanovi Vrata , in Sofia Province , Bulgaria . It was the largest defeat of the Byzantines under Emperor Basil II . After the unsuccessful siege of Sofia he retreated to Thrace , but was surrounded by the Bulgarian army under the command of Samuil in the Sredna Gora mountains . The Byzantine army was annihilated and Basil himself barely escaped .
Fifteen years after the fall of the Bulgarian capital Preslav , the victory at the Gates of Trajan extended the Bulgarian successes achieved since 976 . Later on Tsar Samuil moved the capital from Preslav in the northeast to Ohrid in the southwest . The memory of the great victory over Basil II was preserved thirty years later in the Bitola inscription of Ivan Vladislav ( 1015 – 1018 ) , the son of Aron .
= = Historical sources = =
In addition to the Bitola inscription where the victory of Samuil , commander of the Bulgarian army , is mentioned in summary form , several medieval historians have written accounts for the battle . Among them were Leo the Deacon who was an eyewitness and a direct participant in the campaign ; John Skylitzes and two other historians George Kedrin and Joannes Zonaras who repeat the work of Skylitzes . Not only Byzantine historians wrote accounts for the battle , it was also recorded by the Arab chronicler Yahaya of Antioch and the Armenians , Stephen of Taron ( also known as Asolic ) and Matthew of Edessa . More details can be found in the commended sermon of Saint Photius of Thessaly .
= = Origins of the conflict = =
In 971 , the Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes forced the captured Bulgarian emperor Boris II to abdicate and move to Constantinople following the fall of the Bulgarian capital Preslav . The Byzantines had occupied only the eastern parts of Bulgaria ; to the west , the four sons of the count of Sredets Nikola David , Moses , Samuil and Aron continued to rule western Bulgaria . They ruled the free territories in a tetrarchy residing in four separate cities in order to fight the Byzantines with higher efficiency .
The war against Bulgaria was the first major undertaking carried out by Basil II after his ascension to the throne in 976 , although the Bulgarian attacks had begun in that year . One of the reasons for the ten years of inaction was the policy of one of the strongest nobles in Byzantium , Basil , who de facto ruled the Byzantine Empire in the first years of his namesake . During that time , the main objective of the government in Constantinople was to crush the rebellion of the military commander Bardas Skleros in Asia Minor between 976 and 979 .
The local Byzantine governors were left alone to cope with the Bulgarian threat but they were unable to stop the Bulgarians . The positions of the brothers Samuil and Aron ( the two eldest brothers David and Moses died soon after the beginning of the great offensive in 976 ) were strengthened not only by the rebellion of Skleros but also the neglect of the former Byzantine Emperor John Tzimisces towards the southwestern Bulgarian lands . After the fall of Preslav and the north @-@ eastern areas of the Bulgarian Empire his main priority became the war against the Arabs in Syria , which gave the Bulgarians time to prepare for a long struggle from the center of the remaining parts of the Empire around the Ohrid and Prespa Lakes .
For one decade in offensive after 976 the Bulgarians achieved major successes . Samuil managed to liberate north @-@ eastern Bulgaria . Between 982 and 986 the Bulgarians occupied the main city of Thessaly ( in modern Greece ) , Larissa . The constant Bulgarian attacks forced Basil II to take serious actions .
= = Siege of Sredets = =
In 986 , Basil II led a campaign with 30 @,@ 000 soldiers . The commanders of the eastern armies did not take part in the campaign because they were fighting with the Arabs . The Byzantines marched from Odrin via Plovdiv to reach Sredets ( Sofia ) . According to Leo Diaconus the objective of their Emperor was to subdue the Bulgarians with one strike . After the capture of Serdica which was a strategic fortress between the northeastern and southwestern Bulgarian lands Basil II intended to continue his campaign towards Samuil 's main strongholds in Macedonia .
On his way to Serdica ( the Byzantine name of Sredetz , today Sofia , the capital city of modern @-@ day Bulgaria ) , Basil II left a strong company under Leon Melissenos to guard the rear of the Byzantine army . When he finally reached the walls of the city , Basil II built a fortified camp and besieged the fortress . The siege lasted for 20 days of fruitless assaults , until shortage of food occurred in the Byzantine army . Their attempts to find provisions in the surrounding country were stopped by the Bulgarians who burned crops and even took the cattle of the Byzantines . In the end , the city garrison broke out of the walls , killing many enemy soldiers and burning all of the siege equipment , which the inexperienced Byzantine generals had placed too close to the city walls .
= = The battle = =
As a result of the successful Bulgarian actions the Byzantines were no longer capable of taking the city with a direct assault . They also could not exhaust the defenders with hunger because , after their supplies were cut , the Byzantines themselves had to deal with that problem . In addition , an army led by Samuil marched into the mountains at the Byzantines ' rear . In the meantime , instead of securing the way for retreat , Leon Melissenos pulled back to Plovdiv . That action was an additional reason for Basil II to lift the siege . The commander of the Western armies , Kontostephanos , persuaded him that Melissenos had set off to Constantinople to take his throne .
The Byzantine army retreated from the Sofia Valley towards Ihtiman where it stopped for the night . The rumours that the Bulgarians had barred the nearby mountain routes stirred commotion among the soldiers and on the following day the retreat continued in growing disorder . When the Bulgarians under Samuil and probably Roman saw that , they rushed to the enemy camp and the retreat turned to flight . The Byzantine advance guard managed to squeeze through slopes which were not yet taken by the Bulgarian attackers . The rest of the army was surrounded by the Bulgarians . Only the elite Armenian unit from the infantry managed to break out with heavy casualties and to lead their Emperor to safety through secondary routes . Enormous numbers of Byzantine soldiers perished in the battle ; the rest were captured along with the Imperial insignia .
= = Aftermath = =
The disaster of the campaign in Bulgaria in 986 was a blow to the consolidation of the monocracy of Basil II . Soon after the Battle of the Gates of Trajan , the nobility in Asia Minor , led by the general Bardas Phokas , rebelled against Basil II for three years .
According to the historian Petar Mutafchiev , after the battle Samuil was in control of the Balkans . According to some historians , the northeastern parts of the Bulgarian Empire were liberated in the years after the battle . However , according to other sources , they were liberated ten years prior to the battle , in 976 . The Bulgarians firmly took the initiative and launched continuous attacks towards Thessaloniki , Edessa , and the Adriatic coast . The Serbs were also defeated and their state incorporated into Bulgaria .
= 2011 – 12 York City F.C. season =
The 2011 – 12 season was the ninetieth season of competitive association football and eighth season in the Football Conference played by York City Football Club , a professional football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Their eighth @-@ place finish in 2010 – 11 meant it was their eighth successive season in the Conference Premier . The season covers the period from 1 July 2011 to 30 June 2012 .
Gary Mills , who was starting his first full season as manager , signed eleven players before the summer transfer window closed . York occupied a play @-@ off position for most of the season , and finished the Conference Premier season in fourth place . York beat Mansfield Town 2 – 1 on aggregate in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final . Luton Town were then beaten 2 – 1 in the 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium , which meant the club was promoted into League Two , returning into the Football League after an eight @-@ year absence . Eight days beforehand , York won their first national knockout competition , with a 2 – 0 victory over Newport County at Wembley in the 2012 FA Trophy Final . They were knocked out of the 2011 – 12 FA Cup in the fourth qualifying round , after being beaten 2 – 1 away at Wrexham .
Thirty players made at least one appearance in nationally organised first @-@ team competition , and there were nineteen different goalscorers . Goalkeeper Michael Ingham , defender James Meredith and midfielder Patrick McLaughlin missed only three of the fifty @-@ eight competitive matches played over the season . Matty Blair finished as leading scorer with twenty goals , of which ten came in league competition , eight came in the FA Trophy and two came in the play @-@ offs . The winner of the Clubman of the Year , voted for by the club 's supporters , was Scott Kerr for his first full season
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. Blair was top scorer in all competitions with twenty goals , followed by Walker , whose eighteen goals made him York 's leading league scorer . Three other players , Chambers , McLaughlin and Reed , reached double figures .
Prior to the club 's Football League return , York released Ashikodi , Blinkhorn , Bopp and Brown , while Meredith , Moké and Pilkington left on their own accord for Bradford City , Cambridge and Kidderminster . Challinor , Chambers , Doig , Fyfield , Ingham , Kerr and Parslow signed new contracts with the club . New players to join were defender Danny Blanchett from Burton Albion , midfielders Lee Bullock from Bradford , John McReady from Darlington and Jonathan Smith from Swindon , winger Michael Coulson from Grimsby and striker Oli Johnson from Oxford United . Midfielder Tom Platt was promoted to the first team squad from the youth team after signing a professional contract with the club .
= = Match details = =
League positions are sourced by Statto , while the remaining information is referenced individually .
= = = Conference Premier = = =
= = = League table ( part ) = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = FA Trophy = = =
= = = Conference Premier play @-@ offs = = =
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player 's contract with that club had expired before he joined York .
= = = Out = = =
Brackets around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired .
= = = Loans in = = =
= = = Loans out = = =
= = Appearances and goals = =
Source :
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute .
Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .
Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York .
Players listed with no appearances have been in the matchday squad but only as unused substitutes .
Key to positions : GK – Goalkeeper ; DF – Defender ; MF – Midfielder ; FW – Forward
= Goodbye , Michael =
" Goodbye , Michael " is the thirty @-@ six @-@ minute episode of the seventh season of the American comedy series The Office and the show 's 148th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 28 , 2011 . In the episode , Michael prepares to leave for Colorado with Holly , and spends his last day in the office saying goodbye to everyone individually , wanting no drama to ensue . Meanwhile , new manager Deangelo and Andy try to keep Michael 's biggest clients .
The episode was written by series developer and executive producer Greg Daniels and was directed by Paul Feig . It marks the final appearance of Steve Carell as a series regular having announced he was leaving the series near the end of the sixth season . The episode aired in an extended 50 @-@ minute timeslot , having originally been meant to be a two @-@ parter combined with the previous episode , " Michael 's Last Dundies " . The episode featured guest appearances from Will Ferrell and Amy Ryan , and Andy Buckley appeared in a deleted scene .
" Goodbye , Michael " was met with critical acclaim from critics and fans and is considered one of the best episodes of The Office . The later seasons that followed this airing received extensive criticism for a decline in quality , and many critics believed that it could have served as a potential series finale . In a poll conducted by fansite OfficeTally , the episode was named the best episode of the seventh season . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 416 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 2 rating / 11 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , making it the third @-@ highest @-@ rated episode of the season among adults between ages 18 and 49 . It later received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Carell and Daniels ' work on the episode .
= = Synopsis = =
Michael ( Steve Carell ) arrives at work for what he claims is his second @-@ to @-@ last day before he moves to Colorado to live with his fiancee , Holly ( Amy Ryan ) . As the day progresses , he tries to have an individual goodbye with each employee . A phone call with Holly reveals that this is his last day , and he is flying out to Colorado that night . After having a few mini @-@ crises , including getting cold feet , he starts to break down , but regains his composure after speaking with Holly . Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) leaves the office to supposedly run errands , but takes a break from the workday to see The King 's Speech before Michael can say his goodbye to her .
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) is given Michael 's client list as a going @-@ away present , much to the shock and envy of the other salesmen , and after losing one , requests the help of Deangelo Vickers ( Will Ferrell ) to retain them . Vickers nearly ruins a relationship with a client but Andy gains enough confidence to salvage the sale . Along the way , Vickers reveals that he was not hired for his business experience , but because he helped prevent the theft of one of Sabre CEO Jo Bennett 's dogs . Meanwhile , Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) is antagonistic towards Michael , still bitter over Michael not recommending him for a manager position , despite Michael 's attempts to reconcile . He initially expresses disdain for Michael 's going @-@ away present , a recommendation letter , but appears touched as he reads further . He also discovers a card challenging him to a paintball match , and the two play behind the building .
Gabe ( Zach Woods ) is taking Erin 's ( Ellie Kemper ) public breakup badly . He makes several threats against Andy , who had dated Erin before she dated Gabe , and follows Erin into the women 's bathroom to make his case . Michael advises Erin that she does not necessarily need to choose Andy or Gabe , telling her that she is smart enough to know what to do .
Jim ( John Krasinski ) deduces over the course of the day that Michael is leaving early and confronts him about it . Michael admits his plans , and begins a personal goodbye , but breaks down after a few words . Jim , trying to hold back tears , in turn says how much he respects Michael , and that Michael was the best boss he ever had and they jokingly promise to have a proper goodbye over lunch the next day . Michael 's cab to the airport then arrives , and Michael departs the office after one last look at the employees , exiting silently . His cab pulls out of the parking lot just as Pam is pulling in . At the airport , Michael asks the camera crew to inform him if the documentary ever airs , then turns over his microphone , quipping one last " That 's what she said " about how good it will feel to " get this thing [ the mic ] off [ his ] chest " . He begins to walk off when Pam makes it past security and runs up to him . They hug twice and say goodbyes that are not heard by the camera . Pam says in an interview that Michael was not sad , that he was hopeful and excited to start his new life with Holly . Pam stands at the gate and watches Michael 's plane take off .
In the epilogue , several of the staff share thoughts about Michael in private interviews . The episode finishes with a scene that takes place the next morning , with the entire staff waiting in the conference room for Michael to arrive for his farewell party , unaware he has already left , with the exception of Jim and Pam . When DeAngelo deduces Michael is not coming , he begins tearing pieces off Michael 's farewell cake ( a major subplot point of the episode ) and throwing them in the trash , in a bizarre public internal struggle over his dieting . The rest of the staff , particularly Jim and Dwight , watch their new boss 's outburst with concern .
= = Production = =
" Goodbye , Michael " was written by series developer and executive producer Greg Daniels , his 10th writing credit of the series . The episode was directed by Paul Feig , marking his 14th credit for the series . On June 28 , 2010 , it was confirmed that the seventh season of The Office would be Steve Carell 's last . He had previously announced this while being interviewed on BBC Radio . " I just think it 's time ... I want to fulfill my contract . When I first signed on I had a contract for seven seasons , and this coming year is my seventh . I just thought it was time for my character to go , " Carell was quoted as saying . In January 2011 , it was announced that Carell would exit the show early , four episodes before the end of the season . A few weeks after this announcement came the news that Will Ferrell , who previously starred alongside Carell in Anchorman : The Legend of Ron Burgundy , had signed on to appear in a four @-@ episode arc as a Dunder Mifflin branch manager who temporarily takes Michael Scott 's position in Scranton . To help ease the transition , Ferrell appeared in Carell 's final episodes as well as one additional episode after he departs .
The writers had gone through different scenarios on how Michael would leave with one suggestion being that he was fired due to a business mistake . They ultimately decided that ending would not be " as much fun for the viewers " . According to Daniels , filming on set actors being " very emotional " and would often be " sadder than their characters were supposed to be " . Andy Buckley confirmed filming a scene saying goodbye to Michael as David Wallace ; however , these scenes were deleted from the network airing . When the episode re @-@ aired three weeks later , it was split into two parts , and Wallace 's scene was inserted into the first part . Steve Carell finished filming his final scenes for " Goodbye , Michael " on March 4 , 2011 . As a goodbye gift , Carell was given a hockey jersey with the # 1 — his number on the call sheet . After Carell 's departure the number was no longer used . The episode ran for an extended 50 minutes instead of the usual 30 minutes . The episode marks the first extended episode since the third season penultimate episode , " Beach Games " . Greg Daniels stated in an interview with Entertainment Weekly that due to Ferrell 's performance and Michael 's goodbyes , the episode " ended up being real long " . NBC Entertainment Chairman Robert Greenblatt allowed Daniels to " do whatever is best [ ... ] to give Steve [ Carell ] the proper goodbye .
= = Cultural references = =
" Goodbye , Michael " features several references to previous episodes . During one scene , Michael puts his Dundie on his desk , a homage to the final shot in the series opening sequence . Michael 's obsession with basketball and wanting to use the baler serves as a reference to the season one episode , " Basketball " and the season three episode " Safety Training " , respectively . Michael 's character Ping appears , having previously appeared in " The Dundies " and " The Seminar . " It also featured the reforming of the Party Planning Committee after being broken up in " Moroccan Christmas " , and briefly showed Creed 's continual habit of using the women 's bathroom as seen in " Women 's Appreciation " . Michael gives Darryl his book " Somehow I Manage " , which was originally mentioned in " Happy Hour . " Two callbacks are made to the episode " Christmas Party " : Phyllis ' gift to Michael being homemade sewn mittens and Dwight wanting to play paintball with Michael . Michael 's goodbye to Pam serves as a homage to a scene in the British version of The Office , where Tim Canterbury proclaims his love for Dawn Tinsley in a meeting room , but Tim turns off his microphone first so the cameras pick up only their reactions and no sound . This scene was also referenced in the fifth season finale , " Company Picnic .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Goodbye , Michael " originally aired on April 28 , 2011 in a 50 @-@ minute timeslot from 9 p.m. ET to 9 : 50 p.m. ET . Nielsen ratings were expected to be high since it was Carell 's last episode and also due to the extended timeslot with 22 @.@ 66 % of readers of TV by the Numbers predicting the episode would receive above a 6 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . However , the episode was viewed by an estimated 8 @.@ 416 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 2 rating / 11 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 2 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a twenty @-@ six percent rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " Michael 's Last Dundies " . This made the episode the most @-@ watched episode of the season and the third @-@ highest @-@ rated episode of the season after " Ultimatum " and " Nepotism " in the 18 – 49 demo . The episode ranked first in its timeslot beating Grey 's Anatomy , CSI : Crime Scene Investigation and Bones . " Goodbye , Michael " was the most @-@ watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 and the second highest @-@ rated NBC program after The Voice . Added with DVR viewers , " Goodbye , Michael " received a 5 @.@ 9 rating marking a 37 percent rise from the original viewership . The first half @-@ hour of the producer 's cut received a 2 @.@ 76 million viewers , and a 1 @.@ 1 rating / 3 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , while the second half @-@ hour attained 2 million viewers and a 0 @.@ 9 rating / 3 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Reviews = = =
Since its airing , " Goodbye , Michael " was met with critical acclaim and is considered one of the best episodes of The Office by critics and fans . Cindy White of IGN said that overall the episode was " one of those historic television moments " . She went on to praise the character 's awareness of the camera crew along with Michael saying his goodbyes to the staff . She ultimately gave the episode a 9 out of 10 . The A.V. Club writer Myles McNutt considered the episode to be a classic and praised Greg Daniels choice of showing " their [ fans ] Michael Scott " . He ultimately gave the episode an A. TV Squad writer Joel Keller wrote the episode felt like the series finale and that " As final episodes go , this one was a mixed bag " . Entertainment Weekly 's Hillary Busis praised Carell 's performance . HitFix writer Daniel Feinberg wrote that while the episode " wasn 't flawless " it was " an appropriate disentanglement " . Despite this , he criticized the episode for proving the point that the show could not survive without Michael . Despite this he complimented the performance of the supporting actors . New York writer Phoebe Reilly slightly criticized Pam 's silent goodbye to Michael . Despite this , she said , Dwight 's tears in his talking head and Jim 's goodbye to Michael " achieved the bearable level of poignancy " . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone praised the ending of the episode and the reference to the original British version of The Office . BuddyTV writer Meghan Carlson called Oscar 's scarecrow gift scene the best moment of the episode . HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall called the episode " a pretty fantastic tribute to that man on his way out the door . "
Will Ferrell 's performance received mixed reviews from critics . Rob Sheffield called his performance " pure magic " , while Miles McNutt said that his scenes were a " momentum killer " . Cindy White criticized the writers for waiting for Ferrell 's second @-@ to last episode to give his character a " juicy quirk " . Soon after the episode 's airdate , the series received publicity for a possible storyline featuring Phyllis as Erin 's birth mother . The rumor was started during an interview with executive producer Greg Daniels with Entertainment Weekly in which he stated " A tiny mystery story – which I 'm not sure anyone ’ s going to catch and will come out a few episodes from now – is being set up here " . This was further explored in the seventh season finale , " Search Committee " , where it was proven false .
The episode has also been put on several top ten lists for 2011 . Time reviewer James Poniewozik named the episode the second best television episode of 2011 calling the episode " pitch @-@ perfect " . The A.V. Club named the episode among the top 2011 TV highlights . David Sims wrote that " Although every member of the ensemble gets a moment in the sun , Michael ’ s silent airport farewell to Pam [ ... ] works best of all , a testament to the audience 's deep understanding of these characters " . Daniel Feinberg named Carell 's final episodes for The Office the 20th @-@ best television episodes of 2011 , although he only named Carell 's final episodes under the banner . He mainly praised Carell 's performance for switching from both laughs to sadness with a nuance . TV Guide named the episode the 12 @-@ best episode of 2011 and compared the episode to the humor of the series calling it " understated and pitch @-@ perfect " . " Goodbye , Michael " was voted the highest @-@ rated episode out of 24 from the season , according to an episode poll by the fansite , OfficeTally . In another poll , the episode was voted the fourth highest @-@ rated episode of the series , out of 139 , receiving 403 votes .
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
Greg Daniels , who wrote the script , received a nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . Steve Carell had also submitted this episode for consideration for his nomination for Outstanding Lead in a Comedy Series . Daniels eventually lost to Jeffrey Richman and Steven Levitan of Modern Family for the episode " Caught in the Act " , while Carell lost to Jim Parsons of The Big Bang Theory . Office star Rainn Wilson expressed anger for the snub on Twitter saying " The world of TV should be ashamed of itself that Steve Carell never won an Emmy for Michael Gary Scott . Goodnight . " Former Office writer Michael Schur and director Paul Feig also criticized this choice with Schur calling it a " goddamn fucking embarrassment " . Daniels had also received a nomination for the Writers Guild of America Award for Television : Episodic Comedy , but once again lost to Richman and Levitan .
= X & Y =
X & Y is the third studio album by the British alternative rock band Coldplay , released on 6 June 2005 in the United Kingdom by the record label Parlophone . The album , which features influences of electronic music , was produced by the band and British record producer Danton Supple . Development of the album was often troubled ; the album 's original producer , British record producer Ken Nelson , was supposed to produce much of the album , however , many songs written during their sessions were ditched due to the band 's dissatisfaction . The album 's cover art is a combination of colours and blocks , which is a representation of the Baudot code .
The album contains twelve tracks and an additional hidden track , " Til Kingdom Come " . It is omitted from the track listing on the album sleeve , but listed as " + " on the disc label and inside the album booklet . It was originally planned for American singer @-@ songwriter Johnny Cash to record it with lead singer Chris Martin , but Cash died before he was able to do so . The song " Talk " appeared on the main track listing , although it was thought to have been downgraded to a B @-@ side for the album 's subsequent single releases , after it leaked online in early 2005 .
X & Y was released after a considerable amount of hype and was a significant commercial success , reaching the top spot of many charts worldwide , including the United Kingdom and United States , the latter being their first . With accumulated sales of 8 @.@ 3 million units in 2005 alone , X & Y was the best @-@ selling album released in 2005 worldwide . By 2011 , the album had sold over 13 million copies worldwide .
Overall reaction to the album has been generally positive , though some critics cited it as being inferior to its predecessors . The album spawned the singles " Speed of Sound " , " Fix You " , " Talk " , " The Hardest Part " , " What If " and " White Shadows . "
= = Background = =
In March 2004 , Coldplay announced details about " X & Y " while the album was being recorded . Initial plans were to stay out of the public eye throughout the year . Vocalist Chris Martin stated , " We really feel that we have to be away for a while and we certainly won 't release anything this year , because I think people are a bit sick of us . " This plan , however , was not carried out due to the pressure their second album , A Rush of Blood to the Head , had induced but they were trying " to make the best thing that anyone has ever heard " .
Prior to the announcement , Martin , guitarist Jonny Buckland , and British record producer Ken Nelson had started recording demos while in Chicago , Illinois . The band then entered a London studio in January 2004 .
= = Recording = =
The band spent eighteen months working on the album . The released album is the third version which the band had produced during their late sessions , and some have even considered it as their fifth album . The band was not satisfied with the outputs of their initial sessions with Nelson , who produced the band 's previous two albums .
The initial set release date was 2004 , and the band had to delay the album to January 2005 . But as the new target date was approaching , the band again discarded songs , which they deemed " flat " and " passionless " . Sixty songs were written during these sessions , fifty @-@ two of which were ditched . The band started rehearsing the songs for a planned tour , but felt the songs sounded better live compared to their recorded versions : " We realized that we didn 't really have the right songs and some of them were starting to sound better because we were playing them than they did on record , so we thought we better go back and record them again . " Guitarist Jonny Buckland has said that the band had pushed themselves " forward in every direction " in making the album , but they felt it sounded like they were going backwards compared to their earlier works .
In search of perfection , Coldplay had to " step it up a few notches and work hard at it to get it right " . The band chose Danton Supple , who mixed the bulk of A Rush of Blood to the Head , to oversee the production of X & Y. When January went , the band had to finish the album ; they were conscious of the pressure as " expectations for the record grew larger " and " completing it became tougher and tougher " . Finally , the band was settled with the song " Square One " , which Martin has described as " a call to arms " and a " plea " to each of them " not to be intimidated by anything or anyone else " . Once finished , the band felt like they could do their own songs and not have to think of anyone else 's demands . During this month , the band was into the final weeks of production and had put the finishing touches on the tracks .
Drummer Will Champion later admitted that the band was not in a rush in completing the album " because the prospect of touring again was so daunting that we felt we should take our time , and also we wanted to make sure that it was the best it could possibly be " . The band had no deadline , according to him , which caused them not to feel pressured into finishing something . Once a proper deadline was imposed onto the band , they became more productive than previous sessions . At this juncture , the band had written " about 14 or 15 songs " . Martin added that the reason why they ended up late was that they " ... kept [ adding ] finishing [ touches to ] the record until it was way too late ... [ they ] don 't listen to it at the moment , because [ they would ] just find something to go back and change . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
Coldplay has cited various influences in the album . The German electronic music pioneer Kraftwerk is evident on the song " Talk " , which borrows its synthetic hook from 1981 's " Computer Love " . Also present is 1970s electronic music from the likes of English musician David Bowie and Brian Eno . Eno , who would later produce Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends and Mylo Xyloto , played backing synthesizer on the track " Low " . The first single , " Speed of Sound " , also takes inspiration from the drumbeat of English singer @-@ songwriters Kate Bush 's song " Running Up that Hill " . According to Jon Pareles of The New York Times , the band attempts to " carry the beauty of ' Clocks ' " across the album , borrowing some of its features to songs like " Speed of Sound " . The opening track " Square One " features the famous motif from Also sprach Zarathustra , known better as the title theme of Stanley Kubrick 's 1968 science @-@ fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey . The three @-@ note sequence is used as a synthesizer hook , as well as a part of the chorus , showcasing Chris Martin 's trademark falsetto voice .
" Fix You " features an organ and piano sound . The song starts with a hushed electric organ ballad , including Martin 's falsetto . The song then builds with both an acoustic guitar and piano sound . The sound then shifts with a plaintive three @-@ note guitar line , ringing through a bringing rhythm upbeat tempo . Its instrumentation is varied with the sound of church @-@ style organs hovering throughout the background , piano notes , acoustic and electric guitar riffs , drums , and a singalong chorus . " The Hardest Part " features a faster piano ballad sound , and starts with a repeating two @-@ note piano riff , and features an instrumentation of a singsong guitar . It also includes a slow tempo with a drumming rhythm . The track ends with the band playing the repeated instrument riffs . " Talk " is built around a simple guitar lick by Jonny Buckland . The track includes a hypnotic pace , with Will Champion adding a metronomic beat to the drums . The song features a synthesizer hook notable from Kraftwerk 's " Computer Love " . It also adds a chiming note to more abrasive riffs during the breakdown near the end of the song . " Speed of Sound " is a similar song musically based on the piano . The song benefits from an insistently ornate keyboard riff and a busy but less @-@ hummable chorus , in which the song builds into a huge drum beat and a synthesizer @-@ heavy chorus , which also includes an upbeat tempo .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Lyrically , X & Y made an apparent shift from its predecessors . On their previous works , Martin sang mostly in the first person " I " , but moves to the second person " you " . Accordingly , the songs on the album are reflection of Martin 's " doubts , fears , hopes , and loves " with lyrics that are " earnest and vague " .
The lyrics tend to focus significantly around the idea that everything is broken , out of place or missing ; this is apparent in nearly all songs in the album . Examples include " Fix You " ( " When you lose something you can 't replace " ) and also in " X & Y " ( " When something is broken , and you try to fix it , trying to repair it , any way you can " ) and " Talk " ( " Are you lost or incomplete ? Do you feel like a puzzle , you can 't find your missing piece ? " ) . This theme is also reflective of the random , incomprehensible pattern on the album 's cover ( until you " fix " it using the Baudot Code ) .
= = Packaging = =
The artwork for X & Y was designed by graphic design duo Tappin Gofton , formed by Mark Tappin and Simon Gofton which Mark Tappin previously work for Coldplay for the Parachutes album cover and the single covers . The image , which is visualized through a combination of colours and blocks , is a graphical representation of the Baudot code , an early form of telegraph communication using a series of ones and zeros to communicate . The code was developed by Frenchman Émile Baudot in the 1870s , and was a widely used method of terrestrial and telegraph communication .
The alphabet of the code is presented in the liner notes of X & Y , but if deciphered , the code actually reveals the characters ' X 9 Y ' , a fact outlined in Marcus du Sautoy 's book ' The Num8er Mys7eries ' . It is unclear whether this is a genuine mistake , as the symbol for ' 9' is very similar to the symbol for ' & ' , or whether it was entered to confuse any deciphering fans . The track listing , included on the booklet , CD , and back of the album , uses " X # " on tracks 1 – 6 , and " Y # " on tracks 7 – 12 , rather than the conventional track numbering system . This is a reference to the title of the album . Many pages in the booklet include photos of the band working on the album . The final page of the booklet contains the slogan " Make Trade Fair " , the name of the international organization which Chris Martin continues to support . The band dedicates the album to " BWP " that is presented also inside the liner notes ; it stands for Bruce W. Paltrow , the late father of Martin 's wife at the time , Gwyneth Paltrow . All singles released from the album feature their titles in the same code on their respective covers . Martin sometimes wears coloured tape on his hands while on stage , as a reference to the album .
= = Release and promotion = =
X & Y was initially intended for a 2004 release , although early news reported it would not be released until 2005 ; however , because of personal preferences , songs recorded in several sessions were scrapped and had pushed the expected release date to January 2005 . However , the new date went by and the band had to set another schedule . By early 2005 , the album , rumoured to be called Zero Theory , had a target release date between March and May 2005 . By early April , the band had finalized the track listing of the album . Eventually , the album was released on 6 June 2005 in the United Kingdom via record label Parlophone . It was issued on 7 June in the United States by Capitol Records . The album has been released with the Copy Control protection system in some regions . In 2008 , Capitol released a remastered version of the album on two 180 @-@ gram vinyl records as a part of the " From the Capitol Vaults " series .
Around three months prior to the album release , Coldplay began performing several songs from the album during live performances . The band made a headlining performance at public radio station KCRW @-@ FM 's annual A Sounds Eclectic Evening , staging five songs from X & Y and some of their old favourites . For the song " The Scientist " , Martin sang one of its verses backward , a technique he learned in shooting its music video .
The album has four main singles that were released internationally : " Speed of Sound " , " Fix You " , and " Talk " in 2005 , and " The Hardest Part " in 2006 . A fifth single , " What If " , was released in June 2006 to radio stations in France and the French @-@ speaking portions of Belgium and Switzerland . A commercial CD was also released in Belgium and features the same B @-@ side as " The Hardest Part " ( " How You See the World " recorded live at Earls Court ) , which was released in other European markets as well as Japan and Australia . This single features the " Tom Lord @-@ Alge Mix " of " What If " as the A @-@ side which differs from the usual album version . Finally , in June 2007 , " White Shadows " was released as a radio @-@ only single in Mexico , to coincide with the band 's 2007 Latin America Tour . This also complemented the special " Tour Edition " of the album that was released in these regions .
The hidden track " ' Til Kingdom Come " is featured in The Shield season 5 premiere and in the superhero film The Amazing Spider @-@ Man ( 2012 ) . In addition , Chris Martin performed an acoustic rendition of the track at the funeral of former Attorney General of Delaware Beau Biden .
= = Critical reception = =
X & Y received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 72 , based on 33 reviews . Blender hailed it as Coldplay 's " masterpiece . " NME described it as " confident , bold , ambitious , bunged with singles and impossible to contain , " and added that it reinforces Coldplay as " the band of their time " . Q magazine found it " substantially more visceral and emotionally rewarding experience than both its predecessors . " James Hunter of The Village Voice said that it is remarkably " accomplished , fresh , and emotional " . Uncut assertively called it " an exceptional pop record " . Spin magazine 's Mikael Wood praised Coldplay for " recasting their nerdy @-@ student Britpop as Important Rock Music " without having to compromise Martin 's unpretentious songwriting style . In his review for AllMusic , Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised it as " a good record , crisp , professional , and assured , a sonically satisfying sequel to A Rush of Blood to the Head " , stating it as " impeccable " and " a strong , accomplished album " .
In a less enthusiastic review for Entertainment Weekly , David Browne felt that Coldplay 's attempt at more grandiose music works " only part of the time " , even though he found their effort to mature commendable . Rhyannon Rodriguez from Kludge wrote that the album feels " a little forced " , describing the overall sounds as " overtly weak " . Alexis Petridis , writing in The Guardian , said that some of the songs are " mostly beautifully turned " , but marred by lyrics that are " so devoid of personality that they sound less like song lyrics " . Pitchfork Media 's Joe Tangari called it " bland but never offensive , listenable but not memorable . " Mojo wrote that the album is " awash with cliches , non @-@ sequiturs , and cheap existentialism ; at times it all becomes nigh on unbearable " . In a negative review for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau named X & Y " dud of the month " and called Coldplay a " precise , bland , and banal " band with " predictable melodies and impassive lyrics " . Despite this , he gave it a B.
The band has received some criticism from some music critics for the similarities between the lead single , " Speed of Sound " , and " Clocks " , one of the band 's most popular songs to date . Kelefa Sanneh of Rolling Stone magazine was less contented with X & Y , writing it " is something less exciting " compared to A Rush of Blood to the Head that " was a nervy bid for bigness " . Sanneh notes that the album is " the sound of a blown @-@ up band trying not to deflate " and " a surprising number of songs here just never take flight " . Despite such , he compliments the album for featuring " lovely ballads that sound , well , Coldplay @-@ ish " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The album earned the band several awards . In 2006 , it won the Best British Album accolade at the BRIT Awards , and International Album of the Year at the Juno Awards which Coldplay shared with American hip hop group The Black Eyed Peas . X & Y had scored Coldplay their third consecutive Mercury Prize nomination . It was also nominated for Best Rock Album at the 48th Grammy Awards , but lost to U2 's How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb . X & Y was voted the 32nd best album of the year in The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics poll for 2005 .
= = Commercial performance = =
X & Y was a commercial success in Europe . The album debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart ( making it Coldplay 's third consecutive number @-@ one debut ) with sales totalling 464 @,@ 471 the fourth highest opening sales week in UK history , behind Take That , Oasis and Adele .
To date , the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) has certified the album eight @-@ times platinum . The album placed at number nine on the list of United Kingdom 's 20 biggest @-@ selling albums of the 21st century , published by the British trade paper Music Week . As of February 2012 , the album had sold 2 @,@ 666 @,@ 980 copies in the UK , making it the second best selling Coldplay album behind A Rush of Blood to the Head .
The American press have considered X & Y a landmark achievement of Coldplay . The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , selling 737 @,@ 000 copies despite the highly competitive retail week . The album gave the band their first US number @-@ one album by debut , and its initial sales surpassed the band 's previous album releases ; Parachutes amassed over 6 @,@ 500 copies in its debut and A Rush of Blood to the Head with sales of under 141 @,@ 000 . X & Y marked the third highest first @-@ week sales in the United States for 2005 , behind American rappers 50 Cent , whose second album , The Massacre , sold over one million units in its first week of release , and Kanye West , who sold over 860 @,@ 000 copies with his album Late Registration . X & Y also emerged as the biggest @-@ selling debut under rock genre . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) has since certified the album three @-@ times platinum for accumulated shipments of over three million units . In Canada , the album debuted at # 1 and sold 105 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , making it the biggest @-@ selling debut of 2005 in Canada . It ended up being certified 5 × Platinum in December 2008 for shipping of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Altogether , the album emerged as 2005 's best @-@ selling album worldwide , accumulating over 8 @.@ 3 million units despite the aggregate three percent fall of sales . According to EMI , by the end of 2006 it sold 9 @.@ 9 million copies .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Chris Martin , Jonny Buckland , Guy Berryman , and Will Champion except where noted .
= = = Tour edition DVD = = =
To coincide with Coldplay 's tour of Australia , Southeast Asia , and Latin America , the album was re @-@ released in those territories as a " Tour Edition " , which also includes all the B @-@ side tracks and music videos of X & Y 's singles on a bonus DVD :
= = = Tour edition CD = = =
In addition a rare " Japan Tour Special Edition " ( Cat . No . TOCP @-@ 66523 ) was released in 2006 . This is the only " Tour Edition " which has the bonus disc as a CD ( CD extra ) ( Cat . No . NCD @-@ 3013 ) , and without Copy Control . All other " Tour Editions " have Copy Control protection . The track listing is exactly the same as in other " Tour Editions " .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Hurricane Celia ( 2010 ) =
Hurricane Celia was a powerful , early @-@ season Category 5 tropical cyclone that existed over the open waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean during late June 2010 . Forming out of a tropical wave about 370 mi ( 595 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Mexico on June 18 , Celia quickly organized as deep convection consolidated around the center , attaining hurricane status by June 20 . Over the following days , the hurricane 's winds fluctuated as wind shear impeded significant development hindering it from becoming potientially dangerous . Once this shear lightened on June 24 , the storm rapidly intensified to attain its peak strength with winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) and an estimated barometric pressure of 921 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 2 inHg ) . Not long after reaching this strength , wind shear increased and the system entered a dry , stable environment . Over the following 42 hours , Hurricane Celia 's sustained winds decreased to tropical storm force and the system began to stall over the open ocean by June 27 . Despite highly unfavorable conditions , the storm managed to retain tropical storm status through June 28 and degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low that evening . The remnants of Celia drifted northward , completing a counter @-@ clockwise loop , and dissipated on June 30 .
Although Celia remained far away from any populated landmasses , waves from the storm prompted storm advisories along the southern coastline of Mexico . Additionally , its outer bands brought moderate rainfall to parts of Oaxaca and Guerrero . Due to the high intensity and longevity of the hurricane , it significantly contributed to the record @-@ high accumulated cyclone energy value for June 2010 in the eastern Pacific basin .
= = Origins = =
The precursor to Hurricane Celia was first identified on June 5 , 2010 by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) as a disorganized area of disturbed weather associated with a tropical wave off the western coast of Africa in the Atlantic Ocean . Tracking westward , little development took place and the system eventually crossed Central America and entered the Pacific Ocean on June 17 . Situated several hundred miles south @-@ southeast of the Gulf of Tehuantepec , the disturbance moved slowly towards the west @-@ northwest and little development was expected to occur . By June 18 , scatterometer data of the system indicated that a surface circulation had developed and the system 's overall structure had become increasingly organized . Later that day , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued for the system as it was now anticipated to become a tropical cyclone within 48 hours . At this time , convective banding features had begun wrapping around the system ; however , it lacked deep , central cloud cover . Further development was expected to be slow due to moderate wind shear in the region of the low . Around 1800 UTC , the system had become sufficiently organized for the NHC to designate it as a tropical depression . At this time , the depression was situated roughly 370 mi ( 595 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . Operationally , the depression was not warned upon until early the next morning .
Roughly 18 hours after being classified a depression , deep convection wrapped around the center of the system , prompting the NHC to upgrade the depression to a tropical storm , and to give it the name Celia . Satellite overpasses of the storm revealed that Celia had already begun developing an eye @-@ like feature at the surface , an indication that rapid intensification may ensue . The storm tracked relatively slowly towards the west @-@ southwest in response to a mid @-@ level ridge to the north . By the evening of June 19 , Celia displayed a well @-@ organized structure with an eye beginning to appear within the storm 's central dense overcast . Due to the presence of easterly wind shear , intensification was briefly stalled for several hours ; however , at 1800 UTC on June 20 , the NHC upgraded Celia to a minimal hurricane as it attained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . An intermittent eye was seen on visible satellite image throughout the day , but it failed to fully consolidate by the afternoon of June 21 , by which time the system appeared to be vertically tilted , having the low @-@ level circulation displaced to the northeast of the mid @-@ level circulation . Only modest strengthening took place during this time as the system 's outflow was being restricted by continuing easterly shear .
Late on June 21 , Celia turned due west as it moved around the south side of the ridge previously steering the hurricane to the west @-@ southwest . A secondary eyewall was noted as it made the turn , indicating that the storm would further intensify once this feature further developed . Several hours later , the storm intensified into a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . After briefly developing a prominent central dense overcast , the storm 's structure began to degrade for unknown reasons . By the evening of June 22 , Celia was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane and the eye was no longer apparent on satellite imagery , mainly due to cirrus clouds over the system . The following morning , the eye reformed and the storm became more vertically aligned , allowing Celia to re @-@ attain Category 2 status . Throughout the day , Celia became increasingly organized and intensified , nearly attaining major hurricane status during the afternoon . Operationally , the hurricane was thought to have reached this intensity but post @-@ storm analysis indicated that winds did not exceed 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) .
= = Peak intensity and dissipation = =
Although there were no factors inhibiting the development of Celia , the storm unexpectedly weakened again later on June
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against bad weather . When an ala threatens by bringing hail clouds , a dragon comes out to fight with her and drive her away . His main weapon is lightning ; thunder represents a fight between ale and dragons ( during which ale hide in tall trees ) . An instance of a more abundant crop at a particular point is explained in the Pčinja region as a result of a dragon having struck an ala with lightning just over that place , making her drop the looted grains she had been carrying in her huge ears . If an ala finds a dragon in a hollow tree , however , she can destroy him by burning the tree .
Ale can be defeated by zmajeviti men , who have a human mother , but a dragon father . They look like ordinary people except for little wings beneath their armpits ; such men are always born at night after a twelve @-@ month term . Much like a zduhać , a zmajeviti man lives like everybody else when the weather is nice , but when an ala leads threatening clouds into sight , he falls into a trance and his spirit comes out of his body and flies up to the clouds to fight with the ala , just like a dragon would do . A story from Banat , which was held as true until the 1950s , says that before World War I , an exhausted ala in the form of a giant snake fell from the clouds onto a road . The explanation of the event was that the ala was defeated in her fight with a zmajeviti man ; people gave her milk to help her recover .
In a Christianized version , the duel involves the Christian St. Elijah and the ala , but there is a belief that the saint and the dragons in fact cooperate : as soon as St. Elijah spots an ala , he summons the dragons , either takes them aboard his chariot or harnesses them to it , and they jointly shoot the ala with lightning . Arrow @-@ shaped stones , like belemnites or stone @-@ age arrowheads , are regarded as materialized lightning bolts imbued with a beneficial magical power , and finding one is a good omen .
In a more Christianized version , St. Elijah shoots lightning at the devils who lead the hail clouds ; the devils in this case are obviously ale . As shown by these examples , beliefs with various degrees of Christianization , from none to almost complete , can exist side by side .
An eagle ’ s appearance in the sky when thunderclouds threatened was greeted with joy and hope by people who trusted in their power to defeat an ala ; after defeating the ala , the eagle led the clouds away from the fields . An explanation for this , recorded in eastern Serbia , is that the eagles which nest in the vicinity of a village want thunderstorms and hail as far as possible from their nestlings , so coincidentally protect the village ’ s fields as well . The role of eagles , however , was controversial , because in the same region there was a belief that an eagle flying in front of thunderstorm clouds was a manifestation of an ala , leading the clouds toward the crops , rather than driving them away .
= = Connection with Baba Yaga = =
Comparing folk tales , there are similarities between the ala and the Russian Baba Yaga . The aforementioned motif of a stepdaughter coming to an ala ’ s house in a forest is recorded among Russians too – there a stepdaughter comes to Baba Yaga ’ s house and feeds her “ livestock ” . Similar are also the motifs of an ala ( by Serbs ) and Baba Yaga ( by Russians ) becoming godmothers to children whom they later eat because the children discover their secret . In the Serbian example , the mother of an ala ’ s godchild speaks with the ala , and in the Russian , the godchild speaks with Baba Yaga .
Serbian tale
( ... ) Yesterday , the woman went to the ala ’ s house with her child , the ala ’ s godchild . Upon entering the first room , she saw a poker and a broom fighting ; in the second room , she saw human legs ; in the fourth – human flesh ; in the fifth – blood ; in the sixth – she saw that the ala had taken off her head and was delousing it , while wearing a horse ’ s head in its place . After that , the ala brought lunch and said to the woman , “ Eat , kuma . ” “ How can I eat after I saw a poker and a broom fighting in the first room ? ” “ Eat , kuma , eat . Those are my maids : they fight about which one should take the broom and sweep . ” “ How can I eat after I saw human arms and legs in the second and third rooms ? ” And the ala told her , “ Eat , kuma , eat . That is my food . ” “ How can I eat , kuma , after I saw the sixth room full of blood ? ” “ Eat , kuma , eat . That is the wine that I drink . ” “ How can I eat after I saw that you had taken your head off and were delousing it , having fixed a horse ’ s head on yourself ? ” The ala , after hearing that , ate both the woman and her child .
Russian tale
( ... ) On her name day , the girl goes to her godmother ’ s house with cakes to treat her . She comes to the gate – the gate is closed with a human leg ; she goes into the yard – there a barrel full of blood ; she goes up the stairs – there dead children ; the porch is closed with an arm ; on the floor – arms , legs ; the door is closed with a finger . Baba Yaga comes to meet her at the door and asks her , “ Have you seen anything , my dear , on your way to my house ? ” “ I saw , ” the girl answers , “ the gate closed with a leg . ” “ That is my iron latch . ” “ I saw a barrel in the yard full of blood . ” “ That is my wine , my darling . ” “ I saw children lying on the stairs . ” “ Those are my pigs . ” “ The porch is closed with an arm . ” “ That is my latch , my golden one . ” “ I saw in the house a hairy head . ” “ That is my broom , my curly one , ” said Baba Yaga , then got angry with her prying goddaughter and ate her .
The two examples witness the chthonic nature of these mythological creatures : a hero can enter the chthonic space and discover the secret of that world , but he is not allowed to relate that secret to other humans . Both the ala and Baba Yaga can be traced back to an older concept of a female demonic divinity : the snakelike mistress of the underworld .
= = Annotations = =
= Tosca =
Tosca ( Italian pronunciation : [ ˈtoska ; ˈtɔska ] ) is an opera in three acts by Giacomo Puccini to an Italian libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa . It premiered at the Teatro Costanzi in Rome on 14 January 1900 . The work , based on Victorien Sardou 's 1887 French @-@ language dramatic play , La Tosca , is a melodramatic piece set in Rome in June 1800 , with the Kingdom of Naples 's control of Rome threatened by Napoleon 's invasion of Italy . It contains depictions of torture , murder and suicide , as well as some of Puccini 's best @-@ known lyrical arias .
Puccini saw Sardou 's play when it was touring Italy in 1889 and , after some vacillation , obtained the rights to turn the work into an opera in 1895 . Turning the wordy French play into a succinct Italian opera took four years , during which the composer repeatedly argued with his librettists and publisher . Tosca premiered at a time of unrest in Rome , and its first performance was delayed for a day for fear of disturbances . Despite indifferent reviews from the critics , the opera was an immediate success with the public .
Musically , Tosca is structured as a through @-@ composed work , with arias , recitative , choruses and other elements musically woven into a seamless whole . Puccini used Wagnerian leitmotifs ( short musical statements ) to identify characters , objects and ideas . While critics have frequently dismissed the opera as a facile melodrama with confusions of plot — musicologist Joseph Kerman called it a " shabby little shocker " — the power of its score and the inventiveness of its orchestration have been widely acknowledged . The dramatic force of Tosca and its characters continues to fascinate both performers and audiences , and the work remains one of the most frequently performed operas . Many recordings of the work have been issued , both of studio and live performances .
= = Background = =
The French playwright Victorien Sardou wrote more than 70 plays , almost all of them successful , and none of them performed today . In the early 1880s Sardou began a collaboration with actress Sarah Bernhardt , whom he provided with a series of historical melodramas . His third Bernhardt play , La Tosca , which premiered in Paris on 24 November 1887 , and in which she starred throughout Europe , was an outstanding success , with more than 3 @,@ 000 performances in France alone .
Puccini had seen La Tosca at least twice , in Milan and Turin . On 7 May 1889 he wrote to his publisher , Giulio Ricordi , begging him to get Sardou 's permission for the work to be made into an opera : " I see in this Tosca the opera I need , with no overblown proportions , no elaborate spectacle , nor will it call for the usual excessive amount of music . " Ricordi sent his agent in Paris , Emanuele Muzio , to negotiate with Sardou , who preferred that his play be adapted by a French composer . He complained about the reception La Tosca had received in Italy , particularly in Milan , and also warned that other composers were interested in the piece . Nonetheless , Ricordi reached terms with Sardou , and assigned the librettist Luigi Illica to write a scenario for an adaptation . In 1891 Illica advised Puccini against the project , most likely because he felt the play could not be successfully adapted to a musical form . When Sardou expressed his unease at entrusting his most successful work to a relatively new composer whose music he did not like , Puccini took offence . He withdrew from the agreement , which Ricordi then assigned to Alberto Franchetti .
Illica wrote a libretto for Franchetti who was never at ease with the assignment . There are several versions of how Ricordi got Franchetti to surrender the rights so he could recommission Puccini , who had again become interested . By some accounts , Ricordi convinced Franchetti that the work was too violent to be successfully staged . Franchetti family tradition holds that Franchetti gave the work back as a grand gesture , saying , " He has more talent than I do . " American scholar Deborah Burton contends that Franchetti gave it up simply because he saw little merit in it and could not feel the music in the play . Franchetti surrendered the rights in May 1895 , and in August Puccini signed a contract to resume control of the project .
= = Roles = =
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Historical context = = =
According to the libretto , the action of Tosca occurs in Rome in June 1800 . Sardou , in his play , dates it more precisely ; La Tosca takes place in the afternoon , evening , and early morning of 17 and 18 June 1800 .
Italy had long been divided into a number of small states , with the Pope in Rome ruling the Papal States in central Italy . Following the French Revolution , a French army under Napoleon invaded Italy in 1796 , entering Rome almost unopposed on 11 February 1798 and establishing a republic there . This republic was ruled by seven consuls ; in the opera this is the office formerly held by Angelotti , whose character may be based on the real @-@ life consul Libero Angelucci . In September 1799 the French , who had protected the republic , withdrew from Rome . As they left , troops of the Kingdom of Naples occupied the city .
In May 1800 Napoleon , by then the undisputed leader of France , brought his troops across the Alps to Italy once again . On 14 June his army met the Austrian forces at the Battle of Marengo ( near Alessandria ) . Austrian troops were initially successful ; by mid @-@ morning they were in control of the field of battle . Their commander , Michael von Melas , sent this news south towards Rome . However , fresh French troops arrived in late afternoon , and Napoleon attacked the tired Austrians . As Melas retreated in disarray with the remains of his army , he sent a second courier south with the revised message . The Neapolitans abandoned Rome , and the city spent the next fourteen years under French domination .
= = = Act 1 = = =
Inside the church of Sant 'Andrea della Valle
Cesare Angelotti , former consul of the Roman Republic and now an escaped political prisoner , runs into the church and hides in the Attavanti private chapel – his sister , the Marchesa Attavanti , has left a key to the chapel hidden at the feet of the statue of the Madonna . The elderly Sacristan enters and begins cleaning . The Sacristan kneels in prayer as the Angelus sounds . The painter Mario Cavaradossi arrives to continue work on his picture of Mary Magdalene . The Sacristan identifies a likeness between the portrait and a blonde @-@ haired woman who has been visiting the church recently ( unknown to him , it is Angelotti 's sister the Marchesa ) . Cavaradossi describes the " hidden harmony " ( " Recondita armonia " ) in the contrast between the blonde beauty of his painting and his dark @-@ haired lover , the singer Floria Tosca . The Sacristan mumbles his disapproval before leaving .
Angelotti emerges and tells Cavaradossi , an old friend who has republican sympathies , that he is being pursued by the Chief of Police , Baron Scarpia . Cavaradossi promises to assist him after nightfall . Tosca 's voice is heard , calling to Cavaradossi . Cavaradossi gives Angelotti his basket of food and Angelotti hurriedly returns to his hiding place . Tosca enters and suspiciously asks Cavaradossi what he has been doing – she thinks that he has been talking to another woman . Cavaradossi reassures her and Tosca tries to persuade him to take her to his villa that evening : " Non la sospiri , la nostra casetta " ( " Do you not long for our little cottage " ) . She then expresses jealousy over the woman in the painting , whom she recognises as the Marchesa Attavanti . Cavaradossi explains the likeness ; he has merely observed the Marchesa at prayer in the church . He reassures Tosca of his fidelity and asks her what eyes could be more beautiful than her own : " Qual 'occhio al mondo " ( " What eyes in the world " ) . After Tosca has left , Angelotti reappears and discusses with the painter his plan to flee disguised as a woman , using clothes left in the chapel by his sister . Cavaradossi gives Angelotti a key to his villa , suggesting that he hide in a disused well in the garden .
The sound of a cannon signals that Angelotti 's escape has been discovered . He and Cavaradossi hasten out of the church . The Sacristan re @-@ enters with choristers , celebrating the news that Napoleon has apparently been defeated at Marengo . The celebrations cease abruptly with the entry of Scarpia , his henchman Spoletta and several police agents . They have heard that Angelotti has sought refuge in the church . Scarpia orders a search , and the empty food basket and a fan bearing the Attavanti coat of arms are found in the chapel . Scarpia questions the Sacristan , and his suspicions are aroused further when he learns that Cavaradossi has been in the church ; Scarpia mistrusts the painter , and believes him complicit in Angelotti 's escape . When Tosca arrives looking for her lover , Scarpia artfully arouses her jealous instincts by implying a relationship between the painter and the Marchesa Attavanti . He draws Tosca 's attention to the fan and suggests that someone must have surprised the lovers in the chapel . Tosca falls for his deceit ; enraged , she rushes off to confront Cavaradossi . Scarpia orders Spoletta and his agents to follow her , assuming she will lead them to Cavaradossi and Angelotti . He privately gloats as he reveals his intentions to possess Tosca and execute Cavaradossi . A procession enters the church singing the Te Deum ; exclaiming ' Tosca , you make me forget even God ! ' , Scarpia joins the chorus in the prayer .
= = = Act 2 = = =
Scarpia 's apartment in the Palazzo Farnese , that evening
Scarpia , at supper , sends a note to Tosca asking her to come to his apartment . He has been unable to find Angelotti , but has arrested Cavaradossi . As Cavaradossi is brought in and questioned , the voice of Tosca , singing a celebratory cantata in another room in the Palace , can be heard . Cavaradossi denies knowing anything about Angelotti 's escape . Tosca arrives , just in time to see her lover taken to an antechamber to be tortured . He is able to speak briefly with her , telling her to say nothing . Tosca is told by Scarpia that she can save her lover from indescribable pain if she reveals Angelotti 's hiding place . She resists , but hearing Cavaradossi 's cries of pain , eventually tells Scarpia that Angelotti is in the well in the garden of Cavaradossi 's villa .
Scarpia orders the torture of Cavaradossi to cease and the wounded painter is brought back in . He recovers consciousness and , learning of Tosca 's betrayal , is furious with her . Sciarrone , a police agent , enters with news of Napoleon 's victory at Marengo ; Cavaradossi gloats , telling Scarpia that his rule of terror will soon be at an end , before being dragged away by Scarpia 's men . Scarpia , left with Tosca , proposes a bargain : if she gives herself to him , Cavaradossi will be freed . She is revolted , and repeatedly rejects his advances . Outside she hears the drums that announce an execution ; as Scarpia awaits her decision , she prays to God for help , asking why He has abandoned her : " Vissi d 'arte " ( " I lived for art " ) . Scarpia remains adamant despite her pleas . When Spoletta brings news that Angelotti has killed himself , and that everything is in place for Cavaradossi 's execution , Tosca , in despair , agrees to submit to Scarpia in return for Cavaradossi 's freedom . Scarpia tells his deputy Spoletta to arrange a mock execution , both recalling that it will be " as we did with Count Palmieri " .
Following Spoletta 's departure , Tosca imposes the further condition that Scarpia provide a safe @-@ conduct out of Rome for herself and her lover . While he is signing the document , Tosca quietly takes a knife from the supper table . As Scarpia triumphantly embraces her , she stabs him , crying " this is Tosca 's kiss ! " . As Scarpia falls dead , she declares that she now forgives him . She removes the safe @-@ conduct from his pocket , lights candles in a gesture of piety and places a crucifix on the body before leaving .
= = = Act 3 = = =
The upper parts of the Castel Sant 'Angelo , early the following morning
A shepherd boy sings ( in Romanesco dialect ) " Io de ' sospiri " ( " I give you sighs " ) as church bells sound for matins . Cavaradossi is led in by guards and informed that he has one hour to live . He refuses to see a priest , but asks permission to write a letter to Tosca . He begins to write , but is soon overwhelmed by memories : " E lucevan le stelle " ( " And the stars shone " ) . Tosca enters and shows him the safe @-@ conduct . She tells him that she has killed Scarpia and that the imminent execution is a sham : Cavaradossi must feign death , but afterwards they can leave Rome together , before Scarpia 's body is discovered . Cavaradossi is amazed at the courage shown by one so gentle and tender : " O dolci mani " ( " Oh sweet hands " ) . The pair ecstatically plan the life they will live away from Rome . Tosca then anxiously instructs Cavaradossi on how to play his part in the mock execution convincingly . She tells him that he will be shot with blanks by the firing squad and instructs him to fall down as if dead . He agrees to act " like Tosca in the theatre " .
Cavaradossi is led away , and Tosca watches with increasing impatience as the execution is prepared . The men fire , Cavaradossi falls , and Tosca exclaims " Ecco un artista ! " ( " What an actor ! " ) . When the soldiers have all left , she hurries towards Cavaradossi , only to find that he is really dead ; Scarpia has betrayed her . Heartbroken , she clasps his lifeless body and weeps . The voices of Spoletta , Sciarrone and soldiers are heard , indicating that Scarpia 's body has been found , and that Tosca is known to have killed him . As Spoletta , Sciarrone and the soldiers rush in , Tosca rises , evades their clutches , and runs to the parapet . Crying " O Scarpia , Avanti a Dio ! " ( " O Scarpia , we meet before God ! " ) , she hurls herself over the edge to her death .
= = Adaptation and writing = =
Sardou 's five @-@ act play La Tosca contains a large amount of dialogue and exposition . While the broad details of the play are present in the opera 's plot , the original work contains many more characters and much detail not present in the opera . In the play the lovers are portrayed as though they were French : the character Floria Tosca is closely modelled on Bernhardt 's personality , while her lover Cavaradossi , of Roman descent , is born in Paris . Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa , the playwright who joined the project to polish the verses , needed not only to cut back the play drastically , but to make the characters ' motivations and actions suitable for Italian opera . Giacosa and Puccini repeatedly clashed over the condensation , with Giacosa feeling that Puccini did not really want to complete the project .
The first draft libretto that Illica produced for Puccini resurfaced in 2000 after being lost for many years . It contains considerable differences from the final libretto , relatively minor in the first two acts but much more appreciable in the third , where the description of the Roman dawn that opens the third act is much longer , and Cavaradossi 's tragic aria , the eventual " E lucevan le stelle " , has different words . The 1896 libretto also offers a different ending , in which Tosca does not die but instead goes mad . In the final scene , she cradles her lover 's head in her lap and hallucinates that she and her Mario are on a gondola , and that she is asking the gondolier for silence . Sardou refused to consider this change , insisting that as in the play , Tosca must throw herself from the parapet to her death . Puccini agreed with Sardou , telling him that the mad scene would have the audiences anticipate the ending and start moving towards the cloakrooms . Puccini pressed his librettists hard , and Giacosa issued a series of melodramatic threats to abandon the work . The two librettists were finally able to give Puccini what they hoped was a final version of the libretto in 1898 .
Little work was done on the score during 1897 , which Puccini devoted mostly to performances of La bohème . The opening page of the autograph Tosca score , containing the motif that would be associated with Scarpia , is dated January 1898 . At Puccini 's request , Giacosa irritably provided new lyrics for the act 1 love duet . In August , Puccini removed several numbers from the opera , according to his biographer , Mary Jane Phillips @-@ Matz , " cut [ ting ] Tosca to the bone , leaving three strong characters trapped in an airless , violent , tightly wound melodrama that had little room for lyricism " . At the end of the year , Puccini wrote that he was " busting his balls " on the opera .
Puccini asked clerical friends for words for the congregation to mutter at the start of the act 1 Te Deum ; when nothing they provided satisfied him , he supplied the words himself . For the Te Deum music , he investigated the melodies to which the hymn was set in Roman churches , and sought to reproduce the cardinal 's procession authentically , even to the uniforms of the Swiss Guards . He adapted the music to the exact pitch of the great bell of St. Peter 's Basilica , and was equally diligent when writing the music that opens act 3 , in which Rome awakens to the sounds of church bells . He journeyed to Rome and went to the Castel Sant 'Angelo to measure the sound of matins bells there , as they would be heard from its ramparts . Puccini had bells for the Roman dawn cast to order by four different foundries . This apparently did not have its desired effect , as Illica wrote to Ricordi on the day after the premiere , " the great fuss and the large amount of money for the bells have constituted an additional folly , because it passes completely unnoticed " . Nevertheless , the bells provide a source of trouble and expense to opera companies performing Tosca to this day .
In act 2 , when Tosca sings offstage the cantata that celebrates the supposed defeat of Napoleon , Puccini was tempted to follow the text of Sardou 's play and use the music of Giovanni Paisiello , before finally writing his own imitation of Paisello 's style . It was not until 29 September 1899 that Puccini was able to mark the final page of the score as completed . Despite the notation , there was additional work to be done , such as the shepherd boy 's song at the start of act 3 . Puccini , who always sought to put local colour in his works , wanted that song to be in Roman dialect . The composer asked a friend to have a " good romanesco poet " write some words ; eventually the poet and folklorist Luigi " Giggi " Zanazzo wrote the verse which , after slight modification , was placed in the opera .
In October 1899 , Ricordi realized that some of the music for Cavaradossi 's act 3 aria , " O dolci mani " was borrowed from music Puccini had cut from his early opera , Edgar and demanded changes . Puccini defended his music as expressive of what Cavaradossi must be feeling at that point , and offered to come to Milan to play and sing act 3 for the publisher . Ricordi was overwhelmed by the completed act 3 prelude , which he received in early November , and softened his views , though he was still not completely happy with the music for " O dolci mani " . In any event time was too short before the scheduled January 1900 premiere to make any further changes .
= = Reception and performance history = =
= = = Premiere = = =
By December 1899 , Tosca was in rehearsal at the Teatro Costanzi . Because of the Roman setting , Ricordi arranged a Roman premiere for the opera , even though this meant that Arturo Toscanini could not conduct it as Puccini had hoped — Toscanini was fully engaged at La Scala in Milan . Leopoldo Mugnone was appointed to conduct . The accomplished ( but temperamental ) soprano Hariclea Darclée was selected for the title role ; Eugenio Giraldoni , whose father had originated multiple Verdi roles , became the first Scarpia . The young Enrico Caruso had hoped to create Cavaradossi , but was passed over in favour of the more experienced Emilio De Marchi . The performance was to be directed by Nino Vignuzzi , with stage designs by Adolfo Hohenstein .
At the time of the premiere , Italy had experienced political and social unrest for several years . The start of the Holy Year in December 1899 attracted the religious to the city , but also brought threats from anarchists and other anticlericals . Police received warnings of an anarchist bombing of the theatre , and instructed Mugnone ( who had survived a theatre bombing in Barcelona ) , that in an emergency he was to strike up the royal march . The unrest caused the premiere to be postponed by one day , to 14 January .
By 1900 , the premiere of a Puccini opera was a national event . Many Roman dignitaries attended , as did Queen Margherita , though she arrived late , after the first act . The Prime Minister of Italy , Luigi Pelloux was present , with several members of his cabinet . A number of Puccini 's operatic rivals were there , including Franchetti , Pietro Mascagni , Francesco Cilea and Ildebrando Pizzetti . Shortly after the curtain was raised there was a disturbance in the back of the theatre , caused by latecomers attempting to enter the auditorium , and a shout of " Bring down the curtain ! " , at which Mugnone stopped the orchestra . A few moments later the opera began again , and proceeded without further disruption .
The performance , while not quite the triumph that Puccini had hoped for , was generally successful , with numerous encores . Much of the critical and press reaction was lukewarm , often blaming Illica 's libretto . In response , Illica condemned Puccini for treating his librettists " like stagehands " and reducing the text to a shadow of its original form . Nevertheless , any public doubts about Tosca soon vanished ; the premiere was followed by twenty performances , all given to packed houses .
= = = Subsequent productions = = =
The Milan premiere at La Scala took place under Toscanini on 17 March 1900 . Darclée and Giraldoni reprised their roles ; the prominent tenor Giuseppe Borgatti replaced De Marchi as Cavaradossi . The opera was a great success at La Scala , and played to full houses . Puccini travelled to London for the British premiere at the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden , on 12 July , with Milka Ternina and Fernando De Lucia as the doomed lovers and Antonio Scotti as Scarpia . Puccini wrote that Tosca was " [ a ] complete triumph " , and Ricordi 's London representative quickly signed a contract to take Tosca to New York . The premiere at the Metropolitan Opera ( the " Met " ) was on 4 February 1901 , with De Lucia 's replacement by Giuseppe Cremonini the only change from the London cast . For its French premiere at the Opéra @-@ Comique on 13 October 1903 , the 72 @-@ year @-@ old Sardou took charge of all the action on the stage . Puccini was delighted with the public 's reception of the work in Paris , despite adverse comments from critics . The opera was subsequently premiered at venues throughout Europe , the Americas , Australia and the Far East ; by the outbreak of war in 1914 it had been performed in more than 50 cities worldwide .
Among the prominent early Toscas was Emmy Destinn , who sang the role regularly in a long @-@ standing partnership with the tenor Enrico Caruso . Maria Jeritza , over many years at the Met and in Vienna , brought her own distinctive style to the role , and was said to be Puccini 's ideal Tosca . Jeritza was the first to deliver " Vissi d 'arte " from a prone position , having fallen to the stage while eluding the grasp of Scarpia . This was a great success , and Jeritza sang the aria lying down thereafter . Of her successors , opera enthusiasts tend to consider Maria Callas as the supreme interpreter of the role , largely on the basis of her performances at the Royal Opera House in 1964 , with Tito Gobbi as Scarpia . This production , by Franco Zeffirelli , remained in continuous use at Covent Garden for more than 40 years until replaced in 2006 by a new staging , which premiered with Angela Gheorghiu . Callas had first sung Tosca at age 18 in a performance given in Greek , in Athens on 27 August 1942 . Tosca was also her last on @-@ stage operatic role , in a special charity performance at the Royal Opera House on 7 May 1965 .
Among non @-@ traditional productions , in 1996 at La Scala Luca Ronconi used distorted and fractured scenery to represent the twists of fate reflected in the plot . Jonathan Miller , in a 1986 production for the 49th Maggio Musicale Fiorentino , transferred the action to Nazi @-@ occupied Rome in 1944 , with Scarpia as head of the fascist police . In Philipp Himmelmann 's production on the Lake Stage at the Bregenz Festival in 2007 the act 1 set , designed by Johannes Leiacker , was dominated by a huge Orwellian " Big Brother " eye . The iris opens and closes to reveal surreal scenes beyond the action . This production updates the story to a modern Mafia scenario , with special effects " worthy of a Bond film " .
In 1992 a television version of the opera was filmed at the locations prescribed by Puccini , at the times of day at which each act takes place . Featuring Catherine Malfitano , Plácido Domingo and Ruggero Raimondi , the performance was broadcast live throughout Europe . Luciano Pavarotti , who sang Cavaradossi from the late 1970s , appeared in a special performance in Rome on 14 January 2000 , to celebrate the opera 's centenary with Domingo as conductor . Pavarotti 's last stage performance was as Cavaradossi at the Met , on 13 March 2004 .
Early Cavaradossis played the part as if the painter believed that he was reprieved , and would survive the " mock " execution . Beniamino Gigli , who performed the role many times in his forty @-@ year operatic career , was one of the first to assume that the painter knows , or strongly suspects , that he will be shot . Gigli wrote in his autobiography : " he is certain that these are their last moments together on earth , and that he is about to die " . Domingo , the dominant Cavaradossi of the 1970s and 1980s , concurred , stating in a 1985 interview that he had long played the part that way . Gobbi , who in his later years often directed the opera , commented , " Unlike Floria , Cavaradossi knows that Scarpia never yields , though he pretends to believe in order to delay the pain for Tosca . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
The enduring popularity of Tosca has not been matched by consistent critical enthusiasm . After the premiere , Ippolito Valetta of Nueva antologia wrote , " [ Puccini ] finds in his palette all colours , all shades ; in his hands , the instrumental texture becomes completely supple , the gradations of sonority are innumerable , the blend unfailingly grateful to the ear . " However , one critic described act 2 as overly long and wordy ; another echoed Illica and Giacosa in stating that the rush of action did not permit enough lyricism , to the great detriment of the music . A third called the opera " three hours of noise " .
The critics gave the work a generally kinder reception in London , where The Times called Puccini " a master in the art of poignant expression " , and praised the " wonderful skill and sustained power " of the music . In The Musical Times , Puccini 's score was admired for its sincerity and " strength of utterance . " After the 1903 Paris opening , the composer Paul Dukas thought the work lacked cohesion and style , while Gabriel Fauré was offended by " disconcerting vulgarities " . In the 1950s , the young musicologist Joseph Kerman described Tosca as a " shabby little shocker . " ; in response the conductor Thomas Beecham remarked that anything Kerman says about Puccini " can safely be ignored " . Writing half a century after the premiere , the veteran critic Ernest Newman , while acknowledging the " enormously difficult business of boiling [ Sardou 's ] play down for operatic purposes , " thought that the subtleties of Sardou 's original plot are handled " very lamely " , so that " much of what happens , and why , is unintelligible to the spectator " . Overall , however , Newman delivered a more positive judgement : " [ Puccini 's ] operas are to some extent a mere bundle of tricks , but no one else has performed the same tricks nearly as well " . Opera scholar Julian Budden remarks on Puccini 's " inept handling of the political element " , but still hails the work as " a triumph of pure theatre " . Music critic Charles Osborne ascribes Tosca 's immense popularity with audiences to the taut effectiveness of its melodramatic plot , the opportunities given to its three leading characters to shine vocally and dramatically , and the presence of two great arias in " Vissi d 'arte " and " E lucevan le stelle " . The work remains popular today : according to Operabase , it ranks as fifth in the world with 540 performances given in the five seasons 2009 / 10 to 2013 / 14 .
= = Music = =
= = = General style = = =
By the end of the 19th century the classic form of opera structure , in which arias , duets and other set @-@ piece vocal numbers are interspersed with passages of recitative or dialogue , had been largely abandoned , even in Italy . Operas were " through @-@ composed " , with a continuous stream of music which in some cases eliminated all identifiable set @-@ pieces . In what critic Edward Greenfield calls the " Grand Tune " concept , Puccini retains a limited number of set @-@ pieces , distinguished from their musical surroundings by their memorable melodies . Even in the passages linking these " Grand Tunes " , Puccini maintains a strong degree of lyricism and only rarely resorts to recitative .
Budden describes Tosca as the most Wagnerian of Puccini 's scores , in its use of musical leitmotifs . Unlike Wagner , Puccini does not develop or modify his motifs , nor weave them into the music symphonically , but uses them to refer to characters , objects and ideas , and as reminders within the narrative . The most potent of these motifs is the sequence of three very loud and strident chords which open the opera and which represent the evil character of Scarpia — or perhaps , Charles Osborne proposes , the violent atmosphere that pervades the entire opera . Budden has suggested that Scarpia 's tyranny , lechery and lust form " the dynamic engine that ignites the drama " . Other motifs identify Tosca herself , the love of Tosca and Cavaradossi , the fugitive Angelotti , the semi @-@ comical character of the sacristan in act 1 and the theme of torture in act 2 .
= = = Act 1 = = =
The opera begins without any prelude ; the opening chords of the Scarpia motif lead immediately to the agitated appearance of Angelotti and the enunciation of the " fugitive " motif . The sacristan 's entry , accompanied by his sprightly buffo theme , lifts the mood , as does the generally light @-@ hearted colloquy with Cavaradossi which follows after the latter 's entrance . This leads to the first of the " Grand Tunes " , Cavaradossi 's " Recondita armonia " with its sustained high B flat , accompanied by the sacristan 's grumbling counter @-@ melody . The domination , in that aria , of themes which will be repeated in the love duet make it clear that though the painting may incorporate the Marchesa 's features , Tosca is the ultimate inspiration of his work . Cavaradossi 's dialogue with Angelotti is interrupted by Tosca 's arrival , signalled by her motif which incorporates , in Newman 's words , " the feline , caressing cadence so characteristic of her . " Though Tosca enters violently and suspiciously , the music paints her devotion and serenity . According to Budden , there is no contradiction : Tosca 's jealousy is largely a matter of habit , which her lover does not take too seriously .
After Tosca 's " Non la sospiri " and the subsequent argument inspired by her jealousy , the sensuous character of the love duet " Qual 'occhio " provides what opera writer Burton Fisher describes as " an almost erotic lyricism that has been called pornophony " . The brief scene in which the sacristan returns with the choristers to celebrate Napoleon 's supposed defeat provides almost the last carefree moments in the opera ; after the entrance of Scarpia to his menacing theme , the mood becomes sombre , then steadily darker . As the police chief interrogates the sacristan , the " fugitive " motif recurs three more times , each time more emphatically , signalling Scarpia 's success in his investigation . In Scarpia 's exchanges with Tosca the sound of tolling bells , interwoven with the orchestra , creates an almost religious atmosphere , for which Puccini draws on music from his then unpublished Mass of 1880 . The final scene in the act is a juxtaposition of the sacred and the profane , as Scarpia 's lustful reverie is sung alongside the swelling Te Deum chorus . He joins with the chorus in the final statement " Te aeternum Patrem omnis terra veneratur " ( " Everlasting Father , all the earth worships thee " ) , before the act ends with a thunderous restatement of the Scarpia motif .
= = = Act 2 = = =
Fisher has observed that Puccini 's was a tragic muse ; in the second act of Tosca , according to Newman , he rises to his greatest height as a master of the musical macabre . The act begins quietly , with Scarpia musing on the forthcoming downfall of Angelotti and Cavaradossi , while in the background a gavotte is played in a distant quarter of the Farnese Palace . For this music Puccini adapted a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old student exercise by his late brother , Michele , stating that in this way his brother could live again through him . In the dialogue with Spoletta , the " torture " motif — an " ideogram of suffering " , according to Budden — is heard for the first time as a foretaste of what is to come . As Cavaradossi is brought in for interrogation , Tosca 's voice is heard with the offstage chorus singing a cantata , " [ its ] suave strains contrast [ ing ] dramatically with the increasing tension and ever @-@ darkening colour of the stage action " . The cantata is most likely the Cantata a Giove , in the literature referred to as a lost work of Puccini 's from 1897 .
Osborne describes the scenes that follow — Cavaradossi 's interrogation , his torture , Scarpia 's sadistic tormenting of Tosca — as Puccini 's musical equivalent of grand guignol to which Cavaradossi 's brief " Vittoria ! Vittoria ! " on the news of Napoleon 's victory gives only partial relief . Scarpia 's aria " Già , mi dicon venal " ( " Yes , they say I am venal " ) is closely followed by Tosca 's " Vissi d 'arte " . A lyrical andante based on Tosca 's act 1 motif , this is perhaps the opera 's best @-@ known aria , yet was regarded by Puccini as a mistake ; he considered eliminating it since it held up the action . Fisher calls it " a Job @-@ like prayer questioning God for punishing a woman who has lived unselfishly and righteously " . In the act 's finale , Newman likens the orchestral turmoil which follows Tosca 's stabbing of Scarpia to the sudden outburst after the slow movement of Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony . After Tosca 's contemptuous " E avanti a lui tremava tutta Roma ! " ( " All Rome trembled before him " ) , sung on a middle C ♯ monotone ( sometimes spoken ) , the music gradually fades , ending what Newman calls " the most impressively macabre scene in all opera . " The final notes in the act are those of the Scarpia motif , softly , in a minor key .
= = = Act 3 = = =
The third act 's tranquil beginning provides a brief respite from the drama . An introductory 16 @-@ bar theme for the horns will later be sung by Cavaradossi and Tosca in their final duet . The orchestral prelude which follows portrays the Roman dawn ; the pastoral aura is accentuated by the shepherd boy 's song , and the sounds of sheep bells and church bells , the authenticity of the latter validated by Puccini 's early morning visits to Rome . Themes reminiscent of Scarpia , Tosca and Cavaradossi emerge in the music , which changes tone as the drama resumes with Cavaradossi 's entrance , to an orchestral statement of what becomes the melody of his aria " E lucevan le stelle " .
This is a farewell to love and life , " an anguished lament and grief built around the words ' muoio disperato ' ( I die in despair ) " . Puccini insisted on the inclusion of these words , and later stated that admirers of the aria had treble cause to be grateful to him : for composing the music , for having the lyrics written , and " for declining expert advice to throw the result in the waste @-@ paper basket " . The lovers ' final duet " Amaro sol per te " , which concludes with the act 's opening horn music , did not equate with Ricordi 's idea of a transcendental love duet which would be a fitting climax to the opera . Puccini justified his musical treatment by citing Tosca 's preoccupation with teaching Cavaradossi to feign death .
In the execution scene which follows , a theme emerges , the incessant repetition of which reminded Newman of the Transformation Music which separates the two parts of act 1 in Wagner 's Parsifal . In the final bars , as Tosca evades Spoletta and leaps to her death , the theme of " E lucevan le stelle " is played tutta forze ( as loudly as possible ) . This choice of ending has been strongly criticised by analysts , mainly because of its specific association with Cavaradossi rather than Tosca . Joseph Kerman mocked the final music , " Tosca leaps , and the orchestra screams the first thing that comes into its head . " Budden , however , argues that it is entirely logical to end this dark opera on its blackest theme . According to historian and former opera singer Susan Vandiver Nicassio : " The conflict between the verbal and the musical clues gives the end of the opera a twist of controversy that , barring some unexpected discovery among Puccini 's papers , can never truly be resolved . "
= = List of arias and set numbers = =
= = Recordings = =
The first complete Tosca recording was made in 1918 , using the pre @-@ microphone acoustic process . The conductor , Carlo Sabajno , had been the Gramophone Company 's house conductor since 1904 ; he had made recordings of several operas , including Verdi 's La traviata and Rigoletto , before tackling Tosca with a largely unknown cast , featuring the Italian soprano Lya Remondini in the title role . The next year , in 1919 , Sabajno recorded Tosca again , this time with more well @-@ known singers , including Valentina Bartolomasi and Attilio Salvaneschi as Tosca and Cavaradossi . Ten years later , in 1929 , Sabajno returned to the opera for the third time , recording it with the orchestra and chorus of the Teatro alla Scala and with stars Carmen Melis and Apollo Granforte in the roles of Tosca and Scarpia . In 1938 HMV secured the services of the renowned tenor Beniamino Gigli , together with the soprano Maria Caniglia as Tosca and conductor Oliviero De Fabritiis , for a " practically complete " recording that extended over 14 double @-@ sided shellac discs .
In the post @-@ war period , following the invention of long @-@ playing records , Tosca recordings were dominated by Maria Callas . In 1953 , with conductor Victor de Sabata and the La Scala forces , she made the recording for EMI which for decades has been considered the best of all the recorded performances of the opera . She recorded the role again for EMI in stereo in 1964 . A number of Callas 's live stage performances of Tosca were also preserved . The earliest were two performances in Mexico City , in 1950 and 1952 , and the last was in London in 1965 . The first stereo recording of the opera was made in 1957 by RCA Victor . Erich Leinsdorf conducted the Rome Opera House orchestra and chorus with Zinka Milanov as Tosca , Jussi Bjorling as Cavaradossi and Leonard Warren as Scarpia . Herbert von Karajan 's acclaimed performance with the Vienna State Opera was in 1963 , with Leontyne Price , Giuseppe Di Stefano and Giuseppe Taddei in the leading roles .
The 1970s and 1980s saw a proliferation of recordings , many of live performances . Plácido Domingo first recorded Cavaradossi in 1973 , and continued to do so at regular intervals until 1994 . In 1976 he was joined by his son , Plácido Domingo Jr . , who sang the shepherd boy 's song in a British recording with the New Philharmonia Orchestra . More recent commended recordings have included Antonio Pappano 's 2000 Royal Opera House version with Angela Gheorghiu , Roberto Alagna and Ruggero Raimondi . Recordings of Tosca in languages other than Italian are rare but not unknown ; over the years versions in French , German , Spanish , Hungarian and Russian have been issued . An admired English language version was released in 1995 in which David Parry led the Philharmonia Orchestra and a largely British cast . Since the late 1990s numerous video recordings of the opera have been issued on DVD and Blu @-@ ray disc ( BD ) . These include recent productions and remastered versions of historic performances .
= = Editions and amendments = =
The orchestral score of Tosca was published in late 1899 by Casa Ricordi . Despite some dissatisfaction expressed by Ricordi concerning the final act , the score remained relatively unchanged in the 1909 edition . An unamended edition was published by Dover Press in 1991 .
The 1909 score contains a number of minor changes from the autograph score . Some are changes of phrase : Cavaradossi 's reply to the sacristan when he asks if the painter is doing penance is changed from " Pranzai " ( " I have eaten . " ) to " Fame non ho " ( " I am not hungry . " ) , which William Ashbrook states , in his study of Puccini 's operas , accentuates the class distinction between the two . When Tosca comforts Cavaradossi after the torture scene , she now tells him , " Ma il giusto Iddio lo punirá " ( " But a just God will punish him " [ Scarpia ] ) ; formerly she stated , " Ma il sozzo sbirro lo pagherà " ( " But the filthy cop will pay for it . " ) . Other changes are in the music ; when Tosca demands the price for Cavaradossi 's freedom ( " Il prezzo ! " ) , her music is changed to eliminate an octave leap , allowing her more opportunity to express her contempt and loathing of Scarpia in a passage which is now near the middle of the soprano vocal range . A remnant of a " Latin Hymn " sung by Tosca and Cavaradossi in act 3 survived into the first published score and libretto , but is not in later versions . According to Ashbrook , the most surprising change is where , after Tosca discovers the truth about the " mock " execution and exclaims " Finire così ? Finire così ? " ( " To end like this ? To end like this ? " ) , she was to sing a five @-@ bar fragment to the melody of " E lucevan le stelle " . Ashbrook applauds Puccini for deleting the section from a point in the work where delay is almost unendurable as events rush to their conclusion , but points out that the orchestra 's recalling " E lucevan le stelle " in the final notes would seem less incongruous if it was meant to underscore Tosca 's and Cavaradossi 's love for each other , rather than being simply a melody which Tosca never hears .
= Reborn doll =
A reborn doll is a manufactured skin doll that has been transformed to resemble a human infant with as much realism as possible . The process of creating a reborn doll is referred to as reborning and the doll artists are referred to as reborners . Reborn dolls are also known as Bodo dolls or unliving dolls .
The hobby of creating reborn baby dolls began around 1939 when doll enthusiasts wanted more realistic dolls . Since then , an industry surrounding reborn dolls has emerged . Reborn dolls are primarily purchased on the internet but are available at fairs . Depending on craftsmanship , they range in price from hundreds to thousands of dollars .
The International Reborn Doll Artists ( IRDA ) group was created to educate artists in the art form of reborn doll making . Any artist can join the association , however certain ethical guidelines must be upheld by members .
Reborning involves numerous time consuming steps . The most basic form of the process involves taking a vinyl doll , adding multiple layers of paint , and adding other physical features to the doll . Artists can pick different brands to best suit what doll they wish to create . Consumers can also buy reborn doll kits that include the doll parts and supplies for creating their own reborn . Making a doll from a kit is called newborning and allows artists to omit some steps in the fabrication process . Many
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supplies are needed for both external and internal modifications of reborns to make the doll seem more realistic .
Some consumers of reborn dolls use them to replace a child they once lost , or a child that has grown up . Others collect reborns as they would regular dolls . These dolls are sometimes played with as if they are an infant . Critics debate whether reborn dolls are harmful , or whether these dolls can help in the grieving process . Because of their realistic appearance , reborn dolls have occasionally been mistaken for real babies and " rescued " from parked cars after being reported to the police by passers @-@ by .
= = History = =
The craft of making reborn dolls began in the United States in the late 1990s . Reborning follows a long tradition of collectors , artists , and manufacturers restoring and enhancing dolls in order to portray more realism . The internet has allowed doll artists and collectors to create an online society focused on reborn dolls . In 2002 , the first reborn was offered on eBay . This has expanded the reborn market allowing artists to open online stores which function figuratively as nurseries . The niche market for the dolls began with doll collectors who admired the superior lifelike accuracy of the doll . The market quickly reached those who wanted to use the doll as an emotional outlet , either to mother or for therapeutic purposes . Mass media coverage has helped to develop the phenomenon in other countries . Reborning enjoys popularity in the United Kingdom and Australia , but has also reached Canada , the rest of Europe , Africa , and Latin America . Doll manufacturers have also taken advantage of the trend and sell supplies , tools , and accessories catering to reborn followers . This has allowed reborners to invent new techniques causing the dolls to become increasingly realistic over time . Magazines , books , organizations , and conventions dedicated to reborn dolls have been started as a result of this popularity .
= = Fabrication = =
The appearance of the doll depends on the creator ; however , certain reborn artists allow customers to customize their doll , usually using a photograph to replicate a particular infant .
= = = Reborning = = =
Any type of vinyl doll can be used for reborning . Dolls vary by size , shape , and materials , making some more desirable or popular than others . According to Doll Reader Magazine , Berenguer Babies , Zapf , Lee Middleton , Ashton @-@ Drake Galleries , Apple Valley , and Secrist Dolls are doll companies that make dolls which are easy to transform into reborns . Kathryn Peck of Doll Reader Magazine explains that with JC Toys Berenguer Babies , it is because the dolls already resemble human babies in their expressions , body shapes , surface materials , and other lifelike attributes . Ashton Drake uses a trademark vinyl for their outer skin . Almost all the Ashton @-@ Drake dolls are created using a theme based marketing line . " Preemies " are smaller dolls molded after premature infants . Between " preemie " and regular dolls , sizes can range from 4 inches to Child size .
= = = Newborning = = =
If a reborn is created from a kit as opposed to whole manufactured doll , it may be called newborning . Manufacturers have reacted to the growing trend of artists transforming dolls by hiring reborn artists to become doll sculptors and design doll molds and kits . When newborning from a kit , the first several steps of the process are completed by reborn doll artists and doll manufacturers . The kits come with an already disassembled baby and select supplies . Other supplies not provided in the kit can be purchased separately . The Secrist doll company started making Reborn Doll Kits in 2005 . In 2009 , they began producing supplies , tools , and tutorial videos specifically for reborning or newborning . JC Toys began selling kits in December 2007 Other suppliers offer product lines that give reborners a choice of body parts and skin tones to make a customized doll .
= = = Supplies = = =
Starter kits are equipped with basic reborning necessities such as limbs , faces , heads , paint brushes , eyelashes , weighting pellets , ' heat set ' paints , cloth bodies , cable ties , nose drill bits , fake tears , thinning shears , cosmetic foam wedges , cotton dipped applicators , and glue These supplies may be purchased separately from a variety of retailers . The nose drill bits are used for creating and perfecting the nostrils of the doll . Acetone or a paint thinner medium is needed for removing the factory paint from the doll . Hair is an optional choice to add to a doll . Fine mohair , human hair , or wigs are usually used , but it is found in a variety of types . Rooting tools are utilized for this process and are available in numerous sizes 20 @,@ 36 @,@ 38 , 40 , and 42 . The smaller the number the thicker the needle which will grab more hair and leave a bigger hole in the head of the doll . Eyes for a reborn doll are offered in a variety of brands and sizes .
= = = Process = = =
The technique of reborning a play doll typically involves a number of steps . To begin the doll is taken apart and factory paint is removed . Then a blue color wash may be applied to give the appearance of realistic baby skin undertones . For dolls with an awake appearance eyes must be replaced . The outer layer of the vinyl doll is given its skin tone by adding dozens of layers of flesh colored paint . If heat set paints are used , the doll parts must be heat set by baking them inside an oven or by using a heatgun after each layer of paint is applied . Lighter skin tone dolls can take 15 to 30 layers . The effects of the blue color wash combined with the outside layers of paint creates the appearance of veins , and gives the doll its newborn mottled look . Manicured nails and opening of the nose holes are other details that are added during this process .
The next step is to apply hair . The hair can either be done in one of two ways ; wigging or microrooting . When microrooting , hair is added strand by strand . This can take up to 30 or more hours per head . Once the hair is finished , the original vinyl body is weighted with a soft stuffed body filled with pellets . The weight corresponds with its age to achieve a real effect . Various additions also can be added to give the doll an even more life like appearance . Reborns heads are often weighted , so that owners have to support the head like one would a real newborn . Purchasers can have magnets attached inside the mouth or head for attaching a pacifier or hair bows . Electronic devices that mimic a heart beat , or make the chest rise and fall to simulate breathing are common . Reborns can come with an umbilical cord , baby fat , heat packs to make the reborn warm to the touch , or voice boxes that mimic infant sounds . For preemie dolls , they may come in incubators with a breathing apparatus attached to their nose .
= = Collecting = =
Institutions have developed to aid reborn hobbyists with collecting by providing information , products , and social networking . These institutions include magazines , and associations and organizations which sponsor conferences and conventions . Collectors and artists have described their reasons for purchasing and / or creating reborn dolls as varying from a love of dolls to a passion for art .
= = = Purchasing = = =
Reborn dolls are usually found online and can be purchased through eBay , artists ' online stores ( often termed nurseries ) , and conventions / fairs . Incomplete crafting " kits " to create original reborns can also be purchased from various online stores . There is a large price range depending on the quality of the doll , but they can sell anywhere from hundreds to thousands of dollars . There are many factors to look for when purchasing a reborn . If the complexion is too dark this is called a blue baby , and indicates it was dyed excessively or uses colored sand for weight that could have seeped into the vinyl . The type of material used to weight the reborn should be considered because some materials do not react well with vinyl and will cause it to deteriorate . The doll should not be shiny . This indicates the doll was washed with acetone before painting , which prevents the color from correctly sticking to the doll 's surface . It may also be caused by the type of paint used to color the doll . This is corrected with a heat set matte varnish . The parts used are important , as original parts may be replaced . The replacement parts must be appropriately proportioned with the doll and made of quality material . At times having the original body retains the doll 's value either because it was made to fit that specific doll , or the artist left a signature mark . Eye brand , size , fitting , and alignment should be closely examined . Another feature to observe is the type of paint used for coloring and whether the doll is realistic in its details such as veins and newborn imperfections . The material and technique used in applying the hair may determine the quality . The nose should be open with the holes correctly shaped , and the nails should be properly manicured .
= = = Associations and organizations = = =
The International Reborn Doll Artists ( IRDA ) originated at the first conference for reborn doll artists on January 21 , 2005 . The IRDA group was assembled in order to offer education for improved skills in the art of reborn doll creation . They offer skill building tutorials and instruction so reborners can remain up to date on the newest techniques and meet others who share a common interest in reborn doll fabrication . A reborn artist can join the organization at any skill level , but members are asked to uphold a list of standards that were created by the IRDA 's executive board . This ethical code stipulates the guidelines members are to follow in advertising , listing , and describing their dolls in order to divide credit fairly between manufacturers , sculptors , and artists .
= = = Conferences and conventions = = =
The First Annual International Reborn Doll Artists Conference was held in Orlando , Florida on January 21 – 23 , 2005 in conjunction with IDEX The Annual Debut of the World 's Finest Collectibles . In January 2006 in Las Vegas , Nevada , Doll Reader Magazine sponsored the IDEX Reborn Competition at the First International IDEX Reborn Convention . Doll Reader Magazine started publishing over twenty @-@ five years ago . It is now published nine times a year , keeps collectors informed on trends of modern @-@ day doll collecting , and continues to sponsor the IDEX trade shows that feature reborn competitions and conventions . In the summer of 2008 , ABC News followed a reborn convention in Illinois . ABC News was also in St. Louis , Missouri to attend the first annual Tiny Treasures Show held in 2008 . The show features exhibitors , collectors , retailers , manufacturers , workshops , and contests for reborners . Reborn dolls can be found at doll fairs as well .
= = Social issues and reactions = =
The overwhelming majority of reborn customers are older women . The process of buying a reborn can be done to simulate an adoption process , rather than a prosaic sale of a product . As part of this , the dolls often come with fake birth certificates or adoption certificates . Many women collect reborns as they would a non @-@ reborn doll , whilst others purchase them to fill a void of a lost child and may treat reborns as living babies . Media features and public receptions have used such adjectives as " creepy " to describe the reborns . This can be explained by the uncanny valley hypothesis . This states that as objects become more lifelike they gain an increasing empathetic response , until a certain point at which the response changes to repulsion . Department stores have refused to stock the dolls because of this reaction , claiming they are too lifelike .
= = = Emotional bond = = =
Many reborn owners are simply doll collectors , while others have experienced miscarriage , stillbirth or neonatal loss , have no means for adoption , or suffer from empty nest syndrome . They may utilize the dolls as a substitute for a child . Some women dress the dolls , wash their hair , and may even take them for walks in strollers and take them shopping . Reborn hobbyists refer to the emotional response to holding their dolls as cuddle therapy . Studies suggest cuddling a baby causes a release of hormones which produce a sense of emotional well @-@ being , and some psychologists believe that this may happen with realistic dolls as well . Consultant psychiatrist Raj Persaud explains that mothering a real newborn baby releases the hormone oxytocin in the mother , and hypothesizes that this may explain why " reborn mothers " become emotionally attached to the reborn doll .
For grieving parents who form emotional bonds with reborn dolls , some child bereavement counselors advise against parents substituting their deceased child with the dolls . Reborn mothers contend that they are not replacing children but remembering them . Psychiatrist Sue Varma , teacher at the NYU school of medicine , says mothering reborn dolls rather than just collecting them can become a problem when it is used as prop and becomes the person 's only form of socializing . Psychiatrist Gail Saltz with New York Presbyterian Hospital supports the use of reborns for people who do not want to make the commitment of having a real child , and also to comfort bereaved parents . She offers that in this case the reborn may symbolize a step in the grieving process . Concern should only come if someone who lost a baby grows too attached to their reborn because it could indicate their grief is not getting resolved . In this case , the likeness of the doll to the deceased child risks being harmful as a permanent replacement for the grieving parents . Ian James , a doctor at the Centre for the Health of the Elderly at Newcastle General Hospital in the U.K. , said that holding the dolls helps calm elderly residents , helping them feel peaceful and quiet .
= = = Law enforcement incidents = = =
Reborn dolls look so real they have been mistaken for real babies . In July 2008 , police in Queensland , Australia smashed a car window to rescue what seemed like an unconscious baby only to find it was a reborn doll . The police stated that the doll was " incredibly lifelike " and that bystanders who thought a baby was dying were frightened by the incident . A similar incident was reported in the United States , in which police broke the window of a Hummer to save a baby that turned out to be a reborn doll .
In 2009 reborners uncovered a blogging hoax in which a woman – described by ABC News as an " anti @-@ abortion blogger " – claimed she was pregnant with a terminally ill child . She opened a P.O. box in order to receive gifts , money , and prayers . The hoax was uncovered when reborners reading the blog realized that the pictures of the baby posted on the blog were actually a reborn doll that they recognized through the familiar reborn sculpture .
= = = Media appearances = = =
Reborn dolls have been featured in a number of television shows . A December 10 , 2008 episode of Dr. Phil entitled " Obsessions " discussed the topic of reborning . In January 2008 , a Channel 4 series , My Fake Baby , explored the lives of women who collect the lifelike baby dolls . Featuring this documentary the British television magazine show on Channel 4 , Richard & Judy , held an interview with the reborn artist in the documentary , Jaime Eaton , collector Mary Flint and psychiatrist Raj Persuad . On January 2 , 2009 , an ABC News article described both the manufacturing and the emotional interaction of reborn dolls , while a January 2 20 / 20 episode talked about the mothering process and attachment to reborns . On January 31 , 2008 , Inside Edition aired a segment showing artist Eve Newsom and her reborn dolls . In December 2015 , Shaylen Maxwell , owner & artist of Reborn , Sweet was featured in The Globe and Mail , in a LIFE feature on the therapeutic value of reborn dolls in treating anxiety and grief .
= SMS Hela =
SMS Hela was an aviso of the German Imperial Navy prior to and during World War I. The only ship of her class , Hela was launched on 28 March 1895 in Bremen . She was named after the Hela peninsula near Danzig ( present @-@ day Gdańsk ) . Hela was lightly armed for a light cruiser ; her main armament consisted of just four 8 @.@ 8 @-@ centimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns . In 1899 she was re @-@ classified to a light cruiser .
In 1900 – 1901 , Hela was deployed to China during the Boxer Rebellion . She participated in extensive fleet maneuvers in 1902 , before being significantly rebuilt from 1903 – 1906 . From 1910 , Hela was used as a fleet tender . With the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , she was put back into active service as a support ship for the torpedo boats stationed off Helgoland . On 13 September 1914 , Hela was torpedoed and sunk by the British submarine HMS E9 ; two of her crew died .
= = Design = =
Hela was the culmination in the development of the aviso type in the Imperial German Navy . German avisos were developed from earlier torpedo boats and were intended for use in home waters with the fleet . The first aviso , Zieten , was purchased from a British shipbuilder in 1875 ; seven more ships were built in German yards before Hela was laid down in 1893 . The aviso type culminated in what would later be referred to as the light cruiser ; Hela 's successors , the Gazelle @-@ class cruisers , were the first true light cruisers built .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Hela was 104 @.@ 6 meters ( 343 ft 2 in ) long at the waterline and 105 m ( 344 ft 6 in ) overall . She had a beam of 11 m ( 36 ft 1 in ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 46 m ( 14 ft 8 in ) forward and 4 @.@ 64 m ( 15 ft 3 in ) aft . She was designed to displace 2 @,@ 027 t ( 1 @,@ 995 long tons ) , and at full combat load the displacement increased to 2 @,@ 082 t ( 2 @,@ 049 long tons ) . Her hull was constructed with transverse and longitudinal steel frames , which contained 22 watertight compartments above the armored deck and ten below . A double bottom ran for 35 percent of the length of the hull . Hela 's crew consisted of 7 officers and 171 enlisted men .
The ship was powered by two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines ; both drove a screw that was 3 @.@ 25 m ( 10 ft 8 in ) in diameter . Each engine had its own separate engine room . The engines were supplied with steam by six locomotive boilers split into two boiler rooms . The engines were rated at 6 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower and a top speed of 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , though on trials they reached a half knot better . Hela was equipped with three electrical generators that produced 36 kilowatts at 67 volts . Steering was controlled by a single rudder .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Hela was armed with four 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns in individual mountings . The guns fired 7 kg ( 15 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 590 meters per second ( 1 @,@ 936 f / s ) and a rate of approximately 15 shots per minute . At the maximum elevation of 30 ° , the guns could hit targets out to 10 @,@ 500 m ( 11 @,@ 480 yards ) . These guns were provided with a total of 800 rounds , for 200 per gun . She was also equipped with six 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 40 quick @-@ firing guns . These guns fired 1 @.@ 75 kg ( 3 @.@ 9 lb ) shells , at up to 10 shots per minute . They had a maximum range of 6 @,@ 200 m ( 6 @,@ 780 yd ) . Hela carried 250 rounds per gun . Her armament was completed with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Two were placed on the deck and the third was submerged in the bow of the ship .
Hela was lightly armored . She was protected by an armor deck that was 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick and composed of steel . The deck sloped on the sides , and was slightly increased in thickness to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) . The conning tower was armored with 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick steel .
= = Service history = =
In early 1898 , Hela was assigned to the I Division of the Maneuver Squadron for that year 's training exercises . She served as the dispatch vessel for the four Brandenburg @-@ class battleships .
= = = Boxer Rebellion = = =
During the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 , Chinese nationalists laid siege to the foreign embassies in Peking and murdered Baron Clemens von Ketteler , the German minister . The widespread violence against Westerners in China led to a creation of an alliance between Germany and seven other Great Powers : the United Kingdom , Italy , Russia , Austria @-@ Hungary , the United States , France , and Japan . Those soldiers who were in China at the time were too few in number to defeat the Boxers ; in Peking there was a force of slightly more than 400 officers and infantry from the armies of the eight European powers . At the time , the primary German military force in China was the East Asia Squadron , which consisted of the protected cruisers Kaiserin Augusta , Hansa , and Hertha , the small cruisers Irene and Gefion , and the gunboats Jaguar and Iltis . There was also a German 500 @-@ man detachment in Taku ; combined with the other nations ' units the force numbered some 2 @,@ 100 men .
These 2 @,@ 100 men , led by the British Admiral Edward Seymour , attempted to reach Peking but due to heavy resistance were forced to stop in Tientsin . As a result , the Kaiser determined an expeditionary force would be sent to China to reinforce the East Asia Squadron . Hela was part of the naval expedition , which included the four Brandenburg @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , sent to China to reinforce the German flotilla there . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz opposed the plan , which he saw as unnecessary and costly . The force was sent in spite of von Tirpitz 's objections ; it arrived in China in September 1900 . By that time , the siege of Peking had already been lifted . As a result , the task force suppressed local uprisings around Kiaochow . In the end , the operation cost the German government more than 100 million marks .
= = = Fleet training , 1902 = = =
On 31 August 1902 , the annual fleet maneuvers began . The first portion of the exercise positioned Germany in a naval war against a powerful enemy that had superior forces in the North and Baltic Seas . A German squadron , consisting of the coastal defense ships Hagen , Heimdall , and Hildebrand and a division of torpedo boats were trapped in the Kattegat by a superior enemy unit in the North Sea . The German squadron was tasked with returning to Kiel in the Baltic , where it would return to Wilhelmshaven via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal to rejoin the rest of the fleet . Hela , along with three Brandenburg @-@ class battleships and the cruisers Nymphe and Amazone , was positioned in one of the three main channels from the Kattegat to Kiel to act as an opposing force . Two other battle squadrons were positioned to block the advance of the isolated German squadron .
On the morning of 2 September , the operation commenced . Hela was tasked with sweeping the numerous smaller channels , inlets , and bays in the squadron 's area of responsibility . At 06 : 00 that morning , the commander of the German squadron decided to take his ships through the channel to which Hela was assigned . The " hostile " torpedo @-@ boat screen sighted the German flotilla , but a dense fog precluded effective pursuit by the battleships . However , Hela , the other two cruisers , and the torpedo boats were detached to engage the German torpedo @-@ boat screen . Hela and the other ships quickly " destroyed " several of the German torpedo boats . This prompted the German squadron to retreat northward , with Hela and the other ships in pursuit . The German squadron was chased back through the Kattegat before the exercise was called off . On the night of 3 September , the entire fleet anchored off Læsø island to give the crews a rest .
The following day , 4 September , the exercise resumed . The German squadron was reinforced by several battleships and the armored cruiser Prinz Heinrich ; Hela was again assigned to the hostile force . The German flotilla was ordered to sail into the North Sea and attempt to reach the safety of the island fortress of Helgoland . Hela was assigned to a screening force that was intended to intercept the German squadron so it could be brought to battle . A short engagement between the hostile screen and Prinz Heinrich ensued , during which Prinz Heinrich damaged the protected cruisers Freya and Victoria Louise . A torpedo boat attack on the German squadron followed in the early hours of 5 September . The hostile force was unable to prevent the escape of the German squadron , however , which reached Helgoland by 12 : 00 .
Hela and the rest of the fleet anchored off Helgoland on 8 – 11 September . During the day the ships conducted training with steam tactics . On 11 September the ships returned to Wilhelmshaven where on the following two days the ships replenished their coal supplies . On 14 September the final operation of the annual maneuvers began . The situation specified that the naval war had gone badly for Germany ; only four battleships were still in service , along with Hela , Freya , and a division of torpedo boats . The ships were to be stationed in the mouth of the Elbe river to protect the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and access to Hamburg . On 15 September , the hostile force blockaded the Elbe , along with other rivers and harbors on the North Sea . The torpedo boats , which had been scattered in the previous engagement , were tracked and destroyed by the hostile force . The hostile battleship squadron steamed to the mouth of the Elbe , where Hela , Freya , and the remaining torpedo boats were stationed as lookouts . Nothing happened during the day of 16 September , but that night several German torpedo boats managed to destroy one of the blockading cruisers and badly damage another . The following day , Prinz Heinrich engaged Hela and Freya briefly before forcing the two ships to retreat . The weather began to storm so the operation was postponed until the following day . That morning , the hostile fleet forced its way into the Elbe , past the fortifications at the mouth of the river . The German flotilla made a desperate attack which resulted in the sinking of two of the hostile battleships . The hostile force , however , ultimately overwhelmed the outnumbered German ships and the exercise ended with their victory .
= = = Reconstruction and later service = = =
In 1903 , Hela was taken into the dry dock at the Kaiserliche Werft Danzig for extensive modernization . The ship 's superstructure was rebuilt , and her two rear 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed . Her boilers , which had been trunked into a single smoke stack were now split between two funnels . Coal storage capacity was also increased , from 370 t ( 360 long tons ) to 412 t ( 405 long tons ) . The ship was also further subdivided ; the 22 watertight compartments above the armored deck were increased to 30 , and the double bottom was extended to cover 39 percent of the hull . She was also re @-@ boilered ; her six original boilers were replaced with eight Marine @-@ type boilers . Work lasted until 1906 , at which point she rejoined the fleet and was stationed in Germany . Her crew was also increased by the addition of another officer and 16 enlisted men . After 1910 , Hela was withdrawn from active service and used as a fleet tender .
= = = World War I = = =
When World War I broke out , Hela was brought back to active duty and assigned to the covering forces for the German torpedo boats that formed the outer ring of coastal scouting patrols in the German portion of the North Sea . Hela was stationed to the northeast of Helgoland , along with the cruiser Stettin . These forces were surprised and attacked by superior British forces on 28 August 1914 in the first Battle of Helgoland Bight . After reports of the initial engagement between light forces reached Hela , the ship turned eastward to join the fighting . However , after another report , which stated that the British ships were retreating to the southwest away from Helgoland , reached Hela , the ship returned to her patrol station . Hela emerged from the battle without damage , and that night regrouped with the cruisers Kolberg and München to provide cover for the remaining torpedo boats and reestablish the Bight patrol line .
However , two weeks later , on the morning of 13 September 1914 , Hela was attacked six miles southwest of Helgoland by the British submarine HMS E9 under command of the future Admiral Max Horton . Hela was conducting a training exercise at the time ; the area around Helgoland was presumed safe from British submarines . After surfacing , E9 spotted the German cruiser and immediately re @-@ submerged to fire two of her torpedoes . After 15 minutes , E9 rose to periscope depth to inspect the scene . The British submarine found Hela sinking . Within another 15 minutes , Hela had slipped beneath the waves . The crew of E9 was awarded a bounty of £ 1 @,@ 050 as a reward for sinking Hela . Despite the speed with which the ship sank , her entire crew , with the exception of two sailors , were rescued from the sea .
Hela was the first German ship sunk by a British submarine in the war . As a result of her loss , all German ships conducting training exercises were moved to the Baltic Sea to prevent further such sinkings . One of her 8 @.@ 8 cm guns was retrieved from the wreck and is now preserved at Fort Kugelbake in Cuxhaven .
= Oliver Edwards =
Oliver Edwards ( January 30 , 1835 – April 28 , 1904 ) was a machine company executive , an inventor , and a volunteer officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War .
Raised in Springfield , Massachusetts , Edwards moved to Illinois as a young man to pursue a career as a manager of manufacturing . At the start of the Civil War , he became adjutant of the 10th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry and later aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Brigadier General Darius N. Couch . In the fall of 1862 , he took command of the 37th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry as colonel and led that unit through numerous major battles including the Battle of Gettysburg . Just after Gettysburg , in July 1863 , he was placed in command of a provisional brigade sent to assist in quelling the New York Draft Riots . During the Overland Campaign in the spring of 1864 , he was placed in command of a brigade and , during the Valley Campaigns of 1864 he was briefly placed in command of a division of the VI Corps . For his service during these campaigns , Edwards was awarded the honorary rank of brevet brigadier general and later promoted to full grade brigadier general United States Volunteers . In 1866 he was awarded the honorary rank of brevet major general , United States Volunteers , to rank from April 5 , 1865 , for his service during the Appomattox Campaign .
After the war , Edwards returned to a career in manufacturing , most notably as manager of the Florence Machine Company in Northampton , Massachusetts and the Gardner Machine and Gun Company in England .
= = Early career = =
Edwards was born in Springfield , Massachusetts in 1835 , son of Dr. Elisha Edwards and Eunice Lombard Edwards . From an early age , he had a strong interest in mechanics and , rather than attend college , he obtained an apprenticeship at the Springfield Armory . In 1856 , at age 21 , Edwards moved to the American Midwest to establish his own foundry , eventually settling in Warsaw , Illinois . Here he became a partner in a new foundry known as Neberling , Edwards and Co .
= = Civil War service = =
= = = Adjutant and Aide @-@ de @-@ camp = = =
At the start of the Civil War in 1861 , Edwards returned to Massachusetts with the intention to enlist as a private . During May and early June 1861 , he recruited a company of men from Springfield which became part of the 10th Massachusetts Infantry . Upon the mustering in of the 10th Massachusetts , Edwards was offered an officer 's commission as a first lieutenant and assigned the role of adjutant — a primarily administrative position assisting Colonel Henry Shaw Briggs who commanded the regiment .
Edwards saw little action during his service with the 10th in the fall of 1861 , the regiment being primarily occupied with building fortifications in the vicinity of Washington , D.C. at that time . In January 1862 , Brig. Gen. Darius N. Couch , in command of the division to which the 10th Massachusetts belonged , asked Edwards to be his aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Edwards occupied this administrative position throughout the Peninsular Campaign and the Northern Virginia Campaign , assisting Couch in coordinating the movements of his division .
= = = 37th Massachusetts = = =
On August 9 , 1862 , Edwards was promoted to major and recalled to Pittsfield , Massachusetts to assist in organizing the 37th Massachusetts Infantry . As the regiment was still being organized , Edwards was promoted to colonel and command of the 37th Massachusetts . The regiment arrived in Washington , D.C. during the first week of September 1862 . They were soon attached to the Army of the Potomac , being assigned to the 2nd Brigade , 3rd Division of the VI Corps .
Edwards had already seen numerous battles but his first experience as a field commander in combat occurred during the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13 , 1862 . His regiment played a minor role in the fight , however , as their brigade was held in reserve during the battle .
During the Chancellorsville Campaign , Edwards and the 37th Massachusetts took part in the Second Battle of Fredericksburg and the Battle of Salem Church in May 1863 . During the latter engagement , the 37th occupied the extreme left of the Union line — an exposed and dangerous position . After the battle , Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick extended his compliments to the 37th for holding their ground .
The 37th Massachusetts fought at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863 . During the third day of fighting , the 37th was assigned a new position on the battle line and was en route when the Confederate heavy cannonade preceding Pickett 's Charge began . Unlike most Union regiments which took cover during the cannonade , the 37th was forced to march to their new position during the bombardment , taking heavy casualties . Edwards was credited , however , with keeping the regiment together and bolstering their courage during the dangerous march .
= = = New York Draft Riots = = =
On July 30 , 1863 , the 37th Massachusetts became one of a small number regiments from the Army of the Potomac hand picked for duty in New York in the wake of the Draft Riots . By the time the 37th reached New York , the worst of the rioting had ended , however a strong U.S. Army presence was required to keep peace until October 1863 . During his time in New York , Edwards commanded a brigade stationed at Fort Hamilton in Brooklyn . Hearing that the presence of Massachusetts troops might spark further violence on the part of rioters , Edwards requested permission to place his regiment prominently as guards at a draft office , intending to demonstrate the bravery of his men in the face of threats . Despite the rumors , the presence of Edwards 's regiment incited no further violence .
= = = Brigade command = = =
Returning to the Army of the Potomac in October 1863 , Col. Edwards and the 37th Massachusetts took part in the Mine Run Campaign then settled into winter camp with the rest of the Army of the Potomac . In the spring of 1864 , the 37th was engaged in the Overland Campaign a rapid series of severe battles during which Lt. Gen. Ulysses Grant attempted to grind down the Confederate army and capture the Confederate capital of Richmond .
During the Battle of the Wilderness on May 6 , 1864 , Edwards was ordered to lead the 37th Massachusetts on a dangerous charge to check a Confederate advance and to provide cover for Brig. Gen. James S. Wadsworth 's retreating division . Edwards led the 37th forward as they cleared 900 yards ( 820 m ) of ground , only to be surrounded by Confederates . The retreat of the regiment was orderly , keeping up a constant fire under Edwards 's direction , however the regiment suffered
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. The storm began weakening due to incompatible surroundings and became extratropical west of the Azores on October 10 . Otto was the first Atlantic tropical cyclone on record to transition from a subtropical storm since Tropical Storm Laura in 2008 .
Drifting near the northeastern Caribbean for several days , Otto and its precursor disturbance brought prolonged rainfall to the Leeward Islands , the Virgin Islands , and Puerto Rico , triggering widespread flooding and numerous mudslides . Damage from the storm — in particular to roads , property and infrastructure — exceeded $ 22 million ( 2010 USD ) , but there were no fatalities . After recurving toward the northeast , Otto proceeded across the open Atlantic without affecting any other landmasses .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late September , a large area of disturbed weather associated with two tropical waves formed just east of the Lesser Antilles . The disturbance drifted very slowly west @-@ northwestward , inhibited by strong wind shear that eventually caused the westernmost wave to dissipate . Albeit weak , an elongated remnant trough , or area of low pressure , persisted for several days , stalling over the extreme eastern Caribbean Sea as a nearby upper @-@ level cyclonic vortex retrograded to its north . By October 5 , the trough had drifted northward into a more favorable atmospheric environment over the Virgin Islands , which allowed the lowest pressures to extend to the surface . The low became well defined , interacting with the adjacent upper vortex to produce a wide convective band — a concentrated region in which strong showers and thunderstorms can form — over the northeastern Caribbean . Over the next day , the system continued to acquire a prominent subtropical structure : it developed a markedly larger wind radius than typically seen in pure tropical cyclones . Satellite observations also revealed that although the lower wind circulation was distinct , it had become intertwined with the cyclonic vortex aloft to its southwest , confirming the hybrid nature of the system . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) thus classified the system as a subtropical depression at 06 : 00 UTC on October 6 , when it was 265 mi ( 425 km ) north @-@ northwest of San Juan , Puerto Rico .
The depression slid slowly northwestward between the contiguous upper vortex and a large high @-@ pressure region over the central Atlantic . A region of lighter wind shear ahead , as well as an anticipated weakening of the upper cyclone , prompted the NHC to introduce the possibility of a tropical transition . Later , satellite observations showed a rapid improvement in the depression 's structure ; convective banding wrapped completely around the broad inner wind field , which produced gusts to 65 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Accordingly , the NHC upgraded the depression to Subtropical Storm Otto at 21 : 00 UTC on October 6 , about 215 mi ( 345 km ) northeast of Grand Turk . Although satellite images continued to display a classical subtropical cyclone , with Otto 's center and the vortex aloft nearly collocated , data from a Hurricane Hunters aircraft indicated a weak warm convective core was developing within the mid levels of the circulation — a feature normally present at the upper levels of tropical cyclones . Moreover , a contraction of the large wind field reaffirmed that Otto was entering the final stages of its tropical transition . Although convective activity briefly weakened overnight , weakening shear and considerably warmer sea surface temperatures permitted small patches of thunderstorms to refire on the morning of October 7 . As Otto meandered northward , temperature contrasts from forecast models indicated that the warm core within the circulation had ascended to the upper levels of the cyclone . In consequence , a burst of deep , tropical convection with extreme cloud top temperatures of approximately − 112 ° F ( − 80 ° C ) occurred over the center . Having shed the last of its subtropical characteristics , Otto became a warm @-@ core system and was operationally declared tropical at 1200 UTC that day .
Over the course of October 8 , Otto began to accelerate to the northeast under the increasing influence of a vertically deep trough off the US East Coast . Conditions aloft remained conducive , and the storm 's convection deepened symmetrically over the center to form a large , well @-@ defined central dense overcast . By 1200 UTC , Otto 's winds had reached 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) while a mid @-@ level eyewall began to form , prompting the NHC to upgrade the storm to a Category 1 hurricane south of Bermuda . Further strengthening ensued as the newly formed hurricane proceeded over the warm waters of the central Atlantic ; microwave imagery revealed the eye , though obscured , was vertically well established , marking Otto 's peak strength with estimated winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) .
Upon peaking in intensity , Otto had become fully embedded within the deep @-@ layered flow to its southwest . Racing northeastward , the hurricane entered an area of progressively cooler waters and adverse upper atmospheric conditions , which eroded its cloud pattern and disrupted the circulation . With maximum winds dropping below 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , Otto was reduced to a tropical storm late on October 9 . Convective activity came to a near halt due to relentless wind shear and a lack of tropical moisture , leading specialists to conclude the storm was entering an extratropical transition . The next day , the cool dry air infiltrated the weak warm core , and Otto began to develop frontal banding features . With these characteristics , Otto became an extratropical cyclone on October 10 , and the NHC discontinued advisories on the storm . The post @-@ tropical system decelerated near the Azores over the next week , where it eventually degenerated into a remnant low that recurved sharply southeastward before completely dissipating west of Morocco on October 18 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Otto and its precursor disturbance produced days of prolonged rainfall and gusty winds across the northern Leeward Islands , the Virgin Islands , and Puerto Rico . Localized flooding and rough sea conditions caused extensive road damage , infrastructure failures , and some beach erosion along coastlines . During the passage of the storm , numerous residents were left without water and power , and a state of emergency was declared for several Caribbean nations . Schools , businesses and some government offices across all of the Virgin Islands and Saint Kitts and Nevis were closed until storm conditions abated . The weather system ultimately accounted for substantial monetary losses throughout these areas , pinned at over $ 22 million ( 2010 USD ) . In addition , Otto was widely regarded as one of the wettest storms in the history of the northeastern Caribbean , repeatedly shattering various rainfall records .
= = = Leeward Islands = = =
In Saint Lucia , downpours triggered torrential flooding along the island 's easternmost coast from October 5 through October 6 . In Dennery Quarter , flash floods affected about 500 households ; among them , 400 had their houses flooded or severely damaged . Several residences had to be evacuated , and some people were trapped in their homes . Residents also suffered from the absence of drinking water , lack of electricity , and the inability to prepare meals due to the loss of kitchen equipment and other utensils . In response , the area was declared a disaster zone ; a total of EC $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 185 @,@ 185 USD ) was approved to assist flood victims , as well as an additional US $ 44 @,@ 194 allocated from the Disaster Relief Emergency Fund of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies .
Intermittent torrents battered Saint Kitts and Nevis for at least four days ; a total of up to 10 @.@ 99 inches ( 279 mm ) of precipitation was recorded during that time . Several homeowners reported significant flooding , and a number of persons had to be rescued from their homes . Gusty winds generated rough sea conditions along coastal regions , resulting in some beach erosion and the collapse of a sidewalk section . Rains and associated floods topped a number of culverts and bridges , washed out the sides of some roadways , and damage to some utility lines , followed by significant disruptions to electricity services . The exact amount of damage to the territory remains unknown , however .
In the U.S. Virgin Islands , heavy rainfall associated with Otto shattered numerous records for October across the US Virgin Islands , with a maximum total of 21 @.@ 52 in ( 547 mm ) reported in Red Hook , Saint Tomas . The rain flooded roads and prompted officials opened shelters on all three islands on October 6 . In Saint Croix , a roadway section leading into Enfield Green collapsed , temporarily cutting the neighborhood off to traffic until a makeshift roadway was created the next day . In La Vallée , on the island 's north shore , floods and landslides affected low @-@ lying areas . Traffic on Saint Thomas and Saint John initially remained unhindered ; however , as the rain continued for several days , flooding , rockslides and asphalt erosion forced authorities to close several roads and highways . Damage estimates from the storm reached $ 2 million across the islands .
In the British Virgin Islands , a flash flood warning was in effect during the presence of Otto from October 6 to 8 . Torrential floods across the islands overturned several cars , and caused extensive damage to utility lines and drainage pipes ; dozens of people in Tortola — specifically in Road Town — were temporarily left without power and water . In total , an estimated 24 @.@ 98 inches ( 634 mm ) of rain was recorded , and the government declared a state of emergency for the entire territory . Floods from the storm were regarded as the worst in the history of the British Virgin Islands . In total , damage across the islands was estimated at US $ 10 @.@ 5 million , considerably higher than losses ensured by major Hurricane Earl earlier in the year .
Widespread flooding from Otto was responsible for substantial increases in damage to the road network across Sint Maartin initially wrought by Earl , amounting to NAƒ1.5 million ( $ 838 @,@ 000 USD ) . On the French side of the island nation , torrents and associated floods in Saint Martin were accountable for similar property infrastructural damage ; monetary losses there totaled € 800 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @.@ 12 million USD ) .
= = = Puerto Rico = = =
Rain began to pour across several parts of Puerto Rico on October 5 , persisting for up to five days in some areas . The greatest amount of rainfall during the six @-@ day period of October 3 to 8 was registered at Rio Portugues in Ponce , with 17 @.@ 86 inches ( 454 mm ) recorded . Due to the rainfall , the Government of Puerto Rico issued the closure of more than 40 roads , and an additional 19 streets were partially secured . Subsequent widespread flooding affected at least 295 roads , 14 of which suffered significant damage . In all , damage to road infrastructure was preliminarily estimated at US $ 6 @.@ 5 million . In addition , the municipality of Ponce reported copious losses in agriculture , later estimated at US $ 1 @.@ 5 million .
Following the overflow of the Arecibo River on October 7 , a neighborhood in Utuado was cut off from surrounding communities after gushing waters severely damaged its main road . Shortly thereafter , a landslide lugged a utility pole along the road , making it impossible for larger vehicles — including ambulances — to access the site . Landslides trapped fourteen families in the municipality of Ponce ; a residence alongside a road suffered significant damage and had to be evacuated . In Cayey , a district was isolated from neighboring areas due to the collapse of a bridge . In the area , burst riverbanks triggered floods across local streets , which trapped dozens of families in their homes . Severe flooding contaminated water supplies , leaving an estimated 45 @,@ 000 people without drinking water in the wake of the storm . In response , the government declared a state of emergency for the entire island . Authorities opened 120 shelters , and several flood victims had to be rescued .
= Morotai Mutiny =
The " Morotai Mutiny " was an incident in April 1945 involving members of the Australian First Tactical Air Force based on the island of Morotai , in the Dutch East Indies . Eight senior pilots , including Australia 's leading flying ace , Group Captain Clive Caldwell , tendered their resignations to protest what they perceived as the relegation of Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) fighter squadrons to strategically unimportant ground attack missions against Japanese positions that had been bypassed in the Allies ' " island @-@ hopping " campaign . A government investigation vindicated the " mutineers " , and three high @-@ ranking officers at First Tactical Air Force Headquarters , including the commander , Air Commodore Harry Cobby , the Australian Flying Corps ' top @-@ scoring ace during World War I , were relieved of their posts .
George Odgers summed up the cause of the incident in the official history of the RAAF in World War II as " the conviction of a group of young leaders that they were engaging in operations that were not militarily justifiable — a conviction widely shared also by many Australian soldiers and political leaders . " Odgers concluded that the ensuing inquiry " made it clear that almost everyone concerned acted from the highest motives , and was convinced that , in the crisis , he acted wisely " .
= = Background = =
First Tactical Air Force ( No. 1 TAF ) , commanded by Air Commodore Harry Cobby , was the main frontline combat formation of the RAAF in 1944 – 45 . It fell under the operational control of United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) Lieutenant General George Kenney , the Allied air forces commander in the South West Pacific Area under General Douglas MacArthur . Initially made up of one Bristol Beaufighter and two P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk wings , No. 1 TAF was augmented in 1945 by No. 80 Wing , commanded by Group Captain Clive Caldwell . This wing comprised three Supermarine Spitfire squadrons , whose pilots included veterans of the North African Campaign and the defence of Northern Australia against Japanese air raids .
By early 1945 , Japanese air power in the South West Pacific had been virtually destroyed . US Army forces were focused on completing the recapture of the Philippines as a stepping stone to an invasion of Japan . During this time , Australian forces including No. 1 TAF were increasingly assigned to garrison duties and harassing Japanese bases on islands bypassed by MacArthur 's forces . The Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , would later contend that the RAAF , in the words of Air Force historian Alan Stephens , " was ' side @-@ stepped ' out of the final victory over Japan by MacArthur , who wanted all the glory for himself " . US Marine Corps aviators from the Air North Solomons command also believed that MacArthur 's headquarters was favouring the USAAF in the assignment of combat duties .
The overall situation led to dissatisfaction and poor morale among No. 1 TAF personnel based on Morotai , particularly the Spitfire pilots who had little opportunity for the air @-@ to @-@ air combat they specialised in and whose aircraft were ill @-@ suited to ground attack missions . Group Captain Wilf Arthur , former Officer Commanding No. 81 Wing and now in charge of No. 78 Wing , became concerned that his units ' expenditure in terms of men , machines and ordnance was not justified by the damage inflicted on enemy targets or by the relative importance of those targets . In December 1944 he asked his Intelligence staff to produce a " balance sheet " to quantify losses versus results . Arthur presented the balance sheet to Air Commodore Cobby , who reviewed it and disseminated it to his headquarters staff , but took no further action .
= = Prelude to the resignations = =
In March 1945 , frustrated by the lack of response from Cobby and his staff and convinced that operations were becoming yet more wasteful , Arthur began discussing his concerns with other senior No. 1 TAF pilots . First , he spoke to Wing Commander Kenneth Ranger , a senior staff officer who had served with No. 9 Operational Group and had made allegations regarding the leadership of its commander , Air Commodore Joe Hewitt , who was eventually dismissed from his post . Arthur sought out Ranger as someone with " moral guts " , who would take " a stand against the type of operations we were engaged in " . Next , he enlisted Caldwell 's support , although Caldwell was , at the time , facing charges from Cobby over liquor trafficking which made it a risk that his involvement in a protest over operations would be misconstrued as an attempt to divert attention from the charges . Arthur believed , however , that Caldwell " would go as far as he possibly could to back up his opinions [ which ] were worth a lot more than the opinions of most other people in the area " .
Through Caldwell more officers joined the protest , including two other celebrated aces , Wing Commander Bobby Gibbes and Squadron Leader John Waddy , as well as Squadron Leader Bert Grace , Squadron Leader Douglas Vanderfield , and later , Squadron Leader Stuart Harpham . During a series of meetings early in April 1945 , Caldwell proposed that the eight resign en masse , and the others agreed . Arthur later stated that , " I meant to make as big a fuss as I possibly could with the object of getting the position corrected ... All the same , we realised that , to lay ourselves open to any charge of mutiny , we might lessen the force of what we were doing , which was the reason we put the things in as resignations and not as any attempt to unseat people higher up . "
Arthur also attempted to secure Cobby 's support for the protest . The commander of No. 1 TAF had been the Australian Flying Corps ' leading ace in World War I , as Caldwell was the RAAF 's in World War II . Arthur reasoned that , although Cobby was partly to blame for the morale issue , " we felt that his value to our move , because of his name with the Public , together with Group Captain Caldwell , would give us a very considerable amount of public support ... he was the prima donna of one war , and ... arm @-@ in @-@ arm with the prima donna of the next war , we would put up a reasonable front and attract a lot of attention in the headlines of the newspapers . " Cobby refused to join in and later claimed to be unaware of the depth of feeling among the pilots .
= = " Mutiny " = =
On 20 April 1945 , the eight pilots presented Cobby with identically worded letters under the heading , " APPLICATION FOR RESIGNATION OF COMMISSION . " The letters read , " I hereby respectfully make application that I be permitted to resign my Commission as an officer in the Royal Australian Air Force , forthwith . " Cobby appeared taken aback and would not accept the resignations . He spoke to seven of the pilots individually , but not Caldwell , as he was already under charge . When the men refused to withdraw the letters or elaborate on the reason for their actions , Cobby contacted his immediate superior , Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , head of RAAF Command , the Air Force 's main operational command . Bostock arrived on Morotai the next day and interviewed the pilots , asking them to tear up the letters , without success . His methods were later construed as an attempt to " make the situation go away or to at least cover it up " . The pilots ' only concession to Bostock 's entreaty was to resubmit their resignations with the word " forthwith " replaced by " at the end of current operations " .
Following these interviews , Bostock advised Air Vice Marshal Jones that morale in No. 1 TAF was at a " dangerously low level " and recommended that Jones fire Cobby and replace him with Air Commodore Frederick Scherger . Jones considered the pilots ' action " absurd " , because an officer could not legally resign during wartime , but travelled to Morotai from his headquarters in Melbourne to investigate the matter personally . He also interviewed the pilots , later declaring , " I believed them all to be sincere in what they were stating and what they had attempted to do ... Yes , sincerely held beliefs , no matter how ill @-@ founded , coupled possibly with a rather exaggerated sense of national duty . "
Lieutenant General Kenney also became embroiled in the affair , having been informed by Bostock , and insisted on speaking directly to the pilots himself over Jones ' protest that this was an internal RAAF disciplinary matter . During a visit to Morotai from his Manila headquarters , Kenney tried to persuade the officers to reconsider their positions , but again they refused . He agreed with Bostock that Cobby should be replaced by Scherger , and declared that if the pilots were court @-@ martialled he would appear in their defence . The commander of the Australian Army 's I Corps , Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead , who was at Morotai preparing for the Borneo campaign , also supported Cobby 's removal . Morshead and other senior army officers were concerned that the dispute could disrupt preparations for the Australian landings in Borneo and consulted with Kenney on the matter . Jones resolved to dismiss not only Cobby but also his staff officers , Group Captains Gibson and Simms . Scherger took over as Air Officer Commanding No. 1 TAF on 10 May .
= = Aftermath = =
Ultimately , no court @-@ martial took place for any actions directly related to the " mutiny " , and most of the pilots involved continued on operations until the end of the war . An RAAF investigation found that Jones ' removal of Cobby , Gibson and Simms was justified . Upon Jones ' request , the Australian government also set up an inquiry into events on Morotai , headed by Justice John Vincent Barry . Beginning on 16 May 1945 , the inquiry focused on both the resignations and the reports of illegal trafficking in alcohol between RAAF and US service personnel on the island . While Barry 's terms of reference encompassed only No. 1 TAF , the inquiry also heard evidence of shortcomings in the Air Force 's higher command that may have contributed to structural and morale problems on Morotai , particularly a bitter and long @-@ running feud between Jones and Bostock over the division of operational and administrative control of the RAAF in the Pacific .
The complete report of the inquiry was released in October , preceded by a summary of findings issued on 14 September 1945 . Judge Barry vindicated Arthur 's " balance sheet " and the stand taken by the pilots , finding that their motives in tendering their resignations were sincere . No further action was taken against them over the " mutiny " itself , but Caldwell and Gibbes were court @-@ martialled for their involvement in the alcohol racket and reduced to the rank of flight lieutenant . Barry found that Cobby had " failed to maintain proper control over his command " , while Cobby defended his leadership of No. 1 TAF , contending that although there was " some discontent " , it was " a healthy sign of discontent amongst certain officers who wished to do more in the war than they were doing . Unfortunately , it was not within the power of 1st T.A.F. to give them that more important or more interesting work ... " The incident did not change the RAAF 's role in the dying days of the war in the Pacific and may have hindered No. 1 TAF 's preparations for the upcoming Battle of Tarakan . It did however improve the situation on Morotai , as Air Commodore Scherger successfully restored morale . The " mutineers " considered that they had achieved most of their goals by effecting a change of command in No. 1 TAF and instigating a governmental inquiry .
News of the resignations , the alcohol racket , and Caldwell 's court @-@ martial were widely reported in Australia . Following publication of Barry 's findings , The Daily Telegraph in Sydney commented that " the RAAF should have a complete new deal . It is a badly run show and the fault is high up . " The same paper later called Caldwell 's court @-@ martial a " witch hunt " . Despite this publicity , the action did not become popularly known as the " Morotai Mutiny " until years later . The phrase dated back to the earliest days of the incident , Group Captain Arthur having written it at the top of an aide @-@ mémoire . He later said that " the alliteration must have appealed to me " . Shortly after writing it , he crossed out " Morotai " and added a question mark following " Mutiny " . The term did not catch on with the public at the time , but Arthur 's original words have been credited as the source of the name by which the incident eventually became known .
= Gumball ( video game ) =
Gumball is a 1983 video game by Robert Cook and Broderbund in which the player controls the valves of a maze @-@ like machine to sort gumballs by their color . The player meets the quota of each level to earn their character — a factory worker — a promotion , resulting in a raise in difficulty with more color choices and defective gumballs to exclude . Broderbund co @-@ founder Doug Carlston conceived of the game 's machine @-@ sorting concept , and Cook , the designer , added the gumball conceit . He designed the main gumball processing machine within a week and later returned to add smaller features , like sound and decorative animations . The developer also hid a secret image within the game that was only found three decades after Gumball 's release . Broderbund tested the game and prepared its packaging . Gumball debuted at the June 1983 Consumer Electronics Show and released for the Apple II , Atari 8 @-@ bit family , and Commodore 64 platforms . Reviewers separately noted the difficulty of the game 's later stages , praised its comical elements , and commented on the social role of simulating mundane work . The game did not become popular and copies of it became rare .
= = Gameplay = =
Gumball is an arcade game for the home computer in which the player works in a factory as a gumball sorter and sorts gumballs by color as they flow through a maze @-@ like processing machine . The player controls valves in the machine to divert the flow of individual gumballs towards bins of corresponding colors . If the player sorts incorrectly , the foreman walks onscreen and dumps the gumballs out the bin . The player has a daily quota to meet by the end of the level 's time limit . If successful , the player character receives a promotion ; the player watches an animation of a worker walking home from the factory , and progresses to a more complex level , with more color options to sort and defective , explosive gumballs to deactivate . If unsuccessful in meeting the daily quota , the game ends and the player is left to restart from the beginning .
The game requires a color television or monitor , and optionally works with a joystick or paddle controller .
= = Development = =
Robert Cook wrote Gumball for publication by Broderbund in 1983 . Broderbund had a reputation as a successful publisher . Its games and productivity software each composed about half of the company 's output , and their software in both categories reached the top of sales charts . Broderbund co @-@ founder Doug Carlston conceived the core concept of a machine that sorts based on color , and Robert Cook expanded the concept with the gumball conceit . He spent a week designing the main processing machine , with its pipes and valves . Though he later returned to add more background detail , his original pipe design did not change . Most of Cook 's time was spent programming the game 's functions , such as the how individual gumballs move through the pipes .
Once the basic functions ran reasonably well , Cook focused on making the game fun , with challenge and incentive to return . He added smaller features like sound effects and music , conveyor belt animations , and scorekeeping , but each new feature brought new software bugs to address . To make the game more interesting , Cook added the gumball bombs and tweaked the mechanism that caught them . He iterated through prototypes including a player @-@ controlled claw and an item that traversed the pipes before finally deciding on crosshairs for the player to fire . Cook also added the game 's time limit and the differences between levels . Closer to the end , Cook coded Gumball 's title page and the animated transitions between levels .
Cook then sent the game to Broderbund for testing , which took two weeks . He resolved three small errors and other minor , proposed changes before submitting the final version . By this point , the company had printed the game 's packaging — boxes , labels , and documentation — such that they were ready to ship after receiving the approval from game testers . The game debuted at the June 1983 Consumer Electronics Show and was later released on diskette for the Apple II , Atari 8 @-@ bit family , and Commodore 64 .
In 2016 , an Apple II software cracker team found an Easter egg hidden by the game 's creator 33 years prior . Cook had hidden a secret congratulations screen in the game for players who entered a specific keyboard key combination at a specific time and solved the resulting series of substitution ciphered clues . Cook congratulated the cracker team on Twitter . The crackers found the secret while working to preserve the game for the Internet Archive by removing its digital copyright protections . One of the crackers said that while most 1980s games could be cracked by automation , Gumball 's protections , coded by Roland Gustafsson , were exceptional .
= = Reception = =
Chris Browning of the Eugene , Oregon @-@ based Atari Computer Enthusiasts wrote that Gumball was a good interlude between shoot @-@ em @-@ up games , but found that he lost interest when tasked with sorting four or more colors of gumballs . Compute ! ' s Gazette thought that Gumball was fun , and highlighted its " comical " elements , such as the factory manager emptying the player 's bin when the player incorrectly sorts the wrong color into it . The magazine described Gumball as a " strategy @-@ action " game and considered it a useful aid in developing faculties of logic and hand @-@ eye coordination . David Hunter of Softalk asked whether the game was satirical commentary " on the Great American Dream of climbing the corporate ladder " depending on whether the factory work inculcated " good work habits " or " Disney @-@ esque automatons " . He wrote that the game had what corporate trainers would want : an introduction to repetitive tasks and a sense of nervous energy . Three decades later , Jason Koebler of Motherboard summarized that the game never became popular and that copies of it became rare .
= Liverpool Women 's Suffrage Society =
The Liverpool Women 's Suffrage Society was set up in 1894 by Edith Bright , Lydia Allen Booth and Nessie Stewart @-@ Brown to promote the enfranchisement of women . The society held its first meeting in a Liverpool temperance hall , with Millicent Fawcett , head of the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies ( NUWSS ) , as its guest speaker . The society set up headquarters in Lord Street . The group became affiliated with the NUWSS in 1898 , it held meetings in cafés which included talks , poetry and dance recitals . Members were recruited from prominent members of society and they distanced themselves from working class suffrage societies such as Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) .
Eleanor Rathbone led the society as its secretary from 1897 , especially in campaigning in the 1910 elections . Three campaign shops were opened around Liverpool , asking men to vote for candidates who supported votes for women , especially Alexander Gordon Cameron . In 1911 , Rathbone and Stewart @-@ Brown set up a branch of the society to educate women who would soon get the vote . When the society disagreed with the NUWSS , it merged with the Municipal Women 's Association to create the Liverpool Women 's Citizens Association in 1919 .
= = History = =
The Liverpool Women 's Suffrage Society was set up in 1894 at a meeting in January at the temperance hall in Hardman Street . A society had been proposed a month earlier by Emily Hornby at a public meeting and after a unanimous vote , was founded by Edith Allan Bright , Lydia Allen Booth and Nessie Stewart @-@ Brown and initially had twenty four members . The society set up headquarters at 6 Lord Street . Millicent Fawcett , leader of the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies , attended the first meeting as a guest speaker .
The society distinguished itself from the Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) and the Independent Labour Party , and became known as respectable " lady suffragists " as opposed to the more militant suffragettes . The society recruited more prestigious members of society , leading to other disenfranchised women ( especially those from the working @-@ class ) joining the WSPU ; the organisation also actively distanced itself from WSPU protests . By the first annual general meeting , on 11 January 1895 , the membership had expanded to just 71 .
In 1896 , the society affiliated with Central National Society for Women 's Suffrage , and by 1898 had joined the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies . Bright invited Christabel Pankhurst to speak in Liverpool in 12 February 1909 , which resulted in a " phenomenal demand for membership cards " . Pankhurst stayed at Bright 's house whilst in the city .
= = Goals = =
Liverpool Women 's Suffrage Society was formed with the intention of fulfilling a number of goals . It hoped to educate women on why they should have the right to vote and convince men of the same . It had links with Liberal MPs and intended to use these to pressure the government to allow women 's suffrage . In addition , the society tried to drum up support for their cause by holding small scale events , often with speakers at the Yamen Cafe in Liverpool 's Bond Street . The events would also include poetry , singing or performances of acting or ballet by the Blue Bird Theatre Company .
The society would take part in wider suffrage demonstrations , for example in June 1908 , it supported a National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies event in London 's Hyde Park and in June 1910 an event by all the Liverpool suffrage organinsations at Liverpool 's St Georges Hall Eleanor Rathbone lead the society 's campaigning in the 1910 Liverpool elections , opening campaign shops on Smithdown Road , Bold Street and Stanley Road , asking men to vote for anyone who would support votes for women , regardles of party . They actively campaigned for the Labour candidate Alexander Gordon Cameron , although he did not win .
= = Founders = =
The society was founded by three women . Edith Bright served on the executive committee of Liverpool Ladies Union of Workers among Women and Girls . She was involved in other feminist causes such as Mothers Union & National Union of Women Workers and was a driving force for a Liverpool branch of the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies . Her husband , Allen Bright , was a lawyer , shipping merchant & Liberal MP . Lydia Allen Booth ( née Butler ) was an American who was on the executive committee of Liverpool Ladies Union of Workers among Women and Girls . Nessie Stewart @-@ Brown was president of Liverpool Women 's Liberal Association , and worked with Bright in the Mothers Union & National Union of Women Workers .
= = = Secretaries = = =
1895 – Edith Bright
1897 – Eleanor Rathbone
1913 – Miss E. E. Deakin & Eleanor Rathbone
= = Liverpool Women 's Citizen Association = =
In 1911 , sensing they were close to achieving suffrage , Rathbone & Stewart @-@ Bright created Municipal Women 's Association as a branch of the society ; its aim was to increase awareness of the vote for women , encourage discussion amongst potential women voters and teaching women what to do when they had the vote . In 1912 , the Liverpool Women Suffrage Society disagreed with the route that the National Union Women 's Suffrage Societies was taking , with its Election Fighting Fund , and instead merged with the Municipal Women 's Association to become the Liverpool Women 's Citizen 's Association . The outbreak of World War I changed the focus of groups to help with the national emergency and in 1919 the groups merged . By 1921 they had 12 branches .
= New York State Route 33A =
New York State Route 33A ( NY 33A ) is an east – west state highway mostly located in Monroe County , New York , in the United States . The route is just over 17 miles ( 27 km ) long and serves as an alternate route of NY 33 between the town of Bergen in Genesee County and the city of Rochester in Monroe County . While NY 33 heads to Rochester by way of Churchville and northern Gates , NY 33A dips south to pass through Chili and southern Gates . NY 33A was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , but only from Riga to Rochester . It was extended westward to its current terminus in Bergen c . 1932 .
= = Route description = =
= = = West of Gates = = =
NY 33A begins at an intersection with NY 33 just east of the village of Bergen in the town of the same name . From this point , NY 33 travels to the west and to the northeast while NY 33A heads east . Less than a quarter of a mile ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) from its western terminus , NY 33A meets Interstate 490 ( I @-@ 490 ) at exit 2 . In this area , I @-@ 490 straddles the border between Genesee County and Monroe County ; thus , the westbound portion of the interchange is in Genesee County while the eastbound half is in Monroe County .
Now in the town of Riga , NY 33A becomes Chili – Riga Center Road as it traverses a largely rural portion of southwestern Monroe County . In the small hamlet of Riga , the route intersects and briefly overlaps with NY 36 . East of Riga hamlet , NY 33A heads generally northeastward , passing by Black Creek Park as it enters the town of Chili . Just west of the hamlet of West Chili , the route crosses over Black Creek and intersects Chili Avenue Extension . At this junction , NY 33A becomes Chili Avenue , the name it retains into the city of Rochester . Locally , the Chili Avenue name is used more in common parlance than the NY 33A designation .
In West Chili , the route meets the southern terminus of NY 259 . The route continues on , heading northeastward into more densely populated areas of the town of Chili . About 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of West Chili , NY 33A intersects the western terminus of NY 252 . Not far to the northeast , the highway meets NY 386 , which joins NY 33A for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to Chili Center , Chili 's main commercial hub . Here , NY 386 splits off to the north at a junction that also served as the western terminus of NY 252A . Past Chili Center , NY 33A heads northeast through a residential neighborhood and into the town of Gates .
= = = Gates and Rochester = = =
Just across the town line , NY 33A intersects the east end of the Airport Expressway ( NY 204 ) . At this point , NY 204 leaves the highway and turns to follow NY 33A eastward . While most of NY 33A west of Gates is a two @-@ lane highway , the portion of Chili Avenue that carries both NY 33A and NY 204 is a four @-@ lane roadway . The two routes soon enter Tressmar , a hamlet that has been transformed into a major commercial destination . The development is mostly centered on Westgate Plaza , a large shopping plaza anchored by a Walmart . As NY 33A passes south of the plaza , it connects to Howard Road ( unsigned NY 940L and formerly part of NY 47 ) and Brooks Avenue . NY 204 leaves NY 33A at Brooks Avenue to follow the road eastward toward the Greater Rochester International Airport .
East of Brooks Avenue , NY 33A passes through a small residential area before entering a more industrial neighborhood surrounding the Erie Canal and the Rochester city line . In the western portion of this area , the route meets I @-@ 390 at exit 19 and intersects Buell Road ( County Route 162 ) , which directly links NY 33A to the airport a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to the south . East of I @-@ 390 , NY 33A crosses the Erie Canal and enters the city of Rochester , at which point maintenance of NY 33A shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) to the city of Rochester . On the northern bank of the waterway , the route passes under the Rochester and Southern Railroad . The surroundings become significantly more residential east of the railroad as the route heads northeastward toward downtown Rochester . However , NY 33A ends roughly one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of downtown at a junction with NY 33 ( West Avenue ) . Here , Chili and West Avenues converge and NY 33 continues toward downtown as West Main Street .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 16 , an unsigned legislative route extending from the Southern Tier village of Cuba to the city of Rochester just south of Lake Ontario . Route 16 entered the Rochester area on what is now NY 386 and followed modern NY 386 , Old Scottsville – Chili Road , and Chili Avenue northeastward to the Rochester city line . From there , the route continued for an additional 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the original city limits , where it ended near the intersection of Chili Avenue and Post Street . On March 1 , 1921 , Route 16 was truncated to end in Le Roy while the portion of its former alignment north of Caledonia became part of an extended Route 15 .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the segment of legislative Route 15 north of Caledonia was not assigned a designation . Within two years , a highway extending from Batavia to Rochester by way of Bergen and Gates was designated as NY 33 . However , NY 33 followed a more northerly routing through Gates than old Route 15 did as it used Buffalo Road instead of Chili Avenue . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the Chili Avenue portion of legislative Route 15 became part of the new NY 33A , a then @-@ spur route of NY 33 that began at NY 36 in Riga and ended at NY 33 in southwestern Rochester . NY 33A was extended westward c . 1932 to the town of Bergen , where it reconnected to NY 33 southeast of the village of Bergen .
= = Major intersections = =
= Fauna of Scotland =
The fauna of Scotland is generally typical of the northwest European part of the Palearctic ecozone , although several of the country 's larger mammals were hunted to extinction in historic times and human activity has also led to various species of wildlife being introduced . Scotland 's diverse temperate environments support 62 species of wild mammals , including a population of wild cats , important numbers of grey and harbour seals and the most northerly colony of bottlenose dolphins in the world .
Many populations of moorland birds , including the black and red grouse live here , and the country has internationally significant nesting grounds for seabirds such as the northern gannet . The golden eagle has become a national icon , and white @-@ tailed eagles and ospreys have recently re @-@ colonised the land . The Scottish crossbill is the only endemic vertebrate species in the UK .
Scotland 's seas are among the most biologically productive in the world ; it is estimated that the total number of Scottish marine species exceeds 40 @,@ 000 . The Darwin Mounds are an important area of deep sea cold water coral reefs discovered in 1998 . Inland , nearly 400 genetically distinct populations of Atlantic salmon live in Scottish rivers . Of the 42 species of fish found in the country 's fresh waters , half have arrived by natural colonisation and half by human introduction .
Only six amphibians and four land reptiles are native to Scotland , but many species of invertebrates live there that are otherwise rare in the United Kingdom ( UK ) . An estimated 14 @,@ 000 species of insect , including rare bees and butterflies protected by conservation action plans , inhabit Scotland . Conservation agencies in the UK are concerned that climate change , especially its potential effects on mountain plateaus and marine life , threaten much of the fauna of Scotland .
= = Habitats = =
Scotland enjoys a diversity of temperate environments , incorporating deciduous and coniferous woodlands , and moorland , montane , estuarine , freshwater , oceanic , and tundra landscapes . About 14 % of Scotland is wooded , much of it in forestry plantations , but before humans cleared the land it supported much larger boreal Caledonian and broad @-@ leaved forests . Although much reduced , significant remnants of the native Scots pine woodlands can be found . Seventeen per cent of Scotland is covered by heather moorland and peatland . Caithness and Sutherland have one of the world 's largest and most intact areas of blanket bog , which supports a distinctive wildlife community . Seventy @-@ five per cent of Scotland 's land is classed as agricultural ( including some moorland ) while urban areas account for around 3 % . The coastline is 11 @,@ 803 kilometres ( 7 @,@ 334 mi ) long , and the number of islands with terrestrial vegetation is nearly 800 , about 600 of them lying off the west coast . Scotland has more than 90 % of the volume and 70 % of the total surface area of fresh water in the United Kingdom . There are more than 30 @,@ 000 freshwater lochs and 6 @,@ 600 river systems .
Under the auspices of the European Union 's Habitats Directive , as of December 2007 a total of 239 sites in Scotland covering more than 8 @,@ 750 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 380 sq mi ) had been accepted by European Commission as Special Areas of Conservation ( SAC ) . Scotland 's seas are among the most biologically productive in the world and contain 40 @,@ 000 or more species . Twenty @-@ four of the SACs are marine sites , and a further nine are coastal with marine and non @-@ marine elements . These marine elements extend to an area of around 350 square kilometres ( 140 sq mi ) . The Darwin Mounds , covering about 100 square kilometres ( 39 sq mi ) , are being considered as the first offshore SAC .
= = Mammals = =
Scotland was entirely covered in ice during the Pleistocene glaciations . As the post @-@ glacial weather warmed and the ice retreated , mammals migrated through the landscape . However , the opening of the English Channel ( as sea levels rose ) prevented further migrations , so mainland Britain has only two @-@ thirds of the species that reached Scandinavia . The Hebridean islands off Scotland 's west coast have only half those of Britain . Sixty @-@ two species of mammal live wild in and around Scotland including 13 species found in coastal waters . The populations of a third of the land mammal species are thought to be in decline due to factors including environmental pollution , habitat fragmentation , changes in agricultural practices , particularly overgrazing , and competition from introduced species . No mammal species are unique to Scotland , although the St. Kilda field mouse , Apodemus sylvaticus hirtensi , is an endemic subspecies of the wood mouse that reaches twice the size of its mainland cousins , and the Orkney vole or cuttick , Microtus arvalis orcadensis found only in the Orkney archipelago , is a sub @-@ species of the common vole . It may have been introduced by early settlers about 4 @,@ 000 years ago . There are various notable domesticated Scottish mammal breeds including Highland Cattle , the Shetland Pony , Soay Sheep and Scottish Terrier .
= = = Carnivores = = =
The representation of the weasel family ( Mustelidae ) in Scotland is typical of Britain as a whole save that the polecat is absent and that Scotland is the UK 's stronghold of the pine marten , although the purity of the latter breed is threatened by a release of American martens in northern England . Scotland hosts the only populations of European wildcat ( sub @-@ species Felis sylvestris grampia ) in the British Isles with numbers estimated at between 400 and 2 @,@ 000 animals , and of the red fox sub @-@ species Vulpes vulpes vulpes , a larger race than the more common V. v. crucigera and which has two distinct forms . The wild cat is at risk due to the inadequacy of protective legislation and is now considered at serious risk of extinction . In 2013 it was announced that the island of Càrna is to provide a sanctuary and breeding station in order to protect the species . Exterminations of the population of feral American mink , which were brought to Britain for fur farms in the 1950s , have been undertaken under the auspices of the Hebridean Mink Project and the Scottish Mink Initiative , which hopes to create a mink @-@ free zone in a large area stretching from Wester Ross to Tayside .
Other than occasional vagrants , among the seals only the Phocidae , or earless seals , are represented . Two species , the grey seal and harbour or common seal , are present around the coast of Scotland in internationally important numbers . In 2002 the Scottish grey seal population was estimated at 120 @,@ 600 adult animals , which is around 36 % of the world population and more than 90 % of the UK 's . The Scottish population of the common seal is 29 @,@ 700 , about 90 % of the UK and 36 % of the European total .
= = = Rodents , insectivores and lagomorphs = = =
Seventy @-@ five per cent of the UK 's red squirrels are found in Scotland . This species faces threats that include competition from the introduced grey squirrel , and the ' Scottish Strategy for Red Squirrel Conservation ' provides a framework for supporting its long @-@ term conservation . Research in 2007 credited the growing population of pine martens with assisting this programme by preying selectively on the grey squirrels . Scotland has no population of the edible or hazel dormouse , or of the yellow @-@ necked mouse , and the harvest mouse 's range is limited to the southern part of the country . The St Kilda mouse and Orkney vole ( see above ) are endemic , but otherwise population distributions are similar to the rest of mainland Britain . Colonies of black rats remain only on the island of Inchcolm in the Firth of Forth and on the Shiant Isles .
Mainland insectivore populations are generally similar to the rest of Britain . Recent steps by Scottish Natural Heritage , the Scottish Executive and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds to remove European hedgehogs from the Outer Hebrides , where their introduction has caused declines in internationally important breeding populations of wading seabird such as dunlin , ringed plover and redshank , has caused considerable controversy , and hedgehog culls were halted in 2007 . The trapped animals are now relocated to the mainland . The programme has reduced this population ; only two individuals were caught in 2007 .
Of the lagomorphs only hares and rabbits are represented in Scotland . The mountain hare is the only native member of the hare family and is the dominant species throughout most of upland Scotland . The European hare and European rabbit are both present , the latter having been brought to Britain by the Romans but not becoming widespread in Scotland until the 19th century .
= = = Artiodactyls = = =
Landseer 's painting of a red deer stag , Monarch of the Glen , is one of the most notable images of Victorian Scotland . The species , a member of the biological order artiodactyla or " even @-@ toed ungulates " , is still 400 @,@ 000 strong , although its existence in the pure form is threatened by hybridisation with introduced sika deer . Very much a hill @-@ dwelling species in Scotland ( and so typically smaller in stature than its European forest @-@ loving cousins ) , it is generally replaced by roe deer in lower @-@ lying land . Although found elsewhere in the UK , no wild populations of Chinese water deer and no or very few Chinese muntjac exist in Scotland . It has isolated populations of feral goats Capra hircus and feral sheep ( Ovis aries ) , such as the herd of 1 @,@ 000 Soay sheep on St Kilda . Since 1952 a herd of semi @-@ domesticated reindeer have lived in the Cairngorm National Park , the species having become extinct in Scotland after it was recorded as having been hunted in Orkney in the 12th century .
= = = Other mammals = = =
Only nine of the sixteen or seventeen bat species found elsewhere in Britain are present in Scotland . Widespread species are common and soprano pipistrelles , the brown long @-@ eared bat , Daubenton 's bat and Natterer 's bat . Those with a more restricted distribution are the whiskered bat , noctule , Leisler 's bat and Nathusius 's pipistrelle . Absences include the greater and lesser horseshoe bat , the greater mouse @-@ eared bat and Bechstein 's bat . No bats reside on the Shetland Islands ; the only records there are of migrants or vagrants .
Twenty @-@ one species of cetacean have been recorded in Scottish waters within the last 100 years including Cuvier 's beaked whale , killer whales , sperm whales , minke whales and common , white @-@ beaked and Risso 's dolphins . The Moray Firth colony of about 100 bottlenose dolphins is the most northerly in the world . As recent dramatic television coverage indicated , this species preys on harbour porpoises ; a third of the porpoise carcasses examined by pathologists from 1992 to 2002 indicated that death resulted from dolphin attacks . However , conservationists expressed dismay that the UK government decided to allow oil and gas prospecting in the Moray Firth , putting these populations of cetaceans at risk . In response , the government have placed seismic surveys " on hold " during 2009 pending further research . The introduced marsupial , the red @-@ necked wallaby , is confined to a colony on an island in Loch Lomond .
= = = Extinctions and reintroductions = = =
During the Pleistocene interglacials , arctic animals that are no longer extant occupied Scotland , including the woolly rhinoceros , mammoth , polar bear , lemming , Arctic fox and the giant deer Megaloceros giganteus . Other mammals that used to inhabit Scotland but became extinct in the wild during historic times include the Eurasian lynx , which lived in Britain until 1 @,@ 500 years ago , the European brown bear , subspecies Ursus arctos caledoniensis , which was taken to entertain the Roman circuses but died out in the 9th or 10th century , and the elk , which lasted until about 1300 . The wild boar and wild ox or urus died out in the subsequent two centuries , although the former 's domesticated cousin , the grice , lasted until 1930 in Shetland . The last known wolf was shot on Mackintosh land in Invernessshire in 1743 , and the walrus is now only an occasional vagrant . St Kilda also possessed an endemic subspecies of the house mouse , Mus musculus muralis , which was longer , hairier , coloured differently and had a skull shape at variance to the norm . It became extinct in 1938 , just eight years after the evacuation of the native St Kildans .
Scottish Natural Heritage have re @-@ introduced the European beaver to the wild in Scotland using Norwegian stock . The species was found in the Highlands until the 15th century , and although the then Scottish Executive initially rejected the idea , a trial commenced in May 2009 in Knapdale . In Tayside , deliberate releases or escapes have led to up to 250 animals colonising the area . The Scottish Government is monitoring the situation and expected to make an announcement about the species ' future in 2016 . After a feasibility study in Glen Affric , wild boar have been re @-@ introduced to a large fenced area of the Dundreggan Estate in Glenmoriston . Various other schemes are under consideration . For example , the owner of the Alladale estate north of Inverness has expressed a desire to reintroduce wolves as part of a wilderness reserve , the first of its kind in Britain .
= = Avifauna = =
The history of mammals suggests three broad overlapping phases : natural colonisation after the ice age , human @-@ caused extinctions , and introduction by humans of non @-@ native species . The greater mobility of birds makes such generalisations hard to substantiate in their case .
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Modern humans have done great damage to bird species , especially the raptors , but natural variations in populations are complex . For example , northern fulmars were present at Skara Brae during the Neolithic period , but in medieval times their breeding range was restricted to St Kilda . Since then they have spread throughout the British Isles .
Most of about 250 species of bird regularly recorded in Britain venture into Scotland , and perhaps up to 300 more occur with varying degrees of rarity . A total of 247 species have been assessed and each placed onto one of three lists , red , amber or green , indicating the level of concern for their future . Forty species are red @-@ listed , 121 are amber @-@ listed and 86 are green @-@ listed .
The Scottish crossbill , Loxia scotica , which inhabits the coniferous forests of the Highlands , is Britain 's only endemic bird and , with only 300 breeding pairs , one of Europe 's most threatened species . Its shape , red / green hue and habit of hanging upside down has led to comparisons with parrots . St Kilda has a unique subspecies of wren , the St Kilda wren Troglodytes troglodytes hirtensis , which has adapted to perching on the rocks and cliffs of this treeless Atlantic island , and consequently has developed larger and stronger feet than the mainland variant . It is also slightly larger , has a longer beak , a drabber though more varied colouring , and a " peculiarly sweet and soft " song . The subspecies was recognised in 1884 and was protected by a special Act of Parliament in 1904 to prevent its destruction " at the hands of ornithologists , egg @-@ collectors , taxidermists and tourists " .
= = = Raptors = = =
All but a few pairs of Britain 's approximately 600 golden eagles are found in Scotland as are most of the breeding peregrine falcons . The hobby , marsh harrier and Montagu 's harrier although found in England and Wales are generally absent .
In 1916 an English vicar stole the last native white @-@ tailed sea eagle eggs on Skye , and the last adult was shot on Shetland two years later . However , the species was reintroduced to the island of Rùm in 1975 . The bird spread successfully to various neighbouring islands , and 30 pairs were established by 2006 . Despite fears expressed by local farmers , the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ( RSPB ) are in process of releasing up to 100 young eagles on the east coast in the Forth and Tay estuaries . The red kite was exterminated in Scotland in 1879 , and a reintroduction programme was launched by the RSPB in the 1980s . Although the species has made significant advances , it is estimated that 38 % of the 395 birds fledged between 1999 and 2003 were poisoned and a further 9 % shot or otherwise killed by humans . The RSPB stated : " it may take a custodial sentence before people engaged with this activity begin to take the matter seriously " .
After an absence of nearly 40 years the osprey successfully re @-@ colonised Scotland in the early 1950s . In 1899 they had bred at the ruined Loch an Eilean castle near Aviemore and at Loch Arkaig until 1908 . In 1952 they claimed a new site at Loch Garten . There are now 150 breeding pairs .
Other raptor species found in the UK such as the kestrel , hen harrier , goshawk , sparrowhawk , tawny owl , and barn owl are widely distributed in Scotland , although the little owl is confined to the south . Buzzards have displayed a remarkable resilience , having recovered from human persecution and the myxomatosis epidemic of the 1950s , which reduced their food supply . Numbers more than trebled between 1978 and 1998 . At the other end of the population scale , a single pair of snowy owls bred on Fetlar from 1967 to 1975 .
In 2009 it was reported that the Scottish Government have decided to proceed with a controversial plan to relocate sparrowhawks found near pigeon lofts in Glasgow , Edinburgh , Kilmarnock , Stirling and Dumfries at a cost of £ 25 @,@ 000 .
= = = Seabirds = = =
Scotland 's seas host almost half of the European Union 's breeding seabirds including about half of the world 's northern gannets and a third of the world 's Manx shearwaters . Four seabird species have more than 95 % of their combined British and Irish population in Scotland , while a further fourteen species have more than half of their breeding population in Scottish colonies . St Kilda , which is a World Heritage Site , is a seabird haven of great significance . It has 60 @,@ 000 northern gannets , amounting to 24 % of the world population , 49 @,@ 000 breeding pairs of Leach 's storm petrel , up to 90 % of the European population , 136 @,@ 000 pairs of puffin and 67 @,@ 000 northern fulmar pairs , about 30 % and 13 % of the respective UK totals . The island of Mingulay also has a large seabird population and is an important breeding ground for razorbills , with 9 @,@ 514 pairs , 6 @.@ 3 % of the European population .
Sixty per cent of all breeding bonxies nest in Scotland , mostly in Orkney and Shetland , even though they did not arrive at all until the 18th century . Scotland is the breeding station for about 90 % of the UK 's Arctic terns , the majority of which make use of colonies in Orkney and Shetland . A similar percentage of the UK 's tysties breed on Scottish islands including Unst , Mingulay and Iona . Scotland also hosts 1 @,@ 000 pairs of Arctic skua and 21 @,@ 000 breeding pairs of shag , 40 % of the global population of the species .
In excess of 130 @,@ 000 birds inhabit Fowlsheugh nature reserve in Aberdeenshire at the peak of the breeding season , making it one of the largest seabird colonies in Britain . As of 2005 about 18 @,@ 000 breeding pairs of kittiwakes return to each year , and there are also significant numbers of Atlantic puffin , razorbill , fulmar , herring gull and great black @-@ backed gull . The Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth hosts upwards of 40 @,@ 000 pairs of northern gannets and is the largest single rock gannetry in the world . The bird 's scientific name Morus bassanus , derives from the rock .
= = = Game birds , waders and water fowl = = =
Red @-@ listed western capercaillie and ptarmigan breed in Scotland and are absent elsewhere in the British Isles . The former became extinct in Scotland in 1785 but was successfully reintroduced from Swedish stock in 1837 . There are significant populations of other Galliformes including blackcock and the famous red grouse . Common quail , grey partridge and pheasant are well @-@ distributed , although the red @-@ legged partridge is less so . A small colony of the introduced golden pheasant exists in the southwest .
Among the waders , avocet , stone @-@ curlew , little ringed plover and Kentish plover are absent , but most of the 100 or so pairs of dotterel in the UK spend their summers in Scotland as do all of the breeding whimbrel , greenshank and red @-@ necked phalarope , ( although the latter two species also breed in Ireland ) . In summer the shallow lochs of the machair lands in the Uists and Benbecula provide for a remarkable variety of waders and ducks including shoveler , eider , Slavonian grebe and the ' red @-@ listed ' common scoter . Goldeneye have colonised an area centred around the Cairngorms National Park since the 1970s , and about 100 pairs breed there . The majority of the roughly 8 @,@ 000 whooper swans in the British Isles winter in Scotland and Ireland .
Virtually all of the 40 @,@ 000 barnacle geese , which breed in Greenland , arrive on Islay for the winter , most staying only for a few days before dispersing to the surrounding area . A similar number of pink @-@ footed geese use the Montrose Basin as a temporary roost in October and November . The amber @-@ listed black and red @-@ throated diver 's freshwater breeding strongholds in the British Isles are in the north and west of Scotland .
= = = Other non @-@ passerines = = =
Considerable efforts have been taken to conserve the shy corncrake , and summer numbers of this red @-@ listed species have recovered to 670 pairs . The wryneck is also red @-@ listed and numbers fewer than 2 to 10 breeding pairs in Scotland . Of the Columbidae the turtle dove is largely absent , but in the British Isles the rock dove is confined to the north and west coasts of Scotland and Ireland .
= = = Passerines = = =
Ravens are typically forest @-@ dwelling birds in much of Europe , but in Scotland they are generally associated with mountains and sea coasts . In 2002 the hooded crow was recognised as a separate species from the carrion crow . Scotland and Northern Ireland host all of the approximately 190 @,@ 000 UK territories of the former . A recent survey suggest that raven numbers are increasing but that hooded crows had declined by 59 % while carrion crow numbers were essentially static . Concentrated on the islands of Islay and Colonsay , 340 pairs of red @-@ billed chough nest in Scotland .
In addition to crossbills ( see above ) , crested tits exist as a fragmented population of 2 @,@ 400 breeding pairs in remnant patches of Caledonian Forest and in some larger plantations such as the Culbin Forest in Moray . Ring ouzels have declined to around 7 @,@ 000 pairs , possibly due to disturbance from the growing number of human visitors to their upland habitat . There are fewer than 100 breeding pairs of snow bunting , although in winter they are joined by migrants from continental Europe . A nest site near Dumfries is thought to have been in use by dippers since 1881 . Scotland has 95 % of the British breeding population of red @-@ listed twite , about 64 @,@ 000 pairs . However , a recent RSPB survey found a sudden and dramatic fall in winter numbers from 6 @,@ 000 in 1998 to only 300 in 2006 in the counties of Caithness and Sutherland .
= = = Vagrants = = =
Scotland 's position on the western seaboard of Europe means that a variety of birds not normally found in the country visit from time to time . These include accidental visits by vagrant birds that have wandered far from their normal habitations .
Fair Isle is an internationally renowned site for the observation of migrant birds . Rarities have included passerines such as the thick @-@ billed warbler , white @-@ throated sparrow , yellow @-@ rumped warbler and collared flycatcher . More than 345 species of bird have been recorded on this island , which measures only 7 @.@ 68 square kilometres ( 2 @.@ 97 sq mi ) .
Elsewhere , other rarities reported in 2006 include a white @-@ billed diver at Gairloch , a black @-@ browed albatross in the Western Isles , a laughing gull in Shetland and a buff @-@ breasted sandpiper at Lossiemouth . Accidentals recorded in earlier years include an American bittern in 1888 and a purple heron in the same year , a Baikal teal in 1958 , and a black stork in 1977 . Birds are also presumed to have escaped from captivity , such as a lanner falcon in 1976 , Chilean flamingos in 1976 and 1979 , a black @-@ necked swan in 1988 , and a red @-@ tailed hawk in 1989 . These records are but a small selection from two counties in the north @-@ east and give only a flavour of the complexity and diversity of avian life in Scotland .
= = = Extinctions = = =
The common crane and great bittern were exterminated by hunters and the draining of marshes in the 18th century . The last great auk seen in Britain was killed on Stac an Armin , a rocky pinnacle in the St Kilda archipelago in July 1840 .
= = Fish life in the sea = =
Of the 42 species of fish found in Scottish fresh waters , only half have arrived by natural colonisation . Native species include allis shad , brown trout , European eel and river lamprey . Scottish rivers support one of the largest Atlantic salmon resources in Europe , with nearly 400 rivers supporting genetically distinct populations . Five fish species are considered ' late arrivals ' to Scotland , having colonised by natural means prior to 1790 . They are the northern pike , roach , stone loach , European perch , and minnow . Rarer native species include the endemic Salvelinus killinensis and the powan , the latter found in only two locations and under threat from introduced ruffe and the Arctic charr . The latter may have been the first fish species to re @-@ enter fresh waters when the last ice age ended , and about 200 populations exist .
The freshwater pearl mussel was once abundant enough to support commercial activities , and Scotland is the remaining European stronghold with about half the global number present . There are populations in more than 50 rivers , mainly in the Highlands , although illegal harvesting has seriously affected their survival .
Scotland 's seas , which constitute an area greater than that of the seas around the rest of the UK , are among the most biologically productive in the world . They are home to a third of the world 's whale and dolphin species , most of the UK 's maerl , ( a collective term for several species of calcified red seaweed , and an important marine habitat ) , Horsemussel ( Modiolus modiolus ) and seagrass beds , and distinctive species like the tall sea pen , Funiculina quadrangularis . It is estimated that the total number of Scottish marine species exceeds 40 @,@ 000 . This includes 250 species of fish , the most numerous inshore variety being saithe , and deeper water creatures such as the dogfish , porbeagle and blue shark , European eel , sea bass , Atlantic halibut and various rays . There are four species of sea turtle , the leatherback , loggerhead , Kemp 's ridley and green turtle . Scottish waters contain around 2 @,@ 500 crustacean species and 700 molluscs and in 2012 a bed of 100 million flame shells was found during a survey of Loch Alsh .
The Darwin Mounds , an important area of cold water coral reefs discovered in 1988 , are about 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) deep in the Atlantic Ocean , about 185 kilometres ( 115 mi ) north @-@ west of Cape Wrath in the north @-@ east corner of the Rockall trough . The area covers approximately 100 square kilometres ( 39 sq mi ) and contains hundreds of mounds of about 100 metres ( 330 ft ) in diameter and 5 metres ( 16 ft ) in height , many having a teardrop shaped ' tail ' orientated south @-@ west of the mound . This feature may be unique globally . The tops of the mounds have living stands of Lophelia corals and support significant populations of the single @-@ celled Syringammina fragilissima . Fish have been observed in the vicinity but not at higher densities than the background environment . Damage from trawler fishing was visible over about a half of the eastern Darwin Mounds surveyed during summer 2000 , and the UK government is taking steps to protect the area . In 2003 the European Commission provided emergency protection and banned damaging fishing activity in the locality .
Further action on a much wider scale may be required . According to a recent report " Scotland 's marine life could be almost wiped out within 50 years unless tough action is taken to manage the way humans use the seas " . Fears were expressed by a consortium of environmental organisations that commercial fish stocks , including Atlantic cod are suffering from over @-@ fishing , that fish farming , especially for salmon is damaging the aquatic environment , a reduction in coastal marsh habitats is affecting marine bird life , litter in densely populated estuaries such as the Firth of Clyde is affecting all forms of marine life and that the growth in off @-@ shore tourism was deleterious to populations of , for example , basking shark . A call was made for a ' Scottish Marine Bill ' to co @-@ ordinate and manage human activity at sea and to provide more protected areas such as marine national parks . The Marine ( Scotland ) Act 2010 was subsequently passed by the Scottish Parliament .
Calyptraea chinensis ( L. ) is a gastropod that has invaded the shores of Scotland and by 1998 had reached nearly as far north as Oban . One living specimen was found at Clachan Sound , and earlier records showed findings of gastropod shells .
= = = Riverine extinctions = = =
Pollution and predation led to the extinction of both species of vendace from its very restricted range in south @-@ western Scottish freshwaters in 1980 . In the 1990s a successful attempt to reintroduce Coregonus vandesius to the Lochmaben area began . Coregonus albula remains absent .
Salvelinus inframundus , a rare char species that could be vulnerable to extinct , has been found in Loch Mealt , Isle of Skye , Scottish Highlands .
= = Amphibians and land reptiles = =
Only six amphibians and four land reptiles are native to Scotland . The amphibians include three species of newt : the great crested , of which fewer than 1 @,@ 000 individuals survive ; the smooth , and the palmate . The other amphibians are the common toad , the natterjack toad , found in only four locations in the south @-@ west , and the common frog . A single alien amphibian is known in Scotland , the Alpine newt , a recent escapee confined to the Edinburgh area .
The reptiles include the adder and the grass snake , the slow @-@ worm , which is a legless lizard , and the common lizard . Smooth snakes , found elsewhere in the UK are absent , and grass snakes are rarely reported .
= = Terrestrial invertebrates = =
Seventy @-@ seven species of land snail and an estimated 14 @,@ 000 species of insect live in Scotland , none of them " truly " endemic . These include Pardosa lugubris , a species of wolf spider first found in the UK in 2000 at Abernethy Forest nature reserve , and the Scottish wood ant . These ants , which are the most numerous residents of the Caledonian pine forest , build mounds from the pine cones and needles they find on the forest floor and may inhabit the mounds for decades . A single colony may collect 100 @,@ 000 insects a day to feed its half million citizens and produce up to 250 kilograms ( 550 lb ) of honeydew per season .
In addition to the Scottish wood ant , several Scottish species of invertebrate exist that are otherwise rare in the UK and important enough to have a specific " Action Plan " to provide protection . These are five species of ant and bee , six moths and butterfly , five flies and a single beetle ( the reed beetle ) and snail ( the round @-@ mouthed whorl snail , Vertigo genesii ) . Northern colletes is a rare species of bee , the most significant British habitat for which is in the Outer Hebrides , where there are more than ten colonies . Scotland is also the UK stronghold of the Blaeberry bumblebee , and the Bumblebee Conservation Trust recently created the world 's first sanctuary for this genus of insects at RSPB Vane Farm Nature Reserve near Loch Leven . The bumblebee Bombus jonellus var. hebridensis is endemic to the Hebrides . In 2010 , a colony of the beetle Meloe brevicollis was found on the island of Coll . The species is otherwise extinct in Scotland and is also flightless , raising the question of how the colony arrived on the island . The northern February red stonefly ( Brachyptera putata ) has recently lost its range elsewhere in Britain and is now it considered to be a Scottish endemic .
Although many species of butterfly are in decline in the UK , recent research suggests that some , such as the pearl @-@ bordered fritillary , marsh fritillary and chequered skipper , which are becoming rare in the rest of the UK , are moving north into Scotland in response to climate change . In June 2008 an adult Ethmia pyrausta moth was discovered in Easter Ross . This find was only the fifth sighting since its discovery in the UK at Loch Shin in 1853 , and the species has gained " almost mythical status " according to Butterfly Conservation Scotland .
The most well @-@ known invertebrate may be a species of midge ( Culicoides impunctatus ) , a tiny flying gnat that is the scourge of summer visitors and residents alike . Its predations result in the loss of up to 20 % of summer working days in the forestry industry . Others of significance include the pine weevil , black pine beetle , clytra beetle , and the timberman , a long @-@ horned beetle . The archaeological site at Skara Brae provided the earliest known record of the human flea , Pulex irritans in Europe .
The islands of Colonsay and Oronsay are home to about 50 colonies of the only native species of honeybee in Britain – Apis mellifera mellifera . The Scottish Government introduced the Bee Keeping ( Colonsay and Oronsay ) Order 2013 to protect the species from cross @-@ breeding and disease as the species has suffered serious declines on the mainland .
= = Cryptozoology = =
A variety of exotic cats are rumoured to exist , including the ' Beast of Buchan ' . The ' Kellas Cat ' of Moray is a jet black , long @-@ legged animal , and is probably the result of a modern wild cat / domestic cat hybrid , or a melanistic wild cat . In earlier times it may have spawned the legend of the Cat Sidhe or " Fairy Cat " . The fabulous Loch Ness Monster , possibly a form of " water horse " , has a long history ; the first recorded sighting allegedly took place in 565 AD . More recently , the Stronsay Beast was an unidentified cryptid washed ashore in the Orkney islands in the 19th century .
= = Nature conservation in Scotland = =
= = = Challenges = = =
Conservation of the natural environment is well @-@ developed in the United Kingdom . The resources of the organisations concerned may be insufficient to the challenge , but the contrast with earlier attitudes about the environment is striking . In Victorian times few animals became extinct in Scotland , but the scale of the slaughter on hunting estates was staggering . Richard Perry records that on a single estate in the Cairngorms between 1837 and 1840 the following " vermin " were exterminated by keepers purely in the interests of preserving the grouse population :
246 Martens , 198 Wild Cats , 106 Polecats , 67 Badgers , 58 Otters , 475 Ravens , 462 Kestrels , 371 Rough @-@ legged Buzzards , 285 Common Buzzards , 275 Kites , 98 Peregrine Falcons , 92 Hen Harriers , 78 Merlins , 71 Short @-@ eared Owls , 63 Goshawks , 35 Long @-@ eared Owls , 27 Sea Eagles , 18 Ospreys , 15 Golden Eagles , 11 Hobbys , 6 Gyrfalcons , 5 Marsh Harriers , 3 Honey Buzzards ,
and for reasons apparently unconnected to grouse shooting , a further
11 Foxes , 301 Stoats and Weasels , 78 House Cats , 1 @,@ 431 Hooded or Carrion Crow , 3 Barn Owls , 8 Magpies and 7 " Orange @-@ legged Falcons " .
Writing in 1947 , Perry stated that his " first reaction to this dreadful black @-@ list was that of amazed incredulity . I still find the details incredible . However , they were supplied by the lessee himself . " In several instances these extermination totals are larger than the current resident numbers for the entire country .
It remains to be seen if the destruction wrought by the Victorians continues to be the nadir for the fauna of Scotland . In addition to other difficulties the marine environment faces , climate change is a challenge facing all of Scotland 's habitats . Among the birds , ptarmigan , dotterel and snow bunting in particular may be affected as they depend on high @-@ altitude habitats , and populations are likely to decline if warmer weather brings competitors into their restricted ranges . Mammals and other vertebrates may fare better , although localised invertebrate populations are at risk . Marine life is already being affected . Planktonic species that prefer cold water are declining and are not able support the crucial food chains on which many seabirds depend . Further evidence of problems for marine species has been provided by the St Andrews University Sea Mammal Research Unit . An analysis suggests that common seal populations in Orkney and Shetland fell by 40 % from 2001 to 2006 , prompting the then Scottish Executive to announce the likelihood of a new protective conservation order .
The complexities involved in conserving Scottish wildlife are highlighted in an RSPB report , noting that pine martens have been found to be a significant predator of capercaillie nests . Both species are protected , providing conservation agencies with a challenging conundrum to address . In 2012 the Scottish Government published a " Code of Practice on Non @-@ Native Species " to help people understand their responsibilities and provide guidance as to which public body has responsibility for the various habitats involved .
= = = Conservation organisations = = =
Various public sector organisations have an important role in the stewardship of the country 's fauna . Scottish Natural Heritage is the statutory body responsible for natural heritage management in Scotland . One of its duties is to establish National Nature Reserves ( NNR ) s . Until 2004 there were 73 , but a review carried out in that year resulted in a significant number of sites losing their NNR status , and as of 2006 there are 55 . The Forestry Commission in Scotland serves as the forestry department of the Scottish Government and is one of the country 's largest landowners . The Joint Nature Conservation Committee is the statutory adviser to Government on UK and international nature conservation .
The country has two national parks . Cairngorms National Park includes the largest area of arctic mountain landscape in the UK . Sites designated as of importance to natural heritage take up 39 % of the land area , two thirds of which are of Europe @-@ wide importance . Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park includes Britain 's largest body of fresh water , the mountains of Breadalbane and the sea lochs of Argyll .
Charitable and voluntary organisations also have important roles to play . The National Trust for Scotland is the conservation charity that protects and promotes Scotland 's natural and cultural heritage . With more than 270 @,@ 000 members it is the largest conservation charity in Scotland . The Scottish Wildlife Trust is a leading voluntary conservation organisation , working to protect Scotland 's natural environment . The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland is a learned society and registered charity that maintains Edinburgh Zoo and the Highland Wildlife Park ( a safari park and zoo near Kingussie , which specialises in native fauna ) . The Society is also involved in various conservation programs around Scotland and the world . The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds promotes conservation of birds and other wildlife through the protection and re @-@ creation of habitats . The John Muir Trust is a charity whose main role is as a guardian of wild land and wildlife , through the ownership of land and the promotion of education and conservation . The trust owns and manages estates in locations including Knoydart and Assynt , and on the isle of Skye . It has links with the Sierra Club in the United States , which also celebrates the legacy of Dunbar @-@ born John Muir . Trees for Life is a charity that aims to restore a " wild forest " in the Northwest Highlands and Grampian Mountains .
= Fool in Love =
" Fool in Love " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , from the deluxe edition of her sixth studio album Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . The song was written by Ester Dean , Lukasz Gottwald , Henry Walter . Production was helmed by Lukasz Gottwald , Cirkut and Dean . Musically , " Fool in Love " is a rhapsodic ballad , and instrumentation consists of acoustic and electric guitars , synthesizers and drums . The lyrics revolve around Rihanna being the protagonist , and how she has met a relatively good man who her parents do not approve of , but requests that they accept her decision to be with him due to their love for each other , despite familial concerns .
It received comparisons to Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " and Britney Spears ' " Criminal " . The song 's composition , production and vocal performance was acclaimed by music critics , however , some criticized its lyrics . Upon the release of Talk That Talk , " Fool in Love " debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 70 , with digital sales of 6 @,@ 536 downloads . It also charted on the UK R & B Chart at number 35 and on the UK Singles Chart at number 123 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Fool in Love " was written and produced by Ester Dean , Dr. Luke , and Cirkut . As noted by Katherine St Asaph of Popdust and Amy Sciarretto of Popcrush , the opening lyrics of " Fool in Love " feature close similarities to that of Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " ( A Night at the Opera , 1975 ) , with regard to the opening lyric " Mama , I found a man . " Amy Sciaretto from PopCrush , as well as St Asaph , compared the song 's composition to Britney Spears ' " Criminal " ( Femme Fatale , 2011 ) , with regard to how " Fool in Love " ' s instrumental begins with " panning synths " and acoustic guitar , with Sciaretto agreeing that " only Ri [ hanna ] could make that juxtaposition work . " " Fool in Love " also features a single and double guitar sequence toward the end of the song , which begins with one electric guitar being played and begins to incorporate a second , creating a " twinned " effect , before the song descends into a prolonged fade at the end .
Musically , " Fool in Love " is a rhapsodic ballad , which incorporates acoustic and electric guitars , synthesizers and drums . Lyrically , Rihanna tells of how she has met a relatively good man who her parents do not approve of , but requests that they accept her decision to be with him due to their love for each other , despite familial concerns . Rihanna insists that she is in love , singing " Papa he 's quite a man , he adores me / He 's my biggest fan . " She then claims that he has taken a hold over her , singing " We 're too far down the hole / He 's got a hold on my soul . " Rihanna 's vocal performance in the song was described as the singer 's " biggest ornamented " song by Robert Everett @-@ Green of The Globe and Mail , as well as noting that the singer emotes a sense of fatality in her vocals during the bass sequences in the song . " Fool in Love " displays Rihanna emoting a vulnerable style of singing , due to the lyrical content and mood in the song , which can be heard in the lyrics " Papa , are you ashamed of how your little girl turned out ? " due to how the singer feels as though her parents are disappointed in her choice of man . Robert Copsey for Digital Spy commented that Rihanna appeared to be channelling Madonna on the song .
= = Critical reception = =
Critical reception towards the song was mostly positive . Robert Copsey from Digital Spy commended the balladry on Talk That Talk , paying particular attention to " Fool in Love " and " Farewell " , writing " anyone questioning her motives need only hear ballads ' Farewell ' and ' Fool in Love ' to find out not only does she have a heart , but she 's without doubt been putting all of it into these past six years . " Robert Everett @-@ Green for The Globe and Mail praised the song , writing " Fool in Love rings down the curtain with a towering anthem that somehow squeezes fresh feeling from a tired lyrical concept . " Katherine St Asaph for Popdust emoted a mixed response to " Fool in Love " , giving the song three and a half stars out of five and writing that it is " so @-@ bad @-@ it 's @-@ good " . St Aspash praised " Fool in Love " ' s composition and musical influences , but criticized the song as not providing " dynamic variety " amongst Talk That Talk 's material .
= = Cover versions = =
In October 2012 , British R & B @-@ singer Iyaz released a cover version of " Fool in Love " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk .
Recording
Recorded at Eightysevenfourteen Studios , Los Angeles , California , and at Eyeknowasecret Studio , Brentwood , California .
Mixed at MixStar Studios , Virginia Beach , Virginia .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Talk That Talk , " Fool in Love " debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 70 on November 26 , 2011 , with sales of 6 @,@ 536 digital downloads . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 35 on the UK R & B Chart on November 27 , 2011 . It also debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 123 in the chart issue December 3 , 2011 .
= Washing Machine ( album ) =
Washing Machine is the ninth studio album by the American experimental rock band Sonic Youth , released on September 26 , 1995 by DGC Records . It was recorded at Easley Studios in Memphis , Tennessee and produced by the band and John Siket , who also engineered the band 's previous two albums . The album features more open @-@ ended pieces than its predecessors and contains some of the band 's longest songs , including the 20 @-@ minute ballad " The Diamond Sea " , which is the lengthiest track to feature on any of Sonic Youth 's studio albums .
Upon release , Washing Machine reached No. 58 on the US Billboard 200 chart and No. 39 on the UK Albums Chart . Two songs from the album , " The Diamond Sea " and " Little Trouble Girl " , were released as singles . The album received generally positive reviews from music critics , who praised the band for exploring new challenges as well as the guitar playing of band members Thurston Moore and Lee Ranaldo . In 1996 , the album was ranked at No. 18 in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 1995 .
= = Background and recording = =
Washing Machine is the follow @-@ up to Sonic Youth 's 1994 DGC album Experimental Jet Set , Trash and No Star . After Experimental Jet Set , the band decided to take a hiatus from performing live and concentrated on numerous side projects . Band member Kim Gordon played with Julia Cafritz of Pussy Galore in Free Kitten , drummer Steve Shelley performed with Jad Fair in Mosquito , guitarist Lee Ranaldo played with free jazz drummer William Hooker and singer / guitarist Thurston Moore released his first solo album , Psychic Hearts . Moore and Gordon also had their first child , Coco . According to Moore , their daughter had provided a different perspective for the band : " I 'm more focused and level @-@ headed . There 's a sublime awareness factor of your spiritual place in the world . I feel more at ease with myself ... Babies are little Buddhas . They 're completely great " .
Unlike previous Sonic Youth albums , Washing Machine was recorded at Easley Studios in Memphis , where indie rock bands like Pavement , Guided by Voices and Grifters previously recorded albums . Moore remarked that the atmosphere in Memphis " lent itself to avoiding the reality of the record @-@ buying public . In the past we were always very aware of who was out there checking us out . This was the first record where we 've gotten this certain level of notoriety and we were just , like , ' fuck it ' " . He also felt that Washing Machine was conceived and recorded like some of the band 's earlier albums : " It hearkens back to records like Sister where we 'd write a bunch of songs , go into the studio for a month , put them down , then go on the road and play them for a year . By the end of the year they 'd mutate into something much more excited " . Gordon credited Memphis for its relaxed atmosphere and cited the album as one of her favorites .
The song " The Diamond Sea " is notable for its 19 : 35 duration . Moore explained the length of some of the album 's songs : " We all have different aesthetics as to how songs should work . I generally push for a lot of abandon while some people in the group are more interested in truncating things . If I was the leader as much as people say I am , every song would be 20 minutes long " . The unlisted ninth track , officially called " Becuz Coda " , was originally part of the song " Becuz " , but the record label felt they needed to cut the seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute track to make the album 's opening more accessible . The album was produced by Sonic Youth and John Siket , who also engineered the band 's previous two albums . Audio mixing took place at Greene Street Studios in New York City in June 1995 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Unlike Experimental Jet Set , which is often described as difficult and claustrophobic , Washing Machine was considerably more open @-@ ended and contains some of the band 's longest songs . It was also the first Sonic Youth album on which Gordon almost exclusively played guitar instead of bass , resulting in a three @-@ guitar and drums lineup . Trouser Press remarked that the album contains musical references to The Shangri @-@ Las and The Byrds and described its style as " [ veering ] between trance @-@ guitar experiments and more concise statements . " Entertainment Weekly described it thus : " These songs unfold over even @-@ tempered rhythms and guitars that linger rather than attack . A splatter of distortion may enter , but the effect is mostly languid and wonderfully hypnotic " .
Although Gordon 's lyrics on Experimental Jet Set addressed gender roles and stereotypes , her contributions to Washing Machine were considered more feminine and girl @-@ oriented . Tom Moon of Rolling Stone noted , " The title track is an odd , earnest love song ; ' Panty Lies ' is a playground taunt blown to absurd extremes ; and ' [ Little ] Trouble Girl ' , the Spector sendup , is a dramatic , earnest coming @-@ of @-@ age story " . The latter was described by David Browne of Entertainment Weekly as " a teen @-@ pregnancy lullaby " and features vocals by Gordon and Kim Deal ( of Pixies and The Breeders ) along with other musicians . Gordon felt that Deal had an ideal voice for the melodic part and explained that the song was about " wanting to be seen for who you really are , being able to express those parts of yourself that aren 't ' good girl ' but that are just as real and true " . Ranaldo contributed to two songs , " Saucer @-@ Like " and " Skip Tracer " . The latter was co @-@ written with Ranaldo 's wife Leah Singer and inspired by a performance that the couple attended of riot grrrl duo Mecca Normal . The song alludes to the band 's special relationship with the major labels .
The track " Junkie 's Promise " , sung by Moore , was described as a " heroin vignette " . It was originally interpreted by many as a tribute to Kurt Cobain of Nirvana . However , Moore later clarified that the song " is purely about the emotional relationship between friends , one of which is a user . Any individual involved with drug addiction will lie to his friends for the self @-@ serving need . It 's the cruelest truth of the situation . Kurt may fit this profile and he was surely in my mind as I wrote but the song is not a specific dedication to him " . Other songs such as " Becuz " and " No Queen Blues " were built upon " numb grooves with slivers of melody , power , and gorgeously crafted noise " . The final track on the album , " The Diamond Sea " , was described as a " Neil Young @-@ esque ballad billowing into an epic noise excursion " . It is considered the longest track on any Sonic Youth album , excluding Sonic Youth Recordings releases . Due to its long duration , the song was edited down to 5 : 15 for release as a single , which also included an alternative 25 @-@ minute version as an additional track .
= = Artwork and release = =
The album cover consists of a cropped Polaroid photograph of two unidentified fans taken at a Sonic Youth show in Amherst , Massachusetts in April 1995 , during a short tour undertaken while the album was still in production . The fans are depicted wearing T @-@ shirts that were sold as merchandise during that tour ; early in 1995 , the band was toying with the idea of changing their name to Washing Machine . Visible on the shirt on the left are signatures by Thalia Zedek and Chris Brokaw of the tour 's opening band Come . The photo was taken by Gordon , who believed it could be used as the album cover . The band liked the shot , but the record label did not want to use it without permission from the fans . As the band did not have any way to contact them , their faces had to be cut off .
Washing Machine was released on vinyl , CD and cassette formats on September 26 , 1995 by DGC , shortly after the group concluded their stint headlining the 1995 Lollapalooza music festival . During the festival , the band previewed some tracks from the album in addition to playing several songs from Daydream Nation , Dirty , and Experimental Jet Set . In Germany , the record was also released with a bonus disc containing four live songs that were recorded in Paris on September 12 , 1995 . Upon release , Washing Machine reached No. 58 on the US Billboard 200 chart and No. 39 on the UK Albums Chart . The album also charted in several other countries , including Australia , New Zealand , The Netherlands and Belgium . Two singles and music videos for " The Diamond Sea " and " Little Trouble Girl " were released in 1995 and 1996 respectively . As of 2005 , the album had sold 159 @,@ 000 copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan .
= = Critical reception = =
Washing Machine received generally positive reviews from music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic opined that the album is " easily [ the band 's ] most adventurous , challenging and best record since Daydream Nation ... Not only are the songs more immediate than most of the material on their earlier records , the sound here is warm and open , making Washing Machine their most mature and welcoming record to date ... Washing Machine encompasses everything that made Sonic Youth innovators , and shows that they can continue to grow , finding new paths inside their signature sound " . Similarly , Peter Margasak of CMJ New Music Monthly described the album as a " powerful consolidation of the band 's accomplishments , but a distillation that looks forwards " . He also highlighted the song " The Diamond Sea " as the album 's centerpiece , stating that it was one of Moore 's " most ambitious excursions into pure sonic colors , textures , and tension " .
Writing for Rolling Stone , Tom Moon called Washing Machine " a sardonic , wise @-@ ass , indulgent and totally captivating album " , declaring that it was " anti @-@
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burned , stallions were gelded and the stud discontinued . Ruy d 'Andrade , a specialist in Iberian horse breeds , saved two stallions and several mares , and was able to re @-@ establish the strain , turning his herd over to the Portuguese Ministry of Agriculture in 1942 , when the stud was reopened . The Portuguese state has maintained ownership of the stud , and continues to produce horses for use in high school dressage .
= = Registration = =
Today , outside of Portugal and Spain , breeding , showing and registration of both Lusitanos and Andalusians are often closely linked . One example is the Australasian Lusitano Horse Association of Australasia ( LHAA ) , which shares responsibility for the Purebred Iberian Horse ( an Andalusian / Lusitano cross ) with the Australasia Andalusian Association , as well as hosting a combined National Show for the two breeds in Australia . The LHAA was formed in 2003 to register and promote the Lusitano breed in Australia and New Zealand , and in June 2005 signed an agreement with their parent organization , the Portuguese Associação Portuguesa de Criadores do Cavalo Puro Sangue Lusitano , to follow that association 's rules and regulations . The LHAA maintains two studbooks ( for the purebred Lusitano and the purebred Iberian ) and a crossbred registry for horses with one Lusitano parent . An example of a combined registry is the International Andalusian and Lusitano Horse Association ( IALHA ) .
= = Characteristics and uses = =
Lusitanos are generally gray , bay or chestnut , though they can be of any solid color , including black , dun and palomino . Only bays are bred at the Alter Real stud . They usually stand 15 @.@ 2 and 15 @.@ 3 hands ( 62 and 63 inches , 157 and 160 cm ) high , although some stand over 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) . Members of the breed have narrow , but well @-@ proportioned , heads with profiles that are slightly convex . The necks are thick and arched , leading to well defined withers , shoulders that are muscular and sloping and a deep , broad chest . The horses have short , strong backs and rounded , sloped croups , leading to a low @-@ set tail . The legs are sturdy and muscled . Lusitanos are known as powerful horses , noted for their intelligence and willing nature . The breed 's gaits are agile and elevated , but generally comfortable to ride . The Lusitano differs from the Andalusian through having a more sloped croup , a lower @-@ set tail , and a more convex head profile . The mane and tail are extremely thick in both breeds .
The ancestors of the Lusitano were originally used for classical dressage , driving and bullfighting on horseback . Today , Lusitanos are seen in Olympic disciplines , including high @-@ level combined driving competition . In 1995 , a four @-@ in @-@ hand team driven by Belgian Felix Brasseur won the FEI Driving World Cup , and took the World Championships in 1996 . In 2002 , there was a Lusitano on the World Equestrian Games bronze @-@ winning dressage team that went on to collect a silver medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics . In 2006 , the entire Portuguese dressage team rode Lusitanos at the World Equestrian Games , as did one Spanish dressage competitor . The Belgian Brasseur took the gold medal in four @-@ in @-@ hand driving at the same competition with a team composed solely of Lusitanos . They are still used for mounted bullfighting today , in a form where the bull is not killed and it is considered a disgrace to the rider if the horse is injured . Horses bred for this sport must be agile and calm , remaining in the control of the rider even when confronted by a bull . Between 1980 and 1987 , Lusitanos were used for breeding Colorado Ranger horses , although these crosses are no longer allowed by the breed registry . An Alter Real stallion , taken to Brazil prior to Napoleon 's invasion , was a foundation stallion of the Mangalarga Marchador breed .
= The Beatles =
The Beatles were an English rock band , formed in Liverpool in 1960 . With members John Lennon , Paul McCartney , George Harrison and Ringo Starr , they became widely regarded as the foremost and most influential act of the rock era . Rooted in skiffle , beat , and 1950s rock and roll , the Beatles later experimented with several musical styles , ranging from pop ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock , often incorporating classical elements in innovative ways . In the early 1960s , their enormous popularity first emerged as " Beatlemania " , but as the group 's music grew in sophistication , led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney , they came to be perceived as an embodiment of the ideals shared by the counterculture of the 1960s .
The Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three @-@ year period from 1960 , with Stuart Sutcliffe initially serving as bass player . The core of Lennon , McCartney and Harrison went through a succession of drummers , most notably Pete Best , before asking Starr to join them . Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act , and producer George Martin guided and developed their recordings , greatly expanding their popularity in the United Kingdom after their first hit , " Love Me Do " , in late 1962 . They acquired the nickname " the Fab Four " as Beatlemania grew in Britain the next year , and by early 1964 became international stars , leading the " British Invasion " of the United States pop market . From 1965 onwards , the Beatles produced increasingly innovative recordings , including the widely influential albums Rubber Soul ( 1965 ) , Revolver ( 1966 ) , Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1967 ) , The Beatles ( commonly known as the White Album , 1968 ) and Abbey Road ( 1969 ) .
After their break @-@ up in 1970 , they each enjoyed successful musical careers of varying lengths . McCartney and Starr , the surviving members , remain musically active . Lennon was shot and killed in December 1980 , and Harrison died of lung cancer in November 2001 .
According to the RIAA , the Beatles are the best @-@ selling music artists in the United States , with 178 million certified units . They have had more number @-@ one albums on the British charts and sold more singles in the UK than any other act . In 2008 , the group topped Billboard magazine 's list of the all @-@ time most successful " Hot 100 " artists ; as of 2016 , they hold the record for most number @-@ one hits on the Hot 100 chart with twenty . They have received ten Grammy Awards , an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards . Collectively included in Time magazine 's compilation of the twentieth century 's 100 most influential people , they are the best @-@ selling band in history , with estimated sales of over 600 million records worldwide . The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 , and all four were inducted individually from 1994 to 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = 1957 – 62 : Formation , Hamburg , and UK popularity = = =
In March 1957 , John Lennon , then aged sixteen , formed a skiffle group with several friends from Quarry Bank school . They briefly called themselves the Blackjacks , before changing their name to the Quarrymen after discovering that a respected local group was already using the other name . Fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Paul McCartney joined as a rhythm guitarist shortly after he and Lennon met that July . In February 1958 , McCartney invited his friend George Harrison to watch the band . The fourteen @-@ year @-@ old auditioned for Lennon , impressing him with his playing , but Lennon initially thought Harrison was too young to join them . After a month of Harrison 's persistence , they enlisted him as their lead guitarist . By January 1959 , Lennon 's Quarry Bank friends had left the group , and he began studies at the Liverpool College of Art . The three guitarists , billing themselves at least three times as Johnny and the Moondogs , were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer . Lennon 's art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe , who had recently sold one of his paintings and was persuaded to purchase a bass guitar , joined in January 1960 , and it was he who suggested changing the band 's name to Beatals , as a tribute to Buddy Holly and the Crickets . They used the name until May , when they became the Silver Beetles , before undertaking a brief tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer and fellow Liverpudlian Johnny Gentle . By early July , they had changed their name to the Silver Beatles and by the middle of August to the Beatles .
Allan Williams , the Beatles ' unofficial manager , arranged a residency for them in Hamburg , but lacking a full @-@ time drummer they auditioned and hired Pete Best in mid @-@ August 1960 . The band , now a five @-@ piece , left four days later , contracted to club owner Bruno Koschmider for what would be a 3 ½ -month residency . Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn writes : " They pulled into Hamburg at dusk on 17 August , the time when the red @-@ light area comes to life ... flashing neon lights screamed out the various entertainment on offer , while scantily clad women sat unabashed in shop windows waiting for business opportunities . "
Koschmider had converted a couple of strip clubs in the district into music venues , and he initially placed the Beatles at the Indra Club . After closing the Indra due to noise complaints , he moved them to the Kaiserkeller in October . When he learned they had been performing at the rival Top Ten Club in breach of their contract , he gave the band one month 's termination notice , and reported the underage Harrison , who had obtained permission to stay in Hamburg by lying to the German authorities about his age . The authorities arranged for Harrison 's deportation in late November . One week later , Koschmider had McCartney and Best arrested for arson after they set fire to a condom in a concrete corridor ; the authorities deported them . Lennon returned to Liverpool in early December , while Sutcliffe remained in Hamburg through late February with his German fiancée Astrid Kirchherr , who took the first semi @-@ professional photos of the Beatles .
During the next two years , the Beatles were resident for periods in Hamburg , where they used Preludin both recreationally and to maintain their energy through all @-@ night performances . In 1961 , during their second Hamburg engagement , Kirchherr cut Sutcliffe 's hair in the " exi " ( existentialist ) style , later adopted by the other Beatles . When Sutcliffe decided to leave the band early that year and resume his art studies in Germany , McCartney took up the bass . Producer Bert Kaempfert contracted what was now a four @-@ piece group through June 1962 , and he used them as Tony Sheridan 's backing band on a series of recordings for Polydor Records . As part of the sessions , the Beatles were signed to Polydor for one year . Credited to " Tony Sheridan & the Beat Brothers " , the single " My Bonnie " , recorded in June 1961 and released four months later , reached number 32 on the Musikmarkt chart .
After the Beatles completed their second Hamburg residency , they enjoyed increasing popularity in Liverpool with the growing Merseybeat movement . However , they were also growing tired of the monotony of numerous appearances at the same clubs night after night . In November 1961 , during one of the group 's frequent performances at the Cavern Club , they encountered Brian Epstein , a local record @-@ store owner and music columnist . He later recalled : " I immediately liked what I heard . They were fresh , and they were honest , and they had what I thought was a sort of presence ... [ a ] star quality . " Epstein courted the band over the next couple of months , and they appointed him as their manager in January 1962 . Throughout early and mid @-@ 1962 , Epstein sought to free the Beatles from their contractual obligations to Bert Kaempfert Productions . He eventually negotiated a one @-@ month @-@ early release from their contract in exchange for one last recording session in Hamburg . Tragedy greeted them on their return to Germany in April , when a distraught Kirchherr met them at the airport with news of Sutcliffe 's death the previous day from what would later be determined to have been a brain hemorrhage . Epstein began negotiations with record labels for a recording contract . In order to secure a UK record contract , Epstein negotiated an early end to the band 's contract with Polydor , in exchange for more recordings backing Tony Sheridan . After a New Year 's Day audition , Decca Records rejected the band with the comment " Guitar groups are on the way out , Mr. Epstein . " However , three months later , producer George Martin signed the Beatles to EMI 's Parlophone label .
Martin 's first recording session with the Beatles took place at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios in London on 6 June 1962 . Martin immediately complained to Epstein about Best 's poor drumming and suggested they use a session drummer in his place . Already contemplating Best 's dismissal , the Beatles replaced him in mid @-@ August with Ringo Starr , who left Rory Storm and the Hurricanes to join them . A 4 September session at EMI yielded a recording of " Love Me Do " featuring Starr on drums , but a dissatisfied Martin hired drummer Andy White for the band 's third session a week later , which produced recordings of " Love Me Do " , " Please Please Me " and " P.S. I Love You " . Martin initially selected the Starr version of " Love Me Do " for the band 's first single , though subsequent re @-@ pressings featured the White version , with Starr on tambourine . Released in early October , " Love Me Do " peaked at number seventeen on the Record Retailer chart . Their television debut came later that month with a live performance on the regional news programme People and Places . After Martin suggested rerecording " Please Please Me " at a faster tempo , a studio session in late November yielded that recording , of which Martin accurately predicted , " You 've just made your first No.1. "
In December 1962 , the Beatles concluded their fifth and final Hamburg residency . By 1963 , they had agreed that all four band members would contribute vocals to their albums – including Starr , despite his restricted vocal range , to validate his standing in the group . Lennon and McCartney had established a songwriting partnership , and as the band 's success grew , their dominant collaboration limited Harrison 's opportunities as a lead vocalist . Epstein , in an effort to maximise the Beatles ' commercial potential , encouraged them to adopt a professional approach to performing . Lennon recalled him saying , " Look , if you really want to get in these bigger places , you 're going to have to change – stop eating on stage , stop swearing , stop smoking ... " Lennon said : " We used to dress how we liked , on and off stage . He 'd tell us that jeans were not particularly smart and could we possibly manage to wear proper trousers , but he didn 't want us suddenly looking square . He 'd let us have our own sense of individuality . "
= = = 1963 – 66 : Beatlemania and touring years = = =
= = = = Please Please Me and With the Beatles = = = =
On 11 February 1963 , the Beatles recorded ten songs during a single studio session for their debut LP , Please Please Me . The album was supplemented by the four tracks already released on their first two singles . Martin originally considered recording the Beatles ' debut LP live at the Cavern Club , but after deciding that the building 's acoustics were inadequate , he elected to simulate a " live " album with minimal production in " a single marathon session at Abbey Road " . After the moderate success of " Love Me Do " , the single " Please Please Me " met with a more emphatic reception . Released in January 1963 , two months ahead of the album of the same name , the song reached number one on every chart in London except Record Retailer , where it stalled at number two . Recalling how the Beatles " rushed to deliver a debut album , bashing out Please Please Me in a day " , AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine comments , " Decades after its release , the album still sounds fresh , precisely because of its intense origins . " Lennon said little thought went into composition at the time ; he and McCartney were " just writing songs à la Everly Brothers , à la Buddy Holly , pop songs with no more thought of them than that – to create a sound . And the words were almost irrelevant . "
Released in March 1963 , the album initiated a run during which eleven of their twelve studio albums released in the United Kingdom through 1970 reached number one . The band 's third single , " From Me to You " , came out in April and was also a chart @-@ topping hit , starting an almost unbroken string of seventeen British number @-@ one singles for the Beatles , including all but one of the eighteen they released over the next six years . Issued in August , the band 's fourth single , " She Loves You " , achieved the fastest sales of any record in the UK up to that time , selling three @-@ quarters of a million copies in under four weeks . It became their first single to sell a million copies , and remained the biggest @-@ selling record in the UK until 1978 , when " Mull of Kintyre " , by McCartney 's post @-@ Beatles band Wings , surpassed it in sales . Their commercial success brought increased media exposure , to which the Beatles responded with an irreverent and comical attitude that defied the expectations of pop musicians at the time , inspiring even more interest . The band toured the UK three times in the first half of the year : a four @-@ week tour that began in February , the Beatles 's first nationwide , preceded three @-@ week tours in March and May – June . As their popularity spread , a frenzied adulation of the group took hold . Greeted with riotous enthusiasm by screaming fans , the press dubbed the phenomenon " Beatlemania " . Although not billed as tour leaders , the Beatles overshadowed American acts Tommy Roe and Chris Montez during the February engagements and assumed top billing " by audience demand " , something no British act had previously accomplished while touring with artists from the US . A similar situation arose during their May – June tour with Roy Orbison .
In late October , the Beatles began a five @-@ day tour of Sweden , their first time abroad since the final Hamburg engagement of December 1962 . On their return to the UK on 31 October , according to Lewisohn , " several hundred screaming fans " greeted them in heavy rain at Heathrow Airport . Around 50 to 100 journalists and photographers as well as representatives from the BBC also joined the airport reception , the first of more than 100 such events . The next day , the band began its fourth tour of Britain within nine months , this one scheduled for six weeks . In mid @-@ November , as Beatlemania intensified , police resorted to using high @-@ pressure water hoses to control the crowd before a concert in Plymouth .
Please Please Me maintained the top position on the Record Retailer chart for 30 weeks , only to be displaced by its follow @-@ up , With the Beatles . On 22 November EMI released With the Beatles to record advance orders of 270 @,@ 000 copies , and the LP topped a half @-@ million albums sold in one week . Recorded between July and October , With the Beatles made better use of studio production techniques than its predecessor . It held the top spot for 21 weeks with a chart life of 40 weeks . Erlewine described the LP as " a sequel of the highest order – one that betters the original " . In a reversal of then standard practice , EMI released the album ahead of the impending single " I Want to Hold Your Hand " , with the song excluded to maximise the single 's sales . The album caught the attention of music critic William Mann of The Times , who suggested that Lennon and McCartney were " the outstanding English composers of 1963 " . The newspaper published a series of articles in which Mann offered detailed analyses of the music , lending it respectability . With the Beatles became the second album in UK chart history to sell a million copies , a figure previously reached only by the 1958 South Pacific soundtrack . When writing the sleeve notes for the album , the band 's press officer , Tony Barrow , used the superlative the " fabulous foursome " , which the media widely adopted as " the Fab Four " .
= = = = " British Invasion " = = = =
EMI 's American subsidiary , Capitol Records , hindered the Beatles ' releases in the United States for more than a year by initially declining to issue their music , including their first three singles . Concurrent negotiations with the independent US label Vee @-@ Jay led to the release of some of the songs in 1963 , but not all . Vee @-@ Jay finished preparation for the album Introducing ... The Beatles , culled from most of the songs of Parlophone 's Please Please Me , but a management shake @-@ up led to the album not being released . Then when it surfaced that the label did not report royalties on their sales , the licence Vee @-@ Jay signed with EMI was voided . A new licence was granted to the Swan label for the single " She Loves You " , but legal issues with royalties and publishing rights proved an obstacle to the successful marketing of the group in the US . American chart success began after Epstein arranged for a $ 40 @,@ 000 US marketing campaign and secured the support of disc jockey Carrol James , who first played the band 's records in mid @-@ December 1963 . Late that same month , the Beatles were introduced in the Tidewater area of Virginia by Gene Loving of radio station WGH , accompanied by a full marketing campaign , including Beatles shirt giveaways . Within days , almost every other song played on the station was a Beatles recording . It was not until the end of first week of January 1964 that their records were played in New York City ( also accompanied by a major marketing campaign and with similar play frequency ) , and then the rest of the country , initiating their music 's spread across US radio . This caused an increase in demand , leading Capitol to rush @-@ release " I Want to Hold Your Hand " later that month . Issued on 26 December 1963 , with the band 's previously scheduled debut there just weeks away , " I Want to Hold Your Hand " sold a million copies , becoming a number @-@ one hit in the US by mid @-@ January . In its wake , Vee @-@ Jay released Introducing ... The Beatles to go along with Capitol 's debut album , Meet the Beatles ! , while Swan reactivated production of " She Loves You " .
On 7 February 1964 , the Beatles left the United Kingdom with an estimated 4000 fans gathered at Heathrow , waving and screaming as the aircraft took off . Upon landing at New York 's John F. Kennedy Airport , an uproarious crowd estimated at 3000 greeted them . They gave their first live US television performance two days later on The Ed Sullivan Show , watched by approximately 73 million viewers in over 23 million households , or 34 per cent of the American population . Biographer Jonathan Gould writes that , according to the Nielsen rating service , it was " the largest audience that had ever been recorded for an American television program " . The next morning , the Beatles awoke to a negative critical consensus in the US , but a day later their first US concert saw Beatlemania erupt at Washington Coliseum . Back in New York the following day , the Beatles met with another strong reception during two shows at Carnegie Hall . The band then flew to Florida and appeared on the weekly Ed Sullivan Show a second time , before another 70 million viewers , before returning to the UK on 22 February .
= = = = A Hard Day 's Night = = = =
Capitol Records ' lack of interest throughout 1963 had not gone unnoticed , and a competitor , United Artists Records , encouraged their film division to offer the group a three @-@ motion @-@ picture deal , primarily for the commercial potential of the soundtracks . Directed by Richard Lester , A Hard Day 's Night involved the band for six weeks in March – April 1964 as they played themselves in a mock @-@ documentary . The film premiered in London and New York in July and August , respectively , and was an international success , with some critics drawing comparison with the Marx Brothers . According to Erlewine , the accompanying soundtrack album , A Hard Day 's Night , saw them " truly coming into their own as a band . All of the disparate influences on their first two albums had coalesced into a bright , joyous , original sound , filled with ringing guitars and irresistible melodies . " That " ringing guitar " sound was primarily the product of Harrison 's 12 @-@ string electric Rickenbacker , a prototype given to him by the manufacturer , which made its debut on the record .
During the week of 4 April 1964 , the Beatles held twelve positions on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart , including the top five . Their popularity generated unprecedented interest in British music , and a number of other UK acts subsequently made their own American debuts , successfully touring over the next three years in what was termed the British Invasion . Their hairstyle , unusually long for the era and mocked by many adults , became an emblem of rebellion to the burgeoning youth culture .
Touring internationally in June and July , the Beatles staged 37 shows over 27 days in Denmark , the Netherlands , Hong Kong , Australia and New Zealand . In August they returned to the US , with a 30 @-@ concert tour of 23 cities . Generating intense interest once again , the month @-@ long tour attracted between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 fans to each 30 @-@ minute performance in cities from San Francisco to New York .
In August , journalist Al Aronowitz arranged for the Beatles to meet Bob Dylan . Visiting the band in their New York hotel suite , Dylan introduced them to cannabis . Gould points out the musical and cultural significance of this meeting , before which the musicians ' respective fanbases were " perceived as inhabiting two separate subcultural worlds " : Dylan 's audience of " college kids with artistic or intellectual leanings , a dawning political and social idealism , and a mildly bohemian style " contrasted with their fans , " veritable ' teenyboppers ' – kids in high school or grade school whose lives were totally wrapped up in the commercialised popular culture of television , radio , pop records , fan magazines , and teen fashion . They were seen as idolaters , not idealists . " Within six months of the meeting , Gould writes , " Lennon would be making records on which he openly imitated Dylan 's nasal drone , brittle strum , and introspective vocal persona " . Within a year , Dylan would " proceed , with the help of a five @-@ piece group and a Fender Stratocaster electric guitar , to shake the monkey of folk authenticity permanently off his back ... the distinctions between the folk and rock audiences would have nearly evaporated [ and the group 's ] audience ... [ was ] showing signs of growing up . "
= = = = Beatles for Sale , Help ! and Rubber Soul = = = =
According to Gould , Beatles for Sale , the Beatles ' fourth studio LP , evidenced a growing conflict between the commercial pressures of their global success and their creative ambitions . They had intended the album , recorded between August and October 1964 , to continue the format established by A Hard Day 's Night which , unlike the group 's first two LPs , contained only original songs . The band had nearly exhausted their backlog of songs on the previous album , however , and given the challenges constant international touring posed to their songwriting efforts , Lennon admitted , " Material 's becoming a hell of a problem " . As a result , six covers from their extensive repertoire were chosen to complete the album . Released in early December , its eight original compositions stood out , demonstrating the growing maturity of the Lennon – McCartney songwriting partnership .
In early 1965 , while they were his guests for dinner , Lennon and Harrison 's dentist secretly added LSD to their coffee . Lennon described the experience : " It was just terrifying , but it was fantastic . I was pretty stunned for a month or two . " He and Harrison subsequently became regular users of the drug , joined by Starr on at least one occasion . McCartney was initially reluctant to try it , but eventually did so in late 1966 . He became the first Beatle to discuss LSD publicly , declaring in a magazine interview that " it opened my eyes " and " made me a better , more honest , more tolerant member of society " .
Controversy erupted in June 1965 when Queen Elizabeth II appointed all four Beatles Members of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) after Prime Minister Harold Wilson nominated them for the award . In protest – the honour was at that time primarily bestowed upon military veterans and civic leaders – some conservative MBE recipients returned their own insignia .
Released in July , the Beatles ' second film , Help ! , was again directed by Lester . Described as " mainly a relentless spoof of Bond " , it inspired a mixed response among both reviewers and the band . McCartney said : " Help ! was great but it wasn 't our film – we were sort of guest stars . It was fun , but basically , as an idea for a film , it was a bit wrong . " The soundtrack was dominated by Lennon , who wrote and sang lead on most of its songs , including the two singles : " Help ! " and " Ticket to Ride " . The accompanying album , the group 's fifth studio LP , contained all original material save for two covers , " Act Naturally " and " Dizzy Miss Lizzy " ; they were the last covers the band would include on an album , with the exception of Let It Be 's brief rendition of the traditional Liverpool folk song " Maggie Mae " . The band expanded their use of vocal overdubs on Help ! and incorporated classical instruments into some arrangements , notably a string quartet on the pop ballad " Yesterday " . Composed by McCartney , " Yesterday " would inspire the most recorded cover versions of any song ever written .
The group 's third US tour opened with a performance before a world @-@ record crowd of 55 @,@ 600 at New York 's Shea Stadium on 15 August 1965 – " perhaps the most famous of all Beatles ' concerts " , in Lewisohn 's description . A further nine successful concerts followed in other American cities . At a show in Atlanta , the Beatles gave one of the first live performances ever to make use of a foldback system of on @-@ stage monitor speakers . Towards the end of the tour , they met with Elvis Presley , a foundational musical influence on the band , who invited them to his home in Beverly Hills . September saw the launch of an American Saturday @-@ morning cartoon series , The Beatles , that echoed A Hard Day 's Night 's slapstick antics over its two @-@ year original run . The series was a historical milestone as the first weekly television series to feature animated versions of real , living people .
In mid @-@ October 1965 , the Beatles entered the recording studio ; for the first time when making an album , they had an extended period without other major commitments . Until this time , according to George Martin , " we had been making albums rather like a collection of singles . Now we were really beginning to think about albums as a bit of art on their own . " Released in December , Rubber Soul has been hailed by critics as a major step forward in the maturity and complexity of the band 's music . Their thematic reach was beginning to expand as they embraced deeper aspects of romance and philosophy . Biographers Peter Brown and Steven Gaines attribute the new musical direction to " the Beatles ' now habitual use of marijuana " , an assertion confirmed by the band – Lennon referred to it as " the pot album " , and Starr said : " Grass was really influential in a lot of our changes , especially with the writers . And because they were writing different material , we were playing differently . " After Help ! ' s foray into the world of classical music with flutes and strings , Harrison 's introduction of a sitar on " Norwegian Wood ( This Bird Has Flown ) " marked a further progression outside the traditional boundaries of popular music . As their lyrics grew more artful , fans began to study them for deeper meaning . Of " Norwegian Wood " Lennon commented : " I was trying to be sophisticated in writing about an affair ... but in such a smokescreen way that you couldn 't tell . "
While many of Rubber Soul 's more notable songs were the product of Lennon and McCartney 's collaborative songwriting , it also featured distinct compositions from each , though they continued to share official credit . The song " In My Life " , of which each later claimed lead authorship , is considered a highlight of the entire Lennon – McCartney catalogue . Harrison called Rubber Soul his " favourite album " and Starr referred to it as " the departure record " . McCartney has said , " We 'd had our cute period , and now it was time to expand . " However , recording engineer Norman Smith later stated that the studio sessions revealed signs of growing conflict within the group – " the clash between John and Paul was becoming obvious " , he wrote , and " as far as Paul was concerned , George could do no right " . In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked Rubber Soul fifth among " The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " , and AllMusic 's Richie Unterberger describes it as " one of the classic folk @-@ rock records " .
= = = 1966 – 70 : Controversy , studio years and break @-@ up = = =
= = = = Events leading up to final tour = = = =
Capitol Records , from December 1963 when it began issuing Beatles recordings for the US market , exercised complete control over format , compiling distinct US albums from the band 's recordings and issuing songs of their choosing as singles . It was not until Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band in 1967 that a Beatles album was released with identical track listings in both the UK and the US . In June 1966 , Yesterday and Today , one of Capitol 's compilation albums , caused an uproar with its cover , which portrayed the grinning Beatles dressed in butcher 's overalls , accompanied by raw meat and mutilated plastic baby dolls . It has been incorrectly suggested that this was meant as a satirical response to the way Capitol had " butchered " the US versions of their albums . Thousands of copies of the LP had a new cover pasted over the original ; an unpeeled " first @-@ state " copy fetched $ 10 @,@ 500 at a December 2005 auction . In England , meanwhile , Harrison met sitar maestro Ravi Shankar , who agreed to train him on the instrument .
During a tour of the Philippines the month after the Yesterday and Today furore , the Beatles unintentionally snubbed the nation 's first lady , Imelda Marcos , who had expected them to attend a breakfast reception at the Presidential Palace . When presented with the invitation , Epstein politely declined on the band members ' behalf , as it had never been his policy to accept such official invitations . They soon found that the Marcos regime was unaccustomed to taking no for an answer . The resulting riots endangered the group and they escaped the country with difficulty . Immediately afterwards , the band members visited India for the first time .
Almost as soon as they returned home , the Beatles faced a fierce backlash from US religious and social conservatives ( as well as the Ku Klux Klan ) over a comment Lennon had made in a March interview with British reporter Maureen Cleave . " Christianity will go , " Lennon had said . " It will vanish and shrink . I needn 't argue about that ; I 'm right and I will be proved right . We 're more popular than Jesus now ; I don 't know which will go first , rock ' n ' roll or Christianity . Jesus was alright but his disciples were thick and ordinary . It 's them twisting it that ruins it for me . " The comment went virtually unnoticed in England , but when US teenage fan magazine Datebook printed it five months later – on the eve of the group 's August US tour – it sparked a controversy with Christians in the American " Bible Belt " . The Vatican issued a protest , and bans on Beatles ' records were imposed by Spanish and Dutch stations and South Africa 's national broadcasting service . Epstein accused Datebook of having taken Lennon 's words out of context ; at a press conference Lennon pointed out , " If I 'd said television was more popular than Jesus , I might have got away with it . " Lennon claimed that he was referring to how other people viewed their success , but at the prompting of reporters , he concluded : " If you want me to apologise , if that will make you happy , then okay , I 'm sorry . "
As preparations were made for the US tour , the Beatles knew that their music would hardly be heard . Having originally used Vox AC30 amplifiers , they later acquired more powerful 100 @-@ watt amplifiers , specially designed by Vox for them as they moved into larger venues in 1964 , but these were still inadequate . Struggling to compete with the volume of sound generated by screaming fans , the band had grown increasingly bored with the routine of performing live . Recognising that their shows were no longer about the music , they decided to make the August tour their last .
= = = = Revolver and Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band = = = =
Rubber Soul had marked a major step forward ; Revolver , released in August 1966 a week before the Beatles ' final tour , marked another . Pitchfork 's Scott Plagenhoef identifies it as " the sound of a band growing into supreme confidence " and " redefining what was expected from popular music " . Revolver featured sophisticated songwriting , studio experimentation , and a greatly expanded repertoire of musical styles , ranging from innovative classical string arrangements to psychedelic rock . Abandoning the customary group photograph , its cover – designed by Klaus Voormann , a friend of the band since their Hamburg days – " was a stark , arty , black @-@ and @-@ white collage that caricatured the Beatles in a pen @-@ and @-@ ink style beholden to Aubrey Beardsley " , in Gould 's description . The album was preceded by the single " Paperback Writer " , backed by " Rain " . Short promotional films were made for both songs ; described by cultural historian Saul Austerlitz as " among the first true music videos " , they aired on The Ed Sullivan Show and Top of the Pops in June 1966 .
Among the experimental songs that Revolver featured was " Tomorrow Never Knows " , the lyrics for which Lennon drew from Timothy Leary 's The Psychedelic Experience : A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead . Its creation involved eight tape decks distributed about the EMI building , each staffed by an engineer or band member , who randomly varied the movement of a tape loop while Martin created a composite recording by sampling the incoming data . McCartney 's " Eleanor Rigby " made prominent use of a string octet ; Gould describes it as " a true hybrid , conforming to no recognisable style or genre of song " . Harrison was developing as a songwriter , and three of his compositions earned a place on the record . In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked Revolver as the third greatest album of all time . During the US tour that followed its release , however , the band performed none of its songs . As Chris Ingham writes , they were very much " studio creations ... and there was no way a four @-@ piece rock ' n ' roll group could do them justice , particularly through the desensitising wall of the fans ' screams . ' Live Beatles ' and ' Studio Beatles ' had become entirely different beasts . " The band 's final concert at San Francisco 's Candlestick Park on 29 August was their last commercial concert . It marked the end of a four @-@ year period dominated by almost nonstop touring that included over 1 @,@ 400 concert appearances internationally .
Freed from the burden of touring , the Beatles embraced an increasingly experimental approach as they recorded Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , beginning in late November 1966 . According to engineer Geoff Emerick , the album 's recording took over 700 hours . He recalled the band 's insistence " that everything on Sgt. Pepper had to be different . We had microphones right down in the bells of brass instruments and headphones turned into microphones attached to violins . We used giant primitive oscillators to vary the speed of instruments and vocals and we had tapes chopped to pieces and stuck together upside down and the wrong way around . " Parts of " A Day in the Life " featured a 40 @-@ piece orchestra . The sessions initially yielded the non @-@ album double A @-@ side single " Strawberry Fields Forever " / " Penny Lane " in February 1967 ; the Sgt. Pepper LP followed in June .
The musical complexity of the records , created using relatively primitive four @-@ track recording technology , astounded contemporary artists . For Beach Boys leader Brian Wilson , then in the midst of a personal crisis and struggling at the time to complete the ambitious Smile , hearing " Strawberry Fields " was reported as one of many elements that contributed to the project 's collapse . Among music critics , acclaim for the album was virtually universal . Gould writes :
The overwhelming consensus is that the Beatles had created a popular masterpiece : a rich , sustained , and overflowing work of collaborative genius whose bold ambition and startling originality dramatically enlarged the possibilities and raised the expectations of what the experience of listening to popular music on record could be . On the basis of this perception , Sgt. Pepper became the catalyst for an explosion of mass enthusiasm for album @-@ formatted rock that would revolutionise both the aesthetics and the economics of the record business in ways that far outstripped the earlier pop explosions triggered by the Elvis phenomenon of 1956 and the Beatlemania phenomenon of 1963 .
Sgt. Pepper was the first major pop / rock LP to include its complete lyrics , which appeared on the back cover . Those lyrics were the subject of critical analysis ; for instance , in late 1967 the album was the subject of a scholarly inquiry by American literary critic and professor of English Richard Poirier , who observed that his students were " listening to the group 's music with a degree of engagement that he , as a teacher of literature , could only envy " . Poirier identified what he termed its " mixed allusiveness " : " It 's unwise ever to assume that they 're doing only one thing or expressing themselves in only one style ... one kind of feeling about a subject isn 't enough ... any single induced feeling must often exist within the context of seemingly contradictory alternatives . " McCartney said at the time : " We write songs . We know what we mean by them . But in a week someone else says something about it , and you can 't deny it . ... You put your own meaning at your own level to our songs . " In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked it number one on its list of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " .
Sgt. Pepper 's elaborate cover also attracted considerable interest and study . A collage designed by pop artists Peter Blake and Jann Haworth , it depicted the group as the fictional band referred to in the album 's title track standing in front of a crowd of famous people . The heavy moustaches worn by the group reflected the growing influence of hippie style , while cultural historian Jonathan Harris describes their " brightly coloured parodies of military uniforms " as a knowingly " anti @-@ authoritarian and anti @-@ establishment " display .
On 25 June 1967 , the Beatles performed their forthcoming single , " All You Need Is Love " , to an estimated 350 million viewers on Our World , the first live global television link . Released a week later , during the Summer of Love , the song was adopted as a flower power anthem . Two months later , the group suffered a loss that threw their career into turmoil . Having been introduced to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi only the previous night in London , on 25 August they travelled to Bangor for his Transcendental Meditation retreat . Two days later , their manager 's assistant , Peter Brown , phoned to inform them that Epstein had died . The coroner ruled the death an accidental carbitol overdose , although it was widely rumoured to be a suicide . Epstein had been in a fragile emotional state , stressed by personal issues and concern that the band might not renew his management contract , due to expire in October , over discontent with his supervision of business matters , particularly regarding Seltaeb , the company that handled their US merchandising rights . His death left the group disoriented and fearful about the future . Lennon recalled : " We collapsed . I knew that we were in trouble then . I didn 't really have any misconceptions about our ability to do anything other than play music , and I was scared . I thought , ' We 've had it now . ' "
= = = = Magical Mystery Tour , the White Album and Yellow Submarine = = = =
Magical Mystery Tour , the soundtrack to a forthcoming Beatles television film , was released in the UK as a six @-@ track double extended play disc ( EP ) in early December 1967 . In the United States , the six songs were issued on an identically titled LP that also included five tracks from the band 's recent singles . Unterberger says of the US Magical Mystery Tour , " the psychedelic sound is very much in the vein of Sgt. Pepper , and even spacier in parts ( especially the sound collages of ' I Am the Walrus ' ) " and he calls its five songs culled from the band 's 1967 singles " huge , glorious , and innovative " . In its first three weeks , the album set a record for the highest initial sales of any Capitol LP , and it is the only Capitol compilation later to be adopted in the band 's official canon of studio albums . First aired on Boxing Day , the Magical Mystery Tour film , largely directed by McCartney , brought the group their first major negative UK press . It was dismissed as " blatant rubbish " by the Daily Express ; the Daily Mail called it " a colossal conceit " ; and The Guardian labelled the film " a kind of fantasy morality play about the grossness and warmth and stupidity of the audience " . Gould describes it as " a great deal of raw footage showing a group of people getting on , getting off , and riding on a bus " . Although the viewership figures were respectable , its slating in the press led US television networks to lose interest in broadcasting the film .
In January 1968 , the Beatles filmed a cameo for the animated movie Yellow Submarine , which featured cartoon versions of the band members and a soundtrack with eleven of their songs , including four unreleased studio recordings that made their debut in the film . Released in June 1968 , the film was praised by critics for its music , humour and innovative visual style . It would be seven months , however , before the film 's soundtrack album appeared .
In the interim came The Beatles , a double LP commonly known as the White Album for its virtually featureless cover . Creative inspiration for the album came from a new direction : without Epstein 's guiding presence , the group had briefly turned to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi as their guru . At his ashram in Rishikesh , India , a " Guide Course " scheduled for three months marked one of their most prolific periods , yielding numerous songs including a majority of the 30 included on the album . However , Starr left after only ten days , likening it to Butlins , and McCartney eventually grew bored and departed a month later . For Lennon and Harrison , creativity turned to questioning when an electronics technician known as Magic Alex suggested that the Maharishi was attempting to manipulate them . When he alleged that the Maharishi had made sexual advances to women attendees , a persuaded Lennon left abruptly just two months into the course , bringing an unconvinced Harrison and the remainder of the group 's entourage with him . In anger , Lennon wrote a scathing song titled " Maharishi " , renamed " Sexy Sadie " to avoid potential legal issues . McCartney said , " We made a mistake . We thought there was more to him than there was . "
During recording sessions for the White Album , which stretched from late May to mid @-@ October 1968 , relations between the Beatles grew openly divisive . Starr quit for two weeks , and McCartney took over the drum kit for " Back in the U.S.S.R. " ( on which Harrison and Lennon drummed as well ) and " Dear Prudence " . Lennon had lost interest in collaborating with McCartney , whose contribution " Ob @-@ La @-@ Di , Ob @-@ La @-@ Da " he scorned as " granny music shit " . Tensions were further aggravated by Lennon 's romantic preoccupation with avant @-@ garde artist Yoko Ono , whom he insisted on bringing to the sessions despite the group 's well @-@ established understanding that girlfriends were not allowed in the studio . Describing the double album , Lennon later said : " Every track is an individual track ; there isn 't any Beatle music on it . [ It 's ] John and the band , Paul and the band , George and the band . " McCartney has recalled that the album " wasn 't a pleasant one to make " . Both he and Lennon identified the sessions as the start of the band 's break @-@ up .
Issued in November , the White Album was the band 's first Apple Records album release , although EMI continued to own their recordings . The new label was a subsidiary of Apple Corps , which Epstein had formed as part of his plan to create a tax @-@ effective business structure . The record attracted more than 2 million advance orders , selling nearly 4 million copies in the US in little over a month , and its tracks dominated the playlists of American radio stations . Despite its popularity , it did not receive flattering reviews at the time . According to Gould :
The critical response ... ranged from mixed to flat . In marked contrast to Sgt. Pepper , which had helped to establish an entire genre of literate rock criticism , the White Album inspired no critical writing of any note . Even the most sympathetic reviewers ... clearly didn 't know what to make of this shapeless outpouring of songs . Newsweek 's Hubert Saal , citing the high proportion of parodies , accused the group of getting their tongues caught in their cheeks .
General critical opinion eventually turned in favour of the White Album , and in 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked it as the tenth greatest album of all time . Pitchfork 's Mark Richardson describes it as " large and sprawling , overflowing with ideas but also with indulgences , and filled with a hugely variable array of material ... its failings are as essential to its character as its triumphs . " Erlewine comments : " The [ band 's ] two main songwriting forces were no longer on the same page , but neither were George and Ringo " , yet " Lennon turns in two of his best ballads " , McCartney 's songs are " stunning " , Harrison had become " a songwriter who deserved wider exposure " , and Starr 's composition was " a delight " .
The Yellow Submarine LP , issued in January 1969 , contained only the four previously unreleased songs that had debuted in the film , along with the title track ( already issued on Revolver ) , " All You Need Is Love " ( already issued as a single and on the US Magical Mystery Tour LP ) and seven instrumental pieces composed by Martin . Because of the paucity of new Beatles music , AllMusic 's Unterberger and Bruce Eder suggest the album might be " inessential " but for Harrison 's " It 's All Too Much " : " the jewel of the new songs ... resplendent in swirling Mellotron , larger @-@ than @-@ life percussion , and tidal waves of feedback guitar ... a virtuoso excursion into otherwise hazy psychedelia " .
= = = = Abbey Road , Let It Be , and break @-@ up = = = =
Although Let It Be was the Beatles ' final album release , it was largely recorded before Abbey Road . The project 's impetus came from an idea Martin attributes to McCartney , who suggested they " record an album of new material and rehearse it , then perform it before a live audience for the very first time – on record and on film " . Originally intended for a one @-@ hour television programme to be called Beatles at Work , much of the album 's content came from extensive rehearsals filmed by director Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg at Twickenham Film Studios , beginning in January 1969 . Martin has said that the project was " not at all a happy recording experience . It was a time when relations between the Beatles were at their lowest ebb . " Lennon described the largely impromptu sessions as " hell ... the most miserable ... on Earth " , and Harrison , " the low of all @-@ time " . Irritated by both McCartney and Lennon , Harrison walked out for five days . Upon returning , he threatened to leave the band unless they " abandon [ ed ] all talk of live performance " and instead focused on finishing a new album , initially titled Get Back , using songs recorded for the TV special . He also demanded they cease work at Twickenham and relocate to the newly finished Apple Studio . The other band members agreed , and the idea came about to salvage the footage shot for the TV production for use in a feature film .
In an effort to alleviate tensions within the band and improve the quality of their live sound , Harrison invited keyboardist Billy Preston to participate in the last nine days of sessions . Preston received label billing on the " Get Back " single – the only musician ever to receive that acknowledgment on an official Beatles release . At the conclusion of the rehearsals , the band could not agree on a location to film a concert , rejecting several ideas , including a boat at sea , a lunatic asylum , the Tunisian desert , and the Colosseum . Ultimately , what would be their final live performance was filmed on the rooftop of the Apple Corps building at 3 Savile Row , London , on 30 January 1969 . Five weeks later , engineer Glyn Johns , whom Lewisohn describes as Get Back 's " uncredited producer " , began work assembling an album , given " free rein " as the band " all but washed their hands of the entire project " .
New strains developed between the band members regarding the appointment of a financial adviser , the need for which had become evident without Epstein to manage business affairs . Lennon , Harrison and Starr favoured Allen Klein , who had managed the Rolling Stones and Sam Cooke ; McCartney wanted Lee and John Eastman – father and brother , respectively , of Linda Eastman , whom McCartney married on 12 March . Agreement could not be reached , so both Klein and the Eastmans were temporarily appointed : Klein as the Beatles ' business manager and the Eastmans as their lawyers . Further conflict ensued , however , and financial opportunities were lost . On 8 May , Klein was named sole manager of the band , the Eastmans having previously been dismissed as the Beatles ' attorneys . McCartney refused to sign the management contract with Klein , but he was out @-@ voted by the other Beatles .
Martin stated that he was surprised when McCartney asked him to produce another album , as the Get Back sessions had been " a miserable experience " and he had " thought it was the end of the road for all of us " . The primary recording sessions for Abbey Road began on 2 July 1969 . Lennon , who rejected Martin 's proposed format of a " continuously moving piece of music " , wanted his and McCartney 's songs to occupy separate sides of the album . The eventual format , with individually composed songs on the first side and the second consisting largely of a medley , was McCartney 's suggested compromise . On 4 July , the first solo single by a Beatle was released : Lennon 's " Give Peace a Chance " , credited to the Plastic Ono Band . The completion and mixing of " I Want You ( She 's So Heavy ) " on 20 August 1969 was the last occasion on which all four Beatles were together in the same studio . Lennon announced his departure to the rest of the group on 20 September , but agreed to withhold a public announcement to avoid undermining sales of the forthcoming album .
Released six days after Lennon 's declaration , Abbey Road sold 4 million copies within three months and topped the UK charts for a total of seventeen weeks . Its second track , the ballad " Something " , was issued as a single – the only Harrison composition ever to appear as a Beatles A @-@ side . Abbey Road received mixed reviews , although the medley met with general acclaim . Unterberger considers it " a fitting swan song for the group " , containing " some of the greatest harmonies to be heard on any rock record " . Musicologist and author Ian MacDonald calls the album " erratic and often hollow " , despite the " semblance of unity and coherence " offered by the medley . Martin has singled it out as his personal favourite of all the band 's albums ; Lennon said it was " competent " but had " no life in it " . Recording engineer Emerick notes that the replacement of the studio 's valve mixing console with a transistorised one yielded a less punchy sound , leaving the group frustrated at the thinner tone and lack of impact and contributing to its " kinder , gentler " feel relative to their previous albums .
For the still unfinished Get Back album , one last song , Harrison 's " I Me Mine " , was recorded on 3 January 1970 . Lennon , in Denmark at the time , did not participate . In March , rejecting the work Johns had done on the project , now retitled Let It Be , Klein gave the session tapes to American producer Phil Spector , who had recently produced Lennon 's solo single " Instant Karma ! " In addition to remixing the material , Spector edited , spliced and overdubbed several of the recordings that had been intended as " live " . McCartney was unhappy with the producer 's approach and particularly dissatisfied with the lavish orchestration on " The Long and Winding Road " , which involved a fourteen @-@ voice choir and 36 @-@ piece instrumental ensemble . McCartney 's demands that the alterations to the song be reverted were ignored , and he publicly announced his departure from the band on 10 April 1970 , a week before the release of his first , self @-@ titled solo album .
On 8 May , the Spector @-@ produced Let It Be was released . Its accompanying single , " The Long and Winding Road " , was the Beatles ' last ; it was released in the United States , but not Britain . The Let It Be documentary film followed later that month , and would win the 1970 Academy Award for Best Original Song Score . Sunday Telegraph critic Penelope Gilliatt called it " a very bad film and a touching one ... about the breaking apart of this reassuring , geometrically perfect , once apparently ageless family of siblings " . Several reviewers stated that some of the performances in the film sounded better than their analogous album tracks . Describing Let It Be as the " only Beatles album to occasion negative , even hostile reviews " , Unterberger calls it " on the whole underrated " ; he singles out " some good moments of straight hard rock in ' I 've Got a Feeling ' and ' Dig a Pony ' " , and praises " Let It Be " , " Get Back " , and " the folky ' Two of Us ' , with John and Paul harmonising together " . McCartney filed suit for the dissolution of the Beatles ' contractual partnership on 31 December 1970 . Legal disputes continued long after their break @-@ up , and the dissolution was not formalised until 29 December 1974 .
= = = 1970 – present : After the break @-@ up = = =
= = = = 1970s = = = =
Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Starr all released solo albums in 1970 . Their solo records sometimes involved one or more of the others ; Starr 's Ringo ( 1973 ) was the only album to include compositions and performances by all four ex @-@ Beatles , albeit on separate songs . With Starr 's participation , Harrison staged the Concert for Bangladesh in New York City in August 1971 . Other than an unreleased jam session in 1974 , later bootlegged as A Toot and a Snore in ' 74 , Lennon and McCartney never recorded together again .
Two double @-@ LP sets of the Beatles ' greatest hits , compiled by Klein , 1962 – 1966 and 1967 – 1970 , were released in 1973 , at first under the Apple Records imprint . Commonly known as the Red Album and Blue Album , respectively , each have earned a Multi @-@ Platinum certification in the United States and a Platinum certification in the United Kingdom . Between 1976 and 1982 , EMI / Capitol released a wave of compilation albums without input from the ex @-@ Beatles , starting with the double @-@ disc compilation Rock ' n ' Roll Music . The only one to feature previously unreleased material was The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl ( 1977 ) ; the first officially issued concert recordings by the group , it contained selections from two shows they played during their 1964 and 1965 US tours .
The music and enduring fame of the Beatles has been commercially exploited in various other ways , again often outside their creative control . In April 1974 , the musical John , Paul , George , Ringo … and Bert , written by Willy Russell and featuring singer Barbara Dickson , opened in London . It included , with permission from Northern Songs , eleven Lennon @-@ McCartney compositions and one by Harrison , " Here Comes the Sun " . Displeased with the production 's use of his song , Harrison withdrew his permission to use it . Later that year , the off @-@ Broadway musical Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band on the Road opened . All This and World War II ( 1976 ) was an unorthodox nonfiction film that combined newsreel footage with covers of Beatles songs by performers ranging from Elton John and Keith Moon to the London Symphony Orchestra . The Broadway musical Beatlemania , an unauthorised nostalgia revue , opened in early 1977 and proved popular , spinning off five separate touring productions . In 1979 , the band sued the producers , settling for several million dollars in damages . Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1978 ) , a musical film starring the Bee Gees and Peter Frampton , was a commercial failure and an " artistic fiasco " , according to Ingham .
= = = = 1980s = = = =
After the December 1980 murder of Lennon , Harrison rewrote the lyrics to his song " All Those Years Ago " in Lennon 's honour . With Starr on drums and McCartney and his wife , Linda , contributing backing vocals , the song was released as a single in May 1981 . McCartney 's own tribute , " Here Today " , appeared on his Tug of War album in April 1982 . In 1987 , Harrison 's Cloud Nine album included " When We Was Fab " , a song about the Beatlemania era .
When the Beatles ' studio albums were released on CD by EMI and Apple Corps in 1987 , their catalogue was standardised throughout the world , establishing a canon of the twelve original studio LPs as issued in the UK plus the US LP version of Magical Mystery Tour ( 1967 ) . All the remaining material from the singles and EPs which had not appeared on the original studio albums was gathered on the two @-@ volume compilation Past Masters ( 1988 ) . Except for the Red and Blue albums , EMI deleted all its other Beatles compilations – including the Hollywood Bowl record – from its catalogue .
In 1988 , the Beatles were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , their first year of eligibility . Harrison and Starr attended the ceremony with Lennon 's widow , Yoko Ono , and his two sons , Julian and Sean . McCartney declined to attend , citing unresolved "
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